ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

FAISALABAD

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

SUBMITTED BY:

Student Name NIMRA BATOOL

Student I'd 0000346263
Course Tittle Research Methods in Education
Course Code 8604
Semester 1st autumn2022
Program B.Ed. (1.5)

SUBMITTED TO:

Tutor Name JAFFAR ALI

Q.1 Discuss different methods used as a tool of acquiring
knowledge. Compare the various steps in scientific
method with steps in research process?
Answer: Different methods used for acquiring knowledge:
There are five different categories of information
Acquisition techniques:
i. Intuition.
ii. The Scientific Method.
iii. Empiricism.
iv. Rationalism.
v. Authority
Scientific Method
The Scientific method is a process with the help of which scientists
try to investigate, verify, or construct an accurate and reliable
version of any natural phenomena. They are done by creating an
objective framework for the purpose of scientific inquiry and
analyzing the results scientifically to come to a conclusion that
either supports or contradicts the observation made at the beginning.

Scientific Method Steps

The aim of all scientific methods is the same, that is, to analyses the
observation made at the beginning. Still, various steps are adopted per
the requirement of any given observation. However, there is a generally
accepted sequence of steps in scientific methods.
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1- Observation and formulation of a question
This is the first step of a scientific method. To start one, an observation
has to be made into any observable aspect or phenomena of the universe,
and a question needs to be asked about that aspect. For example, you can
ask, “Why is the sky black at night? Or “Why is air invisible?”
2- Data Collection and Hypothesis
The scientific process then involves gathering all pertinent information
and developing a hypothesis based on the observation. The theory might
explain the origin of the phenomenon, how it manifests, or how it relates
to other phenomena.
3- Testing the hypothesis
The hypothesis must next be put to the test scientifically. Experiments
are used by scientists to accomplish this. These tests are designed to see
if the hypothesis supports or refutes the observations made in the real
world. Depending on the findings of the trials, the degree of confidence
in the hypothesis rises or falls.
4- Analysis:
In this step, the experiment's outcomes are determined using appropriate
mathematical and other scientific techniques. The study can be used to
determine the best course of action moving forward. The hypothesis is
accepted if the evidence from the analysis support it. If not, it is
discarded or changed before being reanalyzed.
5- Report and Conclusions:
A scientific report is a written account of the methods, developments,
and/or conclusions of technical or scientific investigation, or the current
status of a technical or scientific problem.
Following is the format of writing a report on scientific research given
below:
• picture of a report on scientific research
• An introduction to a particular issue
• testable hypotheses
• an explanation of the techniques
• key results
• Ultimately a discussion that connects these results to our overall
understanding of the topic are the main elements of clear scientific
writing.
It must be remembered that a hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved
by doing one experiment. It needs to be done repeatedly are no
discrepancies and the hypothesis is proved, it is accepted as a ‘theory’.
Scientific Method Examples
An illustration of the scientific method is provided below:
• Bean plant growth:
• What is the objective:
• The main goal of this experiment is to determine whether the bean
plant should be kept indoors or outside to monitor its growth rate
over a period of four weeks.
• Design of the hypothesis:
• The idea put up is that if scientific methods are applied, the bean
plant may grow anyplace.
• Putting the hypothesis into practice and gathering the data:
The same dirt is used to plant four bean plants in similar pots. The other
two are situated outside, with two put inside. The amount of water and
the amount of solar exposure are both identical parameters.

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To answer questions, scientists employ a dynamic, open-ended approach.
The five steps are listed below.
1. Select a research question.
Scientists make observations and gather data while they carry out their
research. They frequently wonder why something is the way it is as a
result of the observations and evidence. To advance their research,
scientists look for solutions to these issues. Once a good research question
has been identified, scientists start formulating possible solutions.
2- Make Prognostications
The hypothesis that a scientist develops is frequently based on their
investigation and observations. A hypothesis is a potential response to a
query. Their own observations, pre-existing hypotheses, and data they
obtain from other sources all form the basis of their argument. In order to
make a testable claim about what they believe the result of a study will
be, scientists employ their hypothesis.
3. Gather Data
To validate the forecast, evidence is required. There are numerous
methods for gathering information or proof. Scientists can collect their
data through making observations of the natural world, conducting
laboratory experiments, or using computer models. Scientists choose
which approach to take, frequently combining approaches. They then
devise a mechanism and compile their information. They ensure that the
process may be used again so that other researchers can assess their
findings.
4. Analyze the Data
Data is arranged by scientists in tables, graphs, or diagrams. If practical,
they incorporate pertinent information from various sources. They
search for patterns that demonstrate relationships between critical
elements of the hypotheses they are investigating.
5. Draw Conclusions
Scientists can then determine whether or not their hypothesis is clearly
supported by the evidence based on whether or not their prediction came
true. They must reconsider their method if the outcomes are unclear. If
the facts are obvious, scientists document their research and findings for
sharing with others. They frequently generate new questions as a result
of the results they reach.
Q.2 Describe different types of research categorized on the
basis of methods used and the purpose of research.
Answer: Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a
particular concern or problem using scientific methods. According to the
American sociologist Earl Robert Bobbie, “research is a systematic
inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Deductive techniques support an observable occurrence whereas

inductive techniques examine it. Deductive techniques are more
frequently connected with quantitative analysis, whereas inductive
strategies are associated with qualitative research.
Research is done to:
• Identify potential and new clients
• Understand current customers
• Set realistic goals
• Develop effective market strategies
• Address business difficulties;
• Create a plan for business growth
• Identify new business prospects.
Characteristics of research
•Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate
data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct
while making observations or drawing conclusions.
•The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both
inductive and deductive methods.
•Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations
in natural settings.
•There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are
no anomalies associated with it.
•It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps
create more research opportunities.
•It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
•Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The
information must be accurate and correct. For example,
laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data.
Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.
Purpose of research
There are three main purposes:
1- Investigative
As the name implies, exploratory investigations are carried out by
researchers to investigate a set of questions. The solutions and analyses
might not provide a resolution to the alleged issue. It is being done to
address brand-new, unexplored problem areas. The groundwork for
more thorough data gathering and analysis is laid by this exploratory
procedure.
2- Descriptive
It focuses on gathering data in order to increase understanding of current
challenges. Research that is descriptive analyses the actions of a sample
population. The study only needs one variable to be conducted.
Descriptive studies' three main goals are to describe, explain, and
validate the results. For instance, a research was done to determine if
top-level management executives today have a moral claim to a sizeable
portion of the company's profits.
3- Explanatory
Explanatory Research is carried out to comprehend the effects of
particular modifications to current standard operating procedures. The
most common form is conducting experiments. For instance, a study that
is done to determine how rebranding affects consumer loyalty.
Making the appropriate inquiries and choosing a viable investigation
plan are the first steps. After obtaining the responses to your inquiries,
you can look at the findings or observations to draw conclusions that
make sense.
The more in-depth your inquiries are when it comes to client and market
studies, the more accurate the analysis. By carefully gathering customer
data through surveys and questionnaires, you gain crucial insights into
brand perception and product demands. Making informed selections
about your marketing strategy can help you position your company for
success.
Use a research repository as a single source of truth in your business and
manage your research data in one centralized repository to help you
understand your study and gain insights more quickly.
Types of research techniques
1- Qualitative Technique
With the help of open-ended questions and conversational procedures,
qualitative research gathers data. The majority of the responses are not
numerical. This technique aids in the researcher's comprehension of
participants' thoughts and the reasons behind their opinions.
A few examples of qualitative research techniques are:
• focus groups,
• one-on-one interviews
• ethnographic investigations
• Analysis of Text and Case Study
2- Quantitative technique
Quantitative techniques work with numerical data and quantifiable
forms. It employs a methodical approach of looking into events or data.
It offers justifications for connections between quantifiable factors that
can be used to either explain, forecast, or regulate an event.
Various quantitative techniques include:
i. Survey analysis
ii. descriptive analysis
iii.correlational analysis
Keep in mind that information is only worthwhile and helpful if it can be
trusted to be true. An increase in client attrition and a drop in sales can
arise from inaccurate data.
It aims to address a particular issue.
• Primary and secondary research approaches are used in educational
research to gather data. In order to draw a valid conclusion from
educational research, the researcher must rely on both primary and
secondary sources of information.
• Empirical data is used in educational research. This is a result of its
mostly scientific methodology.
• Research on education is reliable and unbiased since it measures
verifiable data.
• To get the most objective results possible in educational research,
the researcher uses certain approaches, thorough procedures, and
analysis.
• Findings from educational research can be used to create theories
and concepts that offer deeper understanding of current problems.
Q.3 Discuss the concept of educational research. Also
examine the need and importance of research in education.
Answer: Educational Research
A sort of systematic investigation known as educational research uses
empirical techniques to address problems in education. It uses exacting
and well-defined scientific procedures to collect and evaluate data for
problem-solving and the progress of knowledge.
According to J.W. Best, educational research is any effort focused on the
creation of a science of behavior in educational settings. The ultimate
purpose of such a science is to impart knowledge that will enable the
educator to accomplish his objectives using the best strategies.
The main goal of educational research is to increase the body of
knowledge by offering solutions to various pedagogical issues while
enhancing methods for teaching and learning. Additionally, questions
about student motivation, development, and classroom management are
of interest to scholars in education.
Characteristics of Education Research 
• While there are many different formats and methods for educational
research, its process and strategy are defined by a number of factors.
Following is a list of some of them:
• It aims to deal with a specific problem.
• Data collection methods used in educational research include primary
and secondary sources. The researcher must use both primary and
secondary sources of data in order to come to a reliable result from
educational research.
• Research on education makes use of empirical data. This is a result of
the methodology's predominance in science.
• The process and strategy of educational research are influenced by a
variety of variables, despite the fact that there are numerous forms
and methodologies available. Here is a list of a few of them:
• It seeks to solve a certain issue.
• Primary and secondary sources are employed in data collection
techniques for educational research. A meaningful conclusion from
 educational research requires the utilization of both primary and
secondary sources of data.
• Empirical data are used in education research. As a result of the
methodology's supremacy in science, this has happened.
• This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and
unstructured questions to gather verifiable data from respondents.
• Many educational research findings are documented for peer review
before their presentation. 
• Educational research is interdisciplinary in nature because it draws
from different fields and studies complex factual relations.
Educational Research Types
The three main types of educational research are:
i. descriptive research
ii. correlational research
iii.experimental research
These each have unique and overlapping characteristics.
1- Descriptive Educational Research
In this kind of educational research, the researcher only aims to gather
information regarding the current state of affairs. Determining the
situation and qualities of the research topic that is being understudied
forms the basis of descriptive research.
Descriptive research can be referred to as an observational research
method since it places a strong emphasis on the "what" of the
circumstance. To acquire the necessary data for descriptive educational
research, the researcher use quantitative research techniques such as
surveys and questionnaires.
Descriptive educational research is frequently the initial step in
addressing a particular issue.
Examples of descriptive research include the following:
• An analysis of students' classroom performance
• A reading programmer to assist you understand students' literacy
levels
 • An investigation to learn more about students' interests and
preferences.
You'll see from these instances that the researcher need not simulate the
research subjects' natural surroundings; instead, he or she can just
observe them as they go about their daily lives. Additionally, the
researcher is not interested in establishing a causal connection between
the study's variables.
2- Correlational Educational Research
This kind of educational research aims to provide light on the statistical
association between two study variables. When conducting correlational
research, the researcher examines two variables with the goal of finding
a link between them.
Research on correlations may be neutral, harmful, or nonexistent. An
increase in variable a causes and increase in variable B, while an
increase in variable a causes a drop in variable B is known as a negative
correlation.
The correlation is nonexistent if a change in one of the variables does
not result in a subsequent change in the other. Additionally, there is no
requirement for external conditioning in correlational educational
research because the variables' natural environments do not need to be
changed.
Examples of educational correlational research include:
• A study examining the relationship between students' social skills
and their learning behaviors
• Research to ascertain the association between students' behaviors
and classroom performance.
3- Experimental Educational Research
A research strategy known as experimental educational research aims to
determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two factors in the
study setting. It uses quantitative research techniques to establish the
links between the variables under study and their causes and effects.
Two groups are commonly used in experimental educational research:
 I. the control group
II. the experimental group
While the control group is left in its natural state, the researcher makes
certain changes to the experimental group, such as altering the
environment or adding a catalyst.
The addition of these catalysts enables the researcher to identify the
experiment's causal factor(s). The creation of a hypothesis is at the heart
of experimental educational research, therefore the overall research
design depends on statistical analysis to validate
Examples of Educational Experimental Research
• A study to identify the most effective teaching and learning
strategies in a classroom.
• An investigation into the impact of extracurricular activities on
education.
Fundamental, applied, and action research are the three categories into
which educational research can be divided according to usefulness.
Gaining new knowledge is the main goal of fundamental research, which
also aims to offer insights into the study's variables. Fundamental
research doesn't address any particular issues.
Applied research is a research strategy that, as its name suggests, aims to
address particular issues. Findings from applied research are helpful in
addressing real-world issues in the field of education, such as enhancing
teaching strategies, changing curricula, and streamlining pedagogy.
Action research is designed to address current issues unique to a context,
such as the educational difficulties in a nearby elementary school.
Importance of Educational Research
• The progress of knowledge in a variety of academic subjects is
greatly aided by educational research, which offers solutions to
real-world educational problems using scientific approaches.
• Findings from educational research, particularly applied research,
are crucial for rewriting policy.
• Educational research enhances learning, knowledge, skills, and
understanding for the researcher as well as other parties involved
in this study approach.
• Educational research enhances teaching and learning techniques by
arming you with knowledge that will enable you to instruct and
lead more strategically and successfully.
• Research in education enables students to put their knowledge to
use in real-world contexts.
Educational Research Methods 
1- Surveys/Questionnaires
A survey is a research method that is used to collect data from a specific
research context from a predetermined audience. It usually consists of a
set of standardized questions that help you gain insights into the
audience's experiences, thoughts, and behaviors.
• Paper forms
• face-to-face conversations
 • telephone conversations
• online forms
2- Interviews
An interview is a qualitative data collection method that allows you to
elicit information from respondents by asking open-ended questions
during a conversation. It is usually a face-to-face conversation with the
research subjects to gather information that will be useful in the specific
research context.
• Structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews are all
possible. A structured interview is a type of interview that follows
a predetermined sequence, employing a set of standardized
questions to elicit information from research subjects.
• An unstructured interview is a non-directive interview that is fluid
in nature. During a structured interview, the researcher does not
use a set of predetermined questions; rather, he or she asks
questions to gather information on the spot.
3- Observation
Observation is a data collection method that involves selecting,
watching, listening, and reading, touching, and recording the behaviors
and characteristics of living beings, objects, or phenomena in a
systematic manner. Teachers can use this method in the classroom to
better understand students' behaviors in various contexts.
The approach to observation can be:
I. qualitative
II. quantitative
The researcher's goal in quantitative observation is to collect statistical
information from respondents, whereas the researcher's goal in
qualitative observation is to collect qualitative data from respondents.
Q.4. What is an experiment and how you will conduct an
experimental research? What will be the threats to internal
and external validity and how you will minimize these
threats?
Answer: Experiment
An experiment is a procedure that is carried out to support or refute a
hypothesis, or to determine the efficacy or likelihood of something that
has never been tried before.
For example, you're wondering if misting a plant with water helps it
grow faster. You get a sense of how the plant grows without being
misted and then compare it to how it grows after being misted.
Experimental research
Experimental research is a scientific study that employs two sets of
variables. The first set serves as a constant against which the differences
in the second set are measured. Experimentation is used in quantitative
research methods.
There are four steps to finishing an experimental research design.
Step 1: Develop your question and variables.
Step 2: Create your hypothesis.
Step 3: Create experimental treatments.
Step 4: Sort the patients into treatment groups.
You can conduct experiments in the following circumstances:
• Time is an important factor in establishing a cause-and-effect
relationship.
• Cause and effect have consistent behavior.
• You want to comprehend the significance of cause and effect.
Step 1: Create your question and variables.
• Establish your research question in the first stage and use it to
distinguish between dependent and independent variables.
• Variables that are independent versus variables that are dependent
• Independent variables are those that will be subjected to
manipulation and are expected to influence the outcome. The
dependent variables, on the other hand, are not manipulated but
represent the outcome and are expected to be influenced by the
independent variables.
Step 2: Construct your hypothesis
Following that, you should state your hypothesis. This should be a
specific and testable statement that outlines what you expect to find,
should emerge from your research question, and should be informed by
any previous research findings. For example, if you're comparing the
impact of two different marketing messages on product appeal, you
could make the following hypothesis:
• Marketing message "A" will generate more product appeal among
TV ad viewers than marketing message "B".
There are a few best practices to follow when stating hypotheses. The
hypothesis is as follows:
• Should describe the test change (in our case, "marketing
messages").
• Should describe the impact you anticipate the change will have
("will result in increased product appeal").
• Should specify who you anticipate will be affected ("TV ad
viewers").
• Should be suitable and testable for the type of experimental
research design you are conducting.
Step 3: Create experimental treatments
How to play with your independent variables:
More Resources Market Research Logo Solutions Services
View a demonstration
There are four steps to completing an experimental research design.
Launch your own experimental research by sending your survey to the
appropriate people, and you'll have quality survey results in a matter of
days.
Experimental research designs are one of the most traditional approaches
to empirical research, as they collect research data in a way that can be
verified through observation or experience.
It is important to note that manipulating the independent variable
requires the researcher's active participation. If differences in the
variable occur naturally (for example, if a researcher compares views on
sustainability between households that already use eco detergents and
those that use regular detergents), an experiment was not carried out. In
this case, observed differences between the two groups could be the
result of a third, unknown variable influencing the cause-effect
relationship.
Step 4: Sort into treatment groups.
In the following stage of the experimental research design, divide your
survey subjects into appropriate treatment groups. There are numerous
approaches you can take, but you should be aware that the approach you
take may affect the validity and reliability of the results.
Internal Validity Threats
1- History
An unrelated occurrence has an impact on the outcomes. All employees
are informed of layoffs one week before the study's conclusion. The
participants are anxious about the post-test date, and their performance
may decline as a result.
2- Maturation
The study's findings change as a function of time.
The majority of participants are brand new to their jobs at the time of the
pre-test. A month later, their output has increased as a result of the time
they have spent in the role.
3- Instrumentation
Various measurements are utilized in the pre-test and post-test phases.
The pre-test examined productivity for 15 minutes, whereas the post-test
lasted over 30 minutes.
4- Testing
The results of the pre-test are influenced by the results of the post-test.
Because the same test was given to all participants at the end of the trial,
they were more productive. Many participants performed well because
they were familiar with the study's goal.
Ways to minimize internal validity threats:
• Highly controlled experiments typically boost internal validity.
Experiment with the following characteristics for the best internal
validity:
• They take place in a laboratory setting to limit variability caused
by factors other than the treatment.
• To obtain a sample that is representative of the population, use
random sampling.
• Use random assignment to generate control and treatment groups
that are initially equivalent.
 • To better understand treatment effects, include a control group.
• Use blinding and other methods to decrease the impact of
extraneous factors such as treatment knowledge and experimenter
bias.
• Internal validity is reduced when certain features are removed,
such as going from the lab to the real world, not being able to
randomize, or not having a control group.
External Validity Threats
1- Sampling bias
History An unrelated occurrence has an impact on the outcomes. A
natural disaster strikes a neighboring state just before the pre-test. As a
result, pre-test anxiety levels are higher than they would otherwise be.
2- History
History An unrelated occurrence has an impact on the outcomes. A
natural disaster strikes a neighboring state just before the pre-test. As a
result, pre-test anxiety levels are higher than they would otherwise be.
3- Observer bias
The experimenter(s)' qualities or behaviors unintentionally influence the
outcomes, resulting in bias and other demand features. The mindfulness
session trainer unintentionally emphasized the importance of this study
for the research department's financing. As a result, participants strive
extra hard to lower their anxiety levels during the study.
4- Hawthorne effect
Participants' proclivity to alter their conduct just because they are aware
that they are being observed. Because they are aware of their
participation in the research, the participants deliberately avoid anxiety-
inducing events during the study.
5- Testing
The effect of testing the use of a pre- or post-test influences the results.
Participants are less apprehensive during the post-test because they are
familiar with the pre-test format and questions, resulting in recall bias.
6-Aptitude-treatment
Interactions between group and individual variables effect the dependent
variable. Interactions between certain characteristics of depressed
individuals (e.g., negative thought patterns) and mindfulness activities
(e.g., attention on the present) reduce anxiety levels. The findings were
not repeated in patients with personality disorders or schizophrenia.
7- Situational impact
Factors such as the setting, time of day, location, researcher
characteristics, and so on limit the findings' generalizability. The
experiment is repeated, except this time the subjects practice
mindfulness at night rather than in the morning. This time, the results
show no progress.
Q.5 Define descriptive research. What are its major forms?
Strengthen your answer with the example of Case Studies,
Causal Comparative studies and correlation studies?
Answer: Descriptive Research
Descriptive study is a sort of research that is used to describe a
population's characteristics. It collects data that is used to answer a
variety of what, when, and how inquiries about a certain population or
group.
Major Goals
The goal of descriptive research is to correctly and thoroughly describe
a:
i. population
ii. situation
iii.phenomena
It can answer the questions:
i. what
ii. where
iii.when
iv.how
v. but not why.
To investigate one or more variables, a descriptive research design
would use a variety of research methods.
The publication of the results of a finished study is an important goal of
the research scientist. Literary embellishments and idioms, which are
common in other publications, are not permitted in scientific journals
because the goal is to explain the scientific discoveries as clearly as
possible, in a highly stylized, distinctive manner. This frequently makes
it harder for the applied expert to comprehend what the article has to
provide. The goal of this essay is to assist bridge a large portion of the
communication gap in scientific writing.
Methods of Descriptive Research
Although qualitative research can sometimes be used for descriptive
purposes, descriptive study is usually defined as a type of research
method. To ensure that the results are valid and relevant, the research
design should be properly constructed.
1- Surveys
Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be
analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of
surveys include:
• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an
organization’s services
2- Observations
Observations allow you to:
• collect data about behaviours and events without having to rely on
respondents' honesty and accuracy.
• Psychological, sociological, and market researchers frequently
employ this strategy to better understand how individuals behave
in real-life circumstances.
• Observation of physical entities and occurrences is also an
important aspect of natural science research.
 • It is required to observe and systematically characterize the subject
under inquiry before developing testable hypotheses, models, or
theories.
3- Study of cases
A case study can be used to:
• Describe the features of a particular subject (such as a person,
group, event or organization).
• Case studies collect specific data to determine the characteristics of
a narrowly defined subject rather than a vast volume of data to
identify patterns across time or region.
• Case studies frequently focus on rare or interesting situations that
question assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new
about a study subject, rather than attempting to provide
generalizable facts.
1- Correlational Research
Correlational study seeks to discover the degree to which two or more
variables are connected. A correlation coefficient expresses the degree
of relationship.
For example, a researcher may desire to investigate the association
between cardiorespiratory fitness and self-esteem in female college
students. What is the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and
self-esteem in college females? If the variables are highly associated, a
correlation coefficient approaching + 1.00 indicates that they are
favorably related. If the two variables are unrelated, the correlation
coefficient will be close to.00. The variables are inversely connected if
the correlation coefficient is close to -1.00.
• A correlational research design looks into correlations between
variables without allowing the researcher to control or manipulate
any of them.
• A correlation is a measurement of the intensity and/or direction of
a relationship between two (or more) variables. A correlation's
direction might be either positive or negative.
Positive correlation
Both variables change in the same way.
• Weight rises in tandem with height.
Negative correlation
Variables shift in opposite directions.
• Tiredness reduces as coffee consumption increases.
Zero correlation
There is no connection between the variables.
• Coffee drinking has no relationship with height.
2- Causal-Comparative Research
The goal of causal-comparative research is to find a cause-effect
relationship between two or more groups.
In contrast to correlation research, which examines relationships, causal-
comparative investigations entail comparison.
For example, a researcher might want to examine the body composition
of those who only use free weights vs people who only use exercise
machines. In this scenario, no variables are being manipulated; instead,
the researcher is examining the effect of free weights versus workout
machines on body composition. Obviously, because other factors such as
food, training programmer, and aerobic conditioning may influence
body composition, casual-comparative study must be scrutinized to
determine how these other elements were controlled.
Casual Comparative Research Methodologies
There are two forms of casual comparative research:
i. Retrospective Comparative Analysis
ii. Prospective Comparative Analysis
1. Retrospective Comparative Research
It incorporates examining into a certain subject.... after the
consequences have occurred. As an attempt to determine whether
one variable influences another.
2. Prospective Comparative Research
This sort of Casual Comparative Research is distinguished by
the researcher initiating it, beginning with the causes and aiming to
assess the impacts of a particular condition.
3- Case Analysis
A case study is a detailed examination of one person, group, or event. A
case study examines practically every element of the subject's life and
background to look for patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies
have applications in many sectors, including psychology, medicine,
education, anthropology, political science, and social work.
Types of Case Studies
Case studies have many different types and not have a specific definition. The
following types are given below:
i. Case studies in groups
ii. Case studies that are descriptive:
iii.Case studies with explanations:
iv.Case studies for independent inquiry:
v. Case studies that are useful:
vi.Case studies that really are intrinsic
Example
• What are the ecological consequences of reintroducing wolves?
• How do populist leaders exploit historical myths to attract support?
In mixed-level classrooms, how can teachers utilize active learning
strategies? What are the primary benefits and drawbacks of wind farms
for rural communities? How are viral marketing methods altering the
connection between businesses and their customers?
How do gender, race, and age affect job experiences in the gig
economy? Describe the features of a particular subject (such as a person,
group, event or organization).Case studies collect specific data to
determine the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject rather than a
vast volume of data to identify patterns across time or region. Case
studies frequently focus on rare or interesting situations that question
assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a study
subject, rather than attempting to provide generalizable facts.