LOUDSPEAKERS

2.1 Introduction
A loudspeaker is a device that converts electrical energy into acoustic energy (electroacoustic transducer),
or more generally, a system consisting of one or more such devices. Loudspeakers are present in our daily
lives to such an extent that, in most modern societies, one is in almost constant contact with them.
From the time the speaker in our clock radio wakes us in the morning until we turn off the television
before we go to bed at night, we encounter loudspeakers almost constantly. Even our computers have
loudspeakers.
A general treatment of loudspeakers, including their history and design considerations, in order to fit
within a single chapter of a book such as this, is limited to providing an overview of the subject rather
than an in-depth treatment of design and theoretical considerations. We will touch on as many of the
relevant areas as available space permits, while providing references for the reader who is interested in
further study. This chapter may serve as an overview of the subject for end users and audio enthusiasts
and as a guide to further study for those interested in performing loudspeaker design work themselves.
2.1.1 Uses of Loudspeakers
Even though there is a very wide range of applications for loudspeakers, they may be thought of as
serving some combination of four primary purposes:
1. Communication.
2. Sound reinforcement.
3. Sound production.
4. Sound reproduction.
While there are common requirements for all of these uses, each one also imposes its own demands on
loudspeaker attributes. In a given application, it is possible that more than one of these purposes must be
served by a single loudspeaker. In such cases, the suitability of the loudspeaker for one or more of its
uses may be compromised in order to facilitate others.
Communication. Ranging from intercom systems in offices and schools to radio communications systems
for the space shuttle, voice communication systems make our everyday lives safer and more convenient.
The first practical loudspeaker was in the earpiece of the original telephone. Since that time, loudspeakers
have been an integral part of voice communication systems, from intercom systems to satellite-based
telephone and conferencing systems.
Sound Reinforcement. In numerous situations involving public speaking and musical performance before
audiences in halls, auditoriums, amphitheaters, and arenas, the sound created by the voices and/or musical
instruments is not of sufficient loudness to be heard or understood satisfactorily by everyone present.
In such situations, a sound reinforcement system can provide the acoustic gain required to overcome this
deficiency.
Sound Production. There are a number of subcategories of this type of loudspeaker usage. Perhaps the
most readily recognizable is the use of amplification as an integral part of certain musical instruments—
e.g., electric guitar, bass, and keyboards. Other examples include emergency warning and sonar systems.
Loudspeaker characteristics may be very highly specialized when they are used as part of a sound
production system, and loudspeakers optimized for this type of use are often not well suited to other uses.

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Sound Reproduction. Playback of recorded music, motion picture soundtracks, and videotape requires a
sound reproduction system. Movie theaters and recording studios also require sound reproduction
systems. One of the author’s past design projects was a loudspeaker system for use in an international
chain of large-screen specialty theaters.
2.1.2 Loudspeaker Components
It is useful to identify the component parts (or subsystems) of a loudspeaker for individual examination
and analysis. For purposes of this chapter, the components of a loudspeaker are:
1. Transducer.
2. Radiator.
3. Enclosure.
4. Crossover.
We will examine various forms of each of these components in the sections that follow. Their interactions
with each other within a loudspeaker will be discussed. We will also present concepts of loudspeaker
performance characterization and an overview of electroacoustic models. The design and analysis of
loudspeakers is a multidisciplinary field, incorporating elements of music, physics, electrical and
mechanical engineering, and instrumentation. The individual subject areas are challenging and fascinating
in and of themselves, and their convergence in the field of loudspeaker design results in one of the most
complex combinations of art and science.

2.2 Transducer Types

There are a number of ways in which electrical energy can be converted into acoustic energy. Of all the
possibilities for carrying out this function, a relative few have become dominant in practical loudspeakers:
electrodynamic, electrostatic, and piezoelectric. In general, an electroacoustic transducer contains
three elements: motor, diaphragm, and suspension. The motor converts electrical energy into mechanical
(motional) energy and the diaphragm converts mechanical energy into acoustic energy (vibration of the
transmission medium, usually air). A suspension supports the diaphragm, allows it to move in an
appropriately constrained fashion, exerts a restoring force proportional to displacement from its
equilibrium position, and provides a damping force proportional to the velocity of motion that serves to
prevent the diaphragm from oscillating in an undesired manner.

2.2.1 Electrodynamic Transducers

The most common type of transducer used in loudspeakers is the electrodynamic driver also known as
moving coil transducer. In this type of transducer, a time-varying current passing through a conductive
coil suspended in a time-invariant magnetic field creates a force on the coil and the parts to which it is
attached. This force causes the parts to vibrate and to radiate sound.
The electrodynamic loudspeaker driver can be divided into three key components:
1) The Magnet Motor Drive System
2) The Loudspeaker Cone System
3) The Loudspeaker Suspension

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Figure 1 Cut-away of a moving coil-permanent magnet loudspeaker
The Magnet Motor Drive System
The main purpose of the Magnet Motor Drive System is to establish a symmetrical magnetic field in
which the voice coil will operate. The Magnet Motor Drive System is comprised of a front focusing plate,
permanent magnet, back plate, and a pole piece. In figure 2, the assembled drive system is illustrated. In
most cases, the back plate and the pole piece are built into one piece called the yoke. The yoke and the
front focusing plate are normally made of a very soft cast iron. Iron is a material that is used in
conjunction with magnetic structures because the iron is easily saturated when exposed to a magnetic
field. Notice in figure 2, that an air gap was intentionally left between the front focusing plate and the
yoke. The magnetic field is coupled through the air gap. The magnetic field strength (B) of the air gap is
typically optimized for uniformity across the gap.

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Figure 2 Permanent Magnet Structure

When a coil of wire with a current flowing is place inside the permanent magnetic field, a force is
produced. B is the magnetic field strength, l is the length of the coil, and I is the current flowing through
the coil.
F = Bli

Figure 3 Voice Coil Mounted in Permanent Magnetic Structure

The coil is excited with the AC signal that is intended for sound reproduction, when the changing
magnetic field of the coil interacts with the permanent magnetic field then the coil moves back and forth
in order to reproduce the input signal. The coil of a loudspeaker is known as the voice coil.

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Figure 4 Photograph - Voice Coil and other components of a electro dynamic loudspeaker

The Loudspeaker Cone System

On a typical loudspeaker, the cone serves the purpose of creating a larger radiating area allowing more air
to be moved when excited by the voice coil. The cone serves a piston that is excited by the voice coil. The
cone then displaces air creating a sound wave. In an ideal environment, the cone should be infinitely rigid
and have zero mass, but in reality neither is true. Cone materials vary from carbon fiber, paper, bamboo,
and just about any other material that can be shaped into a stiff conical shape. The loudspeaker cone is a
very critical part of the loudspeaker. Since the cone is not infinitely rigid, it tends to have different types
of resonance modes form at different frequencies, which in turn alters and colors the reproduction of the
sound waves. The shape of the cone directly influences the directivity and frequency response of the
loudspeaker. When the cone is attached to the voice coil, a large gap above the voice coil is left exposed.
This could be a problem if foreign particles make their way into the air gap of the voice coil and the
permanent magnet structure. The solution to this problem is to place what is known as a dust cap on the
cone to cover the air gap. Below a figure of the cone and dust cap are shown.

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Figure 6 Cone and Dust Cap attached to Voice Coil

The Loudspeaker Suspension

Most moving coil loudspeakers have a two piece suspension system, also known as a flexure system. The
combination of the two flexures allows the voice coil to maintain linear travel as the voice coil is
energized and provide a restoring force for the voice coil system. The two piece system consists of large
flexible membrane surrounding the outside edge of the cone, called the surround, and an additional
flexure connected directly to the voice coil, called the spider. The surround has another purpose and that
is to seal the loudspeaker when mounted in an enclosure. Commonly, the surround is made of a variety of
different materials, such as, folded paper, cloth, rubber, and foam. Construction of the spider consists of
different woven cloth or synthetic materials that are compressed to form a flexible membrane. The
following two figures illustrate where the suspension components are physically at on the loudspeaker
and how they function as the loudspeaker operates.

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Figure 7 Loudspeaker Suspension System

Figure 8 Moving Loudspeaker

Modeling the Loudspeaker as a Lumped System

Before implementing a loudspeaker into a specific application, a series of parameters characterizing the
loudspeaker must be extracted. The equivalent circuit of the loudspeaker is key when developing
enclosures. The circuit models all aspects of the loudspeaker through an equivalent electrical, mechanical,
and acoustical circuit. Figure 9 shows how the three equivalent circuits are connected. The electrical
circuit is comprised of the DC resistance of the voice coil, Re, the imaginary part of the voice coil

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inductance, Le, and the real part of the voice coil inductance, Revc. The mechanical system has electrical
components that model different physical parameters of the loudspeaker. In the mechanical circuit, Mm, is
the electrical capacitance due to the moving mass, Cm, is the electrical inductance due to the compliance
of the moving mass, and Rm, is the electrical resistance due to the suspension system. In the acoustical
equivalent circuit, Ma models the air mass and Ra models the radiation impedance. This equivalent circuit
allows insight into what parameters change the characteristics of the loudspeaker. Figure 10 shows the
electrical input impedance as a function of frequency developed using the equivalent circuit of the
loudspeaker.

Figure 9 Loudspeaker Analogous Circuit

Figure10 Electrical Input Impedance

2.4 Electrostatic Transducers

Electrostatic transducers make use of the fact that two static electrical charges placed at a distance from
each other will experience a force directed along a line between them. The force is attractive if the
charges have the opposite sign (positive and negative) and repulsive if the charges have the same sign
(positive and positive or negative and negative). In practical loudspeaker designs, the forces
are attractive, due to the complementary nature of the charge transfer from the amplifier output to the
speaker plates. The magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the distance between the charges
and directly proportional to the magnitude of the charges.
A typical electrostatic loudspeaker consists of a diaphragm made of two pieces of metallic foil separated
by a sheet of dielectric, or nonconductive, material. By itself, the application of a pure ac signal (i.e., one
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with no dc component) to an electrostatic loudspeaker would cause attractive forces for both positive- and
negative-going signal excursions, since the induced charges are opposite in both cases. This would create
a frequency-doubled signal containing extremely high levels of harmonic distortion.
For this reason, a dc polarizing voltage is applied to the foil diaphragms, maintaining a steady attraction
between them. The audio (ac) signal is superimposed on this dc offset, modulating the attractive force. In
response to this modulated force, the diaphragms move opposite (toward or away from) each other. The
upper limit on the amplitude of the allowed signal voltage is then equal to half the polarization voltage.
This arrangement is the basis of all modern electrostatic loudspeakers. The result is an acceptably low
level of harmonic distortion, as long as variations in the distance between plates or the diaphragms
are minimized. The movement of the foil diaphragms generates sound waves. The diaphragms produce
equal acoustical power radiated in opposite directions. This set of characteristics defines a dipole radiator.
It is asserted by the designers of electrostatic loudspeakers that they overcome certain basic disadvantages
of cone-type loudspeakers, particularly with respect to the propagation of acoustic energy at the high
frequencies. Cone-type loudspeakers are driven by a voice coil that is attached to a relatively small
portion of the total diaphragm area, and they do not behave as pistons at higher frequencies.
Because the electrostatic loudspeaker has a diaphragm that is driven uniformly across its surface, breakup
is said to be eliminated. Additionally, the diaphragm can have low mass compared to the air load on the
diaphragm. This enhances high-frequency and transient response.

2.5 Piezoelectric Loudspeakers

Piezoelectricity, or pressure electricity, was discovered in the 1880s by the Curies. It is today a feasible
motor drive mechanism for loudspeakers. In a piezoelectric material, a voltage applied to the material will
result in a mechanical strain or deflection. The reverse is also true, and piezoelectric elements can

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be used in microphones. This characteristic is attractive for direct-drive units such as ultrasonic devices.
For loudspeakers, however, some means must be applied to mechanically amplify the inherently low
excursion so that a loudspeaker diaphragm may be driven properly. One of the earliest discovered
piezoelectric substances is Rochelle salt. Although Rochelle salt is still widely used, it suffers from poor
mechanical strength, low temperature breakdown (55°C), and extreme sensitivity to humidity. Barium
titanate is the first piezoceramic to be developed. Although it is not as electrically sensitive, it is still
widely used, exhibiting many superior characteristics over Rochelle salt. The most widely used piezo
material today is lead zirconate titanate, developed first in Japan in the 1950s. This material (PZT) is now
highly refined and exhibits the best properties of any piezo material for loudspeaker use. PZT material is
formed by baking a ceramic slurry or clay into bars about 1 inch in diameter and then slicing the bars into
thin wafers. Two wafers are bonded together in opposing polarity, with electrodes on their flat surfaces,
forming a bimorph bender. As voltage is applied to the bender, deformation of the disc results in greater
displacement at its center.

2.7 RADIATOR TYPES

In addition to converting electrical energy to mechanical energy, a loudspeaker must include a means for
converting mechanical energy (e.g., the motion of a diaphragm) into acoustic energy. For purposes of this
chapter, the various means for accomplishing this final conversion are referred to as radiators. While
there is overlap in our definition of the terms transducer and radiator, it is extremely useful in
understanding loudspeakers to consider the function of acoustic radiation as a separate subject from
electroacoustic conversion. In general, there are two broad types of radiators: direct radiators and horn
radiators.
2.7.1 Direct Radiators
The simplest form of radiator is the direct radiator, in which the diaphragm is directly coupled to the air.
Most hi-fi loudspeakers consist of combinations of different sizes of direct radiators. Various forms of
direct radiators were described in the previous section.

2.7.2 Cone Radiators

In a cone radiator, the diaphragm is in the shape of a truncated cone. The concave surface of the cone is
usually, but not always, the one which radiates sound. The cone shape is partially dictated by expediency:
it allows the magnet structure to reside at the rear of the transducer assembly, while at the same time
allowing for the use of a spider and a surround to suspend the diaphragm. This dual-element suspension
provides positive centering of the voice coil in the magnet gap, and it helps constrain the motion of the
cone to the desired linear path. The above notwithstanding, there are also acoustic motivations that tend
to favor the cone shape. At first glance, one might expect a flat piston to offer superior on-axis response
and directivity to a cone. A cone shape is generally preferable, however, when the excitation will be
applied near the center of the diaphragm. Due to the fact that sound propagates at a finite velocity in a
solid, the motion of the outer portion of the diaphragm will follow the initial excitation by some amount
of time. If the diaphragm were flat, radiation from the outer portions of its surface would arrive at an on-
axis observation point at later times than radiation from the center. The cone shape reduces the distance
that must be traveled by sound radiated from the outer portions to on-axis listening positions.
Since the velocity of sound in the cone material is typically greater than the velocity of sound in air, a
cone shape having the optimum included angle will tend to synchronize on-axis radiation from the outer
portions of the diaphragm with that from near the center. Given a judicious choice of angle, the useful
range of response of a cone transducer can be extended to a significantly higher frequency than would
otherwise have been the case.
2.7.3 Dome Radiators
Another variant on the direct radiator theme is the dome radiator. Most often, this radiator takes the form
of a convex dome driven and suspended at its periphery. The material used to form the dome may be soft,
as is the case with coated synthetic textiles, or hard, in the case of metals or composite materials (e.g.,
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carbon fiber/epoxy). Dome radiators are most popular for high-frequency elements, although a number of
dome-shaped midrange elements are also available. As with the cone radiator, the convex shape of the
typical dome radiator has acoustic motivations. Since the excitation is at the edge, the dome’s mechanical
motion will propagate inward. As a result, if the shape were flat, radiation from the inner portion would
arrive at an on-axis observation point later than radiation from the edge. The convex shape helps deliver a
more coherent wave front to an on-axis listening position. It is common practice to suspend a small round
cover just in front of the center of the dome.

2.7.4 Ring Radiators

Yet another form of direct radiator is the ring radiator. In a typical ring radiator, a flexible ring-shaped
diaphragm is rigidly captured along its inner and outer circumferences and driven along a concentric
circular line between those two circles. There is, then, no distinction between the diaphragm and the
suspension, as a single part fills both functions. A dome tweeter with a cover over the center of the dome
functions as a ring radiator. Ring radiators can also be used to drive short horns. The JBL 075 Bullet is an
example of a ring radiator. Intended for use above 7 kHz, the diaphragm is a V-shaped ring of aluminum
attached to a voice coil and former.
Figure 2.27 shows a ceramic version of the ring, which is made by Yamaha. The phase plug is a simple
slit ending in a large enough mouth to project the desired low end of the driver. The suspension is the
diaphragm itself, and it is quite stiff. Ring radiators are typically operated in or above the principal
resonance frequency of the diaphragm assembly.

Figure 2.27 Yamaha ceramic-magnet ring radiator cross section.

2.7.5 Panel Radiators

Both electrostatic and planar electrodynamic speakers fall into this category. As with the ring radiator,
there is a mixing of functionality between the diaphragm and the suspension. The acoustic advantage, at
least in principle, of a panel radiator, is that the driving force is applied uniformly over a large portion of
the diaphragm. For this reason, diaphragm rigidity is not an essential design element, as is the case with
cone radiators. An interesting characteristic of a large panel radiator is that it will essentially project a
shadow of its shape as a listening pattern; this shadow of the speaker’s radiation pattern will take up a
large part of a typical listening area, particularly at close listening distances. This is claimed to
produce a wider “sweet spot” compared to conventional cone systems.
2.7.6 Horns

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Horns are used to increase the efficiency of a transducer and to control the directivity of the sound that is
radiated. Horns are characterized by a number of parameters. The earliest approach to a predictive model,
and the one still employed in acoustics texts, is characterization by the rate of increase of crosssectional
area with longitudinal position in the horn. Other means of characterization are related to the shapes
formed by the horn walls.Of all possible expansion (or flare) rates, a relative few have found use in
horn design and analysis. Those most commonly encountered are exponential,hyperbolic, conic, and
catenary. In general, the change of cross-sectional areawith position in a horn can be expressed as

Practical horns have come to be known more by salient details of their sidewall shapes than by their flare
rates. The more common types are described below.

2.7.6.1 Radial Horns

Radial (or sectoral) horns were claimed to allow a natural radial expansion of the sound wave from the
driver, while maintaining an exponential expansion rate. Typically, a radial horn has straight horizontal
sides and top and bottomwalls that are in the form of spherical sectors. The design approach employed
for a radial horn involves positioning the sides at approximately the desired angle for horizontal coverage.
Given the area expansion desired, the top and bottom surfaces are then derived mathematically. The most
popular materials used in making radial horns are cast aluminum (now relatively uncommon),
molded plastic, laminated glass fiber, and polyester resin. This type of horn was in widespread use from
the 1930s until approximately the mid-1980s, by which time constant directivity types had become more
popular. Figure 2.28 is an Altec 311-60; it has a 60° horizontal coverage and is intended for use above
300 Hz, using a 1.4 inch driver. Altec was well known for this design, with its characteristic vertical
vanes at the mouth of the horn.
2.7.6.2 Multicell Horns
Multicell horns were the first horns to be employed specifically for their directivity control attributes. The
design approach was straightforward—several small horns were affixed together in an array, with each
horn to supply a portion of the total coverage angle. These small horns were connected to a common
manifold so that a single driver could power them, Fig. 2.29. Multicell horns first came into use in the late
1930s. They were originally made of sheet metal soldered together and either filled on the outside with
sand or covered with a mechanical damping material.

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2.7.6.3 Controlled Directivity Horns
The first constant directivity type of horn appeared in 1975. Developed by Electro- Voice, they employed
a hyperbolic-flare throat section coupled to a conical radial bell section, as shown in Fig. 2.30. This horn
shape yielded good low-frequency loading and relatively constant angular beam width in both vertical
and horizontal directions over a wide frequency range.

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Figure 2.30 Electro-Voice HR9040 constant directivity horn.

2.7.6.4 Folded Horns

One of the practical drawbacks of horns, particularly those intended for use at low frequencies, is their
physical size. Folded horns were developed in response to this problem and have been in use in various
forms for more than half a century. A folded horn is produced by truncating the shape at point, providing
a reflecting surface to change the direction of the outgoing wave, and continuing the horn’s expansion in
another direction, usually opposite the prior one. Successive horn sections are typically positioned outside
their predecessors. As many reversals are generated as are necessary to create the desired path length and
mouth size.

Figure 2.38 Cross-sectional drawing of an exponential folded horn.

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DRIVER TYPES

Individual electrodynamic drivers provide optimal performance within a limited pitch range. Multiple
drivers (e.g., subwoofers, woofers, mid-range drivers, and tweeters) are generally combined into a
complete loudspeaker system to provide performance beyond that constraint.

Full-range drivers

A full-range driver is designed to have the widest frequency response possible. These drivers are small,
typically 3 to 8 inches (7.6 to 20.3 cm) in diameter to permit reasonable high frequency response, and
carefully designed to give low-distortion output at low frequencies, though with reduced maximum output
level. Full-range (or more accurately, wide-range) drivers are most commonly heard in public address
systems, in televisions (although some models are suitable for hi-fi listening), small radios, intercoms,
some computer speakers, etc. In hi-fi speaker systems, the use of wide-range drive units can avoid
undesirable interactions between multiple drivers caused by non-coincident driver location or crossover
network issues. Fans of wide-range driver hi-fi speaker systems claim a coherence of sound due to the
single source and a resulting lack of interference, and likely also to the lack of crossover components.
Detractors typically cite wide-range drivers' limited frequency response and modest output abilities (most
especially at low frequencies), together with their requirement for large, elaborate, expensive
enclosures—such as transmission lines, or horns—to approach optimum performance.

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Full-range drivers often employ an additional cone called a whizzer: a small, light cone attached to the
joint between the voice coil and the primary cone. The whizzer cone extends the high-frequency response
of the driver and broadens its high frequency directivity, which would otherwise be greatly narrowed due
to the outer diameter cone material failing to keep up with the central voice coil at higher frequencies.
The main cone in a whizzer design is manufactured so as to flex more in the outer diameter than in the
center. The result is that the main cone delivers low frequencies and the whizzer cone contributes most of
the higher frequencies. Since the whizzer cone is smaller than the main diaphragm, output dispersion at
high frequencies is improved relative to an equivalent single larger diaphragm.

Limited-range drivers, also used alone, are typically found in computers, toys, and clock radios. These
drivers are less elaborate and less expensive than wide-range drivers, and they may be severely
compromised to fit into very small mounting locations. In these applications, sound quality is a low
priority. The human ear is remarkably tolerant of poor sound quality, and the distortion inherent in
limited-range drivers may enhance their output at high frequencies, increasing clarity when listening to
spoken word material.

Subwoofer

A subwoofer is a woofer driver used only for the lowest part of the audio spectrum: typically below 200
Hz for consumer systems and below 100 Hz for professional live sound. Because the intended range of
frequencies is limited, subwoofer system design is usually simpler in many respects than for conventional
loudspeakers, often consisting of a single driver enclosed in a suitable box or enclosure. Since sound in
this frequency range can easily bend around corners by diffraction, the speaker aperture does not have to
face the audience, and subwoofers are often mounted in the bottom of the enclosure facing the floor for
convenience.

To accurately reproduce very low bass notes without unwanted resonances (typically from cabinet
panels), subwoofer systems must be solidly constructed and properly braced; good speakers are typically
quite heavy. Many subwoofer systems include power amplifiers and electronic sub-filters, with additional
controls relevant to low-frequency reproduction. These variants are known as "active" or "powered"
subwoofers.In contrast, "passive" subwoofers require external amplification.

Woofer

A woofer is a driver that reproduces low frequencies. The driver combines with the enclosure design to
produce suitable low frequencies (see speaker enclosure for the design choices available). Some
loudspeaker systems use a woofer for the lowest frequencies, sometimes well enough that a subwoofer is
not needed. Additionally, some loudspeakers use the woofer to handle middle frequencies, eliminating the
mid-range driver. This can be accomplished with the selection of a tweeter that can work low enough that,
combined with a woofer that responds high enough, the two drivers add coherently in the middle
frequencies.

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Mid-range driver

A mid-range speaker is a loudspeaker driver that reproduces middle frequencies. Mid-range driver
diaphragms can be made of paper or composite materials, and can be direct radiation drivers (rather like
smaller woofers) or they can be compression drivers (rather like some tweeter designs). If the mid-range
driver is a direct radiator, it can be mounted on the front baffle of a loudspeaker enclosure, or, if a
compression driver, mounted at the throat of a horn for added output level and control of radiation
pattern.

Tweeter

A tweeter is a high-frequency driver that reproduces the highest frequencies in a speaker system. A major
problem in tweeter design is achieving wide angular sound coverage (off-axis response), since high
frequency sound tends to leave the speaker in narrow beams. Soft-dome tweeters are widely found in
home stereo systems, and horn-loaded compression drivers are common in professional sound
reinforcement. Ribbon tweeters have gained popularity in recent years, as their output power has been
increased to levels useful for professional sound reinforcement, and their output pattern is wide in the
horizontal plane, a pattern that has convenient applications in concert sound.

Coaxial drivers

A coaxial driver is a loudspeaker driver with two or several combined concentric drivers. Coaxial drivers
have been produced by many companies, such as Altec, Tannoy, Pioneer, KEF, B&C Speakers, BMS,
Cabasse and Genelec.

LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM DESIGN

Crossover

Used in multi-driver speaker systems, the crossover is a subsystem that separates the input signal into
different frequency ranges suited to each driver. The drivers receive power only in their usable frequency
range (the range they were designed for), thereby reducing distortion in the drivers and interference
between them. No crossover can be perfect (i.e., absolute block at the edges of the passband, no amplitude
variation within the passband, no phase changes across the frequency band boundaries the crossover
establishes, ..), so this is an idealized description. Crossovers can be passive or active. A passive
crossover is an electronic circuit that uses a combination of one or more resistors, inductors, or non-polar
capacitors. These parts are formed into carefully designed networks and are most often placed between
the full frequency-range power amplifier and the loudspeaker drivers to divide the amplifier's signal into
the necessary frequency bands before being delivered to the individual drivers. Passive crossover circuits
need no external power beyond the audio signal itself, but have disadvantages: high cost, large
components (inductors and capacitors), limited ability to adjust the circuit as desired due to limited choice
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of high power level components, etc. They also cause substantial overall signal loss and a significant
reduction in damping factor between the voice coil and the crossover.

An active crossover is an electronic filter circuit that divides the signal into individual frequency bands
before power amplification, thus requiring at least one power amplifier for each bandpass. Passive
filtering may also be used in this way before power amplification, but it is an uncommon solution, being
less flexible than active filtering. Any technique that uses crossover filtering followed by amplification is
commonly known as bi-amping, tri-amping, quad-amping, and so on, depending on the minimum number
of amplifier channels.Some loudspeaker designs use a combination of passive and active crossover
filtering, such as a passive crossover between the mid- and high-frequency drivers and an active crossover
between the low-frequency driver and the combined mid- and high frequencies.

Passive crossovers are commonly installed inside speaker boxes and are by far the most usual type of
crossover for home and low-power use. In car audio systems, passive crossovers may be in a separate
box, necessary to accommodate the size of the components used. Passive crossovers may be simple for
low-order filtering, or complex to allow steep slopes such as 18 or 24 dB per octave. Passive crossovers
can also be designed to compensate for undesired characteristics of driver, horn, or enclosure resonances,
and can be tricky to implement, due to component interaction. Passive crossovers, like the driver units
that they feed, have power handling limits, have insertion losses (10% is often claimed), and change the
load seen by the amplifier. The changes are matters of concern for many in the hi-fi world.When high
output levels are required, active crossovers may be preferable. Active crossovers may be simple circuits
that emulate the response of a passive network, or may be more complex, allowing extensive audio
adjustments. Some active crossovers, usually digital loudspeaker management systems, may include

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facilities for precise alignment of phase and time between frequency bands, equalization, and dynamics
(compression and limiting) control.

Some hi-fi and professional loudspeaker systems now include an active crossover circuit as part of an
onboard amplifier system. These speaker designs are identifiable by their need for AC power in addition
to a signal cable from a pre-amplifier. This active topology may include driver protection circuits and
other features of a digital loudspeaker management system. Powered speaker systems are common in
computer sound (for a single listener) and, at the other end of the size spectrum, in modern concert sound
systems, where their presence is significant and steadily increasing.

Enclosures

Most loudspeaker systems consist of drivers mounted in an enclosure also referred to as baffle or cabinet.
The role of the enclosure is to provide a place to physically mount the drivers, and to prevent sound
waves emanating from the back of a driver from interfering destructively with those from the front; these
typically cause cancellations (e.g., comb filtering) and significantly alter the level and quality of sound at
low frequencies.

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The simplest driver mount is a flat panel (i.e., baffle) with the drivers mounted in holes in it. However, in
this approach, sound frequencies with a wavelength longer than the baffle dimensions are canceled out,
because the antiphase radiation from the rear of the cone interferes with the radiation from the front. With
an infinitely large panel, this interference could be entirely prevented. A sufficiently large sealed box can
approach this behavior.

Since panels of infinite dimensions are impossible, most enclosures function by containing the rear
radiation from the moving diaphragm. A sealed enclosure prevents transmission of the sound emitted
from the rear of the loudspeaker by confining the sound in a rigid and airtight box. Techniques used to
reduce transmission of sound through the walls of the cabinet include thicker cabinet walls, lossy wall
material, internal bracing, curved cabinet walls—or more rarely, visco-elastic materials (e.g., mineral-
loaded bitumen) or thin lead sheeting applied to the interior enclosure walls.

However, a rigid enclosure reflects sound internally, which can then be transmitted back through the
loudspeaker diaphragm—again resulting in degradation of sound quality. This can be reduced by internal
absorption using absorptive materials (often called "damping"), such as glass wool, wool, or synthetic
fiber batting, within the enclosure. The internal shape of the enclosure can also be designed to reduce this
by reflecting sounds away from the loudspeaker diaphragm, where they may then be absorbed.

Other enclosure types alter the rear sound radiation so it can add constructively to the output from the
front of the cone. Designs that do this (including bass reflex, passive radiator, transmission line, etc.) are
often used to extend the effective low-frequency response and increase low-frequency output of the
driver.

To make the transition between drivers as seamless as possible, system designers have attempted to time-
align (or phase adjust) the drivers by moving one or more driver mounting locations forward or back so
that the acoustic center of each driver is in the same vertical plane. This may also involve tilting the face
speaker back, providing a separate enclosure mounting for each driver, or (less commonly) using
electronic techniques to achieve the same effect. These attempts have resulted in some unusual cabinet
designs.

The speaker mounting scheme (including cabinets) can also cause diffraction, resulting in peaks and dips
in the frequency response. The problem is usually greatest at higher frequencies, where wavelengths are
similar to, or smaller than, cabinet dimensions. The effect can be minimized by rounding the front edges
of the cabinet, curving the cabinet itself, using a smaller or narrower enclosure, choosing a strategic driver
arrangement, using absorptive material around a driver, or some combination of these and other schemes.

Wiring connections

Most loudspeakers use two wiring points to connect to the source of the signal (for example, to the audio
amplifier or receiver). This is usually done using binding posts or spring clips on the back of the
enclosure. If the wires for the left and right speakers (in a stereo setup) are not connected "in phase" with
each other (the + and − connections on the speaker and amplifier should be connected + to + and − to −),
the loudspeakers are out of phase. Given identical signals, motion in one cone is in the opposite direction
of the other. This typically causes monophonic material in a stereo recording to be canceled out, reduced

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in level, and made more difficult to localize, all due to destructive interference of the sound waves. The
cancellation effect is most noticeable at frequencies where the speakers are separated by a quarter
wavelength or less; low frequencies are affected the most. This type of wiring error does not damage
speakers, but is not optimal.

Wireless speakers

Wireless speakers are very similar to traditional (wired) loudspeakers, but they receive audio signals
using radio frequency (RF) waves rather than over audio cables. There is normally an amplifier integrated
in the speaker's cabinet because the RF waves alone are not enough to drive the speaker. This integration
of amplifier and loudspeaker is known as an active loudspeaker. Manufacturers of these loudspeakers
design them to be as lightweight as possible while producing the maximum amount of audio output
efficiency.

Wireless speakers still need power, so require a nearby AC power outlet, or possibly batteries. Only the
wire to the amplifier is eliminated.

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Specifications

Speaker specifications generally include:

1. Speaker or driver type (individual units only) – Full-range, woofer, tweeter, or mid-range.
2. Size of individual drivers. For cone drivers, the quoted size is generally the outside diameter of
the basket.However, it may less commonly also be the diameter of the cone surround, measured
apex to apex, or the distance from the center of one mounting hole to its opposite. Voice-coil
diameter may also be specified. If the loudspeaker has a compression horn driver, the diameter of
the horn throat may be given.
3. Rated Power – Nominal (or even continuous) power, and peak (or maximum short-term) power a
loudspeaker can handle (i.e., maximum input power before destroying the loudspeaker; it is never
the sound output the loudspeaker produces). A driver may be damaged at much less than its rated
power if driven past its mechanical limits at lower frequencies. Tweeters can also be damaged by
amplifier clipping (amplifier circuits produce large amounts of energy at high frequencies in such
cases) or by music or sine wave input at high frequencies. Each of these situations might pass
more energy to a tweeter than it can survive without damage. In some jurisdictions, power
handling has a legal meaning allowing comparisons between loudspeakers under consideration.
Elsewhere, the variety of meanings for power handling capacity can be quite confusing.
4. Impedance – typically 4 Ω (ohms), 8 Ω, etc.
5. Baffle or enclosure type (enclosed systems only) – Sealed, bass reflex, etc.
6. Number of drivers (complete speaker systems only) – two-way, three-way, etc. and optionally:
7. Crossover frequency(ies) (multi-driver systems only) – The nominal frequency boundaries of the
division between drivers.
8. Frequency response – The measured, or specified, output over a specified range of frequencies for
a constant input level varied across those frequencies. It sometimes includes a variance limit, such
as within "± 2.5 dB."

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 9. Thiele/Small parameters (individual drivers only) – these include the driver's Fs (resonance
frequency), Qts (a driver's Q; more or less, its damping factor at resonant frequency), Vas (the
equivalent air compliance volume of the driver), etc.
10. Sensitivity – The sound pressure level produced by a loudspeaker in a non-reverberant
environment, often specified in dB and measured at 1 meter with an input of 1 watt (2.83 rms
volts into 8 Ω), typically at one or more specified frequencies. Manufacturers often use this rating
in marketing material.
11. Maximum sound pressure level – The highest output the loudspeaker can manage, short of
damage or not exceeding a particular distortion level. Manufacturers often use this rating in
marketing material—commonly without reference to frequency range or distortion level.

Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers

The load that a driver presents to an amplifier consists of a complex electrical impedance—a combination
of resistance and both capacitive and inductive reactance, which combines properties of the driver, its
mechanical motion, the effects of crossover components (if any are in the signal path between amplifier
and driver), and the effects of air loading on the driver as modified by the enclosure and its environment.
Most amplifiers' output specifications are given at a specific power into an ideal resistive load; however, a
loudspeaker does not have a constant resistance across its frequency range. Instead, the voice coil is
inductive, the driver has mechanical resonances, the enclosure changes the driver's electrical and
mechanical characteristics, and a passive crossover between the drivers and the amplifier contributes its
own variations. The result is a load resistance that varies fairly widely with frequency, and usually a
varying phase relationship between voltage and current as well, also changing with frequency. Some
amplifiers can cope with the variation better than others can.

To make sound, a loudspeaker is driven by modulated electrical current (produced by an amplifier) that
pass through a "speaker coil" which then (through inductance) magnetizes the coil, creating a magnetic
field. The electrical current variations that pass through the speaker are thus converted to varying
magnetic forces, which move the speaker diaphragm, which thus forces the driver to produce air motion
that is similar to the original signal from the amplifier.

Electromechanical measurements

Fully characterizing the sound output quality of a loudspeaker driver or system in words is essentially
impossible. Objective measurements provide information about several aspects of performance so that
informed comparisons and improvements can be made, but no combination of measurements summarizes
the performance of a loudspeaker system in use, if only because the test signals used are neither music nor
speech. Examples of typical measurements are: amplitude and phase characteristics vs. frequency;
impulse response under one or more conditions (e.g., square waves, sine wave bursts, etc.); directivity vs.
frequency (e.g., horizontally, vertically, spherically, etc.); harmonic and intermodulation distortion vs.
sound pressure level (SPL) output, using any of several test signals; stored energy (i.e., ringing) at various
frequencies; impedance vs. frequency; and small-signal vs. large-signal performance. Most of these
measurements require sophisticated and often expensive equipment to perform, and also good judgment
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by the operator, but the raw sound pressure level output is rather easier to report and so is often the only
specified value—sometimes in misleadingly exact terms. The sound pressure level (SPL) a loudspeaker
produces is measured in decibels (dBspl).

Efficiency vs. sensitivity

Loudspeaker efficiency is defined as the sound power output divided by the electrical power input. Most
loudspeakers are inefficient transducers; only about 1% of the electrical energy sent by an amplifier to a
typical home loudspeaker is converted to acoustic energy. The remainder is converted to heat, mostly in
the voice coil and magnet assembly. The main reason for this is the difficulty of achieving proper
impedance matching between the acoustic impedance of the drive unit and the air it radiates into. (At low
frequencies, improving this match is the main purpose of speaker enclosure designs). The efficiency of
loudspeaker drivers varies with frequency as well. For instance, the output of a woofer driver decreases as
the input frequency decreases because of the increasingly poor match between air and the driver.

Driver ratings based on the SPL for a given input are called sensitivity ratings and are notionally similar
to efficiency. Sensitivity is usually defined as so many decibels at 1 W electrical input, measured at 1
meter (except for headphones), often at a single frequency. The voltage used is often 2.83 VRMS, which
is 1 watt into an 8 Ω (nominal) speaker impedance (approximately true for many speaker systems).
Measurements taken with this reference are quoted as dB with 2.83 V @ 1 m.

The sound pressure output is measured at (or mathematically scaled to be equivalent to a measurement
taken at) one meter from the loudspeaker and on-axis (directly in front of it), under the condition that the
loudspeaker is radiating into an infinitely large space and mounted on an infinite baffle. Clearly then,
sensitivity does not correlate precisely with efficiency, as it also depends on the directivity of the driver
being tested and the acoustic environment in front of the actual loudspeaker. For example, a cheerleader's
horn produces more sound output in the direction it is pointed by concentrating sound waves from the
cheerleader in one direction, thus "focusing" them. The horn also improves impedance matching between
the voice and the air, which produces more acoustic power for a given speaker power. In some cases,
improved impedance matching (via careful enclosure design) lets the speaker produce more acoustic
power.

Typical home loudspeakers have sensitivities of about 85 to 95 dB for 1 W @ 1 m—an efficiency of 0.5–
4%.

Sound reinforcement and public address loudspeakers have sensitivities of perhaps 95 to 102 dB for 1 W
@ 1 m—an efficiency of 4–10%.

Rock concert, stadium PA, marine hailing, etc. speakers generally have higher sensitivities of 103 to 110
dB for 1 W @ 1 m—an efficiency of 10–20%.

A driver with a higher maximum power rating cannot necessarily be driven to louder levels than a lower-
rated one, since sensitivity and power handling are largely independent properties. In the examples that
follow, assume (for simplicity) that the drivers being compared have the same electrical impedance, are
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operated at the same frequency within both driver's respective pass bands, and that power compression
and distortion are low. For the first example, a speaker 3 dB more sensitive than another produces double
the sound power (is 3 dB louder) for the same power input. Thus, a 100 W driver ("A") rated at 92 dB for
1 W @ 1 m sensitivity puts out twice as much acoustic power as a 200 W driver ("B") rated at 89 dB for 1
W @ 1 m when both are driven with 100 W of input power. In this particular example, when driven at
100 W, speaker A produces the same SPL, or loudness as speaker B would produce with 200 W input.
Thus, a 3 dB increase in sensitivity of the speaker means that it needs half the amplifier power to achieve
a given SPL. This translates into a smaller, less complex power amplifier—and often, to reduced overall
system cost.

It is typically not possible to combine high efficiency (especially at low frequencies) with compact
enclosure size and adequate low frequency response. One can, for the most part, choose only two of the
three parameters when designing a speaker system. So, for example, if extended low-frequency
performance and small box size are important, one must accept low efficiency.This rule of thumb is
sometimes called Hofmann's Iron Law (after J.A. Hofmann, the "H" in KLH).

Listening environment

The interaction of a loudspeaker system with its environment is complex and is largely out of the
loudspeaker designer's control. Most listening rooms present a more or less reflective environment,
depending on size, shape, volume, and furnishings. This means the sound reaching a listener's ears
consists not only of sound directly from the speaker system, but also the same sound delayed by traveling
to and from (and being modified by) one or more surfaces. These reflected sound waves, when added to
the direct sound, cause cancellation and addition at assorted frequencies (e.g., from resonant room
modes), thus changing the timbre and character of the sound at the listener's ears. The human brain is very
sensitive to small variations, including some of these, and this is part of the reason why a loudspeaker
system sounds different at different listening positions or in different rooms.

A significant factor in the sound of a loudspeaker system is the amount of absorption and diffusion
present in the environment. Clapping one's hands in a typical empty room, without draperies or carpet,
produces a zippy, fluttery echo due both to a lack of absorption and to reverberation (that is, repeated
echoes) from flat reflective walls, floor, and ceiling. The addition of hard surfaced furniture, wall
hangings, shelving and even baroque plaster ceiling decoration changes the echoes, primarily because of
diffusion caused by reflective objects with shapes and surfaces having sizes on the order of the sound
wavelengths. This somewhat breaks up the simple reflections otherwise caused by bare flat surfaces, and
spreads the reflected energy of an incident wave over a larger angle on reflection.

Placement

In a typical rectangular listening room, the hard, parallel surfaces of the walls, floor and ceiling cause
primary acoustic resonance nodes in each of the three dimensions: left-right, up-down and forward-
backward. Furthermore, there are more complex resonance modes involving three, four, five and even all
six boundary surfaces combining to create standing waves. Low frequencies excite these modes the most,
since long wavelengths are not much affected by furniture compositions or placement. The mode spacing
is critical, especially in small and medium size rooms like recording studios, home theaters and broadcast
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studios. The proximity of the loudspeakers to room boundaries affects how strongly the resonances are
excited as well as affecting the relative strength at each frequency. The location of the listener is critical,
too, as a position near a boundary can have a great effect on the perceived balance of frequencies. This is
because standing wave patterns are most easily heard in these locations and at lower frequencies, below
the Schroeder frequency – typically around 200–300 Hz, depending on room size.

Directivity

Acousticians, in studying the radiation of sound sources have developed some concepts important to
understanding how loudspeakers are perceived. The simplest possible radiating source is a point source,
sometimes called a simple source. An ideal point source is an infinitesimally small point radiating sound.
It may be easier to imagine a tiny pulsating sphere, uniformly increasing and decreasing in diameter,
sending out sound waves in all directions equally, independent of frequency.

Any object radiating sound, including a loudspeaker system, can be thought of as being composed of
combinations of such simple point sources. The radiation pattern of a combination of point sources is not
the same as for a single source, but depends on the distance and orientation between the sources, the
position relative to them from which the listener hears the combination, and the frequency of the sound
involved. Using geometry and calculus, some simple combinations of sources are easily solved; others are
not.

One simple combination is two simple sources separated by a distance and vibrating out of phase, one
miniature sphere expanding while the other is contracting. The pair is known as a doublet, or dipole, and
the radiation of this combination is similar to that of a very small dynamic loudspeaker operating without
a baffle. The directivity of a dipole is a figure 8 shape with maximum output along a vector that connects
the two sources and minimums to the sides when the observing point is equidistant from the two sources,
where the sum of the positive and negative waves cancel each other. While most drivers are dipoles,
depending on the enclosure to which they are attached, they may radiate as monopoles, dipoles (or
bipoles). If mounted on a finite baffle, and these out of phase waves are allowed to interact, dipole peaks
and nulls in the frequency response result. When the rear radiation is absorbed or trapped in a box, the
diaphragm becomes a monopole radiator. Bipolar speakers, made by mounting in-phase monopoles (both
moving out of or into the box in unison) on opposite sides of a box, are a method of approaching
omnidirectional radiation patterns.

In real life, individual drivers are complex 3D shapes such as cones and domes, and they are placed on a
baffle for various reasons. A mathematical expression for the directivity of a complex shape, based on
modeling combinations of point sources, is usually not possible, but in the far field, the directivity of a
loudspeaker with a circular diaphragm is close to that of a flat circular piston, so it can be used as an
illustrative simplification for discussion. As a simple example of the mathematical physics involved,
consider the following: the formula for far field directivity of a flat circular piston in an infinite baffle is

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Where

is the pressure on axis,

is the piston radius,

is the wavelength (i.e.)

is the angle off axis

is the Bessel function of the first kind.

A planar source radiates sound uniformly for low frequencies' wavelengths longer than the dimensions of
the planar source, and as frequency increases, the sound from such a source focuses into an increasingly
narrower angle. The smaller the driver, the higher the frequency where this narrowing of directivity
occurs. Even if the diaphragm is not perfectly circular, this effect occurs such that larger sources are more
directive. Several loudspeaker designs approximate this behavior. Most are electrostatic or planar
magnetic designs.

Various manufacturers use different driver mounting arrangements to create a specific type of sound field
in the space for which they are designed. The resulting radiation patterns may be intended to more closely
simulate the way sound is produced by real instruments, or simply create a controlled energy distribution
from the input signal (some using this approach are called monitors, as they are useful in checking the
signal just recorded in a studio). An example of the first is a room corner system with many small drivers
on the surface of a 1/8 sphere. A system design of this type was patented and produced commercially by
Professor Amar Bose—the 2201. Later Bose models have deliberately emphasized production of both
direct and reflected sound by the loudspeaker itself, regardless of its environment. The designs are
controversial in high fidelity circles, but have proven commercially successful. Several other
manufacturers' designs follow similar principles.

Directivity is an important issue because it affects the frequency balance of sound a listener hears, and
also the interaction of the speaker system with the room and its contents. A very directed speaker (i.e., on
an axis perpendicular to the speaker face) may result in a reverberant field lacking in high frequencies,
giving the impression the speaker is deficient in treble even though it measures well on axis (e.g., "flat"
across the entire frequency range). Speakers with very wide, or rapidly increasing directivity at high
frequencies, can give the impression that there is too much treble (if the listener is on axis) or too little (if
the listener is off axis). This is part of the reason why on-axis frequency response measurement is not a
complete characterization of the sound of a given loudspeaker.

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