INSTRUCTOR NOTES FOR EXERCISE

7
Overview of the Skeleton

Time Allotment: 45 hours.

Solution:
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl), 10%
Add 36 milliliters of 36% HCl to 200 milliliters of distilled
water. Add water to a final volume of 360 milliliters.

Advance Preparation
1. If you have a local source, arrange to have a long bone sawed longitudinally.
Keep refrigerated or frozen until used. Preserved, sawed longbones can be used
instead. Provide disposable gloves at the demonstration area.
2. Bake some long bones (chicken or turkey bones work well) at 250°F for 2 hours or
until they are brittle and snap or crumble easily. Prepare these the day before lab
observations are to take place.
3. Soak some long bones in 10% hydrochloric acid or vinegar until flexible.
Overnight soaking is usually sufficient for the hydrochloric acid; vinegar will take
longer. Prepare well in advance.
4. Prepare numbered samples of long, short, flat, and irregular bones. These can be set
out at a station in the lab where students can work on identification.
5. Put out a prepared slide of ground bone (cross section), lens paper, and lens
cleaning solution. Have compound microscopes available.
6. Set out models of the microscopic structure of bone and an articulated skeleton.

Comments and Pitfalls

1. Students initially may have some trouble classifying bones by shape; other than that,
this lab should cause no problems.
2. Emphasize that all long bones have a long axis, but some long bones are much
shorter than others! Long bones include most of the bones of the upper and lower
limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, metatarsals,
phalanges). Short bones include the carpals and the tarsals. Flat bones are thin and
include the bones of the roof
of the cranial cavity, sternum, scapula, and ribs. Irregular bones include some skull
bones, the vertebrae, and possibly bones of the pelvic girdle. Bones included in each
of these categories vary from author to author.
3. HNO3 may be substituted for HCl.
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 EXERCISE

7 Overview of the Skeleton

Materials Pre-Lab Quiz

# Disarticulated bones (identified by
name or number) that demonstrate 1. All the following are functions of the skeleton except:
easily recognizable examples of the a.
a. attachment
Attachment for muscles
for muscles
four bone classifications (long, short,
flat, and irregular)
b. Production
b. production of melanin
of melanin

# Long bone sawed longitudinally (beef

c. Siteofofredred
c. site blood
blood cell cell formation
formation
d. Storage of lipids
bone from a slaughterhouse, if possible,
d. storage of lipids
or prepared laboratory specimen) Circlethethe
2. Circle correct
correct term.term. Compact/Spongy
Compact / Spongy bone looksbone
smooth
# Disposable gloves looks
and smooth and homogenous
homogeneous.
# Long bone soaked in 10%
hydrochloric acid (or vinegar) until
3. _________ bones are generally thin, with two waferlike layers of
Flat
compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone.
flexible
# Long bone baked at 250°F for more a.a.Flat
Flat c. Long
Long
than 2 hours b.b.Irregular
Irregular d.
d. Short
# Three-dimensional model of microscopic Short
structure of compact bone Circlethethe
4. Circle correct
correct term.term. Theofshaft
The shaft a longof a long
bone bone
is known asis
# Articulated skeleton
known
the as the
epiphysis epiphysis/diaphysis.
/ diaphysis.
# Leather belt or strap, china cups 5. AAcentral
central canal
canal and and
all theall the concentric
concentric lamellae surrounding
lamellae surrounding it are
(old), several large reference-type it are referred
referred to as: a. anto as: canaliculi
osteonb. c. lacunae
books a. an osteon b. canaliculi c. lacunae
# Demonstration area: Microscope set
to view a cross section of ground
bone at low power; pointer on
central canal

T
he skeleton is constructed of two of the most supportive tissues found
in the human body—cartilage and bone. In embryos, the skeleton is
composed mainly of hyaline cartilage, but in adults, most of the
cartilage is replaced by
more rigid bone.
OBJECTIVE 1 List three functions of the skeletal system.
Besides supporting the body as an internal framework and protecting many
of its soft organs, the skeleton provides a system of levers the skeletal
muscles use to move the body. In addition, the bones store lipids and many
minerals (most importantly calcium). Finally, bones provide a site for blood
cell formation in their red marrow cavities.
The skeleton is made up of bones that are connected at joints, or
articulations. The skeleton is subdivided into two divisions: the axial skeleton
(those bones that form the body’s longitudinal axis) and the appendicular
skeleton (bones of the girdles and limbs) (Figure 7.1).
Before beginning your study of the skeleton, imagine for a moment that
your bones have turned to putty. What if you were running when this
transformation took place? Now imagine your bones forming a continuous
metal framework inside your body. What problems could you foresee with this
arrangement? These images should help you understand how well the skeletal
system provides support and protection while making movement possible.

Bone Markings
OBJECTIVE 2 Identify several surface bone markings and functions.
Bone surfaces are not featureless and smooth but have an array of bumps,
holes, and ridges called bone markings. Bone markings fall into two
categories: projections, or processes that grow out from the bone and serve
as sites of muscle attachment or help form joints; and depressions or
cavities, inden- tations or openings in the bone that sometimes serve as
passageways for nerves and blood vessels. The bone markings are
summarized in Table 7.1.
74
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 Craniu
Skull m
Facial
bones
Bones
of
Clavicle
pectoral
Bony thorax Scapula girdle
(ribs,
sternum, and Sternum Uppe
thoracic r
vertebrae) Rib limb

Humerus
Vertebr
Vertebra a
Radius Ulna
l Bone
column Ilium s
Carpals of
pelvic
girdle
Ischium

Pubis
Phalanges

Metacarpal
s Femur
Patella
Lowe
Tibia r
limb
Fibula

Talu
s Tarsals
Metatarsal
s Calcaneu
Phalanges s
(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

Figure 7.1 The human skeleton. The bones of the axial skeleton (colored green) are:
the skull, the bony thorax, and the vertebral column. The bones of the appendicular
skeleton make up the limbs and the girdles that the limbs attach to.

Long bones, such as the femur (Figure 7.1) and

Classification of Bones phalan- ges (bones of the fingers), are much longer than
they are wide and generally consist of a shaft with heads
at either end. Long
OBJECTIVE 3 Identify the four main kinds of bones. bones are mostly compact bone.
The 206 bones of the adult skeleton are composed of Short bones are typically cube-shaped, and they
two basic kinds of osseous tissue that differ in structure. contain more spongy bone than compact bone. Notice the
Compact bone is dense and looks smooth and tarsals and carpals in Figure 7.1.
homogeneous. Spongy bone is composed of small Flat bones are generally thin, with a layer of spongy
trabeculae (needlelike bars) of bone and lots of open bone sandwiched between two waferlike layers of
space. compact bone. Bones of the skull are flat bones.
Bones may be classified further on the basis of their Irregular bones, such as the vertebrae, are bones
gross anatomy into four groups: long, short, flat, and that do not fall into one of the preceding categories (see
irregular bones. Figure 7.1).
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 76 Exercise 7

Table 7.1 Bone Markings

Name of bone marking Description Illustrations

Projections That Are Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment
Tuberosity
(too0bĕ-ros'ĭ-te) Large rounded
projection; may be Iliac Trochanter Intertrochanteric
Crest roughened crest line
Narrow ridge of
Trochanter (tro- bone; usually
kan'ter) prominent
Very large, blunt, irregularly Ischial
shaped process (the only spine
Line examples are on the femur) Adductor
Narrow ridge of bone; less Coxa Ischial tubercle
prominent than a crest l
Tubercle Small rounded bone tuberosity Femu
(too'ber-kl) projection r Medial
or process of epicondyle
Epicondyle thigh Condyle
(ep0ĭ-kon'dīl) Raised area on or above Vertebr
a condyle a
Spine
Sharp, slender, often Facet
pointed projection Spinous
7 Ramus (ra'mus)
process
Armlike bar of bone
Process
Any bony prominence
Projections That Help to Form Joints
Head Head
Bony expansion carried
Condyle
Facet on a narrow neck
Smooth, nearly flat
Facet Ramus
articular surface
Condyle (kon'dĭl)
Rounded articular projection s
Rib Mandible

Depressions and Openings

For Passage of Blood Vessels and Nerves
Groove Furrow Inferior
Fissure orbital
Narrow, slitlike Meatus
Sinus fissure
Foramen Foramen
opening Round or oval
(fo-ra'men)
opening through a Fossa
Notch bone Notch
Indentation at the Groove
edge of a structure Skull
Others
Meatus (me-a'tus) Canal-like passageway
Sinus Cavity within a bone, filled with air and lined with
mucous membrane
Fossa (fos'ah) Shallow, basinlike depression in a bone,
often serving as an articular surface

Activity 1 Gross Anatomy of the Typical

Examining and Classifying Bones Long Bone
Examine the isolated bones on display. See if you can OBJECTIVE 4 Identify the major anatomical
find specific examples of the bone markings described in areas of a longitudinally cut long bone.
Table 7.1. Then classify each of the bones into one of the
four anatomical groups: long, short, flat, irregular.
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 Activity 2
Examining a Long Bone
1. Obtain a long bone that has been sawed lengthwise.
4. If the animal was still young and growing, you will be
! Note: If the bone supplied is a fresh beef bone,
put on plastic gloves before beginning your
able to see the epiphyseal plate, a thin area of hyaline
cartilage that provides for growth in bone length.When
observations. If a cleaned dry bone is provided, you do long bone growth ends, these areas are replaced with
not need to take any special precautions. bone.Their barely discernible remnants are called
With the help of Figure 7.2, identify the shaft, or epiphyseal lines.
diaphysis. Observe its smooth surface composed of 5. In an adult animal, the medullary cavity, the central
com- pact bone. If you are using a fresh specimen, look cavity of the shaft, is essentially a storage region for
for its periosteum, a fibrous membrane that covers the adipose tissue, or yellow marrow. In the infant, red
bone surface. Notice that many fibers of the periosteum marrow, involved in forming blood cells, is found in these
pene- trate into the bone. These fibers are called central marrow cavities. In adult bones, red marrow is
perforating fibers or Sharpey’s fibers. confined to the interior of the epiphyses.
2. Now inspect the epiphysis, the end of the long bone. 6. If you are examining a fresh bone, look carefully to
Notice that it is composed of a thin layer of compact see if you can distinguish the delicate endosteum lining
bone enclosing spongy bone. the medullary cavity.
3. Identify the articular cartilage, which covers the
epiphyseal surface in place of the periosteum. Because ! 7. If you have been working with a fresh bone
specimen, return it to the appropriate area, and properly
it is composed of glassy hyaline cartilage, it provides a
dispose of your gloves, as designated by your instructor.
smooth surface to prevent friction at joint surfaces.
Wash your hands before continuing on to the
microscope study.

Articular cartilage 7

Compact bone
Proximal
epiphysis Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Endosteum
Compact
bone
Medullary
cavity (b)
(lined by
Diaphysis endosteum) Yellow bone
marrow (fat)
Compact
bone
Periosteum
Perforating
(Sharpey’s)
fibers
Nutrient
arteries
Distal
epiphysis
(a)
(c)

Figure 7.2 The structure of a long bone (humerus of the arm). (a) Anterior view
with longitudinal section cut away at the proximal end. (b) Pie-shaped, three-
dimensional view of spongy bone and compact bone of the epiphysis. (c) Cross
section of the shaft (diaphysis). Note that the external surface of the diaphysis is
covered by a periosteum, but the articular surface of the epiphysis is covered with
hyaline cartilage.

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Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 78 Exercise 7

Chemical Composition of Bone

Although it is relatively light, bone is one of the hardest calcium salts in its ground substance. Its flexibility comes
materials in the body and it has a remarkable ability to resist from the organic elements of the matrix, particularly the col-
tension and shear forces that continually act on it. Thus na- lagen fibers.
ture has given us an extremely strong, exceptionally simple
(almost crude), and flexible supporting system without sacri- O B J E C T I V E 5 Contrast the roles of inorganic
ficing mobility. The hardness of bone is due to the inorganic salts and organic matrix in providing flexibility and
hardness to bone.

Activity 3
Comparing the Relative Contributions of Bone Salts and Collagen Fibers in Bone Matrix
Go to the supply area and obtain a china cup, a leather beltWhich article—the cup or the belt—demonstrates the or strap, and two or three
large reference books. Carefullycompressional strength provided by bone salts?
stack the books on the china cup to determine whether such a fragile-looking object can support the heavy books.
The cup

What happens? The cup will support the heavy book. Which item better illustrates the tensile strength (ability to resist
stretch) provided by collagen fibers in bone?
Next, yank and pull on the leather belt (strap) a few times to see if
you can break it. The belt
7 The leather belt will not break.
What happens?

Activity 4
Examining the Effects of Heat and Hydrochloric Acid on Bones
The bone will break with gentle
Now, let’s use another experimental approach to examine a bone’s
pressure.
functional makeup. Obtain a bone sample that has been soaked in To the bone treated with acid?
hydrochloric acid (or vinegar) and one that has been baked.
Heating removes the organic part of bone, and acid dissolves out
It becomes very flexible.
the minerals. Do the treated bones still have the shape of
untreated specimens? In rickets, the bones are not properly calcified. Which of the
They have the same general shape as the untreated demonstration specimens more closely resembles the bones of a
bones, but the acid-soaked bones may appear more child with rickets?
fibrous.
Gently apply pressure to each bone sample. What happens to the The acid-treated
heated bone? bone.

Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone

As you have seen, spongy bone has a spiky, open-work carrying blood vessels and nerves that provide the living bone
appearance due to the arrangement of the trabeculae that cells with needed substances and a way to eliminate wastes.
compose it, and compact bone appears dense and homoge-
neous. However, compact bone is riddled with passageways OBJECTIVE 6 Identify the major elements of an
osteon.

Activity 5
Examining the Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone
1. Go to the demonstration area to as a guide, focus on a central (Haversian) canal (one is
examine a prepared slide of ground bone under
indicated by the microscope pointer). The central canal
low power. Using Figure 7.3
Text continues on next page. ³

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 Overview of the Skeleton 79

runs parallel to the long axis of the bone and carries lamella. The canaliculi connect all the living cells of the
blood vessels and nerves through the bony matrix. osteon to the nutrient supply located in the central
Identify the lacunae (chambers) where the osteocytes canal.
(mature bone cells) are found in living bone. These are 2. Also notice the perforating (Volkmann’s) canals in Fig-
arranged in concentric circles (lamellae) around the ure 7.3. These canals run into the compact bone and
central canal. A central canal and all the lamellae mar- row cavity from the periosteum, at right angles to
surrounding it are referred to as an osteon or Haversian the shaft. With the central canals, the perforating canals
system. Also identify canaliculi, tiny canals running from complete the pathway between the bone interior and its
a central canal to the lacunae of the first lamella and external surface.
then from lamella to
3. If a model of bone histology is available, identify the
same structures on the model.

Compact Spongy bone

Central Perforating 7
(Haversian) (Volkmann’s) canal
canal
Endosteum lining
Osteon bony canals and
(Haversian system) covering trabeculae

Circumferential
lamellae

(a)
Perforating (Sharpey’s)
fibers

Periosteum

Nerve
Vein
Artery Lamellae
Central
Canaliculus
Osteocyte canal
in a lacuna Lacunae

(b) (c) Interstitial Central Lacuna (with

lamellae canal osteocyte)
Figure 7.3 Microscopic structure of compact bone. (a) Diagram of a pie-shaped
segment of compact bone. (b) Close-up of a portion of one osteon. Notice the
position of osteocytes in lacunae (cavities in the matrix). (c) Photomicrograph of a
cross-sectional view of an osteon (3203).

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REVIEW
E X E R C I S ESHEET

7
Overview of the Skeleton

Name Lab Time/Date

Bone Markings
1. Match the terms in column B with the appropriate description in column A:

Column A Column B
Spine spine 1. sharp, slender process condyle

Tubercletubercle 2. small rounded projection foramen

tuberosity
Tuberosity 3. large rounded projection fossa

Head head 4. structure supported on neck head

Ramus ramus 5. armlike projection meatus

Condyle condyle 6. rounded, convex projection ramus

Meatus meatus 7. canal-like structure sinus

Foramenforamen 8. round or oval opening through a bone spine

Fossa fossa 9. shallow depression trochanter

Sinus sinus 10. air-filled cavity tubercle

trochanter
Trochanter 11. large, irregularly shaped projection tuberosity

Classification of Bones
2. The four major anatomical classifications of bones are long, short, flat, and irregular. Which category has the least

amount of spongy bone relative to its total volume? Long Bone short

3. Classify each of the bones in the following chart into one of the four major categories by checking the appropriate
column. Use appropriate references as necessary.

Long Short Flat Irregular

Humerus X
Phalanx X
Parietal (skull bone) X
Calcaneus (tarsal bone) X
Rib X
Vertebra X

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 Review Sheet 7 81

Gross Anatomy of the Typical Long Bone

4. Use the terms below to identify the structures marked by leader lines and brackets in the diagrams. (Some terms are
used more than once.) After labeling the diagrams, use the listed terms to characterize the statements following the
diagrams.

Key: articular red marrow spongy bone

cartilage epiphyseal line trabeculae of spongy bone
compact bone epiphysis yellow marrow
diaphysis medullary cavity
endosteum periosteum

Red marrow

Red marrow
Endosteum
Endosteum
(type of (covering)
marrow) Compact bone
Epiphy-
Epiphysis
Epiphysis Epiphyseal
seal
Yellow marrow
line
line Yellow marrow

Periosteum
Periosteum

Compact
Compact bonebone

(b)
Diaphysis
Diaphysis Periosteum
Periosteum

Medullary
Medullary cavity
cavity
Trabeculae
Trabeculae
of Spongy
of spongy
Spongy bone bone
bone
Spongy Bone

Epiphysis
Epiphysis
Articular Cartilage
Articular
cartilage
(a) (c)

diaphysis
Diaphysis 1. made almost entirely of compact epiphysis
Epiphysis 4. scientific term for bone end
bone

red bone marrow medullary cavity

2. site of blood cell formation Medullary Cavity 5. contains fat in adult bones

periosteum epiphyseal line

3. fibrous membrane that covers Epiphyseal line 6. growth plate remnant
the bone

What differences between compact and spongy bone can be seen with the naked eye?
5. Spongy bone is composed
of needle-like pieces of bone called trabeculae and has lots of open space. Compact bone is dense, smooth, and
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
homogeneous.
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82 Review Sheet 7

Chemical Composition of Bone

6. What is the function of the organic matrix in bone? Adds tensile strength and flexibility to the bone.
Collagen fibers, osteocytes
_____________________
7. Name the important organic bone component.
collagen
8. Calcium salts form the bulk of the inorganic material in bone. What is the function of the calcium salts?

-The function of calcium salts is to provide hardness and strength and resist compression. The protean-calcium crystal combination in the matrix allows
bones to bend and twist without breaking easily. The collagen fibers also act as a scaffold for the laying down of new calcium salts.

9. Which is responsible for bone structure? (circle the appropriate response)

both contribute

Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone

10. Trace the route that nutrients take through a bone, starting with the periosteum and ending with an osteocyte in a lacuna.

Periosteum, Perforating Canals, Central Canals, Canaliculi, Lancunae, Osteocytes

11. On the photomicrograph of bone below (4803), identify all structures listed in the key to the left.

Key: canaliculi
central canal
lamellae
lacuna
bone matrix
Canaliculi

Lamellae
Lacuna

Central
canal

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