Ch.

6: Networks Theory Notes

Chapter 6
Part I
Introduction to networks

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Ch.6: Networks Theory Notes

6.1 Definition of a network

Definition
Network is the connection of two or more electronic devices.

Advantages of connecting a network:

• Sharing of hardware and software resources between networked
computers
• Sharing of data between networked computers
• Ease of communication between networked computers
• Users are controlled by a network administrator

Disadvantages of connecting a network:

• Easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network
• Increased security risks (for example, hacking) when compared to stand-alone computers
• Slower access to the internet
• Printer queues developing

6.2 Types of networks

LAN (Local Area Network)
Definition:
Network that uses cables and covers small geographic area, for example a building.

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

Definition:
Network that uses wireless communication to connect between devices in small geographic
area.

The main wireless technologies used to form a WLAN are Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

Advantages of connecting to a WLAN rather than to a LAN:

• Reduces cost of cables
• Safer as users won’t trip over wires
• Easier to connect other devices to the network

Disadvantages of connecting to a WLAN rather than to a LAN:

• Less secure
• The data transfer rate is slower than in a wired LAN
• Physical obstacles can affect the signal

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Similarities between Bluetooth and Wi-Fi

• Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth use wireless communications
• Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth use radio waves for communication
• Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth allow several devices to be connected
• Both use security when sending data

Differences between Bluetooth and Wi-Fi

• Wi-Fi has faster data transfer rate than Bluetooth
• Wi-Fi has greater range of transmission than Bluetooth
• Wi-Fi connects more devices than Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is simpler to use and setup (WiFi is more complex to use and setup)
• Cost of Bluetooth is cheaper than WiFi
• Bluetooth is more energy efficient than WiFi

WAN (Wide Area Network)

Definition:
Network that covers large geographic area.
Examples:
• The internet
• The network of ATMs used by banks

6.3 Network Devices

Network Interface Card (NIC)
Functions:
• Allows a computer to be connected to a network
• Contains the MAC Address of the computer

MAC (Media Access Control) Address

Definition:
• Unique number that identifies a device connected to the internet
• Allocated by the manufacturer
• Rarely changes
• Consists of 6 pairs of hexadecimal digits
Example: FF:B3:A4:33:7E:F1

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Hub
Functions:
• Connects number of devices to form a network
• Broadcasts incoming data packets to every computer in the network

Data Packets refer to any data being transmitted over a network.

The following diagram shows how hubs operate:

Switch
Functions:
• Connects number of devices to form a network
• Sends the data packets to the destination computer(s) only

The following diagram shows how switches operate:

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Similarities between Hub and Switch:

• Both are used to connect devices to form a LAN
• Both use data packets

Differences between Hub and Switch:

• Hubs broadcast data packets to every device on the network whereas switches send data
packets to a specific device only
• Security is lower in hubs
• A switch uses MAC addresses to locate the destination of the device whereas in hub
MAC addresses are not checked
• A switch uses a look-up table to determine the destination device

Bridge
Functions:
• Connects one LAN to another LAN that uses the same protocol
(communication rules)
• Used to connect different parts of a LAN so that they can function as
a single LAN

The following diagram shows how bridges operate:

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Router
Functions:
• Connecting networks and devices to the internet
• Storing computer addresses
• Routing data packets

The following diagram shows how routers are placed in the network:

IP Address (Internet Protocol Address)

Definition:
• Address that specifies location of a device on the internet
• Allocated by the ISP
• Can change
• Consists of 4 numbers separated by dots
Example: 192.108.158.1

Routing steps of data between two different networks:

1 Data packets are sent to the switch/hub and then passed to router
2 Router inspects the IP address of the data packets sent to it
3 Router looks up the paths to get to that address using its routing table
4 Router then checks how busy the paths are and identifies the quickest path
5 Router is then able to route the data packets to reach the correct switch/hub
6 Switch/hub sends the data packets to the destination computer

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Firewall
Definition:
It is a device/software that sits between the user's computer and an
external network and filters incoming and outgoing traffic based on a
given set of criteria.

Functions:
• Checks whether incoming and outgoing traffic meets a given set of
criteria
• Blocks traffic that doesn’t meet the criteria
• Warns and prevents unauthorized access to the system
• Can prevent viruses being transmitted to the network
• Blocks access to undesirable websites
• Logs all incoming and outgoing traffic

Internet Service Provider (ISP)

Definition:
Company that provides a connection to access the internet with a monthly fee.

Functions:
• Provides access to the internet for a monthly fee
• Monitors internet usage
• Gives users an IP address
• Provides security services
• Provides access to Email
• Provides storage space to save data on cloud
• Provides web hosting facilities

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Ch.6: Networks Theory Notes

Chapter 6
Part II
Internet

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Ch.6: Networks Theory Notes

6.1 Internet and Intranet

Internet
Definition:
• Stands for International network of networks
• It is a public and global network

Intranet
Definition:
• Stands for Internal restricted access network
• It is a private network
• Accessible internally to members of some company or organization

Similarities between internet and intranet:

• Both are networks
• Both are communication systems
• Both use HTML to write the web pages
• Both use internet technologies

Advantages of using intranets over using the internet:

• More secure as there is less chance of external hacking or viruses
• More secure as private data stays within the organization
• More secure as it regulates access to the internet
• More secure as it can restrict access for certain employees
• Easier to access company specific applications

Intranet sits behind a firewall.

Intranet can be extended outside the organization to become an Extranet.

Company uses:
• Send/receiving emails
• Send/receive attachments/files
• Internal file transfer within the company
• Allows the creation of extranets
• Surf internal webpages
• Sharing of applications/resources

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The following table shows the differences between the internet and the intranet:

Internet Intranet
Accesses from agreed computers within an
Public access
organization

Less secure More secure than internet

No restrictions on websites Can restrict access to some websites

Not policed as anyone can post information Policed as specific users can post information

Wider range of resources Limited resources

Information is less relevant/reliable Information is more relevant/reliable

Extranet
Definition:
• It is a private network..
• .. that is controlled by a company
• Allows access for authorised customers..
• .. for example partners/vendors/suppliers

Extranets have the same uses and advantages of Intranets, but it can also allow authorized
users outside the organization to have controlled access to some information.

6.2 General internet terms

Webpage
Definition:
A web document written in HTML.

Objects/Features that can be inserted into a webpage:

• Text
• Images
• Videos
• Sound
• Hyperlinks

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Website
Definition:
It is a collection of webpages related together using hyperlinks.

Hyperlink
Definition:
• Word/phrase/image..
• ..when clicked links to another website or another portion in the same webpage

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

Definition:
• A mark-up language used to create webpages
• Uses tags to format content

To design a webpage there are three development layers to be used:

Content/Structure layer
• Used to specify the webpage layout

• Defined using HTML tags

Presentation layer
• Used to define the formatting/style of the webpage

• Usually defined in cascading style sheets (CSS)

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Behavior layer
• Used to make a website interactive by allowing the page to respond to user actions

• Defined using scripting language (for example, JavaScript)

World Wide Web (WWW)

Definition:
• Information space that consists of massive collection of web pages all
connected together using hyperlinks.
• WWW is only part of the internet that can accessed by web browser

Webserver
Definition:
• Computer that contains webpages
• It has an IP address and a domain (name of the website)

Web browser
Definition:
A program that allows a user to view webpages.

Functions:
• Renders/Translates HTML
• Provides an address bar
• Provides navigation tools
• Allows the use of multiple tabs
• Stores bookmarks and favorites
• Records user history
• Makes use of hyperlinks that allow navigation between websites and web pages
• Manages HTTP and HTTPS protocols

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Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

Definition:
• A unique address for a resource located on the Internet
• The user-friendly version of the IP address

Structure:
protocol://webserver name/path/filename

• Protocol: Usually http or https

• Webserver name:
▪ www
▪ domain name (name of the website)
▪ domain type (.com, .org, .co, .net, .gov)
▪ sometimes a country code is given (.uk, .us)
• Path
• Filename
For example, the URL http://www.cie.org.uk/gcseict/giraffe.html

Protocol: http
Domain name: cie
Domain type: .org
Country code: .uk
Path: gcseict
Filename: giraffe.html

Protocol
Definition:
A set of rules agreed by the sender and the recipient when data is transferred between devices.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Definition:
The main protocol that controls the transmission of data to and from webservers.

Uses:
• In accessing the World Wide Web
• In transferring contents of a webpage to a web browser for veiwing
• In downloading from webservers

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Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

Definition:
• Protocol used to control the transmission of data to and from webservers
but with encryption
• Uses SSL

Secure Socket Layer (SSL)

Definition:
A security protocol that uses encryption to allow data to be exchanged securely between two
devices over the Internet

Uses:
• Online banking and all online financial transactions
• Online shopping
• Sending and receiving emails
• Using cloud storage facilities
• Intranets and extranets
• Instant messaging
• Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) when carrying out video and/or audio chatting over
the internet

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Definition:
Protocol used to transfer files from one computer to another over the internet

Uses:
• Used in tanfserring files from one computer to another over the internet
• Used in downloading from file servers
• FTP upload is used in cases when the file size is very large

Steps to upload and publish the content of a website using FTP:

1 Download the FTP client program
2 Connect to the FTP server using the FTP client program
3 Login to the server using FTP username and password
4 Locate the files on your computer
5 Click upload button on FTP client program
6 Upload the files to the folder

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Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP)

Definition:
A set of rules that enables people to use the internet to make phone calls.

Advantages of using VOIP:

• Calls are either for free or at a local rate to anywhere in the world
• A webcam can be used so that it becomes a type of video chat

Disadvantages of VoIP:
• Quality of the sound is completely reliant on the internet connection
• Security issues

Uses:
• Video conferences
• Audio conferences
• Making phone and/or video calls over the internet

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Chapter 6
Part III
Cyber Security

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Ch.6: Networks Theory Notes

6.9 Security threats

Malware
Definition:

Programs installed on a user’s computer with the aim of deleting, corrupting or

manipulating data illegally.

Virus
Definition:
Program that replicates itself.

Possible effects:
• Delete/Corrupt files
• Causes a computer to malfunction or become unresponsive
• Fill the HDD/SSD/RAM with useless data
• Cause software errors

How to recognize presence of virus:

• Deletion of files without the user’s consent
• Hard disk gets completely filled without the user’s consent
• Computer becomes unresponsive
• Random Reboots
• Pop ups keep appearing on screen at random
• Software errors

Protection against viruses:

• Use up-to-date antivirus software
• Don’t use software from unknown sources
• Scan email attachments
• Scan any external device connected to the computer
• Use a firewall

Backing up files won’t guard against the effect of viruses.

This because the virus may have already attached itself to the backup files. When these files
are then copied back to the computer, the virus is simply reinstalled.

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Anti-virus software
Steps to avoid the danger of infecting a computer with a virus from a downloaded file:
1 Download and install an up-to-date antivirus
2 Before downloading the file, the anti-virus software checks files aginst a database of
known viruses
3 If a file is infected, two options appear: Delete the file or Quarantine the file
4 If the quarantine option is chosen, the antivirus attempts to cleanse the infected file

Features:
• Checks software/files before they are run or loaded on a computer
• Scans the storage media before transferring data to a computer
• Can constantly run in background
• Prevents a user from downloading virus
• Can run a scheduled scan
• Notifies user of a possible virus
• Can quarantine a virus
• Can delete a virus

Key logging software (Spyware)

Definition:
Software that records the key presses on the user’s keyboard. This data is then sent to
the originator of the software.

Possible effect:
Gives the originator the access to all data entered by the user’s keyboard including sensitive data.

Protection against spyware:

• Use up to date anti-spyware software
• Use pointing device (or touch screen) instead of typing
• Use a firewall

Hacking
Definition:
The process of gaining unauthorized access to a computer system.

Possible effects:
• Misuse of personal information
• Data can be deleted/corrupted
• Data can be changed
• Data can be copied from a system

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Protection against hacking:

• Use of firewalls
• Use of strong passwords
• Use of biomterics
• Two-factor authentication
• Use physical security methods (CCTV cameras, guards and locks)

Encryption of a file will NOT prevent unauthorized access to this file.

Phishing
Definition:
The creator sends out a legitimate looking email that contains a link
when clicked it opens a fake website designed to obtain sensitive data.

Possible effects:
• The creator of the email can gain sensitive data
• Credit card fraud

How to identify phishing attacks:

• Spelling or grammar mistakes in text
• Act of asking for personal details
• Originators email address does not match company
• Email has generic greetings
• Email urges you for a quick reply

How to protect yourself against a phishing attack:

• Use of spam filters
• Do not click links or open attachments from unknown sources
• Never reveal personal details via email
• Report any suspicious activity
• Do extensive research before replying to any message (for example, checking the company
name)

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Smishing
Definition:
The creator sends SMS to the user’s phone that contains a telephone number to call or contains
a link when clicked it opens a fake website to obtain sensitive data.

Possible effects:
• The creator of the SMS can gain sensitive data
• Credit card fraud

How to identify smishing attacks:

• Spelling or grammar mistakes in text
• Act of asking for personal details
• SMS from unknown source
• SMS has generic greetings
• SMS sent at an unusual time

How to protect yourself against a smishing attack:

• Never reveal personal details over the mobile phone
• Ignore text messages from numbers you do not recognize
• Report any smishing attempts
• Never click on links in text messages from unexpected people
• Never call the phone numbers that are given in a suspect text message

Vishing (Voicemail phishing)

Definition:
A voicemail message is used to trick the user into calling the telephone number
contained in the message. The user will be asked to supply personal data thinking
they are talking to somebody who works for a legitimate company.

Possible effects:
• Creator of vishing scam can gain sensitive data
• Credit card fraud

How to identify vishing attacks:

• Act of asking for personal details
• Voicemail from unknown telephone number
• Voicemail has generic greetings

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How to protect yourself against a vishing attack:

• Never reveal personal details over the mobile phone
• Ignore voice mail messages from numbers you do not recognize
• Report any vishing attempts
• Never call the phone numbers that are given in a suspect text message

Pharming
Definition:
A malicious code is installed on the user’s computer that redirects the user to
a fake website designed to obtain sensitive data.

Possible effects:
• The creator of the malicious code can gain sensitive data
• Credit card fraud

How to identify pharming attacks:

• Website’s URL is incorrect
• If webpage is requesting personal information and its URL starts with http instead of https

How to protect yourself against pharming:

• Check the spelling of URL of the website
• Checking that the URL contains https or a locked padlock sign next it
• Using up to date anti-malware software

Card fraud
Definition:
The illegal use of a credit or debit card.

This can happen due to:

• Shoulder surfing when using the card
• Card cloning
• Key logging software
• Phishing/Smishing/Vishing
• Pharming

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Shoulder surfing
Definition:
A form of data theft where criminals steal card data from a victim when using it.

Examples of shoulder surfing:

• Somebody watching you typing the card PIN by looking over your
shoulder
• Somebody listening in when you are giving credit or debit card details over the phone
• Use of tiny digital cameras placed near to the keypad on the ATM which take images of
the keys being pressed

How to protect yourself against shoulder surfing:

• When using ATMs, shield the keyboard with your other hand (so that no-one can see
which keys you are pressing)
• When using a mobile device, never key in data in a public place
• Don’t speak card details into your smartphone in a public place
• Make sure you are nowhere near security cameras when using your card in a public place
• Use biometrics on your smartphone/tablet because these cannot be duplicated by simply
watching you

Card cloning
Definition:
• The copying of a credit or debit card which uses a magnetic stripe
• Cloning needs an electronic device known as a skimmer
• Skimmers can be placed in ATM slots where they can read all data from a card and then
copying the data to a fake card

How to protect yourself against card cloning:

• Use Chip & PIN card instead of magnetic stripe cards
• Do regular checks on your spendings and check for any unusual activity with the bank

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Spam
Definition:
• Junk email sent to large numbers of people
• Can be used for advertising

Possible effects of spam:

• Can fill up the recipients’ mailboxes
• Can be used for spreading malware

How to recognize spam mail:

• Incorrect grammar or spelling in the email
• Absence of logos in email
• Email contains suspicious attachments
• Email has generic greetings

Methods to help prevent spam:

• Use of spam filters
• Delete or ignore messages from unknown sources
• Use disposable email address
• Delete accounts that you no longer use
• Use black lists and white lists

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6.10 Security measures

Authentication techniques
Definition:
• Refers to the ability of a user to prove who they are
• There are three common factors used in authentication:
- Something you know (for example, a password or PIN code)
- Something you have (for example, a mobile phone or tablet)
- Something which is unique to you (for example, biometrics)

Authentication methods include:

• User IDs and passwords
• Biometrics
• Zero login
• Magnetic stripe cards
• Smart cards
• Physical tokens
• Electronic tokens
• Two-factor authentication
• Digital certificates

User IDs and Passwords

Password definition and purpose:
• A secret string of characters set by a user to identify them to a computer system
• Used as part of the authentication system..
• .. to improve security

User ID definition:
Identifier for the user.

Methods to avoid password interception:

• Run up to date anti-spyware software
- To make sure that your passwords are not being relayed back to anyone who put
the key logging software on your computer
• Change passwords on a regular basis
- In case it has come into the possession of another user illegally or accidentally
• Use strong passwords that are not easy to crack
• Use encryption/SSL when sending sensitive data over the internet
- So that data becomes meaningless if intercepted

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Rules of a strong password:

• Should contain:
- At least one capital letter
- At least one digit
- At least one special character/symbol
• Should be at least eigh t characters long
• Not a previously used password

Example: Sy12@#TT90kj=0

Biometrics systems
Definition:
Systems that rely on certain unique physical characteristics of human beings to identify a user.

Examples of biometrics systems:

• Fingerprint scans
• Retina scans
• Iris recognition
• Face recognition
• Voice recognition

Biometrics is the measurement of body’s unique physical characteristics.

Advantages of using biometrics systems:

• Biometrics is unique to each person, which is more secure than other authentication
methods
• Passwords/cards can be forgotten, while biomterics are always with you
• The user has to be present to use the biometric system therefore more secure
• Almost impossible to duplicate biometrics

Disadvantages of using biometrics systems:

• Slower method to enter system than passwords
• Expensive to set up
• Injuries to fingers can cause biometric device to fail to recognize the user
• Facial hair can stop facial recognition from recognizing the user

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Zero login
Definition:
Method of login authentication that identifies a user by combining both
biometric data and behavioral patterns without the need to supply any other
security information.

Examples of behavioral patterns:

• How you walk
• Your typing speed
• Your normal location
• How you swipe the screen

Advantages of using zero login systems:

• Enhanced security as it is difficult to copy biometrics and behavioural patterns
• Easy and quick way to login to a system

Disadvantages of using zero login systems:

• User’s privacy can be violated as sensitive data is being recorded
• Hackers may gain access of the user’s sensitive data in case of a security breach
• Expensive to set up

Magnetic stripe cards

Definition:
Security device that stores details (such as name, ID number, gender, and date of
birth) on a magnetic stripe to allow entry to a building.

Advantages of magnetic stripe cards:

• They are easy to use
• Not an expensive technology
• Magnetic cards can be remotely deactivated (if lost or stolen)
• The cards can be multi-purpose (for example, door key cards, network access cards or
used in vending machines to buy food or drink)

Disadvantages of magnetic stripe cards:

• No encryption is used and the stripe contents can be copied fairly easily
• The cards wear out with a lot of use
• Magnetic readers often fail to read the cards on first attempt

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Smart cards
Definition:
• Security device that uses RFID technology (chip and antenna)
• The chip on the smart card can store data such as name, security
number, gender, date of birth and a PIN

Steps to enter a security gate using smart card:

1 The owner of the card walks up to a security gate and presents the smart card
2 RFID readers on either side of the gate scan the security data stored on the RFID tag
3 The user will then be invited to enter a PIN on the keypad
4 If all details match, then access will be allowed

Advantages of using smart cards:

• PIN can be used to verify the ownership of the card, thus can’t be used if stolen/lost
• Very fast read rate
• More robust and reliable compared to magnetic stripe cards

Disadvantages of using smart cards:

• Possible to hack into the data/signal transmitted by the tag
• Smart cards are more expensive to manufacture than magnetic stripe cards
• Possible to jam as RFIDs use radio waves

Physical tokens
Definition:
• A form of authentication that uses a hardware device..
• .. that generates a one-time password (OTP)
• This OTP changes on a regular basis and is usually only valid for less than
a minute

Steps of using physical token when logging into a bank’s website:

1 The customer uses a physical token supplied by the bank
2 The customer inserts their debit card into the top of the token device
3 ..and the device either recognizes the card as genuine or rejects it
4 The device then asks the customer to press ‘IDENTIFY’ and then enter their PIN
5 A one-time password (OTP) is then generated and shown on the device screen
6 The customer goes back to their bank web page and enters the generated OTP
7 If correct, customer is given access to their account

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Main advantage of using physical tokens:

• Security is enhanced as thief needs to have the token device, a cloned card and the card’s
PIN

Main disadvantage of using physical tokens:

• If the token device is lost, the user will not be allowed to access the system

Electronic tokens
Definition:
• Software installed on a user’s device, such as a smartphone..
• ..that generates a one-time password (OTP) which valid for less
than one minute

Steps of using electronic token when logging into a bank’s website:

1 The user installs the electronic token app on their smartphone
2 User opens the app when the website requests the user to authenticate who they are
3 The app generates a one-time password (OTP) which is valid for less than a minute
4 The user enters this OTP when asked by the website
5 The website server runs the same software as the app and will generate the same OTP
6 Once the OTP is verified by the website, the user will be allowed access

Two-factor authentication
Definition and purpose:

• A form of verification which requires two methods of authentication to verify a user

• This makes it harder for the hacker to access the system as it adds an extra level to hack

Example 1 of two-factor authentication:

• A code is sent to a device that is pre-set by the user
• The system requires the user to input this code in order to log-in

Example 2 of two-factor authentication:

• The system requires the user to input log-in details from a specific computer

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Digital certificate
Definition:
An electronic document sent with an electronic message that is:
• Used to verify the identity of the sender
• Contains a unique key used by sender and receiver that allows computers to exchange
information over the internet securely

Items in digital certificate:

• Details of the owner of the digital certificate
• Serial number
• Public key
• Digital signature
• Valid from
• Valid to

Encryption
Definition:
• The process of scrambling characters of a message so that message
becomes meaningless to unauthorized users
• Plain text is encrypted to cypher text using an encryption algorithm and
an encryption key
• Cypher text is decrypted back to plain text using decryption key

Purpose of encryption:
Data becomes meaningless to unauthorized users.

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The following diagram shows and example of encryption:

Encryption applications:
• Encryption of data on HDDs/SSDs
• Encryption of emails
• Encryption of data on the cloud
• Used with HTTPS and SSL protocols to encrypt data being transferred over the internet

Secure Socket Layer (SSL)

Definition:
• A security protocol that uses encryption to allow data to be exchanged
securely between two devices over the internet
• Makes use of digital certificates

How to know if SSL is being applied:

• URL starts with https
• Locked padlock sign is available in the status bar

Applications that use SSL:

• Online banking and all online financial transactions
• Online shopping
• Sending and receiving emails
• Using cloud storage facilities
• Intranets and extranets
• Instant messaging
• Applications that use Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

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Firewall
Definition:
It is a device/software that sits between the user's computer and an external network and filters
incoming and outgoing traffic based on a given set of criteria.

Functions:
• Checks whether incoming and outgoing traffic meets a given set of
criteria
• Blocks traffic that doesn’t meet the criteria
• Warns and prevents unauthorized access to the system
• Can prevent viruses being transmitted to the network
• Blocks access to undesirable websites
• Logs all incoming and outgoing traffic

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