AN ANALYSIS OF LISTENING AND SPEAKING TASKS IN “FORWARD”

TEXTBOOK BASED ON COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF REVISED BLOOM’S

TAXONOMY

An Undergraduated Thesis

Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for S1-Degree

By

Ria Yatus Sholikah

NPM. 1611040241

TARBIYAH AND TEACHER TRAINING FACULTY

RADEN INTAN STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

LAMPUNG

2021
AN ANALYSIS OF LISTENING AND SPEAKING TASKS IN “FORWARD”
TEXTBOOK BASED ON COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF REVISED BLOOM’S
TAXONOMY

An Undergraduated Thesis

Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for S1-Degree

By:

Ria Yatus Sholikah

NPM. 1611040241

Study Program : English Education

Advisor : Prof. Dr. Idham Kholid, M.Ag

Co-Advisor : Rohmatillah, M.Pd

TARBIYAH AND TEACHER TRAINING FACULTY

RADEN INTAN STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

LAMPUNG

2021
 ABSTRACT

Revised Bloom‟s taxonomy of educational objectives is a framework for

classifying statements about what the students are expected to learn as a result of
instruction. One of the frameworks in Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy used for
detecting the level of thinking in the textbook is cognitive domain. This research
was conducted based on the phenomenon of the lack of cognitive processes in the
textbook. Thus, this research discussed an analysis of listening and speaking tasks
based on cognitive domain of Revised Bloom‟s taxonomy. The objective of the
research was to describe the categories of cognitive domains, the dominant
categories of cognitive domains, and the level of order thinking skills found in the
listening and speaking tasks of “Forward” textbook.
This research was a qualitative research. The data were analyzed using
data condensation, data display and conclusion drawing/verification. Resource of
data that was taken by the writer was listening and speaking tasks in “Forward”
textbook for Vocational High School grade XI published by Erlangga. In
collecting the data, the writer used documentation techniques to obtain data and
information in the textbook.
The result confirmed that first, the categories of cognitive domains found
in the listening tasks were remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, and
evaluating. There was no creating category in listening tasks. Second, the
categories of cognitive domains found in the speaking tasks were remembering,
understanding, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. There was no applying
category in speaking tasks. Third, the listening tasks placed emphasis on the lower
order thinking skill. There were so few higher order thinking skills in listening
tasks. Meanwhile, speaking tasks placed emphasis on the higher order thinking
skills. It was also found that most of the types of listening and speaking tasks
proposed by Brown were realized in the textbook. However, only one type of
speaking tasks was not realized, that was imitative task. Thus, it could be said that
the types of listening and speaking tasks were good enough in terms of variation
of tasks proposed by Brown.
Keywords: listening and speaking tasks, Revised Bloom’s taxonomy, textbook

iii
iv
v
 DECLARATION

I hereby state that this thesis entitled “An Analysis of Listening and

Speaking Tasks in “Forward” Textbook Based on Cognitive Domain of

Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy” is completely my own work. I am fully aware that

I have quoted some statements, references, and ideas from various sources and

those are properly acknowledged in this thesis.

Bandar Lampung, 22 Oktober 2020

Declared by,

Ria Yatus Sholikah

NPM. 1611040241

vi
 MOTTO

‫حيم‬
ِ ‫الر‬
َّ ‫الر ْحمٰ ِه‬
َّ ‫هللا‬
ِ ‫ب ِبس ِْم‬

َ‫َاب َو ْال ِح ْك َمة‬

َ ‫وًل ِم ْى ُك ْم يَتْلُو َعلَ ْي ُك ْم آيَاتِىَا َويُزَ ِ ّكي ُك ْم َويُعَ ِلّ ُم ُك ُم ْال ِكت‬
‫س ا‬ُ ‫س ْلىَا فِي ُك ْم َر‬
َ ‫َك َما أ َ ْر‬

‫َويُعَ ِلّ ُم ُك ْم َما لَ ْم تَ ُكووُوا تَ ْعلَ ُمون‬

In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful

As (We have perfected Our favor to you) We have sent you the Prophet among you who
read Our verses to you and cleanse you and teach you the Book and Al-Hikmah (As
Sunnah), and teach you what you have not known. (Q.S. Al-Baqarah: 151)

vii
 DEDICATION

From deep of my heart, this thesis is dedicated to everyone who cares and

loves me. I would like to dedicate this thesis to:

1. Allah SWT who always loves and keeps me everywhere and every time.

2. My beloved parents, Mr. Harmawi and Mrs. Mutiah, who always love me and

keep on praying for my life and success. Thanks for all the motivation. I love

you forever.

3. My beloved sister, Ayu Nur Jannah who loves, care, support and cheer me up

until the completion of this thesis. Then, my beloved grandfather and

grandmother, who love me so much. I do love you.

4. My beloved lecturers in English Education Study Program and almamater

Raden Intan State Islamic University Lampung, who made me grow up and

have contributed much for my self-development.

viii
 CURRICULUM VITAE

The name of the writer is Ria Yatus Sholikah. She is called by Ria. She

was born on December 6, 1996. She is the first girl of Harmawi and Mutiah. She

has one sister, her name is Ayu Nur Jannah.

She accomplished her formal education at Kindergarten at Tunas Harapan

and finished 2001. Then, the writer entered Elementary School at SDN 01 DWT

Jaya, Banjar Agung, Tulang Bawang and finished in 2007. After that, she

continued her school at Junior High School at MTS Al-Iman, Tulang Bawang and

Senior High School at Walisongo Islamic School, North Lampung, from 2011 and

finished in 2014. In 2015, she took her informal education in Pare, Kediri, and

finished in 2016. After that, she continued her study at Raden Intan State Islamic

University, Lampung until 2020. In the collage, she was active in UKM Bahasa

since in the third semester until eighth semester.

The Writer

Ria Yatus Sholikah

NPM. 1611040241

ix
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First of all, Praises be to Allah the almighty, the Most Merciful, the Most

Merciful, the Most Beneficent for His blessing and mercy given to the writer

during her study and completing this thesis. Then, the best wishes and salutations

be upon the great messenger prophet Muhammad peace be upon him.

This undergraduated thesis entitled “An Analysis of Listening and

Speaking Tasks in “Forward” Textbook Based on Cognitive Domain of

Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy” is presented to the English Education Study

Program of Raden Intan State Islamic University Lampung. The primary aim

of writing is to fulfill student‟s partial fulfillment of the requirement to

obtain S1-degree.

Then, the writer would like to thank for the following people for their

ideas, time, and guidance for this thesis:

1. Prof. Dr. Hj. Nirva Diana, M.Pd, the dean of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training

Faculty, Raden Intan State Islamic University Lampung with all staff, who

give the writer opportunity to study until the end of this thesis compostition.

2. Meisuri, M.Pd as the chairperson of English Education Study Program of

Raden Intan State Islamic University Lampung.

3. Prof. Dr. Idham Kholid, M.Ag as the first advisor and also the acedemic

advisor of the writer, for his guidance and help and countless time given to

the writer to finish this final project.

4. Rohmatillah, M.Pd as the second advisor, who has spent countless hours

correcting this final project for its betterment.

5. Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs who gave the writer a great

opportunity to attend this wonderful college through Bidkmisi scholarship.

x
6. All lecturers of English Department of Raden Intan State Islamic University

Lampung, who gave taught the writer since the first year of her study.

7. All friends of the English Department of Raden Intan State Islamic

University Lampung, especially beloved friends, Putri Yusnita, and also

for D class that cannot be mentioned one by one but you are always in

my pray, who always give suggestion and spirit in framework of writing

this research.

8. All friends of KKN and PPL 2019 of Raden Intan State Islamic University

Lampung.

Finally, none or nothing is perfect and neither in this thesis. Any

correction comments and criticism for the betterment of this thesis are always

open heartedly welcome.

Bandar Lampung, 2020

The writer,

Ria Yatus Sholikah

NPM. 1611040241

xi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

COVER .............................................................................................................. i

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... iii

APPROVAL....................................................................................................... iv

ADMISSION ....................................................................................................... v

DECLARATION ............................................................................................... vi

MOTTO ............................................................................................................. vii

DEDICATION ................................................................................................... viii

CURRICULUM VITAE ................................................................................... ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................. x

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................. xii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................... xiii

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES......................................................................................xv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Problem ................................................... 1
B. Identification of the Problem ................................................. 9
C. Limitation of the Problem ..................................................... 9
D. Formulation of the Problem ................................................ 10
E. Objectives of the Research .................................................... 11
F. Significance of the Research ................................................. 12
G. Scope of the Research ........................................................... 13

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Listening ................................................................................ 14
1. Definition of Listening ..................................................... 14
2. Types of Listening Tasks ................................................. 15
B. Speaking ................................................................................ 21
1. Definition of speaking ..................................................... 21
2. Types of Speaking Tasks .................................................. 23
C. Textbook................................................................................ 31

xii
 1.Definition of Textbook ..................................................... 31
2.Textbook Analysis ............................................................ 32
3.Standardized of A Good Textbook ................................... 34
4.The Role of Textbook in ELT .......................................... 36
5.Advantages and Disadvantages of Using
Textbook in ELT ............................................................. 37
D. Content Analysis ................................................................... 41
1. Definition of Content Analysis ......................................... 41
2. Steps in a Content Analysis .............................................. 42
E. Bloom‟s Taxonomy ............................................................... 43
1. Original Bloom‟s Taxonomy ............................................ 43
2. Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy ............................................ 45
F. Cognitive Domain of Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy .............. 49
G. Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) ................................... 52
H. Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) .................................. 54

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. Research Design .................................................................... 56

B. Description of the Data.......................................................... 57
C. Data Collecting Technique .................................................... 60
D. Research Instrument .............................................................. 60
E. Data Analysis ........................................................................ 62
1. Data Condensation ............................................................ 62
2. Data Display ..................................................................... 63
3. Data Drawing .................................................................... 64
G. Data Trustworthiness ............................................................. 65

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

A. The Data Analysis of Listening and Speaking

Tasks in “Forward” textbook ................................................ 66
1. Data Condensation ............................................................ 66
2. Data Display ..................................................................... 67
a. The Distribution of Cognitive Domain in Listening
Tasks ............................................................................ 67
b. The Distribution of Cognitive Domain in Speaking
Tasks ..............................................................................84
c. Variation Types of Listening Tasks Based on
Brown‟s Theory .............................................................94
d. Variation Types of Speaking Tasks Based on
Brown‟s Theory .............................................................98
B. Discussion .............................................................................103

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

xiii
 A. Conclusion .............................................................................105
B. Suggestion .............................................................................108

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................109

APPENDICES ....................................................................................................112

xiv
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
2.1 Cognitive Domain in the Original Taxonomy ............................................ 45
2.2 The Comparison of Original Taxonomy and Revised Taxonomy.............. 47
2.3 Structure of the Cognitive Process Dimension of the Revised
Taxonomy ................................................................................................... 49
3.1 Unit and Topic in the Textbook “Forward” ................................................ 58
3.2 The Distribution of Listening and Speaking Tasks .................................... 59
3.3 Cognitive domain of Revised Bloom Taxonomy Checklist ....................... 61
3.4 A Table for Collecting Listening and Speaking Tasks from Each Unit in
“Forward” Textbook ................................................................................... 62
3.5 Frequencies and Percentages of the Cognitive Domain ............................. 63
4.1 Frequencies and Percentages of the Cognitive Domain in Listening
Tasks ........................................................................................................... 67
4.2 Frequencies and Percentages of the Cognitive Domain in Speaking
Tasks .............................................................................................................84

xv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Changes of Original to Revised Framework ................................................ 49

xvi
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendix 1 Teacher‟s Interview Result ..............................................................114

Appendix 2 A Guide for the Levels of Tasks Based on the Cognitive
Domain of Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy ........................................115
Appendix 3 Listening and Speaking Tasks from Each Unit in the
Textbook “Forward” ......................................................................117
Appendix 4 Listening Tasks Analysis Result of “Forward” Textbook Based
on Cognitive Domain of Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy ..................120
Appendix 5 Speaking Tasks Analysis Result of “Forward” Textbook Based
on Cognitive Domain of Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy ..................123

xvii
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Problem

In achieving the successful English learning, the teacher has to teach

the four language skills namely listening, speaking, writing, and reading.

Those are the basic skills which are taught to and learnt by students. These

four skills are often divided into two types. Receptive skill is a term used for

for reading and listening, skills where meaning is extracted from the

discourse. Productive skill is a term for speaking and writing, skills where

students actually have to produce language themselves.1

Listening is one of receptive skills which has a very important role in

learning English because listening is the language of modality which is

mostly used in every conversation or activity. Listening is not only a skill part

in language performance, but is also a critical means of acquiring a new

language.2 Listening can be defined as receiving the sounds of speech through

words and sentences. In the teaching and learning process, before students are

able to respond to the teacher, they should listen first in order to get the

information and the concept. It means that listening is the key in

understanding the concept, knowledge, or information which are spoken by

speakers.

1
Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching (4th Ed) (New York:
Pearson Longman, 2007), p. 265
2
Ronald Carter and David Nunan, The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers
of Other Languages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 7

1
 2

On the other hand, it is important to have the ability to speak skillfully

since it is developed and learned in child life that is produced by listening

skill.3 Richards and Renandya raise the idea that most of world‟s language

learners study English in order to develop ability in speaking.4 Johnson and

Morrow defines speaking as an task involving two or more people in which

hearers and speakers have to react to what they hear and make their

contributions at a speed of a high level.5 Thus, speaking is commonly used as

a well develop tool in communicating and sharing ideas between speakers

and listeners.

Listening is as active as speaking, and in some ways, they are

commonly related to each other. As Widdowson says that speaking and

listening are related to language expressed through the aural media, while

reading and writing are related to language expressed through the visual

media. Speaking and listening are said to be the basic skills since the aim of

the language course is language for communication.6 Yet, the lack of listening

in linguistic will bring poor speaking skill because speaking and listening

usually arise simultaneously. So, employing a combination of listening and

speaking skill in a significant condition to reproduce ideas, opinions, and

feelings are extremely beneficial.

3
Henry Guntur Tarigan, Berbicara Sebagai Suatu Keterampilan Berbahasa (Bandung:
Angkasa, 2018), p. 3
4
Jack C Richards and Willy A Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching. An
Anthology of Current Practice (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 201
5
K.E. Johnson, K., Morrow, Communication in The Classroom: Handbooks for Teachers’
Series, (London: Longman, 1981), p. 70.
6
H. G. Widdowson, Teaching Language as Communication (London: Oxford University
Press, 1978), p. 60
 3

Listening and speaking skill at school has a close connection to the

curriculum. The educational system in Indonesia has realised the recent one,

Curriculum of 2013. In the new curriculum, the teacher‟s roles changes from

a person that conveys knowledge to students become a facilitator that gives

occasions for students to learn in a more responsible and stimulating way. At

the same time, the core competency of curriculum 2013 in cognitive domain

demands students to understand, apply, and analyze the knowledge (factual,

conceptual, and procedural). The new curriculum is aimed to develop

students‟ thinking to a point at which they can learn independently and

responsibly. Thus, the curriculum is believed best as a planned set of tasks to

support a spesific educational goal.7

To complete the educational objectives in the teaching-learning process,

the instructional materials are also used by the teachers in both the previous

or new curriculum. materials can be presented in the form of textbooks,

videos, DVDs, emails, YouTube, dictionaries, workbooks, exercises,

newspapers, photographs, instructions, tasks, etc.8 They could also be

newspapers, food packages, photographs, instructions given by a teacher,

tasks written on cards or discussions between students. In other words, they

can be anything that is deliberately used to increase the students‟ knowledge

and experience of the language.

7
National Council of Educational Research and Training, Curriculum, Syllabus and
Textbooks (New Delhi: Publication Departemen, 2006), p. 10.
8
Brian Tomlison, Material Development in Language Teaching (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1998), p. 2.
 4

In the context of English Language Teaching (ELT), textbook serves as

one of the instructional materials that is frequently used as the main material

in the classroom. Its function has a significant role in the teaching-learning

process. It gives great influences on planning, teaching, and learning in the

classroom. According to Tomlinson, teachers can minimize their role with

textbooks to achieve the objective of teaching English.9 By using the textbook

as the source of ideas and questions, teachers can keep a lot of time in

designing the learning tasks in the classroom for the students.

Tasks provided in textbooks are one of extremely important factors to

deepen the students‟ understanding. Harmer states that the most important

aspect of textbook use is for teachers to try to engage students with the tasks

they are going to be dealing with.10 Moreover, it also provides the students

with great opportunity to communicate English not only in the classroom but

also in the home. Therefore, the tasks in the textbook must be arranged for

thinking skills and thinking ways together with knowledge.

Nonetheless, the tasks provided in the textbook also couldnot be

separated from the problem. As Richards said that textbook may not reflect

the students‟ need. Based on the previous research, it was found that many

textbooks were less or not appropriate for teachers and students to be used

because they were categorized as the low level of cognitive domain. As a

result, the textbook could not guide the students for high levels of educational

objectives stated in the 2013 curriculum. To sum up, this research addressed a
9
Ibid, p. 298
10
Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching (3rd Ed) (Cambridge:
Longman, 2001), p. 182
 5

major problem that was the lack of cognitive processes in the textbook. For

that reason, the writer conducted the analysis of the tasks in the textbook.

Analysis of tasks is considered a highly influental process that can bring

the strong and weak things of tasks, as well as explaining to what extent they

support to enhance thinking among students, or encourage the students‟

ability to analyze, evaluate, and create. Thus, the tasks are an essential tools

to access students‟ understanding of the learning material. Therefore, it is

necessary to analyze the content of the textbook whether it provides questions

of high levels of thinking based on Revised Bloom‟s taxonomy.

The Bloom‟s taxonomy concept was developed in 1956 by Benjamin

Bloom, an education psychologist. This concept classifies the level of three

educational objectives by which tasks are categorized: cognitive, affective,

and psychomotor.11 Cognitive domain deals with the human knowledge,

intellectual skill, and thinking ability. It is human competence in processing

something that they are learning in the brain. The second is the affective

domain that deals with feelings, attitudes, interests, values, and emotions

towards the learning. It is about how the learners emotionally stand in the

learning process. And the third, psychomotor domain is related to physical

movement and behavior toward the learning. Psychomotor is about learning

something by doing.

The most commonly taught and assessed educational objectives are

those in the cognitive domain. Cognitive domain is one of the frameworks

11
Benjamin S. Bloom, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Handbook I: Cognitive
Domain (London: Longsman, 1956), p. 7.
 6

used for detecting the level of thinking of the content of the textbook. A good

textbook should have cognitive skill aspect to guide the students in teaching

learning process. The cognitive domain guides the students to have more

knowledge and active in the classroom. Besides that, cognitive involves

intellectual tasks, problem solving, and critical thinking. It is why the writer

in this research focused on the cognitive domain.

Bloom divided six thinking skills in cognitive domain ranging from low

to high level. The lower-order skills contain: remembering, understanding,

and applying, while the higher-order skills cover: analyzing, evaluating, and

creating.12 Basically, the Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy is a more reliable tool

for curriculum planning, instructional delivery, and assessment. Therefore, it

should be noted that curriculum and educational process are in charge of

developing students‟ abilities and thinking habits. It can be attained if the

textbooks are enhanced with critical thinking tasks to push the students to

think; otherwise, they will be low achievers that only focus on lower-order

thinking skills (LOTS).

There were various types of tasks found in the students‟ English

textbook. Furthermore, the listening and speaking tasks embedded in the

textbook were important to build students‟ ability to think deeply. Hence, to

build students‟ abilities, teachers should provide the various tasks to students.

The variation should also involve the higher levels of thinking skills.

12
Michael Orey, Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology,
(Switzerland: Jacobs Foundation, 2010), p. 42.
 7

There were three relevant researches in order to help writing this

research. First, the descriptive research was conducted by Ulum entitled “A

Descriptive Content Analysis of the Extent of Bloom‟s Taxonomy in the

Reading Comprehension Questions of the Course Book Q: Skills for Success

4 Reading and Writing.” He used descriptive content analysis as the research

method. The result of the research implied that this course book lacked the

higher level cognitive skills involved in Bloom‟s Taxonomy.13 The similarity

between the previous research and this research was on the theory and the

research design. The difference was the previous research analyzed reading

questions only, while this research analyzed listening and speaking tasks.

The second was Nana‟s thesis entitled “Analysis of English Workbook

for SMP/MTsN by Using Revised Bloom Taxonomy”. Her research aimed to

know the appropriateness of the content of the workbook with the cognitive

dimension of Revised Bloom Taxonomy and to know the dominant cognitive

dimension of the Revised Bloom Taxonomy in the textbook.14 The result of

the study showed that there were only 4.7% of tasks were dealing with high-

order thinking. This study implied to schools and teachers to be selective in

choosing the appropriate workbooks for the student. The similarity of Nana‟s

research and this research was on the theory that we used. The difference was

the subject, subject in Nana‟s research was a workbook while this research

was listening and speaking tasks.

13
O G. Ulum, “A Descriptive Content Analysis of the Extent of Bloom‟s Taxonomy in the
Reading Comprehension Questions of the Course Book Q: Skills for Success 4 Reading and
Writing,” The Qualitative Report, Vol. 21 (9), no. 1674–1683, 2016.
14
Nana Pratiwi, Analysis of English Workbook for SMP/MTS by Using Revised Bloom
Taxonomy, (Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, 2015)
 8

The third research was conducted by Saifan Sodiq, with the title “The

Reading Task Quality in a Textbook Entitled Bahasa Inggris for Grade X of

Senior High School Based on the Cognitive Analysis of Revised Bloom‟s

Taxonomy.” This research intended at analyzing the reading task to examine

in which level of lower or higher of the learning objectives related to Bloom‟s

Revised Taxonomy it would be classified. The finding showed that the

reading tasks of textbook provides more Lower Order Thinking Skill (LOTS)

levels.15 The similarity between the previous research and this research was

on the theory. The difference was on the objective of the research and the

skill analyzed. This research not only found out the level of order thinking,

but also it analyzed the appropriateness for the learning target of curriculum

2013.

In this research, the writer focused on analysis of the listening and

speaking activities in “Forward” textbook for Vocational School students

grade XI for two reasons. The first reason was, listening and speaking tasks

usually have various kinds of task used in every chapter and happen

simultaneously. The second reason was, this textbook was published by a

great well-known publisher in Indonesia, Erlangga, and used in several

schools in Bandar Lampung. Therefore, the title of this research was “An

Analysis of Listening and Speaking Tasks in “Forward” Textbook Based on

Cognitive Domain of Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy.”

15
Saifan Shodiq, The Reading Task Quality in a Textbook Entitled Bahasa Inggris for
Grade X of Senior High School Based on the Cognitive Analysis of Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
(Jawa Timur: Jember University, 2018)
 9

B. Identification of the Problem

Based on the aforementioned background, the statements of the

problems were:

1. Many tasks contained in the textbook were classified as the low level of

cognitive domain.

2. The tasks could not train the students for high levels of learning

objectives.

C. Limitation of the Problem

The writer limited the problems as follows:

1. The writer analyzed a textbook entitled “Forward” for Vocational School

Students grade XI published by a great well-known publisher, Erlangga,

that used largely by many teachers for teaching English. Many schools

used the books published by Erlangga made the writer interested in

analyzing it as the research object.

2. There are four skills contained in the textbook. However, this research

only focused on the listening and speaking skill since tasks on listening

and speaking skill can help students take part in discussions, presentation

and share opinions. Another reason was that many researcher already

analyzed about the role of tasks of other skills, but not listening and

speaking skill. Nowadays, people analyzed tasks on reading and writing.

Therefore; besides tasks on reading, and writing skills; tasks on listening

and speaking skill also helped students in improving their ability.

 10

3. In taxonomy, there is level of three educational objectives: cognitive,

affective, and psychomotor. Since cognitive domain involved

knowledege and development of intellectual abilities and skill, the writer

analyzed the listening and speaking tasks in the cognitive domain of

Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy Theory.

By limiting the research in the areas mentioned above, it made the

research deeper and more focus.

D. Formulation of the Problem

The writer proposed some following questions:

1. How many categories of cognitive domains were found in the listening

tasks of “Forward” Textbook for Vocational High School grade XI

published by Erlangga based on revised Bloom‟s taxonomy?

2. How many categories of cognitive domains were found in the speaking

tasks of “Forward” Textbook for Vocational High School grade XI

published by Erlangga based on revised Bloom‟s taxonomy?

3. What categories of cognitive domains were dominant in the listening and

speaking tasks of “Forward” Textbook for Vocational High School grade

XI published by Erlangga based on revised Bloom‟s taxonomy?

4. What level of order thinking skills was found in the listening and speaking

tasks of “Forward” Textbook for Vocational High School grade XI

published by Erlangga?
 11

5. What types of listening and speaking activities were employed in

“Forward” Textbook for Vocational High School grade XI published by

Erlangga based on Brown‟s theory?

E. Objectives of the Research

The objectives of this research were:

1. To describe the categories of cognitive domains in the listening and

speaking tasks of “Forward” Textbook for Vocational High School grade

XI published by Erlangga based on revised Bloom‟s taxonomy.

2. To describe the dominant of cognitive domains in the listening and

speaking tasks of “Forward” Textbook for Vocational High School grade

XI published by Erlangga based on revised Bloom‟s taxonomy.

3. To describe the level order of thinking skills in the listening and speaking

tasks of “Forward” Textbook for Vocational High School grade XI

published by Erlangga.

4. To describe the type of listening and speaking activities of “Forward”

Textbook for Vocational High School grade XI published by Erlangga

based on Brown‟s theory.

 12

F. Significance of the Research

The findings of the research were to give much significance, especially

to the theoretical and practical elements.

1. Theoretically

The result of the research provided beneficial and referential

contributions in delivering general knowledge of the way to analyze

English instructional materials.

2. Practically

a. For writer, this study could improve and give her a new experience. It

was beneficial for developing her knowledge and skill in analyzing

English textbooks.

b. For the book writers, the result of the research might be useful to

consider them in designing the qualified book for the student.

c. For the English teachers, the result of the research could provide

information for the English teachers regarding the quality of listening

and speaking tasks in the textbook. They must select applicable the

materials of teaching learning that equal with order thinking skill as

stated in the cognitive domain.

d. For the other researchers, the finding of the present study could be

used as a reference for future researchers to conduct further studies on

textbook analysis.
 13

G. Scope of the Research

The writer formulated the scope of the research as follows:

1. Subject of the Research

The subject of the research was the listening and speaking tasks.

2. Object of the Research

The object of the research was the English textbook entitled

“Forward” for Vocational School Students grade XI published by

Erlangga.

3. Place of the Research

The place of the research was at Raden Intan State Islamic

University Lampung.

4. Time of the Research

The time of the research was in the academic year 2020-2021.

 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A. Listening

1. Definition of Listening

Learning English as a foreign language cannot be separated from its

four skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing. As a means of

communication, this subject requires us to master its oral language, which are

listening and speaking as well as its written language, which are reading and

writing. All skills have their own difficulties to master. One significant skill

for students to develop, that will help them attain the higher order thinking

skills, is the ability to listen.

Many definitions of listening can be found from a variety of references.

According to Richards, listening is the traditional way of thinking that makes

the listener understand the spoken discourse.1 Listening means not only

receiving sounds, but also identifying the certain information such as gist,

main idea, supporting points, and even conclusion which can show the

students‟ comprehension toward the given input.2 By collecting information

from the speaker, listening also can promote critical thinking and successful

communication.

1
Jack C. Richards, Teaching Listening and Speaking (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2008), p. 3
2
H. Douglas Brown, Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices (San
Fransisco: Longman, 2004), p. 120

14
 15

Listening skill can be meant as a key to receive messages effectively. 3

It is the ability to pay attention or to hear something. In listening task, the

brain does not automatically translate the words into the message they

convey. Basically listening is determining the meaning and the message of

the sounds or words. It is the active process that involves much more than

labeling sounds or words.

From those definitions, it can be concluded that listening skill is the

active process that is done in order to get information offered by the speaker.

By listening, people can develop their knowledge about any kind of

information, adding new vocabularies, and so on.

2. Types of Listening Tasks

There are some types of listening tasks. Brown identifies the four types

of listening tasks. Those are:

a. Intensive Listening

The focus of learning is on phonology, syntax, and lexis. The students pay

attention to what is said and the teacher gives feedback on accuracy. Intensive

listening refersntonlistening closely for the perception of the component

(phonemes, words, intonation, discourse marker, etc.) of a larger stretch of

language. The tasks can be recognizing the phonological and morphological

elements, and paraphrase recognition.

3
Babita Tyagi, “Listening: An Important Skill and Its Various Aspects,” The Criterion An
International Journal in English, (academia.edu, 2013)
 16

1) Recognizing the phonological and morphological elements

This type of listening tasks assesses the students‟ ability to correctly

recognize or identify the elements of phonemes and morphemes usually

found in the English language.

2) Paraphrase recognition

This form of listening tasks assesses the students‟ ability to paraphrase the

short sentences or dialog that they hear.

 17

b. Responsive Listening

Responsive listening focuses on student response to the input. There are

many ways for student to express an opinion or point of view rather than

provide facts based on what was heard. Responsive listening provides the

stimulus questions. Then, the students are asked to respond to the appropriate

answer. The answer can be cloze-ended or open-ended response.

1) Cloze-ended response

This type of tasks requires the students to answer the questions by

selecting from a limited number of options, usually multiple-choice, „yes‟

or „no‟, or a rating scale (e.g. from strongly agree to strongly disagree).

2) Open-ended response

This type of listening tasks asks the students to answer by using

vocabulary stored in their lexicon.

 18

c. Selective Listening

Selective listening refers to listening with the planned purpose in mind to

gather specific information to perform a task. The learning focus on selective

listening is main ideas. The student attempts to comprehend information in a

context of the long stretch of spoken language (listen for directions, events,

facts). Assignment tasks in selective listening such as:

1) Listening Cloze

This type of listening tasks requires the students to identify key vocabulary

from within a brief monologue.

2) Information transfer

This type requires the students to listen carefully to details while writing

them down into a chart; it makes an authentic environment from which

students can practically learn English.

 19

d. Extensive Listening

Extensive listening refers to listening continuously, staying in the target

language, and managing large amounts of listening input. The student listens

to longer extracts and derives a comprehensive message or purpose. The

design of extensive listening can be:

1) Dictation

This form of listening tasks requires the students to identify phonemic

differences within a normal conversation.

2) Communicative Stimulus-Response Task

This task asks the students to gather the data or information they just

listened to and relate it in answering the questions.

 20

3) Authentic Listening Task

It provides real-world context of listening performance. In this task, there

are some possible tasks can be done for the students, such as note taking,

editing, interpretation, or retelling the recording that the students hear.4

a) Note taking

In this listening task, the students listen to several types of lectures

and try to write down what they believe is important about the

lecture. Then, the teacher assesses them based on rubric/criteria

developed by the teacher.

b) Editing

This listening task involves the student receiving the materials

of reading text. The students give a review about the material and

then listen to a recording of someone who reads aloud the same

4
Ibid, p. 120
 21

material. Then, the student marks the hard copy to identify the

differences between the reading and what the recording is saying.

c) Retelling

This task requires the student to listen some form of conversation.

After listening the talks, the student is asked to summarize or retell

what they have heard.

d) Interpretation

This task requires the students to listen some input. Then, the

students are asked to infer the meaning of what they heard. The

input can be a poem, song, news report, etc.

From the explanation above, it can be concluded that listening has

many kinds of tasks from different sources of teaching materials. Brown

states there are some types of listening tasks such as; (1) intensive

listening; (2) responsive listening; (3) selective listening; (4) extensive

listening.

B. Speaking

1. Definition of Speaking

Some experts are defining the meaning of speaking. To start with,

Brown defines speaking as a productive skill that can be observed directly

and empirically, the observations are always colored by the accuracy and
 22

effectiveness of the test-takers listening skill.5 To be able to communicate,

both speakers and listeners need to be present during the task.

Harmer explains that speaking ability is the ability to speak fluently

assumed not only knowledge of language features, but also the ability to

process the information and language „on the spot‟.6 It involves the ability to

process meaning through verbal and non-verbal language. It occurs in the real

situations and has little time for detailed planning. For that reason, fluency is

needed to achieve the aim of the conversation.

Speaking is also explained in Al-Qur‟an, Surah Ar-Rahman 3-4:

‫علَّ َمهُ ٱلْبَيَا نَ ۝‬

۳ ‫َخلَقَ ٱ ْ اًل ْوسٰ هَ ۝‬
َ ۳
The meaning:
Created man, (and) taught him eloquence.7

Based on the meaning of the verses of the Qur'an above says that Allah

SWT who created man and taught the humans are good at talking. In

education, it guides the teachers in delivering the learning materials as clear

as possible. Of course, the teachers need to speak clearly in order to make the

students understand well about the materials given.

Another expert, McDonough and Shaw say that speaking is the ability

to communicate something in order to accomplish a specific goal, involving

expressing of ideas, negotiating, or by solving certain problems and in some

5
H. Douglas Brown, Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices (New
York: Pearson Education, 2004), p. 140
6
Jeremy Harmer, the Practice of English Language Teaching (3rd Ed) (Cambridge:
Longman, 2001), p. 269
7
Zamrud, Al-Qur’an dan Terjemahnya (Solo: Tiga Serangkai, 2014), p. 531
 23

general cases is to keep friendships or social relations.8 It is the task to

produce words or sentences orally. Through speaking, people have the

opportunity to communicate each other directly or indirectly. It can be fairly

sure that people are doing so for positive reasons. Their reasons can be that

they want to say something or they have the same purposes.

From the explanation above, it is concluded that speaking is the ability

to express ideas and feelings orally. It is commonly used as a way to relate

any information between speaker and listener in order to accomplish their

needs.

2. Types of speaking tasks

There are many kinds of speaking tasks. According to Brown, speaking

has five categories which are similar to listening. Those five basic types of

speaking are:

a. Imitative Speaking

This type of speaking tasks requires the students to imitate, a word,

phrase or a sentence. In imitative, pronunciation and repetition of words,

phrases or sentence is the things that are very interested to help the learners be

more comprehensible. The aim is to focus on some particular element of

language form without the effort to understand the meaning.

Here is the example of word repetition task:

8
Jo McDonough, Christopher Shaw, Materials and Methods in ELT (4th Ed) “a teacher‟s
guide” (Oxford: Blackwell, Ltd, 2003), p. 157
 24

b. Intensive Speaking

This type asks the students to produce stretches of language. It is

designed to practice either phonological or grammatical aspect of language.

Intensive speaking can be started alone or it can be part of pair work task,

where students discuss a particular form of language. The examples of

intensive speaking are directed response task, reading aloud, completion of

dialogues, picture-cued tasks, and translation.

1) Directed response task

In this task, the teacher makes a certain grammatical form or a sentence

transformation.

2) Reading aloud

This task is simply implemented by selecting a passage that combined test

specifications and by recording the output of student.

 25

3) Completion of dialogues

This task requires the students to read dialogue in which one speaker‟s

lines have been ommited. The students are asked to read the dialogue then

think of its main idea and suitable lines to fill in the blanks.

4) Picture-cued tasks

It refers to the use of pictures or sequence of pictures. In this task, the

teacher provides some pictures with some clues, and then the students

point to the picture to give the answer or teacher point to the picture and

then students mention the answer orally.

 26

5) Translation

Translation methods are definitely outdated in this era of a direct approach

to making a communicative classroom. As an assessment procedure, the

benefits of translation are on its control of the student‟s output, that means

scoring is more clearly identified.

c. Responsive Speaking

Responsive involves interaction and test comprehension, but at the rather

limited level of shorts conversations, standard greetings and small talk, simple

requests, and comments. Question and answer, giving instruction or directions

and paraphrasing can be categorized as responsive speaking tasks.

1) Question and answer

It refers to a short interview.

 27

2) Giving instruction or directions

In this task, the teacher poses the problem and then the students respond it.

3) Paraphrasing

In this task, the students read or hear the text or story and then paraphrase

it by using their own words.

d. Interactive Speaking

In interactive speaking, the length and complexity of the interaction

occasionally include many exchanges or many participants. The interactive

speaking task is described as a task that produces interactions in either

transactional language or interpersonal exchanges. The tasks can be

interviews, role plays, discussions and conversations, and games can be

assigned as interactive tasks.

 28

1) Interviews

It refers to the oral conversation in which the teacher and the students sit

down face to face to do question and answer. It is done to get the fast

students‟ spoken sample to verify the course placement.

2) Role plays

This technique is like a mini drama in which the students act out to

perform some characters in a particular story.

3) Discussions and conversations

As informal techniques to assess students, they are in a level of

authenticity and spontaneity that order assessment techniques may not

present, but as a formal techniques, these tasks are difficult to be specified

and scored.
 29

4) Games

Among informal techniques, games are the tasks that directly involve the

production of language. Here is an example of a game:

e. Extensive Speaking

Extensive tasks are termed as monologue tasks include speeches, oral

presentations, picture-cued storytelling, and retelling a story (news event).9

9
H. Douglas Brown, Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices
(New York: Pearson Education, 2004), p. 141-142
 30

1) Speeches

2) Oral presentations

In this case, the students are ordered to arrange a particular paper or

assignment and then present the materials in front of the class.

3) Picture-cued storytelling

The students are given the sequences of the picture story and then create a

story based on the pictures.

4) Retelling a story, news event

In this case, the students hear the story and then retell the story orally.

In conclusion, speaking has many kinds of tasks. Brown proposed five

basic types of speaking, such as: (1) imitative speaking; (2) intensive
 31

speaking; (3) responsive speaking; (4) interactive speaking (5) extensive

speaking. Each kind of speaking types has difference speaking tasks. For

example, in intensive speaking, the type of speaking tasks like completion of

dialogues and responsive speaking like giving instruction or directions.

C. Textbook

1. Definition of Textbook

The most common elements found in the classroom around the world

are a teacher, student, and textbook. The success or failure of teaching

English does not only depend on students and teachers, but also the use of

teaching materials, teaching methods, learning aids, and other facilities. In

line Richards says that much language program in the world could not happen

without the existence of commercial materials. 10 In that sense, a textbook

might be so crucial that it can determine the success or failure of an ELT

course.11 It is an effective media to gain wider knowledge.

The term of textbook has some meaning, Brown defines a textbook as

teacher guidance that can help the teacher to prepare what will be taught for

students.12 Textbook takes an essential role in EFL teaching learning process

because it can provide ready-made material for both teachers and students.

The contents of textbooks make teachers easier to arrange the teaching

10
Jack C. Richards, Curriculum Development in Language Teaching (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 251
11
Wing Lawrence, Textbook Evaluation: A Framework for Evaluating the Fitness of the
Hongkong New Secondary School (NSS) Curriculum (Department of English City University of
Hongkong: Hongkong, 2011), p. 9
12
H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles: an Interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy (2nd ed) (New York: Longman, 2001), p. 137
 32

materials. They do not spend a lot of time organizing it, because they only

need to choose materials and tasks that suit the students' needs.

There are many different kinds of English textbooks designed for the

student of all levels ages. Richards explains the reasons why English teachers

have to use a textbook in the classroom because the textbook is a book that

generally serves as a basis for a lot of the language input received by students

and the language practice that occurs in the classroom.13 It is the main and the

source of teaching material for the ongoing teaching and learning process. In

addition, the textbook is an effective resource for self-directed learning and

for a source of ideas and tasks, the material‟s presentation, and a students‟

reference source, a syllabus, and support for a less experienced teacher that

may lack confidence.14 It is simply the source of teaching material because it

helps the teacher in presenting the material and helps students to practice and

do the tasks.

Based on the definitions above, it can be concluded that textbook is a

media used to be the guideline for both teacher and students in supporting the

teaching-learning process. It eases teachers and students in conducting

teaching-learning tasks as well as attaining the educational purposes.

2. Textbook Analysis

There are many commercial textbooks from many publishers. The

teacher must be more careful in choosing the textbook. Analyzing the

13
Ibid, p. 251
14
Alan Cunningsworth, Choosing Your Coursebook (Oxford: Macmillan Publishers Ltd,
1995), p. 7
 33

textbook involves the finding of whether what you were looking for was

there. According to Krippendorff, “Textbook analysis is a research technique

for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful

matter) to the context of they used.”15 It is widely applied to identify the

specific characteristics of the materials to be analyzed.

The importance of analyzing a textbook is to find out whether the

materials‟ arrangement is in accordance with the goals of a given English

language curriculum.16 According to Hutchinson and Waters, textbook

evaluation is a process in matching needs to available solutions.17 Such a

book should match three conditions. It should suit the needs, interest, and

abilities of students. It should suit the teacher. Lastly, the textbook must meet

the needs of learning objectives.

As Wahab stated, there are some reasons of textbook evaluation. The

first reason is the need to adopt new textbook. Another reason is to find the

strengths and weaknesses contained in the textbook. Furthermore, evaluation

is generally agreed as an integral part of the teaching and learning process. It

is used as one of the basic components of any curriculum because it plays a

significant role in deciding what students learn. The last reason for analyzing

15
Ibid, p. 18
16
David Williams, “Developing Criteria for Textbok Evalation”. ELT Journal, 37(3), 251-
255, 1983, p. 254
17
Tom Hutchinson, Alan Waters, English for Specific Purposes (A learning centered
Approach) (London: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 97.
 34

the textbook is that it can be very advantageous in the teachers‟ advancement

and professional growth.18

In summary, it is very worthy for us to analyze textbooks to ensure that

ELT textbooks can effectively facilitate the achievement of our teaching

objectives. The wrong choice of textbooks is likely to have a negative impact

on teaching and learning.

3. Standardized of a Good Textbook

A textbook is one of the central media of teaching and learning tasks so

it must have good quality. To find out how textbooks are categorized in good

quality, this research provides several criteria of standardized of a good

textbook from experts. First, Cunningsworth made the criteria to arrange the

textbook, they are:

a. Textbook must correspond to the needs of students

The content of the textbook should be in accordance with the objectives of

the program of language learning. It reflects the students‟ need for both the

language content and communicative abilities.

b. Textbook should contain (present or future) that students will make of the

language.

Textbook should engage the students‟ interests and challenge the

intellectual. It should provide learning stimulation that can help students

18
Montasser M.A Wahab, “Developing an English Language Textbook Evaluative
Checklist”. IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSR-JRME). Vol 1, Issue 3.
2013, p. 56
 35

to use language effectively for their purposes. Therefore, the contents

should encourage students to discuss with their friends.

c. Textbooks help students to learn in a number of ways.

A textbook must have a clear role as a support for teaching learning; it

facilitates between the students and the target language.19

Greene and Petty also states the criteria of a good textbook. There are:

a. The textbook must be interested and attractive to the students. So, they

will be interested in using a textbook for learning.

b. The textbook must motivate the learners to use.

c. The content of textbook must be illustrative the learners.

d. The textbook should consider the linguistic aspect. So, it will suit with the

student‟s ability.

e. The content of textbook must be related to the other branch of science.

f. The textbook should stimulate the personal task of the students.

g. The contents of textbook must be clear to avoid the students to be

confused in using a textbook

h. The textbook must have a clear point of view. So, the students will feel at

ease when using it.

i. Textbooks must give balance and emphasize the values of the learners

j. Textbooks must be able to respect the differences of each learner.20

19
Alan Cunningsworth, Choosing Your Coursebook (Oxford: Macmillan Publishers Ltd,
1995), p. 5
20
Greene, Petty in Alin Latifah, an Evaluation of Textbook “Passport to the World 2” Used
by Eighth Grade of Students (Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, 2019), p. 2
 36

From the explanation above, the writer concludes that the standardized

of a good textbook is needed to find out the good materials that are closely

related to the objectives of the teaching and learning process and students‟

needs. A good textbook must help and facilitate students to learn and practice

the target language they are learning. Therefore, it is very vital to know about

the quality of the textbook used.

4. The Role of Textbook in English Language Teaching

Textbook plays a principal role in English language teaching in the

classroom. Cunningsworth mentioned some roles of textbook in ELT.

Textbook can serve as:

a. A resource for presentation material (spoken and written)

b. A source for tasks for learner practice and communicative

interaction

c. A reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary,

pronunciation, etc.

d. A source of simulation and ideas for classroom language tasks.

e. A syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives which have

already been determined)

f. A resource for self-directed learning or self-access work.

g. A support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain

confidence.21

21
Alan Cunningsworth, Choosing Your Coursebook (Oxford: Macmillan Publishers Ltd,
1995), p. 7
 37

In addition, Hutchinson and Torres see the role of the textbook as a

possible agent of change. It can be attained when a number of conditions are

met.

a. The textbook will be a a vehicle for training the teacher and students.

b. The textbook should provide support and help with the management of

classroom, thus freeing the teacher to handle new content and procedures.

c. The textbook will be an agent of change if it offers the teacher with a clear

picture of what the change will look like and clear practical guidance on

how to apply it in the classroom.

d. In a school, a textbook can develop in collegial support and shared

responsibility for and commitment to the change. 22

From the illustrations above, it can be concluded that in general role of

textbooks is highly crucial for teaching learning process. The essence of

textbook is mostly as a guide for both teacher and students in several ways.

Textbooks help the teacher in delivering the material and make students

easier to understand the material provided. Because textbooks play some

significant roles as mentioned above, they become effective materials to use

in the classroom.

5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Textbook in ELT

The use of textbooks in English language teaching has both advantages

and disadvantages. Richards has highpointed several advantages of using

textbook in ELT as follows:

22
Hutchinson, Torres in Jack C Richards, Renandya Willy A.. Methodology in Language
Teaching: An anthology of current Practice (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 83
 38

a. Textbook provides lesson plans and syllabus for a program

Textbook not only acts as a teaching-learning material, but also it can be a

syllabus. The material on the textbook is developed based on the syllabus

in the curriculum, therefore it makes easier for teachers to arrange lesson

plans, and also as a guide in class.

b. Textbook helps standardize instruction

Usually, teachers in Indonesia teach several classes at the same level. All

their students receive similar explanations, so they can test their students

in the similar way. As a result, textbooks can be standardized instructions.

c. Maintaining quality is the main priority

A quality control process must be passed before publishing the textbook.

All materials are presented based on the principles of learning that have

been tested.

d. Textbook provides various learning resources

Some textbooks are often accompanied by workbooks, CDs and cassettes,

videos, and CD-ROMs, etc. By providing rich and varied resources,

students will not be bored learning English in the classroom.

e. Textbook is efficient

Textbooks can save the teacher‟s time. It is because the teacher does not

spend a lot of time making materials. They just need to choose what

materials and tasks to teach their students in a certain meeting. It allows

teachers to set more time for teaching rather than producing materials.

f. Textbook provides an effective language model and input

 39

Textbook is able to support the teachers whose first language is not

English and who may not be able to produce an effective language model

and input accurate language input.

g. Textbook can train teacher

If the teacher has limited experience in teaching, the teacher may always

study a textbook before they teach their students. Therefore, textbooks can

help teachers practice their teaching abilities.

h. It is visually appealing

Textbook usually has high design and production standards and are

therefore attractive to teachers and students. 23

Cunningsworth also states the numbers of advantages. They are:

a. There is a common framework provided by the coursebook

b. Less experienced teachers can use the textbook as heavily as they need to

c. There is scope for replacing weaker parts of the standard coursebook with

other books or using own material.

d. There is scope for teachers to develop as they become less dependent on

the book and gain in confidence to experiment with alternative materials.

e. More variety of classroom tasks and teaching technique are possible

f. A more flexible response to individual students‟ needs is possible.24

However, there are also disadvantages. Richards provides some

examples of the disadvantages of using a textbook.

23
Jack C. Richards, Curriculum Development in Language Teaching (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 254-255.
24
Ibid, p. 10
 40

a. They may contain in authentic language.

Textbooks occasionally offer in authentic language because texts, dialogs,

and other parts of content tend to be particularly written to integrate

teaching points and are often not descriptive of real language use.

b. They may distort content.

Textbooks offer an ideal view of the words or fail to represent a real issue.

Some controversial topics are avoided to make textbooks acceptable.

c. They may not reflect students‟ needs.

Since the textbook is published for global markets they often do not reflect

the interests and needs of students and later may need adaptation.

d. They can deskill teachers.

The role of the teacher can be reduced to the role of the technician if the

teacher uses the textbook as the main source of teaching and leaving the

textbook and the teacher's manual to make their main instructional

decisions.

e. They are expensive.

A commercial textbook signifies a financial burden for students in many

parts of the world.25

From the explanations mentioned above, the use of textbook in teaching

has both the advantages and disadvantages. It can be said that textbook helps

the teacher in giving materials needed by the students because it provides a

set of tasks that can measure the students‟ understanding. However, it may

25
Ibid, p. 255-256
 41

present the disadvantages. In order to minimize the disadvantages of the

textbook, the teachers can adapt or add other materials to support the use of

the textbooks so that they become much more suitable for students.

D. Content Analysis

1. Definition of Content Analysis

Content analysis has been around for decades and has been

implemented in various fields of study. As stated by Cole, content analysis is

a method for analyzing the messages of written, verbal or visual

communication.26 Content analysis is a method that can be used to analyze all

forms of communication, such as on newspapers, books, movies and so on.

By using the content analysis method, it can be obtained an understanding of

the contents of communication messages that are encoded by the mass media,

or from other sources objectively, systematically, and relevant.

However, as there might too much information contained in a message,

it is important to understand this method in a more specific meaning.

According to Cohen et al, content analysis is “the process of summarizing

and reporting written data – the main contents of data and their messages”.27

It can be concluded that content analysis is a method that is particularly

useful to analyze message in certain materials in the form of written or

recorded.

26
Cole in Elo, S, and Kyngas, H. The Qualitative Content Analysis Process. Journal of
Advanced Nursing, 2007, Vol. 107-115, No.62, p. 107
27
Cohen et.al. Research Methods in Education (6th Ed.) (New York: Routledge, 2007), p.
475
 42

2. Steps in a Content Analysis

Content analysis is a method that can be used to analyze the documents

which is appropriate with the phenomenon. Borg and Gall opine that there are

six steps in planning a content analysis study: 28

a. Specifying research questions or objectives

Most content analysis in education is aimed at producing descriptive

information. To achieve the objectives of the research, the research

question is needed to guide the research.

b. Selecting a sample of documents to analyze

For content analysis, it is necessary to have documents that connect with

the phenomenon and interest the writer. In most content analysis in

educational research, the relationship between the writer‟s objective and

the content to be studied is clear and direct.

c. Developing a category-coding procedure

The essence of a content analysis is the coding of the document‟s

messages into categories. Each category should represent a discrete

variable that is relevant to the objective of the research. The researchers

can employ a coding system that has been used in previous research or

develop their own categories.

d. Conducting the content analysis

A typical content analysis consists of making a frequency count of the

occurrence of each coding category in each document in the sample. The

28
Borg and Gall, Educational Research (7th Ed) (United States of America: Pearson
Education, 2003), p. 279-280
 43

frequency count can be presented in the result section of the research

report.

e. Interpreting the result

The last stage of a content analysis is to interpret the meaning of the

results. The interpretive process depends on the objectives of the study and

its theoretical or conceptual framework.

E. Bloom’s Taxonomy

1. Original Bloom’s Taxonomy

In 1948, Bloom and the other psychologist of University of Chicago did

a research about classroom activities, from this research they found three

domains such as: cognitive domain (thinking ability), affective domain

(value), and psychomotor domain (value). Finally, Bloom‟s taxonomy was

published in 1956.29

According to Munzenmaier and Rubin, Bloom‟s taxonomy is the level

of knowledge acquisition.30 It is a hierarchical structure that is used to

identify the thinking skills levels from low to high level. Certainly, lower

level must be met first to reach higher levels. Taxonomy is derived from

Greek language, those are tassein and nomos. Tassein means classify and

nomos means rule. So, taxonomy means a classification of basic principles or

rules.

29
Cecelia Munzenmaier, Nancy Rubin, Bloom’s Taxonomy: What’s Old Is New Again
(Santa Rosa: The eLearning Guild, 2013), p. 20
30
Ibid
 44

The term is then used by Bloom in the process of teaching and learning.

Krathwohl claims that “the taxonomy of educational objectives is a

framework for classifying statements about what we expect or intend students

to learn as a result of instruction”.31 In education, this taxonomy has been

very important for the past 50 years. It has a big impact on how people think

of the goals of education and the practice of teaching.

In the concept of framework, Bloom divides educational objectives into

three domains of thinking behaviors, namely: cognitive domain, affective

domain, and psychomotor domain. The cognitive domain relates to learning

objectives oriented with intellectual or thinking ability, the affective domain

refers to the emotional and value domain. It relates to the students‟ attitude.

And psychomotor domain relates to the use of motorized creativity. It is

related to the student‟s skill. Cognitive domain is dominant in Bloom‟s

Taxonomy because the other domains such as affective and psychomotor

domain are not completely done.

The cognitive domain in the original taxonomy is divided into six

categories; knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and

evaluation.32 Those can be seen in the following table.

31
David Krathwohl, “A Revision of Bloom‟s Taxonomy”. Theory into Practice, Vol. 41
Nu. 4 (Auntumn, 2002), p. 212.
32
Ibid, p. 214.
 45

Table 2.1
Cognitive Domain in the Original Taxonomy 33

No Cognitive Definition Task

domain
1 Knowledge Recall subject matter List, define, label,
and match.

2 Comprehension Know information that has been Explain, rewrite,

communicated, but cannot apply in paraphrase,
other situations summarize, and give
examples.

3 Application Apply information to different Compute, use,

situations and learning tasks demonstrate, solve,
predict, and
discover.

4 Analysis Separate data into its component Differentiate,

parts: these parts are differentiated discriminate, relate,
and related based on their diagram, and
relationship distinguish.

5 Synthesis Combines learned elements to Create, compose,

create a new whole; working into produce, and
pieces and elements, arranging so develop.
as to create new forms, patterns, or
structures.

6 Evaluation Make judgments on the value of Justify, compare,

materials and methods for giving contrast, evaluate,
purposes. and interpret.

2. Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy

In 1990‟s, Bloom‟s Taxonomy has been revised by Anderson,

Krathwohl and some colleagues. Like the previous group, they also worked

hard in pursuit of learning, spending six years to complete their work. In

33
Josue Lopez, M. Whittington, “Higher Order Thinking in a College Course: A Case
Study.” Proceedings of the Annual NACTA Conference, Lincoln, Nebraska, 2001, p. 24
 46

2001, they published the result of the revision by the name of Revised

Bloom‟s Taxonomy.34 Several sources are available that detail the revisions

and reasons for the changes.

There are two reasons for revising the original taxonomy. First, it aims

to refocus educators‟ attention on the value of the original Bloom‟s taxonomy

in developing accountability programs, aligning curriculums, and designing

assessments. Rohwer states that: “The original Bloom‟s taxonomy is seen not

only as a historical document but also as a pioneer of incredible work in his

age. It is believed that there are still many essential ideas in the original

Bloom‟s taxonomy related to modern educators who still face educational

problems.”35 Therefore, the original Bloom‟s taxonomy is considered

valuable to be revised.

The second reason, there is need to update the original based on new

understanding of learning and new methods of instruction in the framework

of the educational objective category. 36 The world society has changed since

1956, and the change influenced the way of thinking and educational

practices. The rapid evolution of knowledge supports the need to revise the

taxonomy.

The original Bloom‟s taxonomy is different from the revised Bloom‟s

Taxonomy. The major difference between these two versions is that the

cognitive domain the original Bloom‟s taxonomy only has one dimension.

The revised Bloom‟s taxonomy develops the original Bloom‟s taxonomy by

34
Ibid, p. 211.
35
Ibid, p. xxi
36
Ibid, p. 17
 47

adding a two-dimensional framework, that is, knowledge dimension and

cognitive process dimension. We can see the difference in the table below.

Table 2.2
The Comparison of Original Taxonomy and Revised Taxonomy 37

The Original Bloom’s

The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
Taxonomy
Structure of the original Structure of the Structure of the
Bloom’s taxonomy knowledge cognitive process
dimension dimension
1. Knowledge 1. Factual Knowledge 1. Remember
1.1 Knowledge of specifics 2. Procedural 2. Understand
1.2 Knowledge of ways and Knowledge 3. Apply
means of dealing with 3. Conceptual 4. Analyze
specifics Knowledge 5. Evaluate
1.3 Knowledge of 4. Metacognitive 6. Create
universals and abstractions Knowledge
in a field

2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation

From the table above, the knowledge category in original Bloom‟s

taxonomy only breaks into three main categories, but in the new revision it

has four categories in new knowledge dimension. They include factual

37
Ibid, p. 213-215
 48

knowledge, conceptual procedural, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive

knowledge.38

a. Factual Knowledge

This acquires the students to get acquainted with a discipline or solve

problems in it. It includes symbols, signs, the person‟s name and history.

b. Conceptual Knowledge

This category acquires the students to learn ideas, generalizations, and/or

theories. Furthermore, the conceptual knowledge refers to the

interrelationship among basic elements in a greater structure and enables

them to work together.

c. Procedural knowledge

This category requires students to demonstrate ways or procedures to do

something specific.

d. Metacognitive Knowledge

This knowledge is the awareness of one‟s own cognition and particular

cognitive processes. It requires the students to be aware of and

comprehend what they know. Metacognition comprises knowledge of

one‟s thinking processes, self regulation and monitoring what one is doing,

why one is doing it and how one is doing whether helps to solve the

problems (or not).

The cognitive dimension is very similar to the original Bloom‟s

taxonomy. There are only a few significant changes. In the revised version,

38
Ibid, p. 212.
 49

three categories were renamed and changed from the noun form in to verb

form.39 For example, the lowest level of the original, knowledge was renamed

and became remembering. It is believed that the verb form is more precise in

the way they are used in purpose.

Besides, the revision also interchanged the last two categories;

synthesis and evaluation, which into evaluate and create. Those two

categories are changed because it is considered that the student needs to able

to critique and check an idea before they produce and generate some results.

The following figure shows the changes:

Figure 2.1
Changes of Original to Revised Framework

Source: https://thesecondprinciple.com/essential-teaching-skills/blooms-taxonomy-revised/

F. Cognitive Domain of Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy

The most key parts in cognitive process are retention and transferring.

Retention is the ability to remember the materials for a certain period in much

39
Ibid
 50

the same way it was presented during the presentation.40 In retention, the

teacher only needs students to remember the lesson as one of cognitive

process. The others five cognitive processes such as understanding, applying,

analyzing, evaluating, and creating can be used to transfer the learning

materials.

Mayer and Wittrock state that: “Transfer is the ability to solve new

problems, answer new questions, or facilitate learning new materials by using

the knowledge that was learned before”. In short, according to Bransford, the

purposes of retention are requiring the students to remember what they have

learned, and transferring requires the students not only to remember, but also

to understand and use what they have learned. 41 In conclusion, the retention

focuses on the past and transfer focuses on the future.

The revised Taxonomy includes six cognitive process categories-one

most closely related to retention (Remember) and the other five increasingly

related to transfer (Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create).42

These cognitive levels are classified into two levels thinking. The first three

levels are called lower order thinking and the second three levels are called

higher order thinking.43 The lower level includes: remember, understand, and

apply. The higher level includes: analyze, evaluate, and create.

40
Richard E. Mayer, “Rote Versus Meaningful Learning”. Theory Into Practice, 2002, 41
(4), p. 226
41
Ibid
42
Ibid, p. 228
43
Michael Orey, Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Technology (Zurich,
Switzerland: Jacobs Foundation, 2010), p. 42
 51

Cognitive domain is familiar with the teachers‟ knowledge because it is

the most commonly taught and assessed for accomplishing the educational

objectives. The cognitive domain of Revised Bloom‟s Taxonomy can be seen

in the table below:

Table 2.3
Structure of the Cognitive Process Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy 44

Structure of the Cognitive Process Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy

1. Remember
1.1 Recognizing
1.2 Recalling
2. Understand
2.2 Interpreting
2.3 Exemplifying
2.4 Classifying
2.5 Summarizing
2.6 Inferring
2.7 Comparing
2.8 Explaining
3. Apply
3.1 Executing
3.2 Implementing
4. Analyze
4.1 Differentiating
4.2 Organizing
4.3 Attributing
5. Evaluate
5.1 Checking

44
Lorin W. Anderson and Krathwohl (Eds.), A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and
Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (New York: Longman,
2001), p. 67-68
 52

5.2 Critiquing
6. Create
6.1 Generating
6.2 Planning
6.3 Producing

G. Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS)

Lower order thinking skills are remembering, understanding and

applying. Usually questions at the lower levels are suitable for evaluating

students‟ preparation and comprehension, diagnosing students‟ strengths and

weaknesses, and reviewing and/or summarizing content.

1. Remembering

The revised Taxonomy is based on a broader vision of learning that

includes not only gaining knowledge, but also using knowledge in a new

situation. When the purpose of teaching is to encourage retention of material

presented in the same form as taught, the relevant process category is

remembering. The process of remembering signifies the lowest level of

cognitive process in taxonomy. Remembering process is the ability of

retrieving, recognizing or recalling relevant knowledge from long-term

memory. This domain can be accessed by using multiple choice tests, ask

students to recount facts, and ask definition. The two associated cognitive

processes are recognizing and recalling.

Recognizing (also called identifying) involves locating the information

from long term memory and then comparing with the new information. For
 53

example, an objective could be "Identify the major exports of various South

American countries." A corresponding test item would be "Which of these is

a major export of Colombia? (a) banana, (b) coffee, (c) silk, (d) tea.

Recalling (also called retrieving) involves adopting relevant knowledge

from long-term memory as required by the assessment. In literature, an

objective could be "Recall the poets who authored various poems." A

corresponding test question would be "Who wrote The Charge of the Light

Brigade?”.

2. Understanding

Understanding means constructing meaning of instructional messages,

including oral, written, and graphic communications. This domain may

involve the use of self-regulation behavior which is the best example by

repeating the problem using students‟ own words, modifying the information

to something more meaningful. Students understand if they build connections

between the new knowledge to be acheived and their prior knowledge. More

specifically, the incoming knowledge is integrated with existing schemas and

cognitive frameworks.

Anderson and Krathwohl separate this category into some sub-

categories; (1) Interpreting, converting the information from one form to

another such as paraphrasing, or changing words into pictures or inverse of it;

(2) Exemplifying, finding a specific example about a concept or principle

from the sources to make it more detail and easy to understand; (3)

Classifying, categorizing an example into the general classification of concept

 54

or principle; (4) Summarizing, representing the whole information to the

more specific without eliminating the basic information; (5) Inferring,

drawing a logical conclusion from presented information; (6) Comparing,

detecting similarities and differences between two or more objects or

information; (7) Explaining, making a causal relationship model into a system

and can be generated from theory or experience result.

3. Applying

Applying refers to the ability of carrying out or using a procedure in a

particular situation and it is related to procedural knowledge. The problem is

an assessment in which the procedure for solving it is still unidentified by

students so, they should find the procedure to solve problems. Anderson and

Krathwohl separate this category into some sub-categories; (1) Executing,

applying a procedure to a familiar task; (2) Implementing, applying one or

more procedures to solve an unfamiliar task.

H. Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)

Three up levels in the cognitive domain of Bloom‟s revised taxonomy

are named higher order thinking skills (HOTS). HOTS are also called

“critical” or “strategic” thinking, it can be described as the ability to use

information to solve problems, analyze arguments, negotiate issues or make

predictions.45 In addition, Lopez and Whittington, “HOTS occurs when a

45
A S Keshta, Ayat Seif “Evaluating the Higher Order Thinking Skills in Reading of
English for Palestina Grade Eight”, Asian journal of Education and e-Learning. 1(1): 47-69, 2013,
p. 51
 55

person takes a new information and information stored in memory and

interrelates and or rearranges and extends this information to achieve a

purpose or find possible answers in perplexing situation.”46 HOT skills are

including analyzing, evaluating, and creating. The explanation as follows:

1. Analyzing

Analyzing means breaking down the material into its constituent parts

and determining how the parts relate to another and to an overall structure. It

involves skill to differentiate between the specific part and general concept. It

is the skill where students are able to break the materials into its smaller parts.

General concept must be comprehended before separating and relating the

parts. There are 3 subcategories included into this category, they are; (1)

Differentiating, separating relevant or significant parts of a structure; (2)

Organizing, determining how elements fit or function within the structure; (3)

Attributing, determining the point of view, opinions, values, or objectives

behind the communication.

2. Evaluating

Evaluating process involves making a judgement based on certain

criteria or standard. They may determine their own criteria or let others

determine it. The standard or criteria can be qualitative (i.e., is this good

enough?) or quantitative (i.e., is this a sufficient amount?). The criteria often

used are quality, effectiveness, efficiency, and consistency. This domain may

involve the ability to judge the material‟s value include statement, report, etc.

46
Ibid, p. 22
 56

for specific purposes. Evaluating also cover; (1) Checking, testing internal

mistake in operation or product; (2) Criticizing, evaluating the product based

on external criteria or standard.

3. Creating

This process is the highest level among other categories. Brookhart

states that: “Creating means reorganizing existing things to make something

new.”47 Students are expected to create a unique product from their creative

thinking. The process of creating usually requires high creativity and relating

to the other cognitive processes. Even though the process is creative, but, it is

limited to the specific situation of learning. This category is divided into 3

sub-categories; (1) Generating, inventing alternative hypothesis based on

criteria; (2) Planning, devising a method for accomplishing some task; (3)

Producing, creating a product that satisfies the description.

47
Susan M. Brookhart, How to Assess Higher-Order Thinking Skills in Your Classroom
(Portland: ASCD, 2010) p. 55