Chapter 12

Radiative Heat Transfer between Surfaces

SHAPE FACTOR ALGEBRA
• To account for the effects of orientation on radiation heat transfer between two
surfaces, we define a new parameter called the view factor, which is a purely
geometric quantity and is independent of the surface properties and temperature.
• It is also called the shape factor, configuration factor, and angle factor.
• The view factor based on the assumption that the surfaces are diffuse emitters
and diffuse reflectors is called the diffuse view factor, and the view factor based
on the assumption that the surfaces are diffuse emitters but specular reflectors is
called the specular view factor.
• We will consider radiation exchange between diffuse surfaces only, and thus the
term view factor will simply mean diffuse view factor. The view factor from a
surface i to a surface j is denoted by Fi → j or just Fij, and is defined as Fij the
fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that strikes surface j directly.

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SHAPE FACTOR ALGEBRA

View factor is a purely geometric quantity and

is independent of the surface properties and
temperature.
Therefore, the view factor F12 represents the
fraction of radiation leaving surface 1 that
strikes surface 2 directly, and F21 represents
the fraction of the radiation leaving surface 2
that strikes surface 1 directly. Note that the
radiation that strikes a surface does not need to
be absorbed by that surface. Also, radiation
that strikes a surface after being reflected by
other surfaces is not considered in the
evaluation of view factors. Fij the fraction of the radiation leaving
surface i that strikes surface j directly
The view factor ranges between 0 and 1.
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To develop a general expression for the view factor,
consider two differential surfaces dA1 and dA2 on two
arbitrarily oriented surfaces A1 and A2, respectively as
shown in figure. The distance between dA1 and dA2 is r,
and the angles between the normal of the surfaces and
the line that connects dA1 and dA2 are θ1 and θ2
respectively. Surface I emits and reflects radiation
diffusely in all directions with a constant intensity of I1,
and the solid angle subtended by dA2 , when viewed by
dA1 is dω21.
The rate at which radiation leaves dA1 in the direction of θ1 is I1cos θ1dA1. Noting that dω21
= dA2 cos θ2/r2, the portion of this radiation that strikes dA2 is

The total rate at which radiation leaves dA1 (via emission and reflection) in all
directions is the radiosity (which is J1 = I1) times the surface area.

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Then the differential view factor dFdA →dA , which the fraction of radiation leaving dA1
1 2

that strikes dA2 directly becomes,

The differential view factor dFdA2→dA21 can be determined from above equation by
interchanging the subscripts 1 and 2.
The view factor from a differential area dA1 to a finite area A2 can be determined from the
fact that the fraction of radiation leaving dA1 that strikes A2 is the sum of the fractions of
radiation striking the differentiating areas dA2. therefore, the view factor FdA1 →dA2 is
determined by integrating dFdA →dA over A2,
1 2

The total rate at which radiation leaves the entire A1 (via emission and reflection in all
direction is
The portion of this radiation that strikes dA2 is determined by considering the radiation that
leaves dA1 and strikes dA2 and integrating it over A1,

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Integration of this relation over A2 gives the radiation that strikes the entire A2,

Dividing this by the total radiation leaving A1 gives the fraction of radiation leaving A1 and
that strikes A2, which the view factor FA1 →A2, (or F12 for short)

The view factor FA2 →A1 is readily determined from above equation by interchanging the
subscripts 1 and 2.

Note that I1 is constant but r, θ1 and θ2 are variables. Also, integrations can be performed in
any order since the integration limits are constants. These relations confirm that the view
factor between two surfaces depends on their relative orientation and the distance between
them.
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Combining above equations after multiplying the former by A1 and the latter by A2 gives

Which is known as the reciprocity relation for view factors. It allows the calculation of a
view factor from a knowledge of the other.

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The view factor has proven to be very useful in radiation analysis because it allows
us to express the fraction of radiation leaving a surface that strikes another surface
in terms of the orientation of these two surfaces relative to each other.
The underlying assumption in this process is that the radiation a surface receives
from a source is directly proportional to the angle the surface subtends when
viewed from the source.
This would be the case only if the radiation coming off the source is uniform in all
directions throughout its surface and the medium between the surfaces does not
absorb, emit, or scatter radiation.
That is, it is the case when the surfaces are isothermal and diffuse emitters and
reflectors and the surfaces are separated by a nonparticipating medium such as a
vacuum or air.
View factors for hundreds of common geometries are evaluated and the results are
given in analytical, graphical, and tabular form.
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View factor between two aligned parallel rectangles of equal size. 12
View factor between two perpendicular rectangles with a common edge. 13
View factor between two coaxial parallel disks.
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View factors for two concentric cylinders of finite length: (a) outer cylinder to inner cylinder;
(b) outer cylinder to itself.
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View Factor Relations
Radiation analysis on an enclosure consisting of N surfaces requires the evaluation of N2
view factors.
Once a sufficient number of view factors are available, the rest of them can be
determined by utilizing some fundamental relations for view factors.

1. The Reciprocity Relation

reciprocity relation (rule)

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2. The Summation Rule
The sum of the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all surfaces of the
enclosure, including to itself, must equal unity.

The total number of view factors that need to be

evaluated directly for an N-surface enclosure is

The remaining view factors can be determined

from the equations that are obtained by applying
the reciprocity and the summation rules.
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3. The Superposition Rule
The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is
equal to the sum of the view factors from surface
i to the parts of surface j.

multiply by A1

apply the reciprocity relation

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4. The Symmetry Rule
Two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third surface will have identical
view factors from that surface.
If the surfaces j and k are symmetric about the surface i then
Fi  j = Fi  k and Fj  i = Fk  i

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View Factors between Infinitely Long
Surfaces: The Crossed-Strings Method

Channels and ducts that are very long in one

direction relative to the other directions can be
considered to be two-dimensional.
These geometries can be modeled as being
infinitely long, and the view factor between
their surfaces can be determined by simple
crossed-strings method.

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4. ELECTRICAL ANALOGY

The net rate of radiation heat transfer from a surface i

surface resistance to radiation.

The surface resistance to radiation for a blackbody is zero since i = 1 and Ji = Ebi.
Reradiating surface: Some surfaces are modeled as being adiabatic since their back
sides are well insulated and the net heat transfer through them is zero.

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4. ELECTRICAL ANALOGY

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Radiosity
Radiosity J: The total radiation energy leaving a surface per unit time and per unit
area.

For a surface i that is gray and opaque (i = i and i + i = 1)

For a blackbody  = 1

The radiosity of a blackbody is equal to its emissive

power since radiation coming from a blackbody is due
to emission only.
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Radiosity

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Net Radiation Heat Transfer between Any Two Surfaces
The net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface i to surface j is

Apply the reciprocity relation

space resistance to radiation

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In an N-surface enclosure, the conservation of energy principle requires that the net
heat transfer from surface i be equal to the sum of the net heat transfers from surface i
to each of the N surfaces of the enclosure.

The net radiation flow from a surface

through its surface resistance is equal to
the sum of the radiation flows from that
surface to all other surfaces through the
corresponding space resistances.

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Methods of Solving Radiation Problems
In the radiation analysis of an enclosure, either the temperature or the net rate of heat
transfer must be given for each of the surfaces to obtain a unique solution for the
unknown surface temperatures and heat transfer rates.

The equations above give N linear algebraic equations for the determination of the N
unknown radiosities for an N-surface enclosure. Once the radiosities J1, J2, . . . , JN are
available, the unknown heat transfer rates and the unknown surface temperatures can be
determined from the above equations.
Direct method: Based on using the above procedure. This method is suitable when there are a large
number of surfaces.
Network method: Based on the electrical network analogy. Draw a surface resistance associated with
each surface of an enclosure and connect them with space resistances. Then solve the radiation
problem by treating it as an electrical network problem. The network method is not practical for
enclosures with more than three or four surfaces.
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Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures

This important result is applicable to any

two gray, diffuse, and opaque surfaces that
form an enclosure.

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Radiation Heat Transfer in Three-Surface Enclosures
When Qi is specified at surface i instead of the
temperature, the term (Ebi − Ji)/Ri should be
replaced by the specified Qi.
Draw a surface resistance associated with each of
the three surfaces and connect them with space
resistances.
The algebraic sum of the currents (net radiation
heat transfer) at each node must equal zero.

These equations are to be solved for J1, J2, Schematic of a three-surface enclosure and
and J3. the radiation network associated with it.
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RADIATION SHIELDS

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RADIATION SHIELDS

Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced greatly by inserting a thin,
high-reflectivity (low-emissivity) sheet of material between the two surfaces.
Such highly reflective thin plates or shells are called radiation shields.
Multilayer radiation shields constructed of about 20 sheets per cm thickness separated
by evacuated space are commonly used in cryogenic and space applications.
Radiation shields are also used in temperature measurements of fluids to reduce the
error caused by the radiation effect when the temperature sensor is exposed to surfaces
that are much hotter or colder than the fluid itself.
The role of the radiation shield is to reduce the rate of radiation heat transfer by
placing additional resistances in the path of radiation heat flow.
The lower the emissivity of the shield, the higher the resistance.

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Radiation heat transfer between two large parallel plates

Radiation heat transfer between two large parallel plates with one shield

The radiation shield placed between two parallel plates and the radiation network
associated with it.
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If the emissivities of all surfaces are equal

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