UNIT 4:Matrices

(Matrix Definition, General Form,

Representation of matrix in computers, Types
of matrices, Operations on matrices: Addition,
Subtraction and Multiplication, transpose , row
/ column transformations , Inverse of the
matrix by Co-factor and Ad joint
method,solutions to three variable problems
by using matrices, application problems of
matrices)

INTRODUCTION:
When some numbers are arranged in rows
and columns and are surrounded on both
sides by square brackets, we call it as a
matrix. Matrix or matrices have very
important applications in mathematics.
Matrix refers to an ordered rectangular
arrangement of numbers which are either real
or complex or functions. We enclose Matrix
by [ ] or ( ).
Many scientific fields use Matrices in some
form or the other. You will find it in physics
like electromagnetism, optics, quantum
mechanics and more. Further, it is present in
computer graphics, like probability, page rank
algorithm and more. Finally, matrix calculus is
also beneficial. It helps in generalizing
classical analytical notions like derivatives
and exponentials to high dimensions.
Moreover, graphics software make use of it
while processing linear transformations in
order to render images.
Definition of a Matrix
Matrix is an ordered rectangular arrangement
of numbers (real or complex) or functions
which may be represented as

Matrix is enclosed by [ ] or ( )
What is a Matrix?
Suppose we wish to express the information
that Ram has 20 pens. We may express it as
[20] with the understanding that the number
inside [ ] is the number of pens that Ram has.
Now, if we have to express that Ram has 20
pens and 7 pencils. We may express it as
[20 7] with the understanding that first number
inside [ ] is the number of pens while the other
one is the number of pencils.
Let us now suppose that we wish to express
the information of possession of pens and
pencils by Ram and his two friends Rohan and
Yash which is as follows:
Ram has 20 pens and 7 pencils,
Rohan has 15 pens and 5 pencils,
Yash has 12 pens and 3 pencils.

Now, this could be arranged in tabular form as follows,

Pens Pencils

Ram 20 7

Rohan 15 5

Yash 12 3

and this can be expressed as,

20 7
[15 5]
12 3
In the above arrangement, the entries in the
first column represent the number of pens
possessed by Ram, Rohan, and Yash,
respectively and the entries in the second
column represents the number of pencils
possessed by Ram, Rohan, and Yash,
respectively.
Order of a Matrix: If a matrix has m rows and
n columns, then its order is written as m × n. If
a matrix has order m × n, then it has mn
elements.

Types of Matrices
1) Row Matrix A row matrix has only one row
but any number of columns. A matrix is said to
be a row matrix if it has only one row. For
example,
 A=[−1/2 √5 23]

is a row matrix of order 1 × 3. In general,

A = [aij]1 × n is a row matrix of order 1 × n.
2) Column Matrix
A column matrix has only one column but any
number of rows. A matrix is said to be a
column matrix if it has only one column. For
example,
𝟎
B= [ 𝟑 ]
−𝟏

is a column matrix of order 3 × 1. In general,

B = [bij]m × 1 is a column matrix of order m × 1.
3) Square Matrix
A square matrix has the number of columns
equal to the number of rows. A matrix in which
the number of rows is equal to the number of
columns is said to be a square matrix. Thus an
m × n matrix is said to be a square matrix if
m = n and is known as a square matrix of
order ‘n’. For example,
 3 −1 0
A= [5 4 1]
8 2 −3

is a square matrix of order 3. In general,

A = [aij] m × m is a square matrix of order m.
4) Rectangular Matrix
A matrix is said to be a rectangular matrix if
the number of rows is not equal to the number
of columns. For example,
6 0 4
A= [ ]
7 −10 6

is a matrix of the order 2 × 3

5) Diagonal matrix
A square matrix whose all the elements except
the diagonal elements are zeroes, is called a
diagonal matrix,
3 0 0
e.g. A= [0 −3 0 ]
0 0 −8
In general, A = [aij]m×m is a diagonal matrix, if aij
= 0, when i ≠ j.
6) Scalar Matrix A diagonal matrix whose all
diagonal elements are same (non-zero), is
called a scalar matrix,
𝟐 𝟎 𝟎
e.g. A= [𝟎 𝟐 𝟎]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟐

In general, A = [aij]m×n is a scalar matrix,

if aij = 0, when i ≠ j, aij = k (constant), when i = j.
Note: A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix but a
diagonal matrix may or may not be a scalar
matrix.
7)Unit or Identity Matrix: A diagonal matrix in
which all diagonal elements are ‘1’ and all non-
diagonal elements are zero, is called an
identity matrix. It is denoted by I.
1 0 0
e.g. I= [0 1 0 ]
0 0 1

In general, A = [aij]m×n is an identity matrix, if aij

= 1, when i = j and aij = 0, when i ≠ j.
8)Zero or Null Matrix: A matrix is said to be a
zero or null matrix, if its all elements are zero
0 0
e.g. A= [ ]
0 0
9) Upper Triangular Matrix : A square matrix
in which all the elements below the diagonal
are zero is known as the upper triangular
matrix. For example,
3 −5 7
A= [0 4 0]
0 0 9
10) Lower Triangular Matrix
A square matrix in which all the elements
above the diagonal are zero is known as the
upper triangular matrix. For example,
3 0 0
A= [0 4 0]
7 −5 9

Equality of Matrices: Two matrices A and B

are said to be equal, if
(i) order of A and B are same.
(ii) corresponding elements of A and B are
same i.e. aij = bij, ∀ i and j.
e.g.
2 0 2 0
[ ] and[ ] are equal matrices,
1 3 1 3
3 2 2 3
but [ ] and [ ] are not equal
0 1 0 1
matrices.
Operations on Matrices
Between two or more than two matrices, the
following operations are defined below:

Addition and Subtraction of Matrices:

Addition and subtraction of two matrices are
defined in an order of both the matrices are
same.
Matrix addition is the operation of adding two
or more matrices by adding the corresponding
entry of each matrix together.

The most important rule to know is that when

adding two or more matrices, first make sure
the matrices have the same dimensions. In
order words, you can add a 2 x 3 with a 2 x 3
or a 2 x 2 with a 2 x 2. However, you cannot
add a 3 x 2 with a 2 x 3 or a 2 x 2 with a 3 x 3.
For example, the addition of two given
matrices with dimension 2 × 2,

Addition of Matrix
If A = [aij]m×n and B = [yij]m×n, then A + B
= [aij +bij]m×n, 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n
Properties of Addition of Matrices
(a) Commutative: If A = [aij] and B = [bij] are
matrices of the same order say m x n

Then , A + B = B + A
(b) Associative for any three matrices:
A = [aij], B = [bij], C = [cij] of the same order
say m x n,
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.
(c) Existence of additive identity:
Let A = [aij] be a mxn matrix and O be a mxn
zero matrix,
Then , A + O = O + A = A.
In other words, O is the additive identity for
matrix addition.
(d) Existence of additive inverse:
Let A = [aij]m×n be any matrix, then we have
another matrix as -A = [-aij]m×n such that
A + (-A) = (-A + A) = O.
So, matrix (-A) is called additive inverse of A
or negative of A.
Note
(i) If A and B are not of the same order, then A
+ B is not defined.
(ii) Addition of matrices is an example of a
binary operation on the set of matrices of the
same order.
Subtraction of Matrix
If A and B are two matrices of the same order,
then we define A−B=A+(−B).
Consider the two matrices A & B of order 2 x 2.
Then the difference is given by:

If A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]m×n, then A – B

= [aij – bij]m×n, 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n
Properties of Matrix Subtraction
All constraints for the addition of matrices are
applied to the subtraction of matrices as well.
But there are certain laws that matrix
subtraction does not follow just like the
subtraction of numbers. The most important
necessity for the subtraction of matrices to
hold all these properties is that the matrix
subtraction is defined only if the order of the
matrices is the same.
• The number of rows and columns should
be the same for the matrix subtraction.
• The subtraction of matrices is not
commutative, that is, A - B ≠ B - A
• The subtraction of matrices is not
associative, that is, (A - B) - C ≠ A - (B - C)
• The subtraction of a matrix from itself
results in a null matrix, that is, A - A = O.
• Subtraction of matrices is the addition of
the negative of a matrix to another matrix,
that is, A - B = A + (-B).
Important Notes on Subtraction of Matrices
• Subtraction of matrices is possible only if
the matrices have the same dimension.
• The subtraction of matrices is not
commutative and associative.
• We subtract the corresponding elements
of the matrices for the matrix subtraction.
Example: Write the elements of the matrix C =
A - B explicitly if A = [2 5 9] and B =
[1 9 12] using matrix subtraction formula.
Solution: Since the dimensions of the
matrices A and B are the same, that is, 1 × 3,
subtraction of matrices is possible for these
two matrices.
C = A - B = [2-1 5-9 9-12] = [1 -4 -3]
Answer: The elements of C = A - B are c11 = 1,
c12 = -4, c13 = -3

Multiplication of a matrix by scalar number:

Let A = [aij]m×n be a matrix and k is scalar, then
kA is another matrix obtained by multiplying
each element of A by the scalar k, i.e. if A =
[aij]m×n, then kA = [kaij]m×n.

Properties of Scalar Multiplication of a

Matrix :
Let A = [aij] and B = [bij]be two matrices of the
same order say m × n, then
(a) k(A + B) = kA + kB, where k is a scalar.
(b) (k + l)A = kA + lA, where k and l are scalars.
Multiplication of Matrices: Let A and B be
two matrices. Then, their product AB is defined,
if the number of columns in matrix A is equal
to the number of rows in matrix B.

Properties of Multiplication of Matrices

(a) Non-commutativity : Matrix multiplication is
not commutative i.e. if AB and BA are both
defined, then it is not necessary that AB ≠ BA.
(b) Associative law: For three matrices A, B,
and C, if multiplication is defined, then
A (BC) = (AB) C.
(c) Multiplicative identity: For every square
matrix A, there exists an identity matrix of the
same order such that IA = AI = A.
Note: For Amxm, there is only one multiplicative
identity Im.
(d) Distributive law :For three matrices A, B,
and C,
A(B + C) = AB + AC
(A + B)C = AC + BC
whenever both sides of the equality are
defined.
Note: If A and B are two non-zero matrices,
then their product may be a zero matrix.
0 −1 3 5
e.g. Suppose A = [ ] and B =[ ],
0 2 0 0
0 0
then AB = [ ]
0 0

Two matrices A and B are said to be

compatible if the number of columns in A is
equal to the number of rows in B. That means
if A is a matrix of order m×n and B is a matrix
of order n×p, then we can say that matrices A
and B are compatible.

Rules for Matrix Multiplication

As we studied, two matrices can be multiplied
only when they are compatible, which means
for the multiplication of matrices to exist the
number of columns in the first matrix should be
equal to the number of rows in the second
matrix, in the above case 'n'. If A is a matrix of
order m×n and B is a matrix of order n×p, then
the order of the product matrix is m×p.

For example,
a) Multiplying a 4 × 3 matrix by a 3 × 4 matrix
is valid and it gives a matrix of order 4 × 4
b) 7 × 1 matrix and 1 × 2 matrices are
compatible; the product gives a 7 × 2 matrix.
c) Multiplication of a 4 × 3 matrix and 2 × 3
matrix is NOT possible.
Matrix Multiplication Formula
We can understand the general process of
matrix multiplication by the technique, "First
rows are multiplied by columns (element by
element) and then the rows are filled up."
Consider two matrices of order 3×3 as given
below,
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙
[𝑑 𝑒 𝑓] & [𝑚 𝑛 𝑜]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
Here, the matrices have the same dimensions,
so the resultant matrix will also have the same
dimension 3×3

How to Multiply Matrices?

Multiplication of two compatible matrices can
be performed using some general steps as
explained above. The steps in matrix
multiplication are given as,
• Make sure that the number of columns in
the 1st matrix equals the number of rows in
the 2nd matrix (compatibility of matrices).
• Multiply the elements of each row of the
first matrix by the elements of each
column in the second matrix.
• Add the products.
 • Place the added products in the respective
columns.
Let us understand these steps for
multiplication of matrices better using an
example.
Example: Multiply the matrices given below,
to find their product of
1 2
2
[3 4] and [ ]
4
5 1
Solution: The given matrices are of order 3×2
and 2×1. ∵The given matrices are compatible,
we can perform the matrix multiplication and
the product matrix will be of order 3×1.
1 2
2
= [3 4] × [ ]
4
5 1
(1 × 2) + (2 × 4) 2+8
= [ (3 × 2) + (4 × 4) ] = [ 6 + 16]
(5 × 2 ) + (1 × 4) 10 + 4

10
Answer: Product matrix is [ 22]
14
Important Notes on Multiplication of
Matrices:
• To multiply matrices, the given matrices
should be compatible.
• The order of a product matrix can be
obtained by the following rule:
If A is a matrix of order m×n and B is a
matrix of order n×p, then the order of the
product matrix is m×p.
• Matrix multiplication indicates rows by
columns multiplication.
Example : Using the matrix multiplication
formula, find the product of the matrices:
1 0 6 8
[ ] and [ ]
2 4 4 3
Solution:
The given matrices are of order 2×2. ∵They
are compatible, we can find the multiplication
of the matrices and their product matrix will
also be 2×2.
1 0 6 8
Product of matrices [ ] and [ ]is:
2 4 4 3
(1 × 6) + (0 × 4) (1 × 8) + (0 × 3)
=[ ]
(2 × 6) + (4 × 4) (2 × 8) + (4 × 3)
6+0 8+0
= [ ]
12 + 16 16 + 12
 6 8
=[ ]
28 28
6 8
Answer: Product matrix is [ ]
28 28

Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of a matrix is one of the most
common methods used for matrix
transformation in matrix concepts across linear
algebra. The transpose of a matrix is obtained
by changing the rows into columns and
columns into rows for a given matrix.
Transpose of a matrix is especially useful in
applications where inverse and ad-joint of
matrices are to be obtained.
What Is the Transpose of a Matrix?
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by
changing its rows into columns and its
columns into rows. A rectangular array of
numbers or functions that are arranged in the
form of rows and columns is called a matrix.
This array of numbers are called either entries
or elements of a matrix.
Here for matrix A the elements of the first row
have been written in the first column of a new
matrix, and the elements of the second row
have been written in the second column of a
new matrix. And this new matrix is denoted as
AT, which is the transpose of the given matrix
A.

Properties of Transpose of a Matrix

Transpose of a matrix is used in some of the
linear transformations as they reveal some of
the important properties of the transformation.
Some of the important properties of the
transpose of a matrix:
• A square matrix B of order n × n is
considered to be an orthogonal matrix,
only when BT × B = B × BT = I, here I is an
identity matrix.
• A square matrix B of order n × n is
considered to be a skew-symmetric matrix,
only when its transpose BT = -B i.e., it is
equal to its negative.
 • The transpose of the difference (B - C)T is
the difference of transposes of the
matrices B and C. BT - CT = (B - C)T
• The transpose of an invertible matrix B is
also invertible, and its inverse is actually
the transpose of the inverse of the original
matrix B. This can be represented as:
(BT)-1 = (B-1)T.
• Transpose when applied to a matrix, has
the higher precedence than multiplication
and addition operations i.e., CBT = C(BT)
and C + DT = C + (DT)
Example 1: Find the transpose of the matrix B
5 6
B=[ ]
−2 3
Solution:
To find the transpose of the given 2 × 2 matrix,
let's switch the rows into columns and columns
into rows. The resultant matrix is:
5 −2
BT =[ ]
6 3

Example 2: Find the transpose of the matrix

A
2 −1 3
A= [ ]
0 5 2
Solution:
To find the transpose of the given 2 × 3 matrix,
let's switch the rows into columns and columns
into rows. The resultant matrix is of the order 3
×2:
2 0
B or AT = [−1 5]
3 2
Determinant of a Matrix
The determinant of a matrix is the scalar
value computed for a given square matrix.
Linear algebra deals with the determinant, it is
computed using the elements of a square
matrix. It can be considered as the scaling
factor for the transformation of a matrix. Useful
in solving a system of linear equation,
calculating the inverse of a matrix and calculus
operations.
Geometrically, the determinant is seen as the
volume scaling factor of the linear
transformation defined by the matrix. It is also
expressed as the volume of the n-dimensional
paralleled piped crossed by the column or row
vectors of the matrix. The determinant is
positive or negative as per the linear mapping
preserves or changes the orientation of n-
space.
Definition of Determinant of Matrix
The determinant of a matrix is the scalar value
or number calculated using a square matrix.
The square matrix could be 2×2, 3×3, 4×4, or
any type, such as n × n, where the number of
column and rows are equal. If S is the set of
square matrices, R is the set of numbers (real
or complex) and f : S → R is defined by f (A) =
k, where A ∈ S and k ∈ R, then f (A) is called
the determinant of A.
To every square matrix A = [aij] of order n, we
can associate a number (real or complex)
called determinant of the square matrix A,
where a = (i, j)th element of A. This may be
thought of as a function which associates each
square matrix with a unique number (real or
complex).
If M is the set of square matrices, K is the set
of numbers (real or complex) and f : M → K is
defined by f (A) = k, where A ∈ M and k ∈ K,
then f (A) is called the determinant of A. It is
also denoted by | A | or det A or Δ.
𝑎 𝑏
If A=[ ],
𝑐 𝑑
then determinant of A is written as
𝑎 𝑏
|A| =| |= detA
𝑐 𝑑
Symbol
The determinant of a matrix is represented by
two vertical lines or simply by writing det and
writing the matrix name. eg. |A|, det(A), det A
For a 1×1 Matrix
Let A = [a] be the matrix of order 1, then
determinant of A is defined to be equal to a.
For a 2×2 Matrix
For a 2×2 matrix (2 rows and 2 columns):

The determinant is:

|A| = ad − bc or the determinant of A
equals a × d minus b × c.
It is easy to remember when you think of a
cross, where blue is positive that goes
diagonally from left to right and red is negative
that goes diagonally from right to left.
Example:
2 3
If A= [ ]
4 8
|A| = 2 x 8 – 4 x 3
= 16 – 12
=4
For a 3×3 Matrix
For a 3×3 matrix (3 rows and 3 columns):

The determinant is:

|A| = a (ei − fh) − b (di − fg) + c (dh −
eg). The determinant of A equals ‘a times e
x i minus f x h minus b times d x i minus f x
g plus c times d x h minus e x g’.

To work out the determinant of a matrix 3×3:

• Multiply ‘a’ by the determinant of the 2×2
matrix that is not in a’s row or column.
• Likewise for ‘b’ and for ‘c’
• Sum them up, but remember the minus in
front of the b
As a formula (remember the vertical bars ||
mean “determinant of”):

The determinant of A equals ‘a’ times the

determinant of e × i minus f × h minus ‘b’ times
the determinant of d × i minus f × g plus ‘c’
times the determinant of d × h minus e × g.
Example:
 6 1 1
If A= [4 −2 5]
2 8 7

|A|= 6×(−2×7 − 5×8) − 1×(4×7 − 5×2) +

1×(4×8 − (−2×2))
= 6×(−54) − 1×(18) + 1×(36)
= −306

Minor of a Determinant
A minor is defined as a value computed
from the determinant of a square matrix which
is obtained after crossing out a row and a
column corresponding to the element that is
under consideration. Minor of an element aij of
a determinant is the determinant obtained by
deleting its ith row and jth column in which
element aij lies. Minor of an element aij is
denoted by Mij.
Co-factor of a Determinant
The co-factor is defined as the signed minor.
Co-factor of an element aij, denoted by Aij is
defined by A = (–1)i+j M, where M is minor of aij.
Note
• We note that if the sum i+j is even, then
Aij = Mij, and that if the sum is odd, then
Aij = −Mij.
• Hence, the only difference between the
related minor entries and co-factors may
be a sign change or nothing at all.
• Whether or Aij = Mij or Aij = −Mij has a
pattern for square matrices as illustrated:

For example C12 = −M12. Of course, if you

forget, you can always use the formula
Cij = (−1)i+j Mij,
Here, C12=(−1)1+2 Mij = (−1)3 Mij = −Mij
Example
Find the minors and co-factors of all the
elements of the determinant
 1 −2
| |
4 3
Solution: Minor of the element aij is Mij.
Here a11 = 1. So M11 = Minor of a11 = 3
M12 = Minor of the element a12 = 4
M21 = Minor of the element a21 = –2
M22 = Minor of the element a22 = 1
Now, co-factor of aij is Aij. So,
A11 = (–1)1+1, M11 = (–1)2 (3) = 3
A12 = (–1)1+2, M12 = (–1)3 (4) = –4
A21 = (–1)2+1, M21 = (–1)3 (–2) = 2
A22 = (–1)2+2, M22 = (–1)4 (1) = 1
Definition of Ad-joint of a Matrix
The ad-joint of a square matrix A = [aij]n x n is
defined as the transpose of the matrix [Aij]n x n,
where Aij is the co-factor of the element aij.
Adjoing of the matrix A is denoted by adj A.
Example :
Find the ad-joint of the matrix:

Solution: We will first evaluate the co-factor of

every element,
Therefore,
The Relation between Ad-joint and Inverse
of a Matrix
To find the inverse of a matrix A, i.e A-1 we
shall first define the ad-joint of a matrix. Let A
be an n x n matrix. The (i,j) co-factor of A is
defined to be
Aij = (-1)ij det(Mij),
where Mij is the (i,j)th minor matrix obtained
from A after removing the ith row and jth
column. Let’s consider the n x n matrix A = (Aij)
and define the n x n matrix Adj(A) = AT. The
matrix Adj(A) is called the ad-joint of matrix A.
When A is invertible, then its inverse can be
obtained by the formula given below.

The inverse is defined only for non-singular

square matrices. The following relationship
holds between a matrix and its inverse:
AA-1 = A-1A = I, where I is the identity matrix.
Example :
Determine whether the matrix given below is
invertible and if so, then find the invertible
matrix using the above formula.
1 5 2
[0 −1 2]
0 0 1
Solution: Since A is an upper triangular matrix,
the determinant of A is the product of its
diagonal entries. This, we have det(A) = -1,
which is a non-zero value and hence, A is
invertible. To find the inverse using the formula,
we will first determine the co-factors Aij of A.
We have,

Then the ad-joint matrix of A is

 −1 0 0 𝑇 −1 −5 12
[−5 1 0 ] = [0 1 −2 ]
12 −2 −1 0 0 −1
|𝑨|= 1(-1x1 -2 x 0) - 5 (0 x 1- 0 x 2) + 2(0 x 0 - 0 x
-1)
=1 (-1 - 0) - 5 (0 - 0) + 2 (0 - 0)
=1(-1) - 0 + 0
= -1
Using the formula, we will obtain the inverse
matrix as

−𝟏 −𝟓 𝟏𝟐
𝟏
A-1 = × [𝟎 𝟏 −𝟐 ]
−𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏
𝟏 𝟓 −𝟏𝟐
= [𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐 ]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Determinants and Matrices as Equation
Solver
Here, we will discuss the way to solve a
system of linear equations in two or three
variables. With the help of the determinant, we
can also check for the consistency of linear
equations.
• Consistent System: If one or more
solution(s) exists for a system of
equations then it is a consistent system
• Inconsistent System: A system of
equations with no solution is an
inconsistent system.
The Solution of System of Linear Equations
A solution for a system of linear Equations can
be found by using the inverse of a matrix.
Suppose we have the following system of
equations
• a11 x + a12 y + a13 z = b1
• a21 x + a22 y + a23 z = b2
• a31 x + a32 y + a33 z = b3
where, x, y, and z are the variables and a11,
a12, … , a33 are the respective coefficients of
the variables and b1, b2, and b3 are the
constants. We need to find the solution for the
values of the variables in this system of
equations.
Determinant as an Equation Solver
The above system of equations can be
represented in the form of a square matrix as

i.e., AX = B or,

Here arise two cases

Case1
If A is a non-singular matrix i.e., |A| ≠ 0, then
its inverse exists.
We have A X = B
or, A– 1 (A X) = A– 1 B (pre-multiplying by A– 1)
or, (A– 1 A) X = A– 1 B
and, I X = A– 1 B (I is the identity matrix)
or, X = A– 1 B where, A– 1 = (adj A) ⁄ |A|
This matrix equation provides a unique
solution and is known as the Matrix Method.
Case2
If A is a singular matrix, then |A| = 0 then we
calculate (adj A) B. If (adj A) B ≠ 0 (zero
matrix), then the solution does not exist. The
system of equations is inconsistent. Else, if
(adj A) B = 0 then the system will either have
infinitely many solutions (consistent system) or
no solution (inconsistent system).
Example : Suppose you have three
numbers. The sum of the two numbers and
the twice of the second equals 2. The sum
of the second and third when subtracted
from the twice of first gives 1. The
difference of thrice of first and five times
the third gives 5. Rewrite the statement in
form of the system of equations. Solve it
using Matrix Method as an equation solver.
Answer : Assume that x, y, and z are the
three numbers. Rewriting the above statement
we have the following system of equations
x + 2y + z = 2

2x – y – z = 1

3x – 5y = 5

In matrix notation, we have

Here, the determinant of A =

|A| = 1(5 – 0) – 2(–10 + 3) + 1(0 + 3)
= 22 ≠ 0.
Hence there exists a unique solution for X.
Calculating adj (A), we have Aij = (–1)(i + j) Mij ,
where Mij is the co-factor of aij
• A11 = 1(5 – 0) = 5, A12 = –1(–10 + 3) = 7,
A13 = 1(0 + 3) = 3,
 • A21 = –1(–10 –0) = 10, A22 = 1(–5 – 3) = –8,
A23 = –1(0 – 6) = 6,
• A31 = 1(–2 + 1) = –1, A32 = –1(–1 – 2) = 3,
A33 = 1(–1 – 4) = –5

The inverse of the matrix A is A−1.

Since X = A– 1 B
Thus, x = 15⁄22,
y = 21⁄22,
z = –13⁄22.
System of Linear equations:
(i) Matrix Inversion Method:
This method can be applied only when the
coefficient matrix is a square matrix and non-
singular.

Consider the matrix equation

AX = B , … (1)

where A is a square matrix and non-singular.

Since A is non-singular, A−1 exists and
A−1 A = AA−1 = I.
Pre-multiplying both sides of (1) by A−1, we get
A−1 ( AX ) = A−1B. That is,

( A−1 A) X = A−1B.

Hence, we get

X = A−1B.

Example 1:
Solve the following system of linear equations,
using matrix inversion method:
5x + 2 y = 3,
3x + 2 y = 5 .

Solution
The matrix form of the system is AX = B ,

where
5 2
We find |A| = | |= 10 - 6= 4 ≠ 0.
3 2
So, A−1 exists and
 1 2 −2
A−1 = [ ]
4 −3 5
Then, applying the formula X = A−1B , we get

So the solution is (x = −1, y = 4).

Example 2:
Solve the following system of equations, using
matrix inversion method:
2x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 = 5,
x1 – 2x2 + x3 = -4,
3x1 – x2 – 2x3 = 3
Solution
The matrix form of the system is AX = B,where
So, the solution is ( x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = −1) .
Example 3:
If

,
find the products AB and BA and hence solve
the system of equations x − y + z = 4, x – 2y –
2z = 9, 2x + y +3z =1.
Solution

Writing the given system of equations in matrix

form, we get

Hence, the solution is (x = 3, y = - 2, z = −1).

(ii) Cramer’s Rule
This rule can be applied only when the
coefficient matrix is a square matrix and non-
singular. It is explained by considering the
following system of equations:

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

where the coefficient matrix [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
is non-singular. Then |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |≠ 0
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

Let us put Δ = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | . Then, we
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
have
Note

Replacing the first column elements a11 , a21 ,

a31 of Δ with b1 , b2 , b3 respectively, we get Δ1.
Replacing the second column elements a12 ,
a22 , a32 of Δ with b1 , b2 , b3 respectively, we
get Δ2 . Replacing the third column elements
a13 , a23 , a33 of Δ with b1 , b2 , b3 respectively,
we get Δ3.

If Δ = 0, Cramer’s rule cannot be applied.

Example 1:

Solve, by Cramer’s rule, the system of

equations
x1 − x2 = 3,
2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 = 17,
x2 + 2x3 = 7.
Solution
First we evaluate the determinants
So, the solution is (x1 = 2, x2 = - 1, x3 = 4).

Example 2:
In a T20 match, Chennai Super Kings needed
just 6 runs to win with 1 ball left to go in the
last over. The last ball was bowled and the
batsman at the crease hit it high up. The ball
traversed along a path in a vertical plane and
the equation of the path
is y = ax2 + bx + c with respect to a xy -
coordinate system in
the vertical plane and the ball traversed
through the points (10,8), (20,16), (30,18) ,
can you conclude that Chennai Super Kings
won the match?
Justify your answer. (All distances are
measured in metres and the meeting point of
the plane of the path with the farthest
boundary line is (70, 0).)
Solution
The path y = ax2 + bx + c passes through the
points (10,8), (20,16), (40, 22) . So, we
get the system of equations
100a + 10b + c = 8,
400a + 20b + c= 16,
1600a + 40b + c = 22.
To apply Cramer’s rule, we find

When x = 70, we get y = 6.

So, the ball went by 6 meters high over the
boundary line and it is impossible for a
fielder standing even just before the boundary
line to jump and catch the ball.
 Hence the ball went for a super six and the
Chennai Super Kings won the match.
(iii) Gaussian Elimination Method
This method can be applied even if the
coefficient matrix is singular matrix and
rectangular matrix. It is essentially the method
of substitution which we have already seen. In
this method, we transform the augmented
matrix of the system of linear equations into
row-echelon form and then by back-
substitution, we get the solution.
Example 1:
Solve the following system of linear equations,
by Gaussian elimination method :
4x + 3y + 6z = 25,
x + 5 y + 7z = 13,
2x + 9 y + z = 1.

Solution
Transforming the augmented matrix to echelon
form, we get

The equivalent system is written by using the

echelon form:
 R2 → R2 x (-
1)
R3 →R3 x( -1)

x + 5y + 7z = 13 , … (1)
17y + 22z = 27 , … (2)
199z = 398 . … (3)
Substituting z = 2, y = -1 in (1), we get x = 13 -
5 × (−1 ) − 7 × 2 = 4 .
So, the solution is ( x =4, y = - 1, z = 2 ).
Note. The above method of going from the last
equation to the first equation is called
the method of back substitution.

Example 2:
The upward speed v(t) of a rocket at time t
is approximated by v(t) = at2 + bt + c, 0 ≤ t ≤
100 where a, b, and c are constants. It has
been found that the speed at times t = 3, t = 6 ,
and t = 9 seconds are respectively, 64, 133,
and 208 miles per second respectively. Find
the speed at time t = 15 seconds. (Use
Gaussian elimination method.)

Solution
Since v(3) =64, v(6) = 133 and v(9) = 208 , we
get the following system of linear equations
9a +3b + c = 64 ,
36a + 6b + c = 133,
81a + 9b + c = 208 .
We solve the above system of linear equations
by Gaussian elimination method.
Reducing the augmented matrix to an
equivalent row-echelon form by using
elementary row operations, we get

Writing the equivalent equations from the row-

echelon matrix, we get
9a + 3b + c = 64, 2b + c = 41, c= 1.
By back substitution, we get

So, we get v (t) = 1/3 t2 + 20t + 1.

Hence, v(15) = 1/3 (225) + 20(15) + 1 = 75 +
300 + 1 = 376
EXERCISE 1.3

1. Solve the following system of linear equations by matrix inversion

method:
(i) 2x + 5 y = -2, x + 2 y = -3
(ii) 2x - y = 8, 3x + 2 y = -2
(iii) 2x + 3y - z = 9, x + y + z = 9, 3x - y - z = -1
(iv) x + y + z - 2 = 0, 6x - 4 y + 5z - 31 = 0, 5x + 2 y + 2z = 13
2. If find the products AB and BA
and hence solve the system of equations x + y + 2z = 1, 3x + 2 y + z = 7, 2x +
y + 3z = 2.
3. A man is appointed in a job with a monthly salary of certain amount and a
fixed amount of annual increment. If his salary was ₹ 19,800 per month at
the end of the first month after 3 years of service and ₹ 23,400 per month at
the end of the first month after 9 years of service, find his starting salary and
his annual increment. (Use matrix inversion method to solve the problem.)
4. Four men and 4 women can finish a piece of work jointly in 3 days while 2
men and 5 women can finish the same work jointly in 4 days. Find the time
taken by one man alone and that of one woman alone to finish the same work
by using matrix inversion method.
5. The prices of three commodities A, B and C are ₹ x, y and z per units
respectively. A person P purchases 4 units of B and sells two units of A and
5 units of C . Person Q purchases 2 units of C and sells 3 units of A and one
unit of B . Person R purchases one unit of A and sells 3 unit of B and one
unit of C . In the process, P,Q and R earn ₹ 15,000, ₹ 1,000 and ₹ 4,000
respectively. Find the prices per unit of A, B and C . (Use matrix inversion
method to solve the problem.)
Gauss-Jordan Method

Let A be a non-singular square matrix of order n . Let B be the inverse of

A.

Then, we have AB = BA = In . By the property of In , we have A = In A =

AIn .

Consider the equation A = In

A …………………………………………..(1)

Since A is non-singular, pre-multiplying by a sequence of elementary

matrices (row operations) on both sides of (1), A on the left-hand-side of
(1) is transformed to the identity matrix In and the same sequence of
elementary matrices (row operations) transforms In of the right-hand-side
of (1) to a matrix B. So, equation (1) transforms to In = BA. Hence, the
inverse of A is B. That is, A−1 = B.

Note

If E1 , E2 ,, Ek are elementary matrices (row operations) such that (Ek

 E2 E1 ) A = In , then A−1 = Ek  E2 E1.

Transforming a non-singular matrix A to the form In by applying

elementary row operations, is called Gauss-Jordan method. The steps in
finding A−1 by Gauss-Jordan method are given below:

Step 1

Augment the identity matrix In on the right-side of A to get the matrix [ A

| In ] .
Step 2

Obtain elementary matrices (row operations) E1 , E2 ,, Ek such that (Ek

 E2 E1 ) A = In .

Apply E1 , E2 ,, Ek on [ A | In ] . Then [(Ek …… E2 E1 ) A | (Ek ….. E2

E1 ) In]. That is, [In | A−1 ].

Example 1.20

Find the inverse of the non-singular matrix A = , by Gauss-

Jordan method.

Solution

Applying Gauss-Jordan method, we get

Example 1.21
Find the inverse of A = by Gauss-Jordan method.

Solution

Applying Gauss-Jordan method, we get