O

Transducer - I |

1.1 Introduction

The primary objective of process control is to control the physical parameters such
as temperature, pressure, flow rate, force, level etc. The system used to maintain these
parameters constant, close to some desired specific value is called process control
system. These parameters may change because of internal and external disturbances
hence a constant corrective action is required to keep these parameters constant or
within the specified range.
The Fig. 1.1 shows the general arrangement of a process loop. It consists of four

elements,

Comparator
Error

Set point
Controller
Control
element
HRProcess Parameter
P

Measurement
of parameter

Process control loop

Fig. 1.1
4. Control element.
Measurement 3. Controller
1. Process 2. actual
to measure the value of the
it is necessary and hence require
for the proper feedback, electronic in nature
are
parameter P. Most of
the controllers form in most of the
is in electrical
feedback signal required level etc. Hence
electrical input. Hence
is temperature, pressure,
But actual parameter the output
practical process loops. which will not only
measure

in the feedback
path form. Many
a device is required signal in the electric
analog and produce the
parameter but will
produce proportional parameter
the physical
required to m e a s u r e So in broad
times the device is pneumatic pressure.
as
nonelectric such
which is also another form.
But the electrical
proportional signal of energy to
one form
sense a transducer converts

(1 1)
 and Process Control

signal proportional to
the
nonelectrical.
quantity
transduco
a n electrical instrumentation, a
transducer produces electrical cer can
interested in the
we are
measured. But as

be defined as, elect

A device which converts a physical quantity
into the proportional
electrical
called a transducer.
signal is frequene.
signal produced maysuch
be a voltage, current or
o r
frequency.
The electrical conversion. The process of transfo
to produce
transducer uses many effects A transducer is also called
signal from one form to other is
called transduction.
pick
up.
transducer consists of
two parts very closely ated
which are relats
Actually, electrical element and transductio
two parts are sernsing
or detecting tion
to each other. These
element is commonly known as sensor.
element. The sensing or detecting
a device that produces a measurable response to
Definition states that sensor is
condition.
change in a physical
The transduction element transtorms the output of the sensor to an electrical

shown in the Fig. 1.2.

output, as

Non-electrical Sensor
Transduction Electrical
Sensing
Juantity element response element signal
Fig. 1.2 Transducer elements in cascade

The range of an electrical signal used to represent analog signal in the

common

industrial environment is 0 to 5 V or 4 to 20 mA. In industrial

applications,
now-a-days, 4 to 20 mA range is most commonly used to represent analog signal. A
current of 4 mA represents a zero
output and current of 20 mA
represents a full scale
value i.e. 5 V in case of
voltage representation. The zero current condition represents
open circuit in the signal transmission line. Hence the standard
zero.
range is offset from

Many a times, the transducer is a

part of circuit and works with other elements
a
of that circuit to
produce the required output. Such a circuit is called signal
conditioning circuit.
1.2
Advantages of Electrical Transducers
A transducer is a device that
another in different form. receives energy from one
system and transmits it to
electrical and mechanical. Basically there are two types of transducers; namely
The mechanical
elements that
respond to transducers are those primary sensing
output in different form. For changes in the physical condition of a system and
temperature change then the example, when a bimetallic 8ive
output is the mechanical strip is subjected to a
of the strip. In displacement
a n d Prodc

nechanical transducers are distinguished from the electrical transducers on the basis
the output signal generated. The mechanical transducers generate output signa'
of
which is mechanical by
nature. The electrical transducers respond to non-electrical
ut
quantities but generate output signal which is electrical by nature. It is practically
always possible to use either mechanical or electrical transducer for the measurement
of any physical parameter. But it is observed that for each measurand, an electrical
transducers are prefered over the mechanical transducers.

The various advantages of electrical transducers are,

1. Electrical signals can be easily attenuated or amplified and can be brought
upto a level suitable for various devices, with the help of static devices FGK

2. The power requirement of transducers is very small. The electrical systems can

be controlled with a small level of power.

3. The electrical output of the transducer can be easily used, transmitted and
processed for the purpose of measurement.
4. The reduced effects of friction and other mechanical nonlinearities.

5. Due to the integrated circuit technology, the electrical and electronic systems
are compact, having less weight and portable.

6. The data transmission through mechanicalis eliminated. Thus

means no

mechanical wear and tear and no possibility of mechanical failures exist.

7. The reduced effects of mass inertia problems.

In the modern world, the use of electrical transducers is must.
The main disadvantage of an electrical transducers is its cost. And while designing
must be
the circuit the effects of ageing and drifts of parameters of active components
considered. This makes the design complicated.

1.3 Classification of Transducers

classified according to their structures,
In general the electrical transducers are
Thus the
nature etc.
application area, method of energy conversion, output signal
electrical transducers are classified.
i) As active and passive transducers,
i) On the basis of transduction principle used,

ii) As analog and digital transducers,

and
iv) As primary and secondary transducers,
v As transducer and inverse transducer.
transducers in brief.
Let us discuss the classification of the electric
 Electrical Instrumentation 1-4
and Process Control

1.3.1 Active and Passive

Transducer
transducers.These
ansducers
transducer

proportional
proportional
to
to the
the
1.3.1.1 Active Transducers of
o
hich is
is source o
generating
ype
ype which
e
e x
x t
t e
e r
r n
n al
a l
Or
current)
are self any
a ny
Active
transducers
(i.e.
voltage
or

do
d o
no
n ott
re
r eq
quui
irre
e
following
commo
nonly used
an electricnl parameter t
trra
anns
sddu
ucce
errs
s

the
develop These
s u b d i v i d e d
into
m e a s u r e m e n t .

under be
can
They
their operatior
peration.

power for
types
1.3.1.2 Passive Transducers
Active transducers

Piezoelectric Electromagnetic

T h e r m o e l e c t r i c

Photovoltaic
Fig. 1.3
themselves. T o L .
electrical signal by obtain
any is sential
essent
transducers do not generate external
source of power
(R. I.
Passive an
transducers,

an
eletrical signal from such
the change
in an
electrical parameter
C
transducers depend upon transducers. They can be subdiid.
ivided
Passive driven
power
also known as externally
They are
used types.
into the following commonly

Passive transducers

Variable resistance Opto electronic Variable reactance

Photo Strain Thermistor Inductive Capacitive

conductors gauge

Variable Variable Variable

area separation permittivity

Photo Photo
emissive junctions

Eddy
Variable Variable LVDT Current
reluctance permeability

Fig. 1.4
1.3.2 According to Transduction Principle
be classified to principle used in transduction. Let
The transducers can according
few of them.
us see

1.3.2.1 Capacitlve Transduction

in capacitance. A
capacitive transduction, measurand is converted into change
a
In insulator
consists of two conductors (plates) separated by
an
canacitor basically distance between
either by changing the
A change in the capacitor occurs
(dielectric). 1.5.
change in the dielectric, as shown in the Fig.
fwo platess or by a

AG

AC

Moving
plate
Changing
dielectriC

(a) (b)
transduction
Fig. 1.5 Capacitive
1.3.2.2 Electromagnetic Transduction
In electromagnetic transduction,
measurand is converted into an electromotivve
conductor by
force (voltage) induced in a
in the absence
change in the magnetic flux, transducers
of excitation. Thus these types of
transducers.
are self-generating active type
a magnet or a
transduction
The relative motion between
Fig. 1.6 Electromagnetic of magnetic material
and an
piece 1.6.
in the magnetic flux as shown in the Fig.
electromagnet brings out the change

1.3.2.3 Inductive Transduction is

the measurand
In inductive transduction,
self inductance of a
converted into a change in the
the
coil. This is accomplished by displacing
AL single linked or attached to a
coil's core, which is
shown in the Fig. 1.7.
Fig. 1.7 Inductive transduction mechanical sensing element, as
 Process Contro

1.3.2.4 Piezoelectric Transduction

Aq
Or
S aV
C
(a) Compression
(b) Bending
Piozoelectric transduction
Fig. 1.8
converted into a change in electrostatie
transduction, measurand is
In piezoelectric stressed.
charge, q or voltage, V generated by crystals when mechanically
1.3.2.5 Photovoltaic Transduction
measurand is converted in the voltage generate
In photovoltaic transduction, the
shown in the Fig. 1.19,
when a junction between dissimilar materials is illuminated, as

1.3.2.6 Photoconductive Transduction

In photoconductive transduction, the measurand is converted into a change in
resistance (conductance) of a semiconductor material by a change in the amount of
illumination incident on the material, as shown in the Fig. 1.10.

Light *******
Light
**********

--
>AV

Fig. 1.9 Photovoltaic transduction Fig. 1.10 Photoconductive transduction

1.3.3 Analog and
Digital Transducers
The transducers can be classified on the basis of the output which
continuous function of time or
the output may be in discrete
may be
steps.
1.3.3.1 Analog Transducers
Ihese
transducers convert the input quantity into an
continuous
called
function of time. A strain gauge, LVDT,
analog output wn
time.
analog transducers as they thermocouples or thermist ion o
produce an output which is a
continuous
1.3.3.2 Digital Transducers
Digital transducers produce an electrical output in the form of pulses which forms
an unique code. Unique code is generated for each discrete value sensed.
1.3.4 Primary or Secondary Transducers
Some transducers consist of mechanical device along with the electrical device, In
Such transducers mechanical device acts as a primary transducer and converts physical
quantity into mechanical signal. The electrical device then converts mechanical signal
produced by primary transducer into an electrical signal. Therefore, electrical device
acts as a secondary transducer. For an example, in pressure measurement Bourdon's
tube acts as a primary transducer which converts a pressure into displacenent and
transducer which converts this displacement into an
LVDT acts as a secondary
equivalent electrical signal.

OPulley Bourdon
tube
Output
voltage
S
Fixed
s SLVDT
TITITATIIm end
Pressure

1.11 Pressure measurement (example of primary and secondary transducer

Fig.
Inverse Transducer
1.3.5 Transducer and inverse
non-electrical quantity into electrical quantity whereas
Transducers convert
non-electrical quantity. For example
transducer converts electrical quantity into electrical signai
sound signal into an
converts
transducer which into
microphone is a transducer which
converts electrical signal
inverse
whereas loudspeaker is an

sound signal.

1.3.6 Primary Sensing Elements of measured quantity into an

transformation
observed that the element is

Many times it is primary sensing

situations, a
the
difficult. In such element is to
sense
electrical quantity is sensing
main objective of the primary quantity
which c a n be
prererred. The of a physical
suitable form most of In
transform into a transducer.
easurand and most suitable
electrical quantity
using sense
measurand from
uen transduced into an are used to
elements into
or pressure
primary sensing force
E applications, the elements transform
Following
mechanical sensing devices.
The called force summing
lanical systems. elements a r e
l s p l a c e m e n t . Such
sensing elements.
m e c h a n i c a l sensing

commonly
used
SOme
of the
 Trans.
Electrical Instrumentation
and Process Control
1-8 ConvesionpresSure
Type force
o r

Mechanical spring devices

nto displacement.
Onverts into
Cantilever, springs, torsion pressure
bars, shafts, load cells.
C o n v e r t s

Pressure sensing devices displacement. into

Diaphragms, capsules, rate

bellows, bourdon tubes f l o w

C o n v e r t s

Flow rate sensing devices displacement.

Pitot tube, weirs, flumes.

an
1.4 Characteristics of Transducers reading
approaches

It is defined the closeness with

which the
of the
variable being
1. Accuracy : as
true
value,

accepted standard value or ideal value or

measured. withstand
rugetu
mechanically
Kuggedness The transducer should be
overloads. It should have overload protection. onal to the
proportionai
should be linearily
nearity: The output of the
transducer
have linear nput-ouput
quantity under m e a s u r e m e n t . It should
nput
characteristic.
the same, under
: The output of the transducer must be exactly
Kepeatability
same environmental conditions, when the same quantity is applied at the input

repeatedly.
55. High output: The transducer should give reasonably high output signal so
that it can be easily processed and measured. The output must be much larger
than noise. Now-a-days, digital
output is preferred in many applications.
6. High stability and reliability: The output of the transducer should be highly
stable and reliable that there will be minimum error in measurement. Ine
so

output must remain unaffected by environmental conditions such as change "

temperature, pressure, etc.
7.
Sensitivity The sensitivity of the electrical is defined as the
transducer
electrical output obtained per unit change in the
input quantity. For
example, physical
for a transducer used parameter
measurement, sensitivity will be used for temperature
for temp
always desirable for a given expressed in mV/°C A high 15

transducer. sensi .

8.
Dynamic range: For a transducer, the
it can be used over operating that
a wide range of range should be wid
measurement conditions.
Electrical Instrumentation Transducer I
and Process Control 1-9

size and shape with

The transducer should have smallest possible
9. Size :
and volume. This will make the
measurement system very
minimal weight
compact.
the transducer responds to
10. Speed of response : It is the rapidity with which
response of
the transducer
changes in the
measured quantity. The speed of
should be as high as practicable.

Selection Factor
1.5 Transducer
transducer for a application involves
given measurement
Picking the right and input
characteristics, desired system performance,
considering the transducer's selection
transducers, proper
Because there are so many kinds of
reguirements.
requires careful consideration.
will naturally depend
The selection of transducer
1. Nature of measurement:
for temperature
nature of quantity to be measured. For example,
upon the stress or strain,
be used; for measuring
measurement, temperature sensors will
strain gauges will be utilized.
of
transducer in way affects or changes the value
the any
2. Loading effect: If be introduced. The
transducer
under measurement, errors may
the parameter minimum.
minimum effect to keep the errors to
loading
is selected to have
study be made of the conditions
Environmental considerations: A careful
3. The
which a transducer is expected togive satisfactory output.
under
the transducer location are the temperature changes,
troublesome aspects of
interference.
shock and vibration, and electromagnetic
transduces are
some
due temperature changes,
to
To minimize the errors E, such
300° F, sue
For operation of
transducer beyond
compensated.
temperature difficult to design, and special materials
becomes extremely
temperature compensation
are used for the transducer
internal construction and bonding.
shock and
eliminate completely the errors due to
It is often very difficult to transducers should be
selected
minimum as possible,
Vibration. To have these errors as
mechanism. Proper damping may
with a minimum movable mass in the sensing and vibration
usefulness under high shock
extend the of a transducer's
range
conditions. strong
operate in the presence of varying
to
are often required
impedance, high output voltage,
Iransducers
with low output
electromagnetic fields. Transducers interferences.
to such
and short cable length are less susceptible
environments include:
for transducer
Other considerations

and cable installation,

Simplicity of mounting
 ii) Convenient size,
shape and weight, rical
iii) Resistance of corrosion, the electr

fhe output impedance

nce of
iv) Accessibility of the transducer for later repairs. De
4 selecteout
easuring system

must
must

compatibility : The transducer T h e o t

m

system used for measurement should be compatible

the transducer and the impedance impsed by the in selection
are
are
cost
such that one does not adversely affect the other in
involved
5. Cost and availability: General factors nce.
application,
on,
availability, basic simplicity, reliability, and low maintere given
merits
for a of m.
moving
transducers of comparatively equal
n u m b e r

While selecting m i n i m u m

the one that is most simple in operation and contains

parts would usually be selected. repair or co

c on
nttiir
n nu
uoou
uss
or
excessive
repair
Transducers are selected which do not require

calibration checking a compromise

application is normally
fora given
ucer
between a number of factors discussed above.