ELECTRIC VEHICLES

BASKET V

Prof. Manas Ranjan Padhi

CENTURION UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT, ODISHA

Introduction
An electric vehicle is one powered by an electric motor rather than a traditional petrol/diesel
engine. This electric motor is powered by rechargeable batteries that can be charged by common
household electricity.

History of electric vehicles

1900S
Electric cars are nothing new. Interest in motor vehicles increased greatly around the 1900s and
at that time there were about twice as many electric cars on the road than petrol/diesel cars. It
wasn’t until the 1920s that interest in electric cars dwindled. The reason was that electric cars
were limited by their low top speeds and low range (just a few miles). In addition, in 1912 the
electric starter motor was developed for petrol cars, eliminating the traditional drawback of
petrol cars: having to use a hand crank to get the car moving!
It was Henry Ford who put the nail in the electric car coffin when his company began to mass-
produce the Model T. This slashed the price of petrol cars to about half that of an electric car and
so in the early 1900s almost all electric car manufacturers began to cease making them.
The limited maximum speed of electric cars (up to 30mph) limited their practicality. For most of
the 20th century, British milk floats made up most of the world’s number of electric vehicles.
Interest in electric cars returned following the energy crises of the 1970s and 80s; with the
availability and price of oil being shown to be increasingly volatile, people could see the
potential benefits of battery-powered cars. A few big car companies brought out models and
some were sold to environmentally-minded members of the public. However, in general electric
vehicles were still losing out to the style and lower price of their petrol-fuelled cousins.

2000S
In the 2000s, the development of hybrid vehicles, plus another fuel crisis, saw the technology
adopted by larger numbers than ever before. Tesla’s Roadster, which went on sale in 2008, was a
game changer for the industry. The attractive design and extended range of the Roadster
appealed to a larger market than ever before and encouraged competitors such as Nissan and
Chevrolet to launch their own models.
As of September 2016, there are more than one million pure electric cars and vans owned
globally.

Working Principle of Electric Vehicle and Hybrid Electric Vehicle

There are two types of EV technology: hybrid and pure electric.
FULLY ELECTRIC VEHICLE/CAR
The main parts in an electric car are a rechargeable battery, controller and electric motor. First,
the battery is powered. Then the controller converts the current from DC-AC so that it can be
used by the motor. The motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.

HYBRID VEHICLE/CAR
The same technology exists in hybrid cars, alongside a small gasoline engine running a
generator. This powers the car at cruising speed, and batteries provide extra power when
accelerating. Batteries can recharge themselves when the car is decelerating or standing still.
Hybrid technology means that your petrol goes much further, saving you money and reducing
environmental impact.

What are the benefits of electric cars?

They produce no tailpipe emissions, so are better for the planet.
They are exempt from road tax and from the London Congestion Charge.
They often have a smoother drive than petrol cars.
They are cheaper to run.
Do not need much maintenance, as they have fewer moving parts.

Electric Vehicle Promotion in world

• The scenario analysis highlights the fact that it is quite possible to reach the EU 2020
targets without EVs. Meeting the longer term targets however, i.e. in 2050 (and likely
intermediary targets from 2030-2050), would prove to be very difficult without EVs, and
given the massive biofuel requirements, perhaps even impossible. Hydrogen based
personal vehicles could form part of the solution, but at this point in time it would appear
that EVs and PHEVs will be a more cost-effective solution. In addition, the production
and on-board conversion of hydrogen also involves additional processes that increase the
overall energy use for hydrogen vehicles relative to EVs.

• The scenarios demonstrate the likely future importance of EVs and PHEVs in the EU
passenger vehicle segment. Given the lifetime of a personal vehicle, a transition to such a
large segment of electrical drivetrains will take time, and equally important, will require
technology advancement and cost reductions. To spur this technology advancement and
cost reduction it is important that EV production and utilisation rates are increased in the
upcoming years. The primary objective of the remainder of this report is therefore to
identify and provide recommendations regarding EU level measures and incentives that
can promote EV diffusion.

Electric Vehicle Promotion in India

 • Electric Vehicles in India are still relatively new. They account for just 1 % of the total
vehicle density. India unveiled the ‘National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP)
2020’ in 2013 to address the issues of national energy security, vehicular pollution, and
growth of domestic manufacturing capabilities.

• While you might see a lot of e-rickshaws zipping across the narrow lanes of Karol Bagh
in Delhi, a major shift has yet to arrive towards Electric Vehicles. Only a handful of
electric cars are available in the market, and the small-vehicle market is still dominated
by conventional vehicles.

• “We are going to introduce electric vehicles in a very big way. We are going to make
electric vehicles self-sufficient like UJALA. The idea is that by 2030, not a single petrol
or diesel car should be sold in the country,” Power Minister Piyush Goyal said while
addressing the CII Annual Session, 2017.

Reasons for EV development

As modern culture and technology continue to develop, the growing presence of global warming
and irreversible climate change draws increasing amounts of concern from the world's
population. It has only been recently, when modern society has actually taken notice of these
changes and decided that something needs to change if the global warming process is to be
stopped.

Countries around the world are working to drastically reduce CO 2 emissions as well as other
harmful environmental pollutants. Amongst the most notable producers of these pollutants are
automobiles, which are almost exclusively powered by internal combustion engines and spew
out unhealthy emissions.

According to various reports, cars and trucks are responsible for almost 25% of CO 2 emission
and other major transportation methods account for another 12%. With immense quantities of
cars on the road today, pure combustion engines are quickly becoming a target of global
warming blame. One potential alternative to the world's dependence on standard combustion
engine vehicles are hybrid cars. Cost-effectiveness is also an important factor contributing to the
development of an environment friendly transportation sector.

Introduction to Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)

Consistent with the definition of hybrid above, the hybrid electric vehicle combines a gasoline
engine with an electric motor. An alternate arrangement is a diesel engine and an electric motor
(figure 1).

Figure 1: Components of a hybrid Vehicle that combines a pure gasoline with a pure EV.

As shown in Figure 1, a HEV is formed by merging components from a pure electrical vehicle
and a pure gasoline vehicle. The Electric Vehicle (EV) has an M/G which allows regenerative
braking for an EV; the M/G installed in the HEV enables regenerative braking. For the HEV, the
M/G is tucked directly behind the engine. In Honda hybrids, the M/G is connected directly to the
engine. The transmission appears next in line. This arrangement has two torque producers; the
M/G in motor mode, M-mode, and the gasoline engine. The battery and M/G are connected
electrically.

Functions of different parts of Electric Vehicle

Controller

An electric vehicle motor controller is a machine that is employed to regulate the torque
generated by the motors of electric vehicles by means of modifying the energy flow from the
power sources to the motor.

Brushless DC motor

A brushless DC motor (known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous electric

motor which is driven by direct current (DC) electricity.

Potentiometer

The signal from the potentiometers tells the controller how much power to deliver to the electric
car's motor.

Battery:

A rechargeable battery is made up of secondary cells. The most familiar rechargeable battery is
the leadacid battery that is commonly used as a car battery.

DC-to-DC converter

Therefore, an electric car has a normal 12-volt lead-acid battery to power all of the accessories.
To keep the battery charged, an electric car needs a DC-to-DC converter. This converter takes
in the DC power from the main battery array (at, for example, 300 volts DC) and converts it
down to 12 volts to recharge the accessory battery. When the car is on, the accessories get their
power from the DC-to-DC converter.
Vehicle Performance and transmission characteristics

Introduction

The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:

• The drive train configuration

• Various types of vehicle power plants

• The need of gearbox in a vehicle

• The mathematical model of vehicle performance

Drive train Configuration

An automotive drive train is shown in Figure 1 . It consists of:

• a power plant

• a clutch in a manual transmission or a torque converter in automatic transmission

• a gear box

• final drive

• differential shaft

• driven wheels

The torque and rotating speed from the output shaft of the power plant are transmitted to the
driven wheels through the clutch or torque converter, gearbox, final drive, differential and drive
shaft.

The clutch is used in manual transmission to couple or decouple the gearbox to the power plant.
The torque converter in an automatic transmission is hydrodynamic device, functioning as the
clutch in manual transmission with a continuously variable gear ratio.

The gearbox supplies a few gear ratios from its input shaft to its output shaft for the power plant
torque-speed profile to match the requirements of the load. The final drive is usually a pair of
gears that supply a further speed reduction and distribute the torque to each wheel through the
differential.
 Figure 1: An automobile power train

Vehicle power plant

There are two limiting factors to the maximum tractive effort of the vehicle:

• Maximum tractive effort that the tire-ground contact can support

• Tractive effort that the maximum torque of the power plant can produce with the given
driveline gear ratios.

The smaller of these factors will determine the performance potential of the vehicle. Usually it is
the second factor that limits the vehicles performance.

The classification of various types of power plants used in a vehicle is shown in Figure 2 .
Figure 2: Classification of vehicle power plat

In selecting a suitable power plant, the following factors are considered:

• Operating performance

• Economy

• Environment friendliness

For vehicular applications, the ideal performance characteristic of a power plant is constant
power output over the full speed range. Consequently, the torque varies hyperbolically with
respect to speed as shown in Figure 3 . This ideal performance characteristic of the power plant
will ensure that the maximum power is available at any vehicle speed, thus resulting in optimal
vehicle performance. In practice however, the torque is constrained to be constant a low speeds.
This is done so as not to be over the maxima limited by the adhesion between the tyre-ground
contact areas. The internal combustion (IC) engines are the most commonly used power plants
for the land vehicles. In hybrid and electric vehicle technology, the electric motor is used.
 Figure 3: Ideal performance characteristics for a vehicle power plant

Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engines used in the vehicles are based on two principles:

• spark ignition ( petrol engines ) principle

• Diesel principle.

The key features of the ICs based spark ignition principle are:

• high power/weight ratio

• good performance

• low combustion noise.

The disadvantages of are the ICs based spark ignition principle are:

• quality of fuel required

• higher fuel consumption.

The advantages of the diesel engines are:

• low fuel consumption

• low maintenance requirement due to absence of ignition system

• low fuel quality required

The disadvantages of the diesel engine are

• high level of particulate emission

• greater weight and higher price

• higher levels of noise

The two typical characteristic curves used to describe the engine characteristic are:

• torque vs. engine speed curve at full load (100% acceleration pedal position)

• power vs. engine speed curve at full load (100% acceleration pedal position)

These two characteristic curves are shown in Figure 4. In Figure 4 the following nomenclature is
used:

Various indices are used to facilitate comparison between different types of engine. The two
most important indices are:

• torque increase (torque elasticity) defined as

 (1)

• engine speed ratio defined as

(2)

Figure 4: Characteristic curves of an internal combustion engine

The higher value of the product τv better engine power at low and medium engine speeds. This
in turn means less frequent gear changing.
Electric Motor

The electric motors have are ideal for vehicle application because of the torque speed
characteristics of the motors (Figure 5). Electric motors are capable of delivering a high starting
torque. It is very important to select proper type of motor with a suitable rating. For example, it
is not accurate to simply refer to a 10 h.p. motor or a 15 h.p. motor, because horsepower varies
with volts and amps, and peak horsepower is much higher than the continuous rating.

Figure 5: Torque vs. speed and power vs. speed characteristics of electric motor
 Electric Powertrains

An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that is powered, at least in part, by electricity. EV

configurations include battery electric vehicles (BEVs) which are powered by 100% electric
energy, various hybrid- electric vehicles (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs). This summary presents the differences between these basic EV configurations.

Battery Electric Vehicles

A battery electric vehicle (BEV) is a vehicle that is powered entirely on electric energy, typically
a large electric motor and a large battery pack. Based on the type of transmission; the use of a
clutch, gearbox, differential, and fixed gearing; and the number of battery packs and motors there
are many variations on the BEV design. However, a basic BEV system is shown in Figure 1.

Transmissi
Motor/
Battery
Generator
on

Figure 1: Schematic of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) powertrain

Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Unlike a BEV, a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) relies on two energy sources, usually an internal
combustion engine and an electric battery and motor/generator. A Mild Hybrid is the least
electrified type of HEV. A Mild Hybrid is a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE)
vehicle with an oversized starter motor that can also be used as a generator, usually called an
integrated starter-generator (ISG) or a belted alternator starter (BAS), and an oversized battery
that powers and is recharged by the motor. A simple Mild Hybrid system is shown in Figure 2. In
a Mild Hybrid, the engine must always be on while the vehicle is moving. However, the
motor/generator can be used to enable idle stop in which the engine is turned off while the
vehicle is at idle. The motor/generator can be used at high loads to assist the engine and increase
vehicle performance. At low loads, it increases load on the engine and recharges the electric
battery.
 Liquid

Transmission
Engine
Fuel

Motor/
Battery Generator

Figure 2: Schematic of a Mild Hybrid powertrain

Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles

In a Series Hybrid there is a single path to power the wheels of the vehicle, but two energy
sources. As shown in figure 3, the fuel tank feeds an engine which is coupled to a generator to
charge the battery which provides electrical energy to a motor/generator to power the wheels
through a transmission although a direct coupling can also be used. The motor/generator is also
used to recharge the battery during deceleration and braking.

Liquid
Transmission

Fuel Motor/
Generator
Engine

Generator Battery

Figure 3: Schematic of a Series Hybrid powertrain

Although most Series Hybrids use an ICE, it is also possible to design a Series Hybrid using
a Fuel Cell powered by hydrogen, creating a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV).

Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles

In a Parallel Hybrid, there are two parallel paths to power the wheels of the vehicle: an engine
path and an electrical path, as shown in figure 4. The transmission couples the
motor/generator and the engine, allowing either, or both, to power the wheels. Control of a
Parallel Hybrid is much more complex that for a Series Hybrid because of the need to
efficiently couple the motor/generator and engine in a way that maintains driveability and
performance.

Liquid

Transmission
Engine
Fuel

Motor/
Battery Generator

Figure 4: Schematic of a parallel hybrid powertrain

Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles

A Series-Parallel HEV has both Series and Parallel energy paths. As shown in figure 5, a
system of motors and/or generators that sometimes includes a gearing or power split device
couples allows the engine to recharge the battery. Variations on this configuration can be very
complex or simple, depending on the number of motors/generators and how they are used.
These configurations can be classified as Complex hybrids (such as the Toyota Prius and Ford
Escape Hybrids), Split-Parallel hybrids, or Power-Split hybrids.
 Liquid

Transmission
Engine
Fuel

Motors/
Battery Generators

Figure 5: Schematic of a series-parallel hybrid powertrain

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is an HEV that can be plugged-in or
recharged from wall electricity. PHEVs are distinguished by much larger battery
packs when compared to other HEVs. The size of the battery defines the vehicle’s All
Electric Range (AER), which is generally in the range of 30 to 50 miles. PHEVs can
be of any hybrid configuration. Although no PHEVs are available on the market
today, a number of companies have begun to sell conversion kits and services to
convert a standard HEV into a PHEV by adding additional battery capacity and
modifying the vehicle controller and energy management system.
 Module 2
Basic Architecture of Electric Drive Trains

Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
Electric Vehicle (EV) Configuration
EV alternatives based on drivetrains
EV alternatives based on power source configuration
Single and Multi-motor drives
In wheel drives
Electric Vehicle (EV) Configurations
Compared to HEV, the configuration of EV is flexible. The reasons for this flexibility
are:

The energy flow in EV is mainly via flexible electrical wires rather than
bolted flanges or rigid shafts. Hence, distributed subsystems in the EV are
really achievable.
The EVs allow different propulsion arrangements such as independent four
wheels and in wheel drives.
In Figure 1 the general configuration of the EV is shown. The EV has three major
subsystems:
Electric propulsion
Energy source
Auxiliary system
The electric propulsion subsystem comprises of:
The electronic controller
Power converter
Electric Motor (EM)
Mechanical transmission
Driving wheels

The energy source subsystem consists of

The energy source (battery, fuel cell, ultracapacitor)
Energy management unit
Energy refueling unit
The auxiliary subsystem consists of
Power steering unit
Temperature control unit
Auxiliary power supply

In Figure 1 the black line represents the mechanical link, the green line represents the
electrical link and the blue line represents the control information communication.
Based on the control inputs from the brake and accelerator pedals, the electronic
controller provides proper control signals to switch on or off the power converter
which in turn regulates the power flow between the electric motor and the energy
source. The backward power flow is due to regenerative braking of the EV and this
regenerative energy can be stored provided the energy source is receptive.
The energy management unit cooperates with the electronic controller to control
regenerative braking and its energy recovery. It also works with the energy-refueling
unit to control refueling and to monitor usability of the energy source.
The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels
for all EV auxiliaries, especially the temperature control and power steering units.

Electric propulsion subsystem Wheel

Brake
Electronic Power Electric Mechanical
controller converter motor transmission

Accelerator
Wheel

Energy Auxiliary Power

management Energy Power steering
source
unit Supply unit
Steering
wheel

Energy Temperature
refueling control
unit unit
Energy source
subsystem
Auxiliary subsystem

Energy
source

Figure 1:General Configuration of a Electric Vehicle [1]

In modern EV’s configuration:
Three phase motors are generally used to provide the traction force
The power converter is a three-phase PWM inverter
Mechanical transmission is based on fixed gearing and a differential
Li-ion battery is typically selected as the energy source
The typical setup of the EV is shown in Figure 2.

Electric propulsion subsystem Wheel

Brake Electronic 3-phase Mechanical

PWM 3-phase
controller AC motor transmission
inverter
Accelerator
Wheel

Energy Auxiliary Power

management Battery Pack Power steering
unit Supply unit
Steering
wheel

Energy Temperature
refueling control
unit unit
Energy source
subsystem
Auxiliary subsystem

Figure 2:Typical Configuration of a Electric Vehicle [1]

Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Drivetrain Configuration

There are many possible EV configurations due the variations in electric propulsion
and energy sources. Based on these variations, six alternatives are possible as shown
in Figure 3. These six alternatives are

In Figure 3a a single EM configuration with gearbox (GB) and a clutch is

shown. It consists of an EM, a clutch (C), a gearbox, and a differential (D).
The clutch enables the connection or disconnection of power flow from EM to
the wheels. The gear consists of a set of gears with different gear ratios. With
the use of clutch and gearbox, the driver can shift the gear ratios and hence the
torque going to the wheels can be changed. The wheels have high torque low
speed in the lower gears and high-speed low torque in the higher gears.
 In Figure 3b a single EM configuration without the gearbox and the clutch is
shown. The advantage of this configuration is that the weight of the
transmission is reduced. However, this configuration demands a more
complex control of the EM to provide the necessary torque to the wheels.

Figure 3c shows a configuration of EV using one EM. It is a transverse front

EM front wheel drive configuration. It has a fixed gearing and differential and
they are integrated into a single assembly.

In Figure 3d a dual motor configuration is shown. In this configuration the

differential action of an EV when cornering can be electronically provided by
two electric motors.

In order to shorten the mechanical transmission path from the EM to the

driving wheel, the EM can be placed inside a wheel. This configuration is
called in-wheel drive. Figure 3e shows this configuration in which fixed
planetary gearing is employed to reduce the motor speed to the desired wheel
speed.

In Figure 3f an EV configuration without any mechanical gearing is shown.

By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing, the in-wheel drive can be
realized by installing a low speed outer-rotor electric motor inside a wheel.

C
M GB D MFG D

Figure 3a: EV configuration with clutch, gearbox and Figure 3b: EV configuration without clutch and gearbox
differential [1] [1]

FG
M M
FG
D M
FG

Figure 3c:EV configuration with clutch, gearbox Figure 3d:EV configuration with two EM [1]
and differential [1]
Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Power Source
Configuration
Besides the variations in electric propulsion, there are other EV configurations due to
variations in energy sources. There are five configurations possible and they are:

Configuration 1: It is a simple battery powered configuration, Figure 4a.

The battery may be distributed around the vehicle, packed together at the
vehicle back or located beneath the vehicle chassis. The battery in this case
should have reasonable specific energy and specific power and should be able
to accept regenerative energy during braking. In case of EVs, the battery
should have both high specific energy and specific power because high
specific power governs the driving range while the high power density
governs the acceleration rate and hill climbing capability.

Configuration 2: Instead of two batteries, this design uses two different

batteries, Figure 4b. One battery is optimized for high specific energy and the
other for high specific power.

Configuration 3: In this arrangement fuel cell is used, Figure 4c. The battery
is an energy storage device, whereas the fuel cell is an energy generation
device. The operation principle of fuel cells is a reverse process of
electrolysis. In reverse and electrolysis, hydrogen and oxygen gases combine
to form electricity and water. The hydrogen gas used by the fuel cell can be
stored in an on-board tank whereas oxygen gas is extracted from air. Since
fuel cell can offer high specific energy but cannot accept regenerative energy,
it is preferable to combine it with battery with high specific power and high-
energy receptivity.

Configuration 4: Rather than storing it as a compressed gas, a liquid or a

metal hydride, hydrogen can be can be generated on-board using liquid fuels
such as methanol, Figure 4d. In this case a mini reformer is installed in the
EV to produce necessary hydrogen gas for the fuel cell.

Configuration 5: In fuel cell and battery combination, the battery is selected

to provide high specific power and high-energy receptivity. In this
configuration a battery and supercapacitor combination is used as an energy
source, Figure 4e. The battery used in this configuration is a high energy
density device whereas the supercapacitor provides high specific power and
energy receptivity. Usually, the supercapacitors are of relatively low voltage
 levels, an additional dc-dc power converter is needed to interface between the
battery and capacitor terminals.

B
B P P
B

Figure 4a: EV configuration with battery source [1] Figure 4b: EV configuration with two battery sources [1]

FC R FC
P P
B B

Figure 4c: EV configuration with battery and fuel cell Figure 4d: EV configuration with multiple energy sources
sources [1] [1]

B
B

C P P P
FW P

Figure 4e: EV configuration with battery and Figure 4f: EV configuration with battery and
capacitors sources [1] flywheel sources
Single and Multi-motor Drives
A differential is a standard component for conventional vehicles. When a vehicle is rounding a curved road,
the outer wheel needs to travel on a larger radius than the inner wheel. Thus, the differential adjusts the
relative speeds of the wheels. If relative speeds of the wheels are not adjusted, then the wheels will slip and
result in tire wear, steering difficulties and poor road holding. In case of EVs, it is possible to dispense the
mechanical differential by using two or even four EMs. With the use of multiple EMs, each wheel can be
coupled to an EM and this will enable independent control of speed of each wheel in such a way that the
differential action can be electronically achieved. In Figure 5, a typical dual motor drive with an electronic
differential is shown.

Wheel Wheel
ω >ω
out in

ω ω
in
out

EM 1 EM 2
with fixed with fixed
gearing gearing

Figure 5: Differential action [1]

In Wheel Drives
By placing an electric motor inside the wheel, the in wheel motor has the advantage that the mechanical
transmission path between the electric motor and the wheel can be minimized. Two possible configurations
for in wheel drives are:

When a high-speed inner-rotor motor is used (Figure 6a) then a fixed speed-reduction gear becomes
necessary to attain a realistic wheel speed. In general, speed reduction is achieved using a planetary
gear set. This planetary gear is mounted between the motor shaft and the wheel rim. Usually this
motor is designed to operate up to 1000 rpm so as to give high power density.
In case outer rotor motor is used (Figure 6b), then the transmission can be
totally removed and the outer rotor acts as the wheel rim and the motor speed is equivalent to the
 wheel speed and no gears are required.
The tradeoffs of the high-speed inner rotor motor are:
It has the advantage of smaller size, lighter weight and lower cost
Needs additional planetary gearset
The tradeoffs of outer-rotor motor are
Low speed and hence does not need additional gears

The drawbacks are larger size, weight and cost because of the low speed design.
Inner-rotor Outer-rotor
Tire Tire

Rim

Rim
PM
Brake
Wheel Brake Motor Winding

Motor Winding Wheel

Bearing
PM Bearing Encoder
Planetary gear set

PM Encoder Bearing
Wheel
Bearing
Motor Winding Motor Winding

Brake
Brake
Wheel PM
Rim Rim

Tire
Tire

Figure 6a: Inner rotor In Wheel drive [1] Figure 6b: Outer rotor In Wheel drive [1]

Considerations of EMs used in EVs

The requirements of EMs used in EVs are:
Frequent start/stop
High rate of acceleration and deceleration
High torque low speed hill climbing
Low torque cruising
Very wide speed range of operation
The EMs for EVs are unique and their major differences with respect to industrial motors in load
requirement, performance specification and operating environment are as follows:

EV motors need to produce the maximum torque that is four to five times of the rated torque for
acceleration and hill climbing, while industrial motors generally offer the maximum torque that is
twice of the rated torque for overload operation

EV motors need to achieve four to five times the base speed for highway cruising, while industrial
motors generally achieve up to twice the base speed for constant power operation

EV motors require high power density as well as good efficiency map (high efficiency over wide
speed and torque ranges), while industrial motors are generally optimized to give high efficiency at a
rated point.

EV motors need to be installed in mobile vehicles with harsh operating conditions such as high
temperature, bad weather and frequent vibration, while industrial motors are generally located in
fixed places.
 Energy Storage

Batteries
Introduction
A battery consists of two or more electric cells joined together. The cells convert
chemical energy to electrical energy. The cells consist of positive and negative electrodes
joined by an electrolyte. It is the chemical reaction between the electrodes and the
electrolyte which generates DC electricity. In the case of secondary or rechargeable
batteries, the chemical reaction can be reversed by reversing the current and the battery
returned to a charged state.
The ‘lead acid’ battery is the most well-known battery.
The first electric vehicle using rechargeable batteries preceded the invention of the
rechargeable lead acid by quarter of a century, and there are a very large number of
materials and electrolytes that can be combined to form a battery. However, only a
relatively small number of combinations have been developed as commercial
rechargeable electric batteries suitable for use in vehicles. At present these include lead
acid, nickel iron, nickel cadmium, nickel metal hydride, lithium polymer and lithium
iron, sodium sulphur and sodium metal chloride.
In this lecture the different types of the energy storage devices are presented. The
following topics are covered in this lecture:
Overview of Batteries
Battery Parameters
Lead acid batteries
Lithium ion batteries
Metal air batteries
Battery Charging
Overview of Batteries
From the electric vehicle designer’s‘blackpoint box’ which has a range of performance criter

specific energy
energy density
specific power
typical voltages
amp hour efficiency
energy efficiency
commercial availability
cost, operating temperatures
self-discharge rates
number of life cycles
recharge rates
The designer also needs to understand how energy availability varies with regard to:
ambient temperature
charge and discharge rates
battery geometry
optimum temperature
charging methods
cooling needs.
However, at least a basic understanding of the battery chemistry is very important,
otherwise the performance and maintenance requirements of the different types, and most
of the disappointments connected with battery use, such as their limited life, self-
discharge, reduced efficiency at higher currents.
Battery Parameters
Cell and battery voltages

All electric cells have nominal voltages which gives the approximate voltage when the cell is delivering
electrical power. The cells can be connected in series to give the overall voltage required. The
‘internalbatteryresistance’shown in Figure 1. The battery is represented as having a fixed voltage E, but
the voltage at the terminals is a different voltage V , because of the voltage across the internal resistance R.
Assuming that a current I is flowing out of the battery, as in Fig. 1, then by basic circuit theory we can say
that:

V E IR (1)

I
R
V External
Load
E

Fig. 1 Simple equivalent circuit model of a battery. This battery is composed of six cells

Charge (or Ahr) capacity

The electric charge that a battery can supply is clearly a most crucial parameter. The
SI unit for this is the Coulomb, the charge when one Amp flows for one second. The
capacity of a battery might be, say, 10Amphours. This means it can provide 1Amp for 10
hours.

Energy stored

The energy stored in a battery depends on its voltage, and the charge stored. The SI
unit is the Joule, but this is an inconveniently small unit, and so we use the Whr instead.

Energy in Whr V Ahr (2)

 Specific energy

Specific energy is the amount of electrical energy stored for every kilogram of battery
mass. It has units of Wh.kg−1.
Energy density

Energy density is the amount of electrical energy stored per cubic metre of battery
volume. It normally has units of Wh.m−3.
Specific power

Specific power is the amount of power obtained per kilogram of battery. It is a highly
variable and rather anomalous quantity, since the power given out by the battery depends
far more upon the load connected to it than the battery itself.

Ahr (or charge) efficiency

In an ideal world a battery would return the entire charge put into it, in which case the
amp hour efficiency is 100%. However, no battery does; its charging efficiency is less
than 100%. The precise value will vary with different types of battery, temperature and
rate of charge. It will also vary with the state of charge.

Energy efficiency

This is another very important parameter and it is defined as the ratio of electrical
energy supplied by a battery to the amount of electrical energy required to return it to the
state before discharge.

Self-discharge rates

Most batteries discharge when left unused, and this is known as self-discharge. This is
important as it means some batteries cannot be left for long periods without recharging.
The rate varies with battery type, and with other factors such as temperature; higher
temperatures greatly increase self-discharge.
 Battery temperature, heating and cooling needs

Although most batteries run at ambient temperature, some run at higher temperatures and
need heating to start with and then cooling when in use. In others, battery performance
drops off at low temperatures, which is undesirable, but this problem could be overcome
by heating the battery. When choosing a battery the designer needs to be aware of battery
temperature, heating and cooling needs, and has to take these into consideration during
the vehicle design process.

Battery life and number of deep cycles

Most rechargeable batteries will only undergo a few hundred deep cycles to 20% of the
battery charge. However, the exact number depends on the battery type, and also on the
details of the battery design, and on how the battery is used. This is a very important
figure in a battery specification, as it reflects in the lifetime of the battery, which in turn
reflects in electric vehicle running costs.
Lead Acid Batteries
Introduction
The best known and most widely used battery for electric vehicles is the lead acid battery.
Lead acid batteries are widely used in IC engine vehicles and as such are well known.
However for electric vehicles, more robust lead acid batteries that withstand deep cycling
and use a gel rather than a liquid electrolyte are used. These batteries are more expensive
to produce.
In the lead acid cells the negative plates have a spongy lead as their active material,
whilst the positive plates have an active material of lead dioxide. The plates are immersed
in an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid combines with the lead and
the lead oxide to produce lead sulphate and water, electrical energy being released during
the process. The overall reaction is:

Pb PbO2 2H 2 SO4 2PbSO4 2 H 2O (3)

The reactions on each electrode of the battery are shown in Fig. 2. In the upper part of the
diagram the battery is discharging. Both electrode reactions result in the formation of lead
sulphate. The electrolyte gradually loses the sulphuric acid, and becomes more dilute.
When being charged, as in the lower half of Figure 2, the electrodes revert to lead and
lead dioxide. The electrolyte also recovers its sulphuric acid, and the concentration rises.
The lead acid battery is the most commonly used rechargeable battery in anything but the
smallest of systems. The main reasons for this are that the main constituents (lead,
sulphuric acid, a plastic container) are not expensive, that it performs reliably, and that it
has a comparatively high voltage of about 2V per cell. The overall characteristics of the
battery are given in Table I.
The figure given in Table I of 0.per022cell is Ωarule of thumb figure taken from a range
of good quality traction batteries. A good estimate of the internal resistance of a lead acid
battery is thus:
0.022
R No. of Cells Ohms (4)
C
10
 Table I Nominal battery parameters for lead acid batteries

Specific energy 20–35 Wh.kg−1 depe

Energy density 54–95Wh.L−1
Specific power ∼250 W.kg−1 befo
very greatly
Nominal cell 2V
voltage
Amphour ∼80%, varies with rate of discharge &

efficiency temp.
Internal resistance Extremely low, ∼0.022_ per cell for 1

Amphour cell
Commercially Readily availablefrom several
available manufacturers
Operating Ambient, poor performance in extreme
temperature cold
Self-discharge ∼2% per day, but see text below

Number of life Up to 800 to 80% capacity

cycles
Recharge time 8 h (but 90% recharge in 1 h possible)
 Positive electrode changes from lead to lead sulphate

Pb SO 2 PbSO 2e
4 4

2 H SO 4H 2SO2
2 4 4
Load
2 eg Electric Motor
PbO 4H SO 2 e PbSO 2H O
2 4 4 2

Electrons flow round

Negative electrode changes from lead peroxide to lead sulphate
the external circuit

Reactions during the discharge of the lead acid battery.

Note that the electrolyte loses suphuric acid and gains water.

Positive electrode changes back from lead sulphate to lead.

PbSO 2e Pb SO2
4 4

2 2
2H 2O 4H 2O ;4H 2SO 4 2H 2 SO4
External DC Power
2 2 Supply
PbSO 2O PbO SO 2 e
4 2 4

Negative electrode changes back from lead sulphate to lead peroxide

Reaction during the charging of the lead acid battery.

Note that the electrolyte suphuric acid concentration
increases.

Fig. 2 The reactions during the charge and discharge of the lead acid battery
 Battery charging

Charging a lead acid battery is a complex procedure and, as with any battery, if carried
out incorrectly it will quickly ruin the battery and decrease its life. As we have seen, the
charging must not be carried out at too high a voltage, or water loss results.
There are differing views on the best way of charging lead acid batteries and it is essential that, once a
battery is chosen, th
The most commonly used technique for lead acid batteries is called multiple steps
charging. In this method the battery is charged until the cell voltage is raised to a
predetermined level. The current is then switched off and the cell voltage is allowed to
decay to another predetermined level and the current is then switched on again.

Lithium Batteries

Since the late 1980s rechargeable lithium cells have come onto the market. They offer
greatly increased energy density in comparison with other rechargeable batteries, though
at greatly increased cost. It is a well-established feature of the most expensive laptop
computers and mobile phones that lithium rechargeable batteries are specified, rather than
the lower cost NiCad or NiHM cells that we have been considering earlier.
The lithium batteries are of following types:
Lithium polymer batteries
Lithium ion batteries
In the following subsections each of the above two battery types are described.

The lithium polymer battery

The lithium polymer battery uses lithium metal for the negative electrode and a transition
metal intercalation oxide for the positive. In the resulting chemical reaction the lithium
combines with the metal oxide to form a lithium metal oxide and release energy. When
the battery is recharged the chemical reaction is reversed. The lithium is thus both a
reactant and the mobile ion that moves through the electrolyte. The overall chemical
reaction is:

xLi M y Oz Lix M y Oz (5)

The lithium ion battery

The lithium ion battery was introduced in the early 1990s and it uses a lithiated transition
metal intercalation oxide for the positive electrode and lithiated carbon for the negative
electrode. The electrolyte is either a liquid organic solution or a solid polymer. Electrical
energy is obtained from the combination of the lithium carbon and the lithium metal
oxide to form carbon and lithium metal oxide. The overall chemical reaction for the
battery is:

C6 Lix M y Oz 6C Lix M y Oz (6)

The essential features of the battery are shown in Table II. An important point about
lithium ion batteries is that accurate control of voltage is needed when charging lithium
cells. If it is slightly too high it can damage the battery, and if too low the battery will be
insufficiently charged. Suitable commercial chargers are being developed along with the
battery.
Table II Nominal battery parameters for lithium ion batteries.

Specific energy 90 Wh.kg−1

Energy density 153 Wh.L−1
Specific power 300 W.kg−1
Nominal cell 3.5V
voltage
Amphour Very good
efficiency
Internal resistance Very low
Commercially Only in very small cells not suitable for
available electric vehicles
Operating Ambient
temperature
Self-discharge Very low, ∼10% per month

Number of life >1000

cycles
Recharge time 2–3 h

Metal Air Batteries

The metal air batteries represent an entirely different development, in the sense that the
batteries cannot be recharged simply by reversing the current. Instead the spent metal
electrodes must be replaced by new ones. The metal electrodes can thus be considered as
a kind of fuel.
The aluminium air battery
The basic chemical reaction of the aluminium air battery is essentially simple.
Aluminium is combined with oxygen from the air and water to form aluminium
hydroxide, releasing electrical energy in the process. The reaction is irreversible. The
overall chemical reaction is:

4AI 3O2 6H 2 O 4AI (OH )3 (7)

The aluminium forms the negative electrode of the cell, and it typically starts as a plate
about 1cm thick. As the reaction proceeds the electrode becomes smaller and smaller.
The positive electrode is typically a porous structure, consisting of a metal mesh onto
which is pressed a layer of catalysed carbon. A thin layer of PTFE gives it the necessary
porosity to let the oxygen in, but prevent the liquid electrolyte getting out. The electrolyte
is an alkaline solution, usually potassium hydroxide.

The battery is recharged by replacing the used negative electrodes. The electrolyte will
normally also be replenished, as it will be contaminated with the aluminium hydroxide.
The essential characteristics of the aluminium air battery are shown in Table III. The big
drawback of the aluminium air battery is its extremely low specific power.
Table III Nominal battery parameters for aluminium air batteries

Specific energy 225 Wh.kg−1

Energy density 195 Wh.L−1
Specific power 10 W.kg−1
Nominal cell voltage 1.4V
Amphour efficiency N/A
Internal resistance Rather high, hence low power
Commercially available Stationary systems only available
Operating temperature Ambient
Self-discharge Very high (>10% per day) normally, but the
electrolyte can
be pumped out, which makes it very low
Number of life cycles 1000 or more
Recharge time 10min, while the fuel is replaced
The zinc air battery
The zinc air battery is similar in many ways to the aluminium air battery but it has a
much better overall performance, particularly with regard to specific power which is
nearly ten times that of the aluminium air battery, making it suitable for use in road
vehicles. The structure is similar, with a porous positive electrode at which oxygen reacts
with the electrolyte. The electrolyte is a liquid alkaline solution. The negative electrode is
solid zinc.
The energy from the battery is obtained by combining zinc with the oxygen in the air and
forming zinc oxide. Alternatively, depending on the state of the electrodes and
electrolyte, zinc hydroxide may be formed, as for the aluminium-air cell. The process is
normally irreversible. The general characteristics of the battery are shown in Table IV. A
few manufacturers have claimed to produce electrically rechargeable zinc-air batteries,
but the number of cycles is usually quite small. The more normal way of recharging is as
for the aluminium air cell, which is by replacing the negative electrodes.
NPTEL –Electrical Engineering – Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

Table IV Nominal battery parameters for zinc air batteries

Specific energy 230 Wh.kg−1

Energy density 270 Wh.L−1
Specific power 105 W.kg−1
Nominal cell 1.2V
voltage
Amphour Not applicable
efficiency
Internal resistance Medium
Commercially A very few suppliers
available
Operating Ambient
temperature
Self-discharge High, as electrolyte is left
in cell
Number of life >2000
cycles
Recharge time 10min, while the fuel is
replaced
Fuel Cell
In this lecture the energy storage (fuel cell) is presented. The following topics are
covered in this lecture:
Fuel cell
Issues in fuel cell
Hydrogen fuel cell
Fuel cell thermodynamics
Main reasons for loss in voltage

Fuel Cell

Introduction
Fuel cells are hardly a new idea. They were invented in about 1840, but they are yet to
really make their mark as a power source for electric vehicles. However, this might be set
to change over the next 20 or 30 years. Certainly most of the major motor companies are
spending very large sums of money developing fuel cell powered vehicles. The basic
principle of the fuel cell is that it uses hydrogen fuel to produce electricity in a battery-
like device to be explained in the next section. The basic chemical reaction is:

2H 2 O2 2H 2 O (1)
The product is thus water, and energy. Because the types of fuel cell likely to be used
∼◦

in vehicles work at quite modest temperatures ( 85 C) there is no nitrous oxide produced

by reactions between the components of the air used in the cell. A fuel cell vehicle could
thus be described as zero-emission. Furthermore, because they run off a fairly normal
chemical fuel (hydrogen), very reasonable energies can be stored, and the range of fuel
cell vehicles is potentially quite satisfactory. They thus offer the only real prospect of a
silent zero-emission vehicle with a range and performance broadly comparable with IC
engine vehicles. It is not surprising then that there have, for many years, been those who
have seen fuel cells as a technology that shows great promise, and could even make
serious inroads into the domination of the internal combustion engine.
Main issues in the fuel cell
There are many problems and challenges for fuel cells to overcome before they
become a commercial reality as a vehicle power source. The main problems centre on the
following issues.

Cost: Fuel cells are currently far more expensive than IC engines, and even hybrid
IC/electric systems.

Water management: It is not at all self-evident why water management should

be such an important and difficult issue with automotive fuel cells.

Cooling: The thermal management of fuel cells is actually rather more difficult
than for IC engines.
Hydrogen supply: Hydrogen is the preferred fuel for fuel cells, but hydrogen is
very difficult to store and transport. does the hydrogen come from’ these issu

so many rival solutions.

However, there is great hope that these problems can be overcome, and fuel cells can
be the basis of less environmentally damaging transport.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells: Basic Principles

Electrode reactions
We have seen that the basic principle of the fuel cell is the release of energy following
a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. The key difference between this and
simply burning the gas is that the energy is released as an electric current, rather that heat.
How is this electric current produced?
To understand this we need to consider the separate reactions taking place at each
electrode. These important details vary for different types of fuel cell, but if we start with
a cell based on an acid electrolyte, we shall consider the simplest and the most common
type.
At the anode of an acid electrolyte fuel cell the hydrogen gas ionizes, releasing
electrons and creating H+ ions (or protons).

2H2 4 H 4e (2)
 This reaction releases energy. At the cathode, oxygen reacts with electrons taken from
the electrode, and H+ ions from the electrolyte, to form water.

O2 4e 4H 2H 2O (3)

Clearly, for both these reactions to proceed continuously, electrons produced at the
anode must pass through an electrical circuit to the cathode. Also, H + ions must pass
through the electrolyte. An acid is a fluid with free H + ions, and so serves this purpose
very well. Certain polymers can also be made to contain mobile H + ions.
Different electrolytes

The reactions given above may seem simple enough, but they do not proceed rapidly
in normal circumstances. Also, the fact that hydrogen has to be used as a fuel is a
disadvantage. To solve these and other problems many different fuel cell types have been
tried. The different types are usually distinguished by the electrolyte that is used, though
there are always other important differences as well.

2H 2 4H 4e

H Ions through electrolyte

Load
ex: electric motor
O2 4e 4H 2H2O

Oxygen, usually from Electrons flow round

the air the external circuit
Fig. 1 The reactions at the electrodes, and the electron movement, in a fuel cell with an acid Electrolyte
 Table I: Data for different types of fuel cell

Fuel cell type Mobile Operating Applications and notes

ion temp.
Alkaline (AFC) OH− 50–200°C Used in space vehicles, e.g.
Apollo, Shuttle.
Proton exchange H+ 30-100°C Vehicles and mobile applications,
membrane and for lower power CHP systems
(PEMFC)
Direct H+ 20-90°C Suitable for portable electronic
methanol(DMFC) systems of low power, running for
long times
Phosphoric acid H+ 220°C Large numbers of 200kW CHP
(PAFC) systems in use
Molten carbonate CO32- 650°C Suitable for medium to large scale
(MCFC) CHP systems, up to MW capacity
Solid oxide (SOFC) O2- 500-1000°C Suitable for all sizes of CHP
systems, 2 kW to multi MW
 Module-3

Controller:
The controller takes power from the batteries and delivers it to the motor. The accelerator pedal
hooks to a pair of potentiometers (variable resistors), and these potentiometers provide the
signal that tells the controller how much power it is supposed to deliver. The controller can
deliver zero power (when the car is stopped), full power (when the driver floors the accelerator
pedal), or any power level in between.

The controller normally dominates the scene when you open the hood, as you can see here:

The 300-volt, 50-kilowatt controller for this electric car is the box marked "U.S.
Electricar."
In this car, the controller takes in 300 volts DC from the battery pack. It converts it into a
maximum of 240 volts AC, three-phase, to send to the motor. It does this using very
large transistors that rapidly turn the batteries' voltage on and off to create a sine wave.

When you push on the gas pedal, a cable from the pedal connects to these two potentiometers:

The potentiometers hook to the gas pedal and send a signal to the controller.

The signal from the potentiometers tells the controller how much power to deliver to the electric
car's motor. There are two potentiometers for safety's sake. The controller reads both
potentiometers and makes sure that their signals are equal. If they are not, then the controller
does not operate. This arrangement guards against a situation where a potentiometer fails in the
full-on position.
Eleectric Vehicle Motors:

The commonly used motors in EVs are:

• AC motors

• Permanent magnet (PM) motors

• Series wound DC motors

• Shunt wound DC motors

The DC series motors were used in a number of prototype Electric Vehicle (EVs) and prior to
that mainly due to the ease of control. However, the size and maintenance requirements of DC
motors are making their use obsolete. The recent EVs and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) use
AC, PM and Switched Reluctance motors. A classification of motors used in EVs is shown
in Figure.
 Classification of electric motors used in EVs

The AC Induction Motor (IM) technology is very mature and significant research and
development activities have taken place in the area of induction motor drives. The control of IM
is more complex than DC motors, but the availability of fast digital processors, computational
complexity can easily be managed. The competitor to the induction motor is the permanent
magnet (PM) motor. The permanent magnet motors have magnets on the rotor, while the stator
construction is same as that of induction motor. The PM motors can be surface mounted type or
the magnets can be inset within the rotor. The PM motors can also be classified as sinusoidal
type or trapezoidal type depending on the flux density distribution in the air gap. Permanent
magnet motors with sinusoidal air gap flux distribution are called Permanent Magnet
synchronous Motors (PMSM) and the with trapezoidal air gap flux distribution are called
Brushless DC (BLDC) motors.

Permanent Magnet (PM) Machines

By using high energy magnets such as rare earth based magnets, a PM machine drive can be
designed with high power density, high speed and high operation efficiency. These advantages
are attractive for their application in EVs and HEVs. The major advantages of PM machines are:
High efficiency : The PM machines have a very high efficiency due to the use of PMs for
excitation which consume no power. Moreover, the absence of mechanical commutators and
brushes results in low mechanical friction losses.
High Power density : The use of high energy density magnets has allowed achieving very high
flux densities in the PM machines. As a result of high flux densities, high torque can be produced
from a given volume of motor compared to other motors of same volume.
Ease of Control : THE PM motors can be controlled as easily as DC motors because the control
variables are easily accessible and constant throughout the operation of the motor.

However, the PM machines also suffer from some disadvantages such as:

Cost : Rare-earth magnets commonly used in PM machines are very expensive.

Magnet Demagnetization : The magnets can be demagnetized by large opposing magnetomotive
force and high temperatures.
Inverter Failure : Due to magnets on the rotor, PM motors present major risks in the case of
short circuit failures of the inverters. The rotor is always energized and constantly induces EMF
in the short circuited windings. A very large current circulates in those windings and an
accordingly large torque tends to block the rotor. The dangers of blocking one or several wheels
of a vehicle are non-negligible.

Based on the shape of the back e.m.f induced in the stator windings, the PM motors can be
classified into two types:

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine with sinusoidal back e.m.f ( Figure 1a )

Brushless Permanent Magnet DC Machines (BLDC) with trapezoidal back e.m.f ( Figure 1b )
Based on the construction of the rotor, the PM machines can be broadly classified into three
categories:

Inner rotor machine (Figure 2a)

Outer rotor machine (Figure 2b)
Interior magnet rotor (Figure 2c)

Principle of Operation of PM Machine

In PM machines, the necessary rotor flux is present due to rotor PMs. Currents in the stator
windings generate the stator mmf. The zero relative speed between the stator mmf and the rotor
flux is achieved if the stator mmf is revolving at the same speed as the rotor flux , that is, rotor
speed and also in the same direction. The revolving stator mmf is the result of injecting a set of
polyphase currents phase shifted from each other by the same amount of phase shift between the
polyphase windings. For example, a three phase machine with three windings shifted in space by
electrical 120° between them produces a rotating magnetic field constant in magnitude and
travelling at an angular frequency of the currents (just as in case of Induction machines). The
rotor has permanent magnets on it, hence the flux produced by the rotor magnets start to chase
the stator mmf and as a result torque is produced. Since the relative speed between the stator
mmf and rotor flux has to be zero, the rotor moves at the same speed as the speed of the stator
mmf. Hence, the PM machines are inherently synchronous machines.
As the coils in the stator experience a change of flux linkages caused by the moving magnets,
there is an induced emf in the windings. The shape of the induced emf is very dependent on the
shape of the flux linkage. If the rotational electrical speed of the machine ω r and the air gap flux
is sinusoidal then it can be expressed as (Figure 3)

where (1)

Φm is the peak flux produced

ωr electrical speed of rotation of the rotor
ωmech is the mechanical speed of the rotor
Np is the number of poles of the motor
Permanent magnet DC motor

A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to provide
the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating
windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under
load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are
convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most
larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could
not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to
obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and
difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.

To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made
with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With
their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with
all optimally designed singly-fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors
resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure
starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically
links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

Brushless DC motor

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the BLDC design. In this
motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator is replaced by an external electronic
switch synchronised to the rotor's position. BLDC motors are typically 85–90% efficient or
more. Efficiency for a BLDC motor of up to 96.5% have been reported, [70] whereas DC motors
with brushgear are typically 75–80% efficient.

The BLDC motor's characteristic trapezoidal back-emf waveform is derived partly from the
stator windings being evenly distributed, and partly from the placement of the rotor's PMs. Also
known as electronically commutated DC or inside out DC motors, the stator windings of
trapezoidal BLDC motors can be with single-phase, two-phase or three-phase and use Hall effect
sensors mounted on their windings for rotor position sensing and low cost closed-loop control of
the electronic commutator.

BLDC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk
drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and
mechanisms within office products, such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have
several advantages over conventional motors:

Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much
cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of
the fan's bearings.
Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a BLDC motor can be significantly longer
compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to
cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a BLDC
motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.
The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a convenient
tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the
tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal as well as provide running
speed feedback.
The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise
speed control.
BLDC motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better
suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone,
which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to occupants' health.
BLDC motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally
used in fans to get rid of unwanted heat.
They are also acoustically very quiet motors, which is an advantage if being used in
equipment that is affected by vibrations.

Modern BLDC motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger BLDC
motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in
high-performance electric model aircraft.
Switched reluctance motor

6/4 pole switched reluctance motor

Main article: Switched reluctance motor

The SRM has no brushes or PMs, and the rotor has no electric currents. Instead, torque comes
from a slight misalignment of poles on the rotor with poles on the stator. The rotor aligns itself
with the magnetic field of the stator, while the stator field windings are sequentially energized to
rotate the stator field.

The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least magnetic reluctance,
meaning the flux will flow through poles of the rotor that are closest to the energized poles of the
stator, thereby magnetizing those poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotor turns,
different windings will be energized, keeping the rotor turning.

SRMs are now being used in some appliances.

Synchronous motor

A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils

passing magnets at the same rate as the AC and resulting in a magnetic field that drives it.
Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this
with an induction motor, which must slip to produce torque. One type of synchronous motor is
like an induction motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used
to conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed
hence the name synchronous motor. Another type, for low load torque, has flats ground onto a
conventional squirrel-cage rotor to create discrete poles. Yet another, such as made by Hammond
for its pre-World War II clocks, and in the older Hammond organs, has no rotor windings and
discrete poles. It is not self-starting. The clock requires manual starting by a small knob on the
back, while the older Hammond organs had an auxiliary starting motor connected by a spring-
loaded manually operated switch.

Finally, hysteresis synchronous motors typically are (essentially) two-phase motors with a phase-
shifting capacitor for one phase. They start like induction motors, but when slip rate decreases
sufficiently, the rotor (a smooth cylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles
make it act like a PMSM. The rotor material, like that of a common nail, will stay magnetized,
but can also be demagnetized with little difficulty. Once running, the rotor poles stay in place;
they do not drift.

Low-power synchronous timing motors (such as those for traditional electric clocks) may have
multi-pole PM external cup rotors, and use shading coils to provide starting torque. Telechron
clock motors have shaded poles for starting torque, and a two-spoke ring rotor that performs like
a discrete two-pole rotor.

Regenerative Braking

Introduction:

In a battery-powered electric vehicle, regenerative braking (also called regen) is the conversion
of the vehicle’s kinetic energy into chemical energy stored in the battery, where it can be used
later to drive the vehicle. It is braking because it also serves to slow the vehicle. It is regenerative
because the energy is recaptured in the battery where it can be used again.

The kinetic energy stored in a moving vehicle is related to the mass and speed of the vehicle by
the equation E = ½mv². All else being equal, if your car is twice as heavy it has twice the kinetic
energy and if it is moving twice as fast it has four times the kinetic energy. Any time your car
slows down the kinetic energy stored in the vehicle has to go somewhere. Let’s take a look at
where this energy goes. There is always some kinetic energy consumed by the rolling resistance,
mechanical friction, and aerodynamics of your car. These bits of energy go into heating the road,
the surrounding air, and various spinning parts in your car. But the vast majority of the kinetic
energy is converted into heat by your brake pads when you stomp on the brakes. In the Tesla
Roadster, regenerative braking recovers some energy that would otherwise have been wasted in
the brakes.

Regenerative braking in a nutshell: Top: When you drive an electric vehicle, energy flows from
the batteries to the wheels via the electric motor. Bottom: When you brake, energy flows from the
wheels to the batteries via the motor, which works as an electric generator. Next time you switch
on the power, you can reuse the energy you stored during braking.
Working:

Electric trains, cars, and other electric vehicles are powered by electric motors connected
to batteries. When you're driving along, energy flows from the batteries to the motors, turning
the wheels and providing you with the kinetic energy you need to move. When you stop and hit
the brakes, the whole process goes into reverse: electronic circuits cut the power to the motors.
Now, your kinetic energy and momentum makes the wheels turn the motors, so the motors work
like generators and start producing electricity instead of consuming it. Power flows back from
these motor-generators to the batteries, charging them up. So a good proportion of the energy
you lose by braking is returned to the batteries and can be reused when you start off again. In
practice, regenerative brakes take time to slow things down, so most vehicles that use them also
have ordinary (friction) brakes working alongside (that's also a good idea in case the regenerative
brakes fail). That's one reason why regenerative brakes don't save 100 percent of your braking
energy.
High Voltage Safety Rules:

The term high voltage usually means electrical energy at voltages high enough to inflict harm on
living organisms.

Two factors considered in classifying a voltage as "high voltage" are the possibility of causing a
spark in air, and the danger of electric shock by contact or proximity.

The International Electro technical Commission define high voltage as above

1000 V for alternating current, and at least 1500 V for direct current—and distinguish it
from low voltage (50 to 1000 VAC or 120–1500 VDC) and extra low voltage (<50 VAC or
<120 VDC) circuits.

Voltages over approximately 50 volts can usually cause dangerous amounts of current to flow
through a human being who touches two points of a circuit—so safety standards, in general, are
more restrictive around such circuits

Voltages greater than 50 V applied across dry unbroken human skin can cause heart fibrillation if
they produce currents in body tissues that happen to pass through the chest area.

The voltage at which there is the danger of electrocution depends on the electrical
conductivity of dry human skin. Living human tissue can be protected from damage by the
insulating characteristics of dry skin up to around 50 volts. If the same skin becomes wet, if there
are wounds, or if the voltage is applied to electrodes that penetrate the skin, then even voltage
sources below 40 V can be lethal.
Accidental contact with high voltage supplying sufficient energy may result in severe injury or
death. This can occur as a person's body provides a path for current flow, causing tissue damage
and heart failure

Other injuries can include burns from the arc generated by the accidental contact. These burns
can be especially dangerous if the victim's airways are affected. Injuries may also be suffered as
a result of the physical forces experienced by people who fall from a great height or are thrown a
considerable distance.

Low-energy exposure to high voltage may be harmless, such as the spark produced in a dry
climate when touching a doorknob after walking across a carpeted floor. The voltage can be in
the thousand-volt range, but the current (the rate of charge transfer) is low.

Safety equipment used by electrical workers includes insulated rubber gloves and mats. These
protect the user from electric shock. Safety equipment is tested regularly to ensure it is still
protecting the user. Test regulations vary according to country. Testing companies can test at up
300,000 volts and offer services from glove testing to Elevated Working Platform (or EWP)
testing.