Classics in Mathematics

Richard Courant· Fritz John Introduction to Calculus and Analysis

Volume I
Springer-V erlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
 Richard Courant • Fritz John

Introd uction
to Calculus and Analysis
Volume I
Reprint of the 1989 Edition

Springer
Originally published in 1965 by Interscience Publishers, a division
of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Reprinted in 1989 by Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.

Mathematics Subject Classification (1991): 26-XX, 26-01

Cataloging in Publication Data applied for

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme

Courant, Richard:
Introduction to calcu1us and analysis / Richard Courant; Fritz John.- Reprint of the 1989 ed.- Berlin;
Heidelberg; New York; Barcelona; Hong Kong; London; Milan; Paris; Singapore; Tokyo: Springer
(Classics in mathematics)
VoL 1 (1999)
ISBN 978-3-540-65058-4 ISBN 978-3-642-58604-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-58604-0

Photograph of Richard Courant from: C. Reid, Courant in Gottingen

and New York. The Story of an Improbable Mathematician,
Springer New York, 1976
Photograph of Fritz John by kind permission of The Courant Institute
of Mathematical Sciences, New York

ISSN 1431-0821

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 Richard Courant Fritz John

Introduction to
Calculus and Analysis
Volume I

With 204 Illustrations

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

 Richard Courant (1888 - 1972) Fritz John
Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences
New York University
New York, NY 10012

Originally published in 1965 by Interscience Publishers, a division of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Mathematical Subject Classification: 26xx, 26-01

Printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright 1989 Springer Science+BusÎness Media New York

Originally published by Springer-Verlag New York, Inc in 1989
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98 7654 3 21

ISBN 978-3-540-65058-4 ISBN 978-3-642-58604-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-58604-0
 Preface

During the latter part of the seventeenth century the new mathe-
matical analysis emerged as the dominating force in mathematics.
It is characterized by the amazingly successful operation with infinite
processes or limits. Two of these processes, differentiation and inte-
gration, became the core of the systematic Differential and Integral
Calculus, often simply called "Calculus," basic for all of analysis.
The importance of the new discoveries and methods was immediately
felt and caused profound intellectual excitement. Yet, to gain mastery
of the powerful art appeared at first a formidable task, for the avail-
able publications were scanty, unsystematic, and often lacking in
clarity. Thus, it was fortunate indeed for mathematics and science
in general that leaders in the new movement soon recognized the
vital need for writing textbooks aimed at making the subject ac-
cessible to a public much larger than the very small intellectual elite of
the early days. One of the greatest mathematicians of modern times,
Leonard Euler, established in introductory books a firm tradition and
these books of the eighteenth century have remained sources of inspira-
tion until today, even though much progress has been made in the
clarification and simplification of the material.
After Euler, one author after the other adhered to the separation of
differential calculus from integral calculus, thereby obscuring a key
point, the reciprocity between differentiation and integration. Only in
1927 when the first edition of R. Courant's German Vorlesungen iiber
Differential und Integralrechnung, appeared in the Springer-Verlag
was this separation eliminated and the calculus presented as a unified
subject.
From that German book and its subsequent editions the present
work originated. With the cooperation of James and Virginia McShaue
a greatly expanded and modified English edition of the "Calculus" w~s
prepared and published by Blackie and Sons in Glasgow since 1934, and
v
vi Preface

distributed in the United States in numerous reprintings by Inter-

science-Wiley.
During the years it became apparent that the need of college and uni-
versity instruction in the United States made a rewriting of this work
desirable. Yet, it seemed unwise to tamper with the original versions
which have remained and still are viable.
Instead of trying to remodel the existing work it seemed preferable to
supplement it by an essentially new book in many ways related to the
European originals but more specifically directed at the needs of the
present and future students in the United States. Such a plan became
feasible when Fritz John, who had already greatly helped in the prepara-
tion of the first English edition, agreed to write the new book together
with R. Courant.
While it differs markedly in form and content from the original, it is
animated by the same intention: To lead the student directly to the
heart of the subject and to prepare him for active application of his
knowledge. It avoids the dogmatic style which conceals the motivation
and the roots of the calculus in intuitive reality. To exhibit the interac-
tion between mathematical analysis and its various applications and to
emphasize the role of intuition remains an important aim of this new
book. Somewhat strengthened precision does not, as we hope, inter-
fere with this aim.
Mathematics presented as a closed, linearly ordered, system of truths
without reference to origin and purpose has its charm and satisfies a
philosophical need. But the attitude of introverted science is unsuitable
for students who seek intellectual independence rather than indoctrina-
tion; disregard for applications and intuition leads to isolation and
atrophy of mathematics. It seems extremely important that students
and instructors should be protected from smug purism.
The book is addressed to students on various levels, to mathema-
ticians, scientists, engineers. It does not pretend to make the subject
easy by glossing over difficulties, but rather tries to help the genuinely
interested reader by throwing light on the interconnections and purposes
of the whole.
Instead of obstructing the access to the wealth of facts by lengthy
discussions of a fundamental nature we have sometimes postponed such
discussions to appendices in the various chapters.
Numerous examples and problems are given at the end of various
chapters. Some are challenging, some are even difficult; most of them
supplement the material in the text. In an additional pamphlet more
 Preface vii

problems and exercises of a routine character will be collected, and

moreover, answers or hints for the solutions will be given.
Many colleagues and friends have been helpful. Albert A. Blank
not only greatly contributed incisive and constructive criticism, but he
also played a major role in ordering, augmenting, and sifting of the
problems and exercises, and moreover he assumed the main responsi-
bility for the pamphlet. Alan Solomon helped most unselfishly and
effectively in all phases of the preparation of the book. Thanks is also
due to Charlotte John, Anneli Lax, R. Richtmyer, and other friends,
including James and Virginia McShane.
The first volume is concerned primarily with functions of a single
variable, whereas the second volume will discuss the more ramified
theories of calculus for functions of several variables.
A final remark should be addressed to the student reader. It might
prove frustrating to attempt mastery of the subject by studying such a
book page by page following an even path. Only by selecting shortcuts
first and returning time and again to the same questions and difficulties
can one gradually attain a better understanding from a more elevated
point.
An attempt was made to assist users of the book by marking with an
asterisk some passages which might impede the reader at his first at-
tempt. Also some of the more difficult problems are marked by an
asterisk.
We hope that the work in the present new form will be useful to the
young generation of scientists. We are aware of many imperfections
and we sincerely invite critical comment which might be helpful for later
improvements.

Richard Courant
Fritz John
June 1965
 Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 The Continuum of Numbers 1

a. The System of Natural Numbers and Its
Extension. Counting and Measuring, 1
b. Real Numbers and Nested Intervals, 7
c. Decimal Fractions. Bases Other Than
Ten, 9 d. Definition of Neighborhood, 12
e. Inequalities, 12

1.2 The Concept of Function 17

a. Mapping-Graph, 18 b. Definition of the
Concept of Functions of a Continuous
Variable. Domain and Range of a Function, 21
c. Graphical Representation. Monotonic
Functions,24 d. Continuity, 31 e. The
Intermediate Value Theorem. Inverse
Functions, 44

1.3 The Elementary Functions 47

a. Rational Functions, 47 b. Algebraic
Functions, 49 c. Trigonometric Functions, 49
d. The Exponential Function and the
Logarithm, 51 e. Compound Functions,
Symbolic Products, Inverse Functions, 52
1.4 Sequences 55

1.5 Mathematical Induction 57

ix
x Contents

1.6 The Limit of a Sequence 60

1 1 1
a. a. = ~,61 b. a2m =;; a2m-l = 2m,62

c. a. = ~l' 63 d. a. = ~ 64
n+
e. an = Of!',65
f. Geometrical Illustration of the Limits of
Of!' and ~ 65 g. The Geometric Series, 67
h. an = ~ 69 i. an = Vn+l - v;;: 69
1.7 Further Discussion of the Concept of Limit 70
a. Definition of Convergence and Divergence, 70
b. Rational Operations with Limits, 71
c. Intrinsic Convergence Tests. Monotone
Sequences, 73 d. Infinite Series and the
Summation Symbol, 75 e. The Number e, 77
f. The Number 7r as a Limit, 80

1.8 The Concept of Limit for Functions of a Con-

tinuous Variable 82
a. Some Remarks about the Elementary
Functions, 86
Supplements 87

S.1 Limits and the Number Concept 89

a. The Rational Numbers, 89 b. Real
Numbers Determined by Nested Sequences of
Rational Intervals, 90 c. Order, Limits, and
Arithmetic Operations for Real Numbers, 92
d. Completeness of the Number Continuum.
Compactness of Closed Intervals. Convergence
Criteria, 94 e. Least Upper Bound and
Greatest Lower Bound, 97 f. Denumerability
of the Rational Numbers, 98

S.2 Theorems on Continuous Functions 99

S.3 Polar Coordinates 101

S.4 Remarks on Complex Numbers 103

PROBLEMS 106
 Contents xi

Chapter 2 The Fundamental Ideas of the Integral

and Differential Calculus 119

2.1 The Integral 120

a. Introduction, 120 b. The Integral as an
Area, 121 c. Analytic Definition of the
Integral. Notations, 122

2.2 Elementary Examples of Integration 128

a. Integration of Linear Function, 128
b. Integration of x2, 130 c. Integration of
;xa for Integers a r6 -1, 131 d. Integration of
x" for Rational a Other Than -1, 134
e. Integration of sin x and cos x, 135

2.3 Fundamental Rules of Integration 136

a. Additivity, 136 b. Integral of a Sum of a
Product with a Constant, 137 c. Estimating
Integrals,138, d. The Mean Value Theorem
for Integrals, 139

2.4 The Integral as a Function of the Upper Limit

(Indefinite Integral) 143

2.5 Logarithm Defined by an Integral 145

a. Definition of the Logarithm Function, 145
b. The Addition Theorem for Logarithms, 147

2.6 Exponential Function and Powers 149

a. The Logarithm of the Number e, 149
b. The Inverse Function of the Logarithm.
The Exponential Function, 150
c. The Exponential Function as Limit of
Powers, 152 d. Definition of Arbitrary
Powers of Positive Numbers, 152
e. Logarithms to Any Base, 153

2.7 The Integral of an Arbitrary Power of x 154

2.8 The Derivative 155

a. The Derivative and the Tangent, 156
b. The Derivative as a Velocity, 162
xii Contents

c. Examples of Differentiation, 163 d. Some

Fundamental Rules for Differentiation, 165
e. Differentiability and Continuity of Functions,
166 f. Higher Derivatives and Their
Significance, 169 g. Derivative and Difference
Quotient. Leibnitz's Notation, 171 h. The
Mean Value Theorem of Differential Calculus, 173
i. Proof of the Theorem, 175 j. The
Approximation of Functions by Linear
Functions. Definition of Differentials, 179
k. Remarks on Applications to the Natural
Sciences, 183

2.9 The Integral, the Primitive Function, and the

Fundamental Theorems of the Calculus 184
a. The Derivative of the Integral, 184 b. The
Primitive Function and Its Relation to the
Integral, 186 c. The Use of the Primitive
Function for Evaluation of Definite Integrals, 189
d. Examples, 191

Supplement The Existence of the Definite Integral

of a Continuous Function 192
PROBLEMS 196

Chapter 3 The Techniques of Calculus 201

Part A Differentiation and Integration of the

Elementary Functions 201

3.1 The Simplest Rules for Differentiation and

Their Applications 201
a. Rules for Differentiation, 201
b. Differentiation of the Rational Functions, 204
c. Differentiation of the Trigonometric
Functions, 205

3.2 The Derivative of the Inverse Function 206

a. General Formula, 206 b. The Inverse of
the nth Power; the nth Root, 210 c. The
Inverse Trigonometric Functions-
 Contents xiii

Multivaluedness, 210 d. The Corresponding

Integral Formulas, 215 e. Derivative and
Integral of the Exponential Function, 216

3.3 Differentiation of Composite Functions 217

a. Definitions, 217 b. The Chain Rule, 218
c. The Generalized Mean Value Theorem of the
Differential Calculus, 222

3.4 Some Applications of the Exponential

Function 223
a. Definition of the Exponential Function by
Means of a Differential Equation, 223
b. Interest Compounded Continuously.
Radioactive Disintegration, 224 c. Cooling
or Heating of a Body by a Surrounding
Medium, 225 d. Variation of the
Atmospheric Pressure with the Height above
the Surface of the Earth, 226 e. Progress of a
Chemical Reaction, 227 f. Switching an
Electric Circuit on or off, 228

3.5 The Hyperbolic Functions 228

a. Analytical Definition, 228 b. Addition
Theorems and Formulas for Differentiation 231
c. The Inverse Hyperbolic Functions, 232
d. Further Analogies, 234

3.6 Maxima and Minima 236

a. Convexity and Concavity of Curves, 236
b. Maxima and Minima-Relative Extrema.
Stationary Points, 238

3.7 The Order of Magnitude of Functions 248

a. The Concept of Order of Magnitude. The
Simplest Cases, 248 b. The Order of
Magnitude of the Exponential Function and of
the Logarithm, 249 c. General Remarks, 251
d. The Order of Magnitude of a Function in the
Neighborhood of an Arbitrary Point, 252
e. The Order of Magnitude (or Smallness) of a
Function Tending to Zero, 252 f. The "0"
and "0" Notation for Orders of Magnitude, 253
xiv Contents
APPENDIX 255

A.l Some Special Functions 255

a. The Function y = ellx2 , 255 b. The
Functiony = e llx ,256 c. The Function
y = tanh l/x, 257 d. The Function
y = x tanh l/x, 258 e. The Function
y = x sin l/x, y(O) = 0, 259

A.2 Remarks on the Differentiability of Functions 259

Part B Techniques of Integration 261

3.8 Table of Elementary Integrals 263

3.9 The Method of Substitution 263

a. The Substitution Formula. Integral of a
Composite Function, 263 b. A Second
Derivation of the Substitution Formula, 268
c. Examples. Integration Formulas, 270

3.10 Further Examples of the Substitution Method 271

3.11 Integration by Parts 274

a. General Formula, 274 b. Further Examples
of Integration by Parts, 276 c. Integral
+
Formula for (b) !(a), 278 d. Recursive
Formulas,278 *e. Wallis's Infinite Product
for '11",280

3.12 Integration of Rational Functions 282

a. The Fundamental Types, 283 b. Integration
of the Fundamental Types, 284 c. Partial
Fractions, 286 d. Examples of Resolution
into Partial Fractions. Method of
Undetermined Coefficients, 288

3.13 Integration of Some Other Gasses of

Functions 290
a. Preliminary Remarks on the Rational
Representation of the Circle and the
Hyperbola, 290 b. Integration of
R(cos x, sin x), 293 c. Integration of
 Contents xv

R(cosh x, sinh x), 294d. Integration of

R(x, ~), 294 e. Integration of
R(x, ~), 295 f. Integration of
R(x, -Vx2+1), 295 g. Integration of
R(x, Vax 2 +2bx +
c),295 h. Further
Examples of Reduction to Integrals of Rational
Functions, 296 i. Remarks on the Examples,
297
Part C Further Steps in the Theory of Integral
Calculus 298

3.14 Integrals of Elementary Functions 298

a. Definition of Functions by Integrals. Elliptic
Integrals and Functions, 298 b. On
Differentiation and Integration, 300

3.15 Extension of the Concept of Integral 301

a. Introduction. Definition of "Improper"
Integrals, 301 b. Functions with Infinite
Discontinuities, 303 c. Interpretation as
Areas,304 d. Tests for Convergence, 305
e. Infinite Interval of Integration, 306 f. The
Gamma Function, 308 g. The Dirichlet
Integral, 309 h. Substitution. Fresnel
Integrals, 310

3.16 The Differential Equations of the

Trigonometric Functions 312
a. Introductory Remarks on Differential
Equations, 312 b. Sin x and cos x defined by
a Differential Equation and Initial Conditions,
312
PROBLEMS 314

Chapter 4 Applications in Physics and Geometry 324

4.1 Theory of Plane Curves 324

a. Parametric Representation, 324 b. Change
of Parameters, 326 c. Motion along a Curve.
Time as the Parameter. Example of the
xvi Contents

Cycloid, 328 d. Classifications of Curves.

Orientation, 333 e. Derivatives. Tangent and
Normal, in Parametric Representation, 343
f. The Length of a Curve, 348 g. The Arc
Length as a Parameter, 352 h. Curvature,
354 i. Change of Coordinate Axes.
Invariance,360 j. Uniform Motion in the
Special Theory of Relativity, 363 k. Integrals
Expressing Area within Closed Curves, 365
I. Center of Mass and Moment of a Curve, 373
m. Area and Volume of a Surface of
Revolution, 374 D. Moment of Inertia, 375

4.2 Examples 376

a. The Common Cycloid, 376 b. The
Catenary,378 c. The Ellipse and the
Lemniscate, 378

4.3 Vectors in Two Dimensions 379

a. Definition of Vectors by Translation.
Notations, 380 b. Addition and Multiplication
of Vectors, 384 c. Variable Vectors, Their
Derivatives, and Integrals, 392 d. Application
to Plane Curves. Direction, Speed, and
Acceleration, 394

4.4 Motion of a Particle under Given Forces 397

a. Newton's Law of Motion, 397 b. Motion
of Falling Bodies, 398 c. Motion of a Particle
Constrained to a Given Curve, 400

4.5 Free Fall of a Body Resisted by Air 402

4.6 The Simplest Type of Elastic Vibration 404

4.7 Motion on a Given Curve 405

a. The Differential Equation and Its Solution,
405 b. Particle Sliding down a Curve, 407
c. Discussion of the Motion, 409 d. The
Ordinary Pendulum, 410 e. The Cycloidal
Pendulum, 411
 Contents xvii

4.8 Motion in a Gravitational Field 413

a. Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation, 413
b. Circular Motion about the Center of
Attraction, 415 c. Radial Motion-Escape
Velocity, 416

4.9 Work and Energy 418

a. Work Done by Forces during a Motion, 418
b. Work and Kinetic Energy. Conservation of
Energy,420 c. The Mutual Attraction of
Two Masses, 421 d. The Stretching of a
Spring, 423 e. The Charging of a Condenser,
423

APPENDIX 424

A.1 Properties of the Evolute 424

A.2 Areas Bounded by Closed Curves. Indices 430

PROBLEMS 435

Chapter 5 Taylor's Expansion 440

5.1 Introduction: Power Series 440

5.2 Expansion of the Logarithm and the Inverse

Tangent 442
a. The Logarithm, 442 b. The Inverse
Tangent, 444

5.3 Taylor's Theorem 445

a. Taylor's Representation of Polynomials, 445
b. Taylor's Formula for Nonpolynomial
Functions, 446

5.4 Expression and Estimates for the Remainder 447

a. Cauchy's and Lagrange's Expressions, 447
b. An Alternative Derivation of Taylor's
Formula, 450

5.5 Expansions of the Elementary Functions 453

a. The Exponential Function, 453
xviii Contents

h. Expansion of sin x, cos x, sinh x, cosh x, 454

c. The Binomial Series, 456

5.6 Geometrical Applications 457

a. Contact of Curves, 458 b. On the Theory
of Relative Maxima and Minima, 461

APPENDIX I 462

A.I.1 Example of a Function Which Cannot Be

Expanded in a Taylor Series 462

A.I.2 Zeros and Infinites of Functions 463

a. Zeros of Order n, 463 b. Infinity of Order
v,463

A.I.3 Indeterminate Expressions 464

A.I.4 The Convergence of the Taylor Series of a

Function with Nonnegative Derivatives of
all Orders 467
APPENDIX II INTERPOLATION 470

A.II.1 The Problem of Interpolation. Uniqueness 470

A.II.2 Construction of the Solution. Newton's

Interpolation Formula 471

A.II.3 The Estimate of the Remainder 474

A.II.4 The Lagrange Interpolation Formula 476

PROBLEMS 477

Chapter 6 Numerical Methods 481

6.1 Computation of Integrals 482

a. Approximation by Rectangles, 482
b. Refined Approximations-Simpson's Rule,
483
 Contents xix

6.2 Other Examples of Numerical Methods 490

a. The "Calculus of Errors", 490
b. Calculation of 7r, 492 c,, Calculation of
Logarithms, 493

6.3 Numerical Solution of Equations 494

a. Newton's Method, 495 b. The Rule of False
Position, 497 c. The Method of Iteration, 499
d. Iterations and Newton's Procedure, 502

APPENDIX 504

A.l Stirling's Formula 504

PROBLEMS 507

Chapter 7 Infinite Sums and Products 510

7.1 The Concepts of Convergence and Divergence 511

a. Basic Concepts, 511 b. Absolute
Convergence and Conditional Convergence, 513
c. Rearrangement of Terms, 517
d. Operations with Infinite Series, 520

7.2 Tests for Absolute Convergence and

Divergence 520
a. The Comparison Test. Majorants, 520
b. Convergence Tested by Comparison with the
Geometric Series, 521 c. Comparison with
an Integral, 524

7.3 Sequences of Functions 526

a. Limiting Processes with Functions and
Curves, 527

7.4 Uniform and Nonuniform Convergence 529

a. General Remarks and Definitions, 529
b. A Test for Uniform Convergence, 534
c. Continuity of the Sum of a Uniformly
Convergent Series of Continuous Functions, 535
d. Integration of Uniformly Convergent
Series, 536 e. Differentiation of Infinite
Series, 538
xx Contents

7.5 Power Series 540

a. Convergence Properties of Power Series-
Interval of Convergence, 540 b. Integration
and Differentiation of Power Series, 542
c. Operations with Power Series, 543
d. Uniqueness of Expansion, 544 e. Analytic
Functions, 545

7.6 Expansion of Given Functions in Power Series.

Method of Undetermined Coefficients.
Examples 546
a. The Exponential Function, 546 b. The
Binomial Series, 546 c. The Series for arc
sin x, 549 d. The Series for
ar sinh x = log [x + yr(1:--+-x-'2"--')), 549
e. Example of Multiplication of Series, 550
f. Example of Terrn-by-Term Integration
(Elliptic Integral), 550

7.7 Power Series with Complex Terms 551

a. Introduction of Complex Terms into Power
Series. Complex Representations of the
Trigonometric Function, 551 b. A Glance at
the General Theory of Functions of a Complex
Variable, 553

APPENDIX 555

A.l Multiplication and Division of Series 555

a. Multiplication of Absolutely Convergent
Series, 555 b. Multiplication and Division of
Power Series, 556

A.2 Infinite Series and Improper Integrals 557

A.3 Infinite Products 559

A.4 Series Involving Bernoulli Numbers 562

PROBLEMS 564
 Contents xxi

Chapter 8 Trigonometric Series 571

8.1 Periodic Functions 572

a. General Remarks. Periodic Extension of a
Function, 572 b. Integrals Over a Period, 573
c. Harmonic Vibrations, 574

8.2 Superposition of Harmonic Vibrations 576

a. Harmonics. Trigonometric Polynomials, 576
b. Beats, 577

8.3 Complex Notation 582

a. General Remarks, 582 b. Application to
Alternating Currents, 583 c. Complex
Notation for Trigonometrical Polynomials, 585
d. A Trigonometric Formula, 586

8.4 Fourier Series 587

a. Fourier Coefficients, 587 b. Basic Lemma,
588
co sin z
/o
c. Proof of - - dz = -, 589
o z
7r

2
d. Fourier Expansion for the
Function cf> (x) = x,591 e. The Main
Theorem on Fourier Expansion, 593

8.5 Examples of Fourier Series 598

a. Preliminary Remarks, 598 b. Expansion of
the Function cf> (x) = x2, 598 c. Expansion
of x cos x, 598 d. The
Functionf(x) = Ix!. 600 e. A Piecewise
Constant Function, 600 f. The Function
sin lxi, 601 g. Expansion of cos J.l.x.
Resolution of the Cotangent into Partial
Fractions. The Infinite Product for the
Sine, 602 h. Further Examples, 603

8.6 Further Discussion of Convergence 604

a. Results, 604 b. Bessel's Inequality, 604
xxii Contents

c. Proof of Corollaries (a), (b), and (c), 605

d. Order of Magnitude of the Fourier
Coefficients Differentiation of Fourier
Series, 607

8.7 Approximation by Trigonometric and Rational

Polynomials 608
a. General Remark on Representations of
Functions, 608 b. Weierstrass Approximation
Theorem, 608 c. Fejers Trigonometric
Approximation of Fourier Polynomials by
Arithmetical Means, 610 d. Approximation
in the Mean and Parseval's Relation, 612

APPENDIX I 614

A.I.l Stretching of the Period Interval. Fourier's

Integral Theorem 614

A.I.2 Gibb's Phenomenon at Points of

Discontinuity 616

A.I.3 Integration of Fourier Series 618

APPENDIX n 619

A.II.t Bernoulli Polynomials and Their

Applications 619
a. Definition and Fourier Expansion, 619
b. Generating Functions and the Taylor Series
of the Trigonometric and Hyperbolic
Cotangent,621 c. The Euler-Maclaurin
Summation Formula, 624 d. Applications.
Asymptotic Expressions, 626 e. Sums of
Power Recursion Formula for Bernoulli
Numbers,628 f. Euler's Constant and
Stirling's Series, 629

PROBLEMS 631
 Contents xxiii

Chapter 9 Differential Equations for the Simplest

Types of Vibration 633

9.1 Vibration Problems of Mechanics and Physics 634

a. The Simplest Mechanical Vibrations, 634
b. Electrical Oscillations, 635

9.2 Solution of the Homogeneous Equation. Free

Oscillations 636
a. The Fornal Solution, 636 b. Physical
Interpretation of the Solution, 638
c. Fulfilment of Given Initial Conditions.
Uniqueness of the Solution, 639

9.3 The Nonhomogeneous Equation. Forced

Oscillations 640
a. General Remarks. Superposition, 640
b. Solution of the Nonhomogeneous
Equation, 642 c. The Resonance Curve, 643
d. Further Discussion of the Oscillation, 646
e. Remarks on the Construction of Recording
Instruments, 647

List of Biographical Dates 650

Index 653