PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION ( REVIEWER)

Communication: Models, Types, Purposes, and Principles

Basically, language can be defined as the tool used in communication process.

It is through language that we are able to express our thoughts, share our feelings, and communicate
our views and perspectives about things.

However, language can also be the source of misunderstanding sometimes.

That is because there is no one-to-one correspondence between words and meanings, and even
between gestures and meanings.

DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE
Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and
desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.
~Sapir (1921)
2. Language is the process whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of
habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.
~Hall (1969)

3. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

~Wardaugh (1972)

Characteristics of Language
(Fromkin and Rodman, 2003)
Wherever humans exist, language exists.
All languages change through time.
All grammars contain rules for the formation of words and sentences of a similar kind.
4. Similar grammatical categories (e.g. noun, verb, etc.) are found in all languages.
Any normal child, born anywhere in the world, of any racial, geographical, social, or economic
heritage, is capable of learning any language to which s/he is exposed to.
The differences we find among languages cannot be due to biological reasons.

Communication: Models, Types, Purposes, and Principles PRINTED ALR)

General Forms of Communication

1. Verbal Communication— refers to the sharing of information, ideas, thoughts, and feelings
between individuals using speech or spoken communication.

Examples of verbal communication are face-to-face conversations, telephone conversations, video

chat, speech delivery, and television and radio broadcasts.

- Conversation is said to be the most common form of verbal communication because we do this in
our day-to-day interaction with others.

Types of Conversation (Angel, 2016)

Dialogue is a cooperative, two-way conversation. The goal is for participants to exchange information
and build relationships with one another.
Example:
Two undecided voters talking to each other about the candidates, trying to figure out who they want
to vote for.
Types of Conversation (Angel, 2016)
2. Debate is a competitive, two-way conversation. The goal is to win an argument or convince
someone, such as the other participant or third-party observers.
 
Example:
Two family members from opposite sides of the political spectrum arguing over politics.

Types of Conversation (Angel, 2016)

3. Discourse is a cooperative, one-way conversation. The goal is to deliver information from the
speaker to the listeners.

Example:
A professor giving a lecture on international politics

Types of Conversation (Angel, 2016)

4. Diatribe is a competitive, one-way conversation. The goal is to express emotions, browbeat those
that disagree with you, and/or inspire those that share the same perspective.
 

Example:
A disgruntled voter venting about the election’s outcome

Some Suggestions for Effective Verbal Communication

Know your audience
Know your topic
Plan your presentation
Be familiar with the venue

General Forms of Communication

2. Non-verbal Communication— refers to the transmission of a message without the use of words.
Instead, the message is conveyed through gestures, body language, posture, facial expressions, eye
contact, touch, and tone of voice.

Non-verbal cues that can enhance or hamper the effectiveness of verbal communication:
Facial Expressions
Eye Contact
Body Language
Posture
Space

General Forms of Communication

3. Written Communication
It refers to the type of communication that uses the written language.
It includes the traditional pen and paper letters and documents, electronic documents, e-mail, SMS or
text messages, memos, written reports, and everything else transmitted through the written
language.
General Forms of Communication
3. Written Communication
Written communication is also indispensable in formal business communication and legal documents.
3. Written Communication
It also takes a longer time to compose a written communication compared to speech, and some
people actually struggle in composing a written communication because of their writing skill.
3. Other Forms of Communication
3.1. Intrapersonal Communication
McLean (2005) defines intrapersonal communication as communicating with oneself, and that
may include self-talk, acts of imagination and visualization, and even recall and memory. 
3. Other Forms of Communication
3.2. Interpersonal Communication
This type of communication refers to the exchange of ideas, information, feelings, and attitudes
between two or more people.

3. Other Forms of Communication

3.3. Public Communication
This refers to the delivery of a message to a particular group of people, as when a political candidate
delivers a political campaign speech to the listeners.

3. Other Forms of Communication

3.4. Visual Communication
This refers to the transmission of information and ideas using symbols and images.

3.5. Mass Communication

Mass communication is a process in which a person, group of people, or an organization sends a
message through television, radio, print media, and social media to a large group of anonymous and
heterogeneous people and organizations.

3.6. Computer-Mediated Communication

Computer-mediated communication is often referred to as CMC. CMC is “the use of an application
computer to control multimedia interactive and message-based communication” (Walters, 1995).

VISUAL COMMUNICTAION
What is Visual Communication?
Visual communication refers to the use of any image to communicate an idea. Visual communication
may take place through pictures, graphs, and charts, as well as through signs and symbols.
These visual images inform, educate, or persuade a person or an audience.

Among the most important figures who explored visual communication and sight-related theories is
Aldous Huxley.= He suffered from near blindness when he was young because of an illness, but it set
the stage for his becoming one of the most influential intellectuals to have explored the field of visual
communication.For him, seeing is the sum of sensing, selecting, and perceiving. One of his most
famous quotes is “The more you see, the more you know.”

Tracing the History of Visual Communication

Evidences that visual communication is the oldest form of communication:
1. Cave paintings
Cave paintings are believed to be a primitive form of communication that were etched or drawn on
cave walls and ceilings.= These paintings include representations of animals, landscapes, and religious
images, among others.

2. Petroglyphs
These are images carved on rocks believed to have been originated by the Neolithic people some
10,000 to 12,000 years ago.

These images are also believed to have deep cultural and religious significance to the societies that
created them.

3. Geoglyphs
These are drawings or designs on the ground produced by arranging gravel, stones, or soil.

The purpose of geoglyphs is rather uncertain, although some researchers believe that they were built
for religious purposes.
Some of the most widely known geoglyphs are the Nazca Lines in Peru.

4. Pictograms, Ideograms, and Logograms

Pictograms are images that represent physical objects.
Pictograms (pictures which resemble what they signify) and ideograms (pictures which represent
ideas) were the basis of early written symbols.

They were used by various ancient cultures all over the world since around 9000 BC and began to
develop into logographic writing systems around 5000 BC.

5. . Cuneiform
One of the world’s earliest systems of writing is the cuneiform script invented by the Sumerians.
They did so not to write stories or letters but to organize labor and resources. - Their population had
grown larger and their society had become complex, hence the need for accounting and
accountability. - EMPLOYED SIGNS TO REPRESENT numbers, things, words, and the sounds of words.

6. Hieroglyphics
It contained a combination of logographic, alphabetic, and ideographic elements used by the Ancient
Egyptians.
It is said that hieroglyphs emerged from the pre-literate artistic traditions of Egypt.

the study of symbols and visual communication is called semiotics.

Major Perspectives in Analyzing Visual Images

1. Personal Perspective
This view posits that the analysis of an image depends on the individual’s thoughts and values and the
way he or she looks at things using his or her own personal lens.
2. Historical Perspective
This perspective refers to the determination of the importance of the work based on the medium’s
timeline.
Historical perspective may be used to support a personal perspective which may make it more valid.
3. Technical Perspective
This perspective takes into account how different media convey messages differently based on the
platform used.
The analysis of the image takes into consideration its different technical aspects like lighting, focus,
tone, position, and presentation.
4. Ethical Perspective
This perspective considers the moral and ethical responsibilities shared by the artist or the producer
of the image, the subject, and the viewer.
4. Ethical Perspective
This perspective considers the moral and ethical responsibilities shared by the artist or the producer
of the image, the subject, and the viewer.
6. Critical Perspective
This perspective allows the audience to look at the larger issues associated with the image, meaning,
the issues transcend the image and shape a reasoned personal reaction.

Public Speaking
What is Public Speaking?
Public speaking is one form of communication wherein one delivers a message/speech in front of an
audience.
What is Public Speaking?
A skilled public speaker has the ability to get across his/her message effectively to an interested
audience so as the audience can arrive at a good decision thus influence people’s outlook and
character.
Elements of Vocal Delivery

Pitch
This refers to the highness or lowness of the tone of the voice.
The speaker’s knowledge of when to raise or lower the tone of his/her voice is important.
The pitch must be varied.
2. Volume
This refers to the loudness or softness of the sound.
3. Animation
This refers to the liveliness of the voice.
The speaker’s ability to animate his/her voice will definitely make the presentation dynamic.
4. Rate- Referes to the speed
6. Vocal Clarity
This refers to proper pronunciation.
The speaker must be able to utter the words properly and clearly.
7. Vocal Quality
This refers to the distinct characteristic of one’s voice.
It can be thin, hoarse, hanky, rough, or airy, etc. since vocal quality can be improved and even
changed.

ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL DELIVERY

1. Facial Expression
No matter how speakers project their voice or dancers move their body, if they do not show
appropriate facial expressions, they fail.

2. Eye Contact
Looking directly at the audience will make them feel that they are significant part of the presentation.
Effective eye contact will establish connection with the audience.
3. Gestures
Too much gestures might be an overkill; too little of them might make the presentation dull.
Hence, it is imperative that speakers consider the size of the audience.
4. Posture
Good posture does not have to be very stiff nor does it have to be too relaxed that the speaker
appears lousy or even arrogant. Standing straight and tall, with both feet flat and
5. Movement
Knowing when to move to and fro must be clear to every speaker.

Moving too much and aimlessly can be very distracting.

Effective movements must be purposeful, that is, the speaker moves only when making or
emphasizing a point.
Dress appropriately for both your audience and the occasion.
Avoid flashy jewelry.
A little makeup for women and a clean haircut for men will definitely be appealing

Why Do We Fear Public Speaking?

Many, if not most, people have stage fright.
Once they set foot on stage, their knees and hands start trembling.
Where does such fear come from?
Many, if not most, people have stage fright.
Once they set foot on stage, their knees and hands start trembling.
Where does such fear come from?
BDO, Seidman, & LLP (2009) offer three steps to overcome stage fright.
1. Be prepared.
2. Keep on practicing.
 3. Relax before speaking.
Preparation for Oral Delivery
Use your voice properly.
Relax and speak naturally.
Use the language effectively.
Be careful in articulation and pronunciation.
Avoid nervous fillers and slang words
6. Show passion and sincerity.
7. Use nonverbal signs.
8. Be prepared.

Communication Ethics
Ethics in General
Ethics deals with the issues of right and wrong in human affairs.
We are faced with ethical dilemmas when we ask ourselves whether what we do is fair or unfair,
moral or immoral, honest or dishonest, and just or unjust.
Ethics in Communication
Since communication is an everyday activity, it should also observe ethical standards because ethical
communication gives rise to trust.
Only when people perceive us as ethical and trustworthy will we be able to make them believe in
what we say.

Ethics in Communication
1. Be Truthful
Truthfulness is fundamental to all forms of communication.
Communicators who are caught lying will lose their credibility and the goodwill of the audience, which
are essential to influencing them.
2. Show Respect for the Power of Words
Words are powerful.
They can make or break careers, launch wars, or bridge peace, among others
3. Invoke Participatory Democracy
Communication ethics is a joint responsibility between the speaker and the audience.
Invoke Participatory Democracy
For example, speakers should put themselves in the shoes of the listeners and see if they are treating
the listeners as they would like to be treated, with respect.
4. Demonstrate Mindfulness of Cultural Diversity
Ethical communicators construct their speeches being mindful of cultural differences-- that means
being careful not to offend others with the things that they say.
5. Treat People as Ends, Not Means
The best interest of the audience should be the ends sought by the speaker. We should refrain from
manipulating people just so we can achieve what we want.
Guidelines for Ethical Listening
1. Be Courteous and Attentive
Just as speakers have the ethical obligation to prepare for their speeches, the listeners have the
ethical obligation to be courteous and attentive during the delivery of the speech.
2. Avoid Prejudging the Speaker
Jumping to conclusions about the points of the speaker even before the speech begins is one of the
major barriers to effective listening.
This doesn’t mean that you have to agree with everything that the speaker says.
Listen to the speaker even if you don’t agree with him or her.
3. Maintain the Free and Open Expression of Ideas
A democratic society depends on the free and open expression of ideas.
Just keep in mind that ensuring a person’s right to express his or her ideas doesn’t mean agreeing
with those ideas.
Speeches According to Purpose
PURPOSE OF SPEECH
In delivering a speech, you must know the purpose of your piece before delivering it in front of an
audience.
Here are four basic types of speeches that are used: to inform, to demonstrate, to persuade, and to
entertain. But, all of these are not mutually exclusive of one another.
INFORMATIVE SPEECH
This speech serves to provide interesting and factual information to your audience. To deliver this
information, the message must be delivered clearly to the audience
Example:
College professor lecturing on a specific topic during a class.

Main elements in writing an Informative Speech:

1. Knowledge
-In order for your speech to be more accurate, you must demonstrate expertise and
knowledge of the subject by establishing credibility to your information to adequately inform your
audience.
2. Key Points
-Repeat all key points to ensure knowledge retention.
3. Interest
-Convey your speech with confidence and including unusual facts about the subject.

DEMONSTRATIVE SPEECH
This speech is written to explain and show people a step-by-step instruction on how to do something.
This involves various types of visual aids to ensure effectiveness of the instructions.
Example:
♣How to write a speech
MAIN ELEMENTS IN WRITING A DEMONSTRATIVE SPEECH
1. Instructions
-Provides clear and concise instructions to your audience.
2. Task Breakdown
-The task must be understandable in a logical way.
3. Key Points
-This must be emphasized including safety issues.

PERSUASIVE SPEECH
This speech is written to persuade or convince your audience of the validity of your argument. This
involves persuading someone to change their opinion or take into account some elements that have
not really been considered before.
Example:
♣ Become an organ donor
Elements in writing a Persuasive Speech:
1. Credibility
Establish your credibility by demonstrating expertise, evidence and knowledge of your
subject.

2. Passion
- Convey the subject with confidence, passion and conviction to appeal to the emotions of the
audience.

ENTERTAINING SPEECH
This speech’s sole purpose is to have your audience enjoy the presentation. Entertainment speech has
the nature to transmit a feeling of pleasure as well as goodwill to the audience of listeners.
How do you make a speech entertaining?
-Tell jokes
-Tell funny stories
-Over dramatize an anecdote

Guidelines in creating an Entertaining Speech:

1. Choose an appropriate topic
2. Enjoy yourself
3. Keep it simple
4. Make it visceral

Speeches According to Delivery

What is Speech Delivery?
Speech delivery is one of the most important aspect in delivering a speech aside from the preparation
of the speech which entails research , organization , outlining , and practicing.
Delivery is a result of the combination of two kinds of communication which is verbal communication
and nonverbal communication.

4 Methods of Delivery
Impromptu Speaking
- is the presentation of a short message without advance preparation
- often occur when someone is asked to “say a few words” or give a toast on a special
occasion
Self-introductions in group settings
“Hi, my name is Steve, and I’m a volunteer with the Homes for the Brave program.
Advantage:

it’s spontaneous and responsive in an animated group context.

Advantage:

it’s spontaneous and responsive in an animated group context.

2. Extemporaneous Speaking
- is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed speech, spoken in a conversational
manner using brief notes.
- can establish and maintain eye contact with the audience and assess how well they
understand the speech as it progresses.
- The opportunity to assess is also an opportunity to restate more clearly any idea or concept
that the audience seems to have trouble grasping.

2. Extemporaneous Speaking
- is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed speech, spoken in a conversational
manner using brief notes.
- can establish and maintain eye contact with the audience and assess how well they
understand the speech as it progresses.
- The opportunity to assess is also an opportunity to restate more clearly any idea or concept
that the audience seems to have trouble grasping.
Disadvantages:

It requires a great deal of preparation for both verbal and nonverbal components of the speech.

Adequate preparation cannot be achieved the day before you’re scheduled to speak.
3. Manuscript speaking
- is the word-for-word iteration of a written message.
- In a manuscript speech, the speaker maintains his or her attention on the printed page
except when using visual aids.

Advantage:
the exact repetition of original words.
In reading one word at a time, in order, the only errors would typically be mispronunciation of a word
or stumbling over complex sentence structure.
Keeping one’s eyes glued to the script precludes eye contact with the audience. For this kind of
“straight” manuscript speech to hold audience attention, the audience must be already interested in
the message before the delivery begins.
Example:
Reading a statement about organization’s legal responsibilities to customers may require
that the original words be exact.
Disadvantages:
it’s typically an uninteresting way to present.
The speaker has rehearsed the reading as a complete performance animated with vocal expression
and gestures (as poets do in a poetry slam and actors do in a reader’s theater) the presentation tends
to be dull.

4. . Memorized speaking
- is the rote recitation of a written that the speaker has committed to memory.
- Actors, of course, recite from memory whenever they perform from a script in a stage play,
television program, or movie scene.
- When it comes to speeches, memorization can be useful when the message needs to be
exact and the speaker doesn’t want to be confined by notes.
Advantages:
Maintain eye contact with the audience through the speech.
Being free of notes means that you can move freely around the stage and use your hands to make
gestures.
If your speech uses visual aids, this freedom is even more of an advantage.
Disadvantages:
You plan and memorize every vocal cue (the subtle but meaningful variations in speech delivery,
which can include the use of pitch, tone, volume, and pace), gesture, and facial expression, your
presentation will be flat and uninteresting, and even the most fascinating topic will suffer.
Disadvantages:
If you lose your place and start to ad lib, the contrast in your style of delivery will alert your audience
that something is wrong.
More frighteningly, if you go completely blank during the presentation, it will be extremely difficult to
find your place and keep going.

Computer-mediated Communication
What is Computer Mediated Communication?
Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) is any form of communication between two or more
individual people who interact and/or influence each other via separate computers through the
Internet or a network connection - using social software.
CMC does not include the methods by which two computers communicate, but rather how people
communicate via computers.
CMC promotes self-discipline and requires one to take more responsibility for their own learning.
Examples of CMC can include:
emails
mailboxes
shared network group folders
discussion boards (or fora/forums)
frequently updated hyperlinked webpages

Types of Computer Mediated Communication

Asynchronous Communication
- Asynchronous activities are independent of real-time and are comprised of activities, such as,
viewing a web page, composing an Electronic Mail (e-mail), watching a video clip, or dowloading a file.
CMC can include anything that is text -based, uses ICT as a technological base can be used for two
way transmission of ideas.
Benefit:
Opportunities to think about course content
To address a diverse set of topics in more depth than can be done in class or in asynchronous
environment
Thus, allowing students to conceptualize a topic from multiple viewpoints and to contribute to each
other’s understanding (Weasenforth et al., 2002).
B. Synchronous Communication
Synchronous activities occur concurrently between two or more users including such real-time
applications as chat rooms or instant messaging which allow users to interact simultaneously through
text, audio, and video with other users located anywhere in the world.

Synchronous CMC includes:

Chat; and
Instant messaging
Problems encountered in Asynchronous CMC
The levels of participation are usually very poor with CMC for the following reasons.

2. Posts to the discussion boards need to be frequent for people to maintain an interest in the boards,
and so if the level participation drops below a certain degree, no further postings take place.

How can we solve these problems?

Raise the profile of postings by using discussion board software that also sends emails to the users'
email account (and so is a combination discussion board and mailbase).

2. Make the discussion time -dependent, so that participants cannot procrastinate.

3. Regularly structure the discussion threads using some of the following actions:
4. Cut and paste discussion threads that diverge or are repeating discussions elsewhere, so that each
thread corresponds to one topic.
5. Identify specific points within the threads to prompt particular discussions, eliciting answers to
specific questions.

Problems encountered in Synchronous CMC

1. Multiple threads of discussion are created which become too difficult to follow for some students,
particularly true of those students who are communicating in another language other than their first
language.
2. Students on a slow connection always lag slightly behind in the discussion.
3. The discussion tends to lose focus because of many side discussions.
4. Some students cannot jump in because they are slow typists.
5. Responses get out of sequence.
6. Failing to provide a platform for all students to participate equally implicitly censors some of the
participants

How can we solve these problems?

1. The solution to this is to have a prepared set of questions, subjects to discuss, etc. and have a fixed
order for the students to respond in.
2. Allow a certain “open time” for students to chat with each other. This allows the students who are
less familiar with the technology to practice.
3. Also, it provides an opportunity for students who are more familiar with the technology to
introduce some of the abbreviation and emoticons used in chat to their less experienced peers.
4. Explain the procedure for participation: i.e. that comments or responses have to be done in a
sequence.
5. Impose order on the discussion when required. The lecturer’s role in a chat also includes that of
moderator. Whereas in face-to-face one’s authority can be underlined by raising one’s voice, in chat
you can use upper case to make your point more forcefully.
Which CMC should we use?
The major factor in selecting a CMC medium is “should the communication be synchronous or
asynchronous?” This decision should be based on the following criteria:
Can all of the participants meet at the same time?
Is the activity time -dependent (i.e. to fit in with a teaching program)? If so, then a synchronous
medium is most appropriate.
Are the participants part-time students/spread across time zones?

s the subject matter one which requires in-depth analysis and response? If so, then an asynchronous
medium is most appropriate.
The use of CMC
Educators often categorize the use of instructional CMC in three ways:
For conferencing
Informatics
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)

Informatics (repositories or maintainers of organized information) include library online public access
catalogs (OPACs), interactive access to remote databases, program/data archive sites (e.g., archives of
files for pictures, sound, text, movies), campus-wide information systems, wide-area information
systems, and information managers.

Local and Global Communication in Multicultural Setting

The Nature and Scope of Local and Global Communication

Globalization requires that we pay attention to a related concept – diversity – the recognition and
valuing of difference, encompassing such factors as age, gender, race, ethnicity, ability, religion,
education, marital status, sexual orientation, and income.
Intercultural Communication
When we speak about intercultural communication, we are concerning ourselves with the process of
interpreting and sharing meanings with individuals from different cultures.

Intercultural Communication and Its Various Forms

Interracial communication is interpreting and sharing of meanings with individuals from different
races. It occurs when interactants are of different races.
Interethnic communication refers to interaction with individuals of different ethnic origins. It occurs
when the communicating parties have different ethnic origins.

Intercultural Communication and Its Various Forms

Interracial communication is interpreting and sharing of meanings with individuals from different
races. It occurs when interactants are of different races.
Interethnic communication refers to interaction with individuals of different ethnic origins. It occurs
when the communicating parties have different ethnic origins.

Understanding One Another

Cultures and Co-cultures
A culture is the system of knowledge, beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that are
acquired, shared, and used by its members during daily living.
Within a culture as a whole are co-cultures; these are composed of members of the same general
culture who differ in some ethnic or sociological way from the parent culture.

Co-culture Strategies
Assimilation is the means by which co-culture members attempt to fit in with members of the
dominant culture.
Accommodation is means by which co-culture members maintain their cultural identity while striving
to establish relationships with members of the dominant culture.
Separation is the means co-culture members use to resist interacting with members of the dominant
culture.

Exploring Cultural Dialectics

Individualism Versus Collectivism
Individualism refers to cultures in which individual goals are stressed while collectivism refers to
cultures in which group goals are stressed.
This means that, while the “I” may be most important in individualistic cultures, the “we” is the
dominant force in collectivistic ones. While in collectivistic cultures the individual is expected to fit
into the group, in individualistic cultures emphasis is placed on developing a sense of self.

High Context Versus Low Context Communication

High context communication is a tradition-bound communication system which depends on
indirectness while low context communication is a system that encourages directness in
communication.
High Power Distance Versus Low Power Distance
Power distance measures the extent to which individuals are willing to accept power differences. High
power distance cultures are based on power differences in which subordinates defer to superiors
while low power distance cultures believe that power should be used only when legitimate.
Masculine Versus Feminine Culture
Cultures differ in their attitudes toward gender roles. Masculine cultures are cultures that value
aggressiveness, strength, and material symbols of success.
Feminine cultures are cultures that value tenderness and relationships. Among highly masculine
cultures are Japan, Italy, Germany, Mexico, and Great Britain. Among highly feminine cultures are
Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Thailand, and Chile.

Cultural and Global Issues Affecting Communication

Cultural Differences: Influences on Cultural Identity

-Our cultural identity is based on our group memberships which are determined by gender, age,
racial, ethnic, religious, socioeconomic, political or even national affiliations. German et al. (2003)
defines culture as a social group’s system of meanings.

Our racial and ethnic identities are similarly socially constructed. Some racial and ethnic groups, for
example, share experiences of oppression.
Religious identity is at the root of countless contemporary conflicts occurring in the Middle East, India
and Pakistan, and Bosnia- Herzegovina.
Similarly, socioeconomic identify frames how we respond to issues of our day. The widening gap
between the ultrawealthy and the middle and lower classes in the different parts of the world is
contributing to their developing different attitudes on a wide array of issues.
National identity refers to our legal status or citizenship. People from different countries have been
U.S. citizens for generations, yet some still perceive them as foreigners.

Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural relativism

Ethnocentrism, the tendency to see your own culture as superior to all others, is a key characteristic
of failed intercultural communication efforts.
Cultural relativism is the opposite of ethnocentrism. When you practice cultural relativism, instead of
viewing the group to which you belong as superior to all others, you work to try to understand the
behavior of other groups on the basis of the context in which the behavior occurs rather than from
your own frame of reference.
Stereotype and Prejudice
Stereotypes are mental images or pictures we carry around in our heads; they are shortcuts, whether
positive or negative, that guide our reactions to others.
Prejudice describes how we feel about a group of people whom, more likely than not, we do not
personally know.
Ways to improve your ability to communicate interculturally
1. Refrain from formulating expectations based solely on your own culture.
- When those you interact with have diverse communication styles, it is critical that you
acknowledge the differences and accept their validity.
2. Recognize how faulty education can impede understanding. It is important to identify and work to
eliminate any personal biases and prejudices you have developed over the years.
3. Make a commitment to develop communication skills and abilities appropriate to life in a
multicultural world.

Your ability to develop intercultural communication skills depends in large part on how many of the
following promises you are willing to make:
I will make a commitment to seek information from persons whose cultures are different from my
own.
I will try to understand how the experiences of persons from different cultures lead them to develop
perspectives that differ from mine.
I will pay attention to the situation and the context when I communicate with persons from different
cultures.
I will make every effort to become a more flexible communicator.
I will not insist that persons from other cultures communicate with me on my terms.