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Hydraulics

Hydraulics is the science of fluids at rest and in motion. It can be divided into hydrostatics (fluids at rest), hydrokinetics (laws of fluid flow), and hydrodynamics (forces of moving fluids). The fundamental laws of hydraulics apply to all liquids but water is most commonly studied. Bernoulli's theorem states that the total energy in a fluid system is constant. Key concepts include discharge, continuity, laminar and turbulent flow, energy, head, and the hydraulic and energy grade lines.

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Percival Archer
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92 views46 pages

Hydraulics

Hydraulics is the science of fluids at rest and in motion. It can be divided into hydrostatics (fluids at rest), hydrokinetics (laws of fluid flow), and hydrodynamics (forces of moving fluids). The fundamental laws of hydraulics apply to all liquids but water is most commonly studied. Bernoulli's theorem states that the total energy in a fluid system is constant. Key concepts include discharge, continuity, laminar and turbulent flow, energy, head, and the hydraulic and energy grade lines.

Uploaded by

Percival Archer
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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HYDRAULICS

Fluids

• These are substances which possess


unlimited mobility, and which offer
practically no resistance to change of form.
• A perfect fluid yields to the slightest
tangential stress and can therefore have no
tangential stress if it is at rest.
• Fluids may be divided into two classes, (a)
liquids, or fluids that are practically
incompressible, and (b) gases, or fluids that
are highly compressible.
Hydraulics
• is the science embodying the laws that relate
to the behavior of liquids, and particularly of
water. In its original sense the term hydraulics
was applied only to the flow of water in
conduits, but the scope of the word has been
broadened by usage.
Hydraulics
• Hydraulics may be divided conveniently into
three branches : (a) hydrostatics, which deals
with liquids at rest, (b) hydrokinetics, which
treats of the laws governing the flow of
liquids, and (c) hydrodynamics, which relates
to the forces exerted upon other objects by
liquids in motion or upon liquids by other
objects in motion.
Hydraulics
• The fundamental laws of hydraulics apply
equally to all liquids, but in hydrokinetics
empirical coefficients must be modified to
conform to the liquid considered. Water is the
most common liquid and the only one that is
of general interest to engineers.
Fundamentals of Fluid Flow
The previous chapters deals only with fluids at
rest in which the only significant property used
is the weight of the fluid. This chapter will deal
with fluids in motion which is based on the
following principles: (a) the principle of
conservation of mass, (b) the energy principle
(the kinetic and potential energies), and (c) the
principle of momentum.
Discharge or Flow Rate, Q
Discharge or flow rate is the amount of fluid
passing through a section per unit of time. This
is expressed as a mass flow rate (ex. kg/sec),
weight flow rate (ex. kN/sec), and volume flow
rate or flow rate (ex. m^3/s, lit/s).

Volume flow rate, Q = Av


Mass flow rate, M=ρQ
Weight flow rate, W=γQ
Discharge or Flow Rate, Q
where:

Q = discharge in m^3/s or ft^3/s


A = cross-sectional area of flow in m^2 or ft^2
v = mean velocity of flow in m/s of ft/s
ρ = mass density in kg/m^3 or slugs/ft^3
γ = weight density in N/m^3 or lb/ft^3
Definition of Terms
Fluid Flow may be steady or unsteady; uniform
or non-uniform; continuous, laminar or
turbulent; one-dimensional, two-dimensional or
three-dimensional; and rotational or
irrotational.
Steady Flow
This occurs when the discharge Q passing a
given cross-section is constant will time. If the
flow Q at the cross-section varies with time, the
flow is unsteady.
Uniform Flow
This occurs if, with steady flow for a given
length, or reach, of a stream, the average
velocity of flow is the same at every cross-
section. This usually occurs when an
incompressible fluid flows through a stream
with uniform cross section. In stream where the
cross-sections and velocity changes, the flow
said to be non-uniform.
Continuous Flow
This occurs when at any time, the discharge Q at
every section of the stream the same (principle
of conservation of mass)
Continuity Equation
For incompressible fluids:
Q = A1v1 = A2v2 = A3v3 = constant

For compressible fluids:


ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 = ρ3A3v3 = constant
or γ1A1v1 = γ2A2v2 = γ3A3v3 = constant
Laminar Flow
The flow is said to be laminar when the path of
individual fluid particles not cross or intersect.
The flow is always laminar when the Reynolds
number R is less than (approximately) 2,100.
Turbulent Flow
The flow is said to be turbulent when the path
of individual particles are irregular and
continuously cross each other. Turbulent flow
normally occurs when the Reynolds number
exceed 2,100, (although the most common
situation is when it exceeds 4000).
Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow in circular pipes can be maintained
up to values of R as high as 50,000. However, in
such cases this type of flow is inherently
unstable, and the least disturbance will
transform it instantly into turbulent flow. On the
other hand, it is practically impossible for
turbulent flow in a straight pipe to persist at
values of Re much below 2100, because any
turbulence that is set up will be damped out by
viscous friction.
One-Dimensional Flow
This occurs when in an incompressible fluid, the
direction and magnitude of the velocity at all
points are identical.
Two-Dimensional Flow
This occurs when the fluid particles move in
planes or parallel planes and the streamline
patterns are identical in each plane.
Steamlines
These are imaginary curves drawn through a
fluid to indicate the direction of motion in
various sections of the flow of the fluid system.
Steamtubes
These represents elementary portions of a
flowing fluid bounded by a group of streamlines
which confine the flow.
Flow Nets
These are drawn to indicate flow patters in case
of two-dimensional flow, or even three-
dimensional flow.
Energy and Head
The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists
of the kinetic and the potential energy. Potential
energy may in turn be subdivided into energy
due to position or elevation above a given
datum, and energy due to pressure in the fluid.
The amount of energy per pound or Newton of
fluid is called the head.
Kinetic Energy
The ability of fluid mass to do work by virtue of
its velocity.

K.E. = ½ Mv^2 = ½ (W/g) v^2

Kinetic or velocity head = K.E./W= v^2/2g


Kinetic Energy
For circular pipe of diameter D flowing full

v^2/2g = 8Q^2/(π^2)g(D^4)
Elevation Energy
(Potential Energy)
The energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its
position or elevation with respect to a datum
plane.
Elevation Energy = Wz = Mgz

Elevation Head = Elevation Energy/W = z


Pressure Energy
(Potential Energy)
Consider a closed tank filled with a fluid which
has a small opening at the top Without pressure
at the top, the fluid practically will not flow. As
discussed in our previous subject the equivalent
head (pressure head) for a pressure of p is p/y.
Hence the pressure energy is equivalent to:

Pressure Energy = W (p/γ)


Pressure head = Pressure Energy/W = p/γ
Pressure Energy
(Potential Energy)
where:
z = position of the fluid above (+) or below (-)
the datum plane.
p = fluid pressure
v = mean velocity of flow
Total Flow Energy, E
The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the
sum of the kinetic and the potential energies. It
can be summarized as:

Total Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential


Energies

Total Head, E = v^2/2g + p/ γ + z


Power and Efficiency
Power is the rate at which work is done. For a
fluid of unit weight γ (N/m^3) and moving at a
rate of Q (m^3/s) with a total energy of E (m),
the power N-m/s (Joule/sec) or watts is:

Power = QγE
Effciency, ⴄ = (Output/Input) x 100%
Power and Efficiency
Note:
1 Horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts
1 Horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/sec
1 Watt = 1 N-m/s = 1 Joule/ sec
Bernouilli’s Energy Theorem
• It was formulated by Daniel Bernoulli, an
Italian engineer in 1738.
• It states that the total energy in a steadily
flowing fluid system is a constant along the
flow path. An increase in fluid’s speed must
therefore be matched by a decrease in its
pressure.
Energy Equation without Head Lost
• It means that the total energy at section 1
must be equal to the total energy at section 2.
• Neglecting head lost in fluid flow, the values
that we get are called ideal or theoretical
values.
Energy Equation with Head Lost
• Considering head lost in fluid flow, the values
that we get are called actual values.
Energy Equation with Pump
• Pump is used basically to increase the head.
Usually it raise water from a lower to a higher
elevation. The input power of the pump is
electrical energy and the output power is the
flow energy.
Energy Equation with Turbine or
Motor
• Turbines or motors extract flow energy to do
mechanical work which in turn converted into
electrical energy for turbines.
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
• It is also known as pressure gradient and is the
graphical representation of the total potential
energy of flow. Its distance from the datum
plane is
Characteristics of HGL
• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but
it may rise or fall due to changes in velocity or
pressure.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to
EGL.
• For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the
drop in pressure heads between any two points is
also equal to the head lost between these points.
Energy Grade Line (EGL)
• It is a graphical representation of the total
energy flow (the sum of kinetic and potential
energies). Its distance from the datum plane is
Characteristics of EGL
• EGL always slope downward in the direction of flow,
and it will only rise with the presence of a pump.
• The drop in EGL between any two points is the head
lost between two points.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, EGL is parallel to HGL.
• EGL is always above HGL by an amount equal to the
velocity head, v2/2g.
• Neglecting head lost, EGL is horizontal.

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