Pneumatology - The Spirit of Reiki by Ruth Mayeux Allen Submitted To The Faculty of The School of ... (PDFDrive) PDF

Pneumatology: The Spirit of Reiki
by
Ruth Mayeux Allen
Submitted to the Faculty of the

School of Theology of the University of the South
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Arts
May, 2009
Sewanee, Tennessee
Pneumatology: The Spirit of Reiki
by
Ruth Mayeux Allen
Submitted to the Faculty of the

School of Theology of the University of the South
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Arts
May, 2009
Sewanee, Tennessee
Approved: Date:
________________________________ __________________________
________________________________ __________________________
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................. v
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... vii
Chapter
ONE THE HOLY SPIRIT: WHO DO WE SAY YOU ARE?

Introduction .......................................................................................... 1
Biblical Views of the Spirit.................................................................. 2
Life Breath .................................................................................... 2
Wind .............................................................................................. 3
Fire ................................................................................................ 3
Water ............................................................................................. 3
Cloud ............................................................................................. 3
Dove .............................................................................................. 4
Paraclete ........................................................................................ 4
The Spirit in the Old Testament ........................................................... 4
The Spirit in the New Testament ........................................................ 6
Pauline Letters Concerning the Spirit ............................................ 9
John’s Gospels and Letters on the Spirit........................................ 13
Other New Testament Writings .................................................... 14
The Pastorals ........................................................................... 14
Hebrews .................................................................................. 15
The Letters of Peter ................................................................. 15
Jude ......................................................................................... 15
The Revelation to John ............................................................ 15
The Cappadocian Fathers ..................................................................... 16
Council of Constantinople .................................................................. 22
Augustine of Hippo .............................................................................. 23
Martin Luther’s Perception of the Spirit (1483-1546) ......................... 25
John Calvin (1509-1564) .................................................................... 30
John Wesley (1703-1791) ................................................................... 31
Leading Contemporary Theologians’ Perspective
on the Holy Spirit ....................................................................... 32
John Zizioulas (1931- ) ................................................................. 32
Karl Rahner (1904-1984) ............................................................... 33
Yves Congar (1904-1995).............................................................. 36
Elizabeth Johnson (1941- ) ........................................................... 37
Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928- ) ...................................................... 38
Juሷrgen Moltmann (1926- ) ............................................................. 42
Michael Welker (1947- ) ................................................................ 44
Clark Pinnock (1937- )................................................................... 46
Eugene Rogers (1961- ) ................................................................. 48
ii
Robert Hughes (1943- ) ................................................................. 50
Kathryn Tanner (1957- ) ............................................................... 51
Summary and Conclusions ................................................................ 53
TWO THE GIFTS OF THE HOLY SPIRIT

Scripture ............................................................................................. 56
Old Testament ............................................................................. 57
Isaiah ...................................................................................... 57
Joel 2:8 ................................................................................... 57
New Testament ............................................................................. 58
1 Corinthians 12:8-10 ............................................................ 58
Romans 12:4-8 ........................................................................ 59
Interpretations of Various Leading Theologians ............................... 59
The Charism of Healing ..................................................................... 67
Healing Discussed in Scripture and in the Ministry of Jesus.............. 67
Characteristics of Authentic Healers ........................................... 72
Healing in the Christian Tradition ............................................... 74
Healing in the Early Church .................................................. 74
Healing in Medieval Christianity ............................................ 78
Healing in Early Modern Christianity..................................... 81
Healing in Western Christianity’s Global Expansion ............ 84
Christian Healing Practiced Today .............................................. 86
Pentecostals ............................................................................ 86
Charismatic Practices ............................................................. 89
Healing Services: Three Representative Examples ............... 91
Anointing of the Sick ............................................................ 92
Roman Catholic Church ................................................... 93
Episcopal Church ............................................................. 94
Healing Service in a Church ...................................... 94
Ministry in a Home or Health Care Facility .............. 95
Ministration at the Time of Death .............................. 95
Ministration When Life Sustaining Treatment is
Withheld or Discontinued ............................... 96
THREE REIKI: ONE MEANS OF EXPRESSING AND TRAINING

THE CHARISM OF HEALING
Healing and the Holy Spirit .............................................................. 99
The Emergence of Reiki .................................................................. 103
What is Reiki? .................................................................................. 107
Science, the Human Energy Field, and Healing Energy .............. 116
Balancing Dysfunctional Vibrations ........................................... 122
God, Intuition, and Healing ........................................................ 124
Similarities between the Healings of Jesus and Reiki ....................... 127
Frequently Asked Questions ............................................................... 131
iii
Who or What is the Holy Spirit in the Charismatic
Experience of Life? ............................................................ 132
The Practice of Reiki ......................................................................... 134
Who can Practice Reiki? .............................................................. 134
Reiki Attunements and Reiki Energy .......................................... 135
Reiki Methodology and Sessions ................................................. 138
Distant Healing with Reiki ................................................................. 141
Applications of Reiki ......................................................................... 143
Hospitals and Medical Schools .................................................... 143
Hospice ........................................................................................ 147
Psychotherapy .............................................................................. 148
Spiritual Direction ........................................................................ 149
A Christian Theological Interpretation of Reiki ................................ 150
APPENDIX 1 HEALING SERVICES: THREE REPRESENTATIVE

EXAMPLES
Episcopal Church ............................................................................... 156

A Reiki Healing Service for Application in any Christian Church ... 159
A Service of Healing and Blessing for any Application
in any Christian Church ........................................................... 161
APPENDIX 2 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
How Do We Know That Healing is Appropriate for a

Christian to do? ......................................................................... 168
What is the Best Way for a Christian to Practice Reiki? .................... 168
How Do We Know That Reiki Comes From God?
I’ve Heard Some People Say Reiki Comes From
Satan. How Can I Know The Truth? ........................................ 169
Is Reiki A Religion? ........................................................................... 169
What is the Purpose of the Symbols Used in Reiki? ......................... 170
I’ve Heard Reiki Practitioners Speaking Of Reiki
Guides. What is This About? I’ve Heard Christians
Should Avoid Contacting Spirits .............................................. 171
How Does Reiki Heal? ....................................................................... 171
Is Reiki a Buddhist Practice? ............................................................. 173
Can Reiki Ever Cause Harm? ............................................................ 173
Do All Healers Use Reiki? ................................................................. 174
WORKS CITED.................................................................................................. 175
iv
Acknowledgments
There are two people to whom I am especially indebted for their support and
assistance in writing my thesis. The first is The Reverend Robert Davis Hughes III, my
thesis advisor. Bob’s vast breadth and depth of knowledge of theology and especially
pneumatology was invaluable in realizing and connecting the threads that interweave
theology, specifically pneumatology, and Reiki, an Eastern approach to “hands-on-
healing.” Bob was always willing to discuss controversial issues with me until we both
reached an understanding and agreement. This was stimulating and exciting, and a time I
feel thoroughly blessed to have experienced. Bob’s efficiency with timely responses to
my questions or quandaries made it possible for me to continue writing without any
delay. I feel very privileged to have had Bob as my thesis advisor. Thank you, Bob.
You have been a true gift in my life.
The second person I wish to acknowledge is my husband, Gary. Gary has
consistently supported me during my time in seminary and especially in the writing of my
thesis. He chose to do the shopping and cooking so that I could read, study, and write
my thesis. Gary always was available to read and edit my writing, and when I needed to
research a new issue, he was always willing to search the internet for the topic for me
while I continued to write. We were a team in this seminary adventure, and we both
grew in our knowledge of theology. I am extremely grateful and blessed to have Gary as
my husband and best friend.
My sincere thanks to Dr. Cynthia Crysdale for her efforts in guiding and
facilitating the Master of Art students in the proper writing of a thesis, and especially for
v
her time and effort in reading and commenting on my thesis as the second reader. I also
want to thank the faculty of the School of Theology for sharing their knowledge and
insights into the various aspects of religious studies. A special thank-you goes to The
Reverend Fletcher Comer for his guidance and support, and for suggesting that I write
my thesis on “Theology and Reiki.” Without his confidence in me and his insight, I
would never have attempted this particular thesis. A heartfelt thank you goes to Dean
William Stafford for his support in my embarking on this specific thesis in my search for
the link between Theology and Reiki. His support gave me the impetus to reach further
and stretch more and to materialize what I had only dreamed of doing one day. Sue
Armentrout was an invaluable editor for my thesis, and I want especially to thank her for
the times she extended herself to edit my paper on short notice or to speak with me on the
phone concerning a short answer to a question. It is difficult to express adequately my
appreciation for the assistance and support I have received from different staff members,
especially the computer experts, during the writing of my thesis. Their assistance was the
wind beneath my wings when I needed information, directions, and guidance.
vi
M.A. Abstract
PNEUMATOLOGY: THE SPIRIT OF REIKI
RUTH M. ALLEN
Thesis under the direction of Professors Robert Hughes and Cynthia Crysdale
Reiki is a complementary medicine, a form of “hands on healing,” used in

hospitals, hospice, medical doctors’ offices, in private practice, and in conjunction with
psychotherapy sessions and spiritual direction. This thesis focuses on Reiki as practiced
and interpreted from a Christian point of view. The initial focus is on the person and role
of the Holy Spirit as discussed in the Old Testament, New Testament, and by leading
theologians.
The Spirit represents life itself and indwells in all creation. The terms ruach in
the Old Testament and pneuma in the New Testament refer to the Spirit as breath, wind,
and spirit. The Spirit and the Word share a mutual relationship.
Of the various charisms given to each human by the Holy Spirit, the charism of
healing is chosen to demonstrate the manifestation of the Holy Spirit’s role as the “source
of life” or “universal life force.” The charism of healing was surveyed through a review
of the healing ministry of Jesus, healing practices in the Christian tradition, and the
practice of Christian healing today. Charisms are associated with the precise role(s) each
Christian is called to by God.
Unlike glossolalia or prophecy, the gift of healing is mentioned by Paul as a fact

of Christian life. Using Jesus’ ministry of healing as a model, Christians have used this
gift of healing from the time of the apostles through today. Authentic Christian healers
focus on the Lordship of Jesus or the Holy Spirit and leave the healing to God.
All charisms must be trained and have a means of being expressed. One means of
training and expressing a gift of healing is the practice of Reiki. Reiki transcends all
religions, cultures, creeds, and nationalities. It is not a religion. Reiki is a method of
stress reduction and relaxation which promotes healing at the spiritual, emotional, mental,
and physical levels. It is a non-invasive technique of gentle touch that restores
dysfunctional vibrations to resonances that are in closer harmony with the indwelling
Trinity, thus producing healthier dimensions of being. All Reiki practitioners are
conduits for Universal Life Force energy. Christians call this energy the Holy Spirit.
vii
Chapter 1
The Holy Spirit: Who Do We Say You Are?
Introduction
In general, theology and the church had lost sight of the Holy Spirit until
approximately twenty years ago. Until 1985, when the doctrine of the Holy Spirit was
retrieved, it was common to speak of the Holy Spirit as “the forgotten God.”
Pneumatology had been neglected.1 Often the Holy Spirit was given a secondary role,
especially in the West where Christology is emphasized. One purported reason is St.
Augustine’s depersonalized approach to the Spirit in his doctrine of the Trinity.
Augustine’s perspective that the Spirit is the bond of love between the Father and the Son
presented a foundation for filioque, the phrase in the creed that indicates belief that Spirit
proceeds both from the Father and Son, and it divested the Spirit of full personality.2 One
biblical reason for the theological deficit is that the Spirit calls persons to the Son and
never to the Spirit’s own self.
The church has been another reason for the subordinate role given to the Holy
Spirit. Charismatic and prophetic movements have encouraged the church to attempt to
1
Kilian McDonnell, The Other Hand of God: The Holy Spirit as the Universal
Touch and Goal (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2003), 2.
2
Bernd Jochen Hilberath, “Identity through Self-Transcendence: The Holy Spirit
and the Communio of Free Persons” in Advents of the Spirit: An Introduction to the
Current Study of Pneumatology, ed. Bradford E. Hinze and D. Lyle Dabney (Milwaukee,
WI: Marquette University Press, 2001), 2-4.
1
control the work of the Spirit out of fear.3 Dialogue happened in response to challenges
from inside and outside, and until the 1980s the ecumenical movement did not appear to
understand the need to engage more fully in a discussion of pneumatology.4 Presently
the need is apparent, and, in response, numerous works have been published on the Spirit.
Biblical Views of the Spirit
The Bible informs us about the Spirit in terms of stories and symbols, and it
emphasizes the works of the Spirit. The images of the Spirit in the Bible are taken from
the material, animal, and personal worlds as illustrated below.
Life-breath
One of the earliest biblical concepts of the Spirit is found in Genesis 2:7. This
passage speaks of the Lord’s breathing into the nostrils of man, who then becomes a
living being. In the Hebrew Bible, “life-breath” is often expressed by the Hebrew word
ruach, which means “breath,” “wind,” or “spirit.”5 The story of God’s breathing life into
human beings is the predecessor of John 20:22, in which Jesus says, “Receive the Holy
3
Veli-Matti Karkkainen, Pneumatology: The Holy Spirit in Ecumenical,
International, and Contextual Perspective (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002),
18.
4
Konrad Raiser, “The Holy Spirit in Modern Ecumenical Thought,” Ecumenical
Review 41 (1989): 375.
5
Ibid., 24.
2
Spirit” as he breathes upon the disciples. Therefore, the Spirit can represent life itself and
is a gift of God.
Wind
Wind is closely related to breath. John 3, when speaking of the mysterious nature
of wind and the Spirit’s role in a believer’s new birth, clearly connects the idea of wind
with God’s Spirit.
Fire
Breath and wind are more common than the use of fire as a description of the
Spirit. One example of the use of fire is found in the preaching of John the Baptist
concerning baptism with the Spirit and fire (Matt. 3:11-12; Luke 3:16-17).
Water
In the Old Testament, Isaiah predicts the coming salvation in terms of God’s
Spirit being “poured out” (32:15). This provides the background for the Gospel of John
where water symbolizes the Spirit (4:10; 7:38-39).
Cloud
In the Old Testament a cloud represents God’s presence and glory with Moses on
Mount Sinai (Exod. 24:15-18), at the tent of meeting (Exod. 33:9-10), in the desert
(Exod. 40: 36-38), and at the dedication of the Solomonic temple (1 Kings 8:10-12).
3
Where God is, God’s presence is made possible only through the universal Spirit, so that
the symbol of the cloud can justifiably be connected with the Spirit.6
Dove
All four Gospels record Jesus’ baptism in the Jordan when the Holy Spirit
descended on Jesus in the form of a dove. Kilian McDonnell has hypothesized that the
dove offers a cosmic meaning: the dove delivered news of a new creation to the ark, so
the Holy Spirit announces that the world will have a new beginning with Jesus’ baptism.7
Paraclete
Jesus is the first Paraclete, and the Holy Spirit is the second. This is the only
personal image of the Holy Spirit and proclaims that the Spirit speaks in our defense.8
The Spirit in the Old Testament
In some writings in the Old Testament, ruach indicates God’s outgoing activity
and presence to the world in a creative, quickening, renewing way. These writings do not
depict the Holy Spirit as a personal being separate from God the Creator (Ezek. 36:26;
Isa. 44:3).
6
Ibid., 24-25.
7
Killian McDonnell, “Jesus’ Baptism in the Jordan,” Theological Studies 56
(1995): 209-236.
8
Ibid., 25.
4
The Hebrew term ruach is in most cases equivalent to the Greek term pneuma,
and both are used to refer to the Holy Spirit. The term ruach in the Old Testament and
pneuma in the New Testament have multiple meanings: “air,” “wind,” “breath,” or
“soul.”9 Ruach also means the life-force of the individual (Judg. 15:19) and of the group
(Num. 16:22). It is present in God and the Messiah, but not in idols made to represent
God.10 In the Old Testament pneumatology, ruach is present in animals as well as
humans, and God is the source for both. Ruach, as a charismatic power, can strongly
envelop a human being (Judg. 14:6; Sam. 16:13). This Spirit, ruach, can allow humans
to execute supernatural deeds, as the judges physically saving Israel (Judg. 6:34), and can
indicate the source of the craftsman’s skill (Exod. 31:3) or any exceptional ability (Dan.
6:3).11 Whenever ruach is connected with an outpouring, it is inevitably eschatological
in nature. From inception, Israel’s faith was oriented to promise and the future it
contained.12
The works of the Spirit reveal the person of the Spirit to us. In Isaiah, the Spirit
ordains and empowers the Messiah (11:1-8). It is through the Spirit that the missionary
work of the Messiah, including the salvation of the Gentiles, will be achieved. (42:1-4;
9
Friedrich Baumgartel, “Pneuma” in Theological Dictionary of the New
Testament, ed. G. Kittel and G. Friedrich, trans. G.W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans, 1964-1976), 6:360.
10
Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 26.
11
Ibid., 27.
12
Kilian McDonnell, The Other Hand of God, 34.
5
49:1-6).13 Ezekiel 37:14 credits the resurrection of all Israel, not of individuals, to the
spirit/Spirit of God.14 God prepares the prophets in the Old Testament so that humans
might become accustomed to carrying the Spirit and to having communion with God.15
The Spirit’s work is a new creation. It is nothing less than resurrection (Ezek. 37:1-14).
Numerous allusions to the Spirit are found in Wisdom literature: Wisdom can be
identified with the Word/Logos or the Spirit (Prov. 8:22-31).16
The Spirit in the New Testament
The counterpart of ruach in the Old Testament is pneuma in the New Testament,
and both mean “air” and “breathing.” In the ancient world, this sense was significant
because the air breathed was deemed the carrier of life. Pneuma refers to the human
spirit, which is that facet of a human through which God most directly encounters the
person (Rom. 8:16; Gal. 6; 18; Phil. 4:23; Heb. 4:12, etc). This facet is one in which a
person is most directly open to God (Matt. 5:3; Luke 1:47; Rom. 1:9; 1 Peter 3:4).17 Paul
13
14
McDonnell, The Other Hand of God, 37.
15
Ibid., 49.
16
17
Ibid., 28.
6
compares the Spirit breathing life into the old Adam at creation to the Spirit breathing life
into the new Adam at the Resurrection.18
In the Synoptic Gospels, we learn that Jesus’ success as an exorcist was
irrefutable, and credit is given to the Spirit of God for his success (Matt. 12:28). The
effective power of the Spirit is used to define the presence of the kingdom.19 Jesus saw
his ministry in the Spirit in terms of eschatological blessing: good news, freedom, and
healing. Jesus’ role as baptizer in the Spirit is an indicator of the eschatological ministry
of the Spirit. Jesus is depicted as a dispenser of the Spirit in the Gospels (Matt. 10:20;
Mark 13:11). By the power of the Spirit, the church ministered to and healed people just
as Jesus had done. The Gospels generally refer to Jesus as the Man of the Spirit. The
Spirit realized his birth (Matt. 1:18-25, Luke 1:35). At his baptism he was anointed with
the Spirit (Matt 3:16—17; Mark 1:10-11; Luke 3:22; John 1:33). The Spirit led Jesus to
the desert for his temptations (Matt. 4: 1; Mark 1:12; Luke 4:1).20 Rogers adds the
overshadowing of the Spirit at the transfiguration, the Spirit’s anointing Jesus at his
burial, the Spirit’s indwelling his body at the resurrection, and the Spirit’s continuing his
mission at Pentecost.21 In general, Jesus’ ministry was born of the Spirit.22 It is
18
Eugene F. Rogers, Jr., After the Spirit: A Constructive Pneumatology from
Resources Outside the Modern West (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 2005), 80, 201.
19
20
Ibid., 31.
21
Rogers, After the Spirit, 23.
22
7
comforting to realize that if the Spirit launches and sustains the life of the resurrected
Lord, then the Spirit will launch and sustain the life of the believers in their
resurrection.23 At Pentecost, a powerful work of the Spirit gives birth to the Church, and
the same Holy Spirit empowered the church in its ministry and miracles. The Spirit gave
boldness of speech and inspiration to the first Christians (Acts 4:8; 13, 29-31; 13: 9) by
facilitating successful testimony and teaching (5:32; 6:10; 18:25).24
According to Basil of Caesarea, everything that occurred since the Lord’s
assuming flesh comes to pass through the Spirit. At his baptism and subsequently, the
Holy Spirit was present in every action Jesus Christ performed.25
Did Jesus speak of the Spirit? Yes, but only rarely. Exegetes generally agree that
Jesus rarely spoke of the Spirit, yet the manuscripts portray Jesus as impelled by the
Spirit (Luke 4:1), as one who acts in the Spirit (Luke 4:18-21; 6:19). Jesus was probably
aware of being a Spirit-bearer (Mark 1:12; 3:22-29).26 Did the tradition restrain the
prophetic apocalyptic nature of Jesus’ preaching? What are the possible reasons for Jesus
not including the Spirit more often in his teachings? Rudolf Bultmann asks if the reason
is that the Synoptics wanted Jesus presented as a less threatening teaching rabbi, or was it
because Jesus claimed to be more than a prophet and so did not want to pronounce
himself as a bearer of the Spirit, and therefore a prophet. Or is the reason for the rarity of
23
24
Ibid., 31.
25
On the Holy Spirit 16:39; cited in McDonnell, The Right Hand of God, 84.
26
8
citations in the Synoptic Gospels to be embedded in the messianic secret, meaning that if
Jesus verbalized more of the Spirit he would divulge himself prematurely as the Messiah?
Jesus’ stated intention was to keep this secret until his resurrection (Mark 9:9).27
Pauline Letters Concerning the Spirit
Paul expands our understanding of the Holy Spirit. According to Veli-Matti
Karkkainen, Paul’s pneumatology is christologically founded, that is, the Spirit is the
Spirit of Christ (Rom. 8:9; Gal. 4:6; Phil. 1: 19). It is the Holy Spirit who makes it
possible for us to recognize and know Christ. To be “in Spirit” and to be “in Christ” are
practically synonymous, hence we cannot experience the Spirit apart from Christ.28 In
the same mode, Eugene Rogers states that “the Spirit is in us, means we are in God.”29
One can say that the Spirit cannot be experienced apart from Christ (1 Cor. 12: 1-3), and
Paul also states that Christ became “a life-giving Spirit” (1 Cor. 15: 45). Paul teaches
about the Spirit’s soteriological dimension saying that a basic sign of belonging to Christ
is the gift of the Spirit that renders one Christian (Rom. 8:9) and a partaker in sonship
(8:14-16; Gal. 4:6). Paul tells us that the reception of the Spirit is fundamentally a
synonym for grace (Rom. 3:24; 1 Cor. 15:10; Gal. 1:15), and another name for
27
Rudolf Bultmann, The History of the Synoptic Tradition, trans. John Marsh
(New York: Harper & Row, 1968), 108-130.
28
29
9
justification (1 Cor. 6: 11; Gal. 3:14).30 The word “spiritual” is commonly used due to
the fact that what is typically acknowledged is not the Holy Spirit in person but the
Spirit’s grace-giving energies, powers, and acts and activities on human beings.31
In addition to Paul’s teaching concerning the soteriological facet of the Holy
Spirit are the charismatic sayings and acts (1 Cor. 1:4-7; Gal. 3:5). Paul teaches
extensively concerning the correct use of the charismata.32
Although there is an eschatological side of the person of the Holy Spirit in Luke,
it is Paul who is extremely precise in stating that the Spirit of the new age has entered
into the old. Paul calls the Spirit the arrabōn, i.e., a down payment of the glory to come
(2 Cor. 1:22; 5:5; Eph. 1:13-14), and as the initial payment of the believers’ inheritance in
the kingdom of God (Rom. 8:15-17; 14:17; 1 Cor. 6:9-11; 15:42-50; 4:6-7). Paul and
Luke both give special emphasis to the communal feature of the Spirit’s ministry. The
rationale for the charismata is to develop the community (Rom. 12: 4-8; 1 Cor. 12:14-26;
Eph. 4: 11-16). Through prayer, the Spirit opens the way to God. Once in union with
God, one may then reach out in a more proactive way to one’s neighbor.
Charisms are very important according to Paul. He believes they participate in a
crucial role in an individual believer’s life and in the communal life. Charismata may be
regular ministries (Rom. 12:6-8; 1 Cor. 12:28-30; Eph. 4:11) or more dramatic Spirit-
30
31
Pavel Florensky, “Letter Five: the Comforter,” in Pillar and Ground of the
Truth, trans. Boris Jakim (Princeton: Princeton Press, 1977), 80-105.
32
Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 32-33.
10
motivated acts or words (1 Cor. 12: 8-11). Our responsibility, according to Paul, is to
search for an equilibrium between undervaluing and exploiting the charisms (Rom. 12:3;
1 Cor. 2:12-14; 1 Thess. 5:19-22) and not confining the implementation of the gifts of the
Spirit (1 Thess. 5:19-20).33
Paul’s theology of the Spirit is summarized by Gordon Fee as follows:
1. The Spirit plays an absolutely crucial role in Paul’s Christian experience and his
understanding of the gospel.
2. Equally crucial to the Pauline perspective is the dynamically experienced nature
of the coming of the Spirit in the life of the individual and community.
3. The coming of the eschatological Spirit meant the return of God’s own personal
presence to dwell in and among God’s people.
4. Trinitarian presuppositions are absolutely fundamental to the Pauline theology of
the Spirit.
5. Paul’s Trinitarian pneumatology is foundational to the heart of this theological
enterprise, namely, salvation in Christ.
6. The Spirit is the key to all truly Christian spirituality, including prayer in the
Spirit.34
33
Ibid., 33.
34
Gordon Fee, God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the
Letters of Paul (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson), 1994, 896-99.
11
Paul comprehended the Spirit as the power of God. He also believed the Spirit as
the power of God initiated the proof of Jesus being the Son of God by raising him from
the dead (Rom. 8:4).35
Romans 8:11 is an example for identifying all three Persons by the resurrection of
the crucified Christ.36 Pre-twentieth-century commentators on this verse have typically
observed a different characteristic, that is, the Spirit comes to rest upon, or “dwells in” a
human body. Paul’s notion is that the body appears to be something the Spirit can
assume, assimilate, or catch up into the triune life.37 Around 360, Hilary of Poitiers
referred to Romans 8:11 when stating that the Spirit of God and the Spirit of Christ are
the same Spirit, not two, and therefore it is the Spirit of God that dwells in Christians.38
The inclusion of the Spirit of the Raised and the Spirit of the Raiser indwelling a human
becomes the inclusion of the human within God. The assumption of the human into the
Trinitarian life is the only way the resurrection can be made to work.39 When the Spirit is
in us, we are in God.40
35
36
Ibid., 79.
37
Ibid., 80.
38
Hiliary of Poitiers, De Trinitate, in Philip Schaff et al., A Select Library of the
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. Trans. E. W. Watson (Second
series) (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1983), 9:21; cited in
39
Ibid.
40
12
John’s Gospel and Letters on the Spirit
John repeatedly utilizes the Old Testament metaphors of the Spirit associated with
the life-giving power of breath and water. This is obvious in his illustrations of spring of
life (John 4:14; 6:63; 7:38-39), rebirth (John 3:5-8), and reception of the Spirit as new life
(John 20:22; cf. Gen. 2:7; Ezek. 37: 9). John is partial to using another Old Testament
imagery, that of anointing, when speaking of the Spirit (1 John 2:20, 27).
Like Paul, John has a deep interest in the essential association between the Spirit
and Christ, albeit he portrays it differently. Although John believes that Christ is divine
and one and the same as God, he presents the importance of the anointing of Jesus with
the Spirit at the Jordan (John 1:32). There has been no limit to the giving of the Spirit to
Jesus (3:34).41 In addition, John connects the bestowing of the gift of the Spirit to Jesus
more intimately with his death (John 6:53, 62-63), e.g., it is written that Jesus gave up his
spirit (John 19:30), an allusion to the divine Spirit.42
Introducing the Spirit as the “other Paraclete” (John 14:16) is one of the unique
characteristics of Johannine pneumatology. Paraclete basically means an advocate as
well as “intercessor,” “comforter,” and “the one who urges or encourages.” Many
multifaceted functions are given to the Paraclete in John’s writings; and, therefore, many
41
42
Raymond Brown, The Gospel According to John 13-21, Anchor Bible 29A
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1970), 931.
13
translations of the word are required.43 One can witness the many roles assigned to the
Spirit, e.g. revealer, leader into the truth, witness, and interpreter.44
John and Paul both connect the Spirit to eschatology, albeit in different ways.
Paul proclaims that the Spirit is the foretaste of things to come, but John spotlights to a
greater extent the current experience of salvation already come in Christ through the
Spirit.45
Other New Testament Writings
The Pastorals
These letters demonstrate much less consciousness of the Spirit as a current
reality. The Spirit’s expressions have become more formalized and institutionalized,
because they are connected with ordination for ministry and the laying on of hands (1
Tim. 4:14; 2 Tim. 1:6). The Spirit’s function in the motivation of prophecy and prophetic
Scriptures is one of the key themes (2 Tim. 1:7; 3:16). In one Christological segment
Jesus is spoken of as “vindicated by the Spirit” (1 Tim. 3:16).
43
Ibid., 1135-43.
44
Congar, I Believe in the Holy Spirit, trans. (New York: Crossroad Herder,
1997), 1:54-56.
45
14
Hebrews
Obviously the author is aware of the charismatic vigor that was evident in earlier
times.46 “God confirmed the gospel with signs and wonders and gifts of the Holy Spirit”
(Heb. 2:4). Corresponding with the Pastorals, Hebrews also links the Spirit with
Christology, namely Christ’s self-offering through the Spirit (9:14) and the inspiration of
Scripture (3:7; 9:8; 10:15).
The Letters of Peter
1 Peter 1:11-12 cites that the Spirit is the power of the gospel, the inspirer of
mission, and the source of prophecy. In passage 4:14 the Spirit is discussed as the source
of blessing and strength in the midst of suffering.
Jude
In verses 19-20, Jude states that believers are those who have the Spirit.
The Revelation to John
The Spirit has a vital role in vision and inspiration (1:10; 4:2; 14:14; 17:3; 21: 10;
22: 17). The prophet of the apocalypse believes “the testimony of Jesus” is “the spirit of
prophecy” (19:10).
46
Ibid., 35-36.
15
In summary, scripture offers a diversity of perspectives on and approaches to the
Spirit. There is a common core, albeit there is no one “doctrine.” The Spirit is the
principle and source of life in the Old Testament. This is a foundation for the New
Testament’s spotlighting the Spirit’s role in Jesus’ life and the charismatic power that
Jesus passed on to his disciples.47
Typically, in different periods diverse questions are raised and carefully analyzed
by theologians. The Christian tradition’s growth was initiated with an appropriate
doctrine of God. During the first centuries the doctrine of the Trinity was developed, and
subsequently questions arose about Christ that needed to be answered before the church
was prepared to concentrate on the doctrine of the Spirit. The propelling question
concerned the divinity of the Spirit.48 On the basis of the Old and New Testament and
side by side with the life of the church, its ministry, and its liturgy, the doctrine of the
Holy Spirit gradually expanded.49
The Cappadocian Fathers
The Cappadocian fathers, Basil the Great of Caesarea (c. 330-379), Gregory of
Nyssa (c. 330-c. 395), and Gregory of Nazianzus (329-389) were theologians of the
Trinity and the Spirit.50 Basil of Caesarea challenged the convictions of Eunomius,
47
Ibid., 36.
48
Ibid., 37.
49
Ibid., 38.
50
Ibid., 44.
16
bishop of Cyzicus in the Hellespont, who belonged to the neo-Arian party. Eunomius
had believed that the Holy Spirit is third in a Trinitarian order, and he deduced that the
Spirit was alien to the Godhead and lacked the power of creation.51 Basil challenged
Eunomius’ denial of divinity to the Spirit. Earlier in Basil’s life he belonged to the
homoios party (of like substance absolutely), and only about 362 AD, thirty-seven years
after Nicaea, did he move toward an obvious support of Nicaea and its homoousios.
Basil’s first doxology was a vertical statement: “Glory be to the Father through
the Son in the Holy Spirit.” This could be comprehended as subordinating the Spirit to
the Son and to the Father, but not in an ontological sense, i.e., inferior to their essential
being, which the main tradition viewed as unacceptable. This doxology was accepted by
most, but his second doxology was a horizontal statement for the belief in the equality of
the persons: “Glory be to the Father, with the Son, and the Holy Spirit.” This doxology
upset many people.52 In response, Basil wrote the foremost Eastern discourse on the
Holy Spirit, Treatise on the Holy Spirit (374-75), in the hope of quieting the uproar his
doxology caused; however, even Basil was fearful that a very clear pronouncement of the
divinity of the Spirit would cause some to charge him with tritheism (three gods).53
51
Maurice Wiles, “Eunomius: Hair-splitting Dialectician or Defender of the
Accessibility of Salvation?” The Making of Orthodoxy: Essays in Honour of Henry
Chadwick, ed. Rowan Williams (New York: Cambridge University, 1989) 157 -72.
52
Basil, “On the Holy Spirit”, 1.3, Sources Chrétiennes 17bis. ((Paris: Editions du
Cerf, 1941-2005), 286; cited in McDonnell, The Other Hand of God, 132-33.
53
Hermann Dorries, De Spiritu Sancto: Der Beitrag des Basilius zum Abschluss
des trinitarischen Dogmas (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1956), 81-90; cited in
17
Basil, like Athanasius (c. 293-373) before him, was reluctant to label the Holy Spirit,
“God,” because this language does not occur in the Bible. Safeguarding the biblical,
“economic” language was of utmost importance to the Cappadocian Fathers. Although
these were strong feelings, the Cappadocians facilitated convincing the church that the
Spirit belonged, both in equality and dignity, to the Holy Trinity.54 Basil emphatically
stated that the contents of the Treatise on the Holy Spirit were dogma to be studied and
scrutinized in silence. He emphasized it was not information for public proclamation.55
Gregory of Nazianzus agreed with Basil that the discussion of theology was not for each
person or for every audience; however, when it came to the divinity of the Spirit he did
not want silence. He wanted to shout it out.56
Gregory of Nazianzus was considered the “Theologian” of the East, and he was
perhaps the first Eastern Father who dared to call the Holy Spirit “God.” Gregory
believed that the best way to access a better comprehension of the Spirit was through the
Trinity. “The name of the one who is without beginning is Father; the name of the
beginning is Son; the name of the one who is with the beginning is Holy Spirit.” Images
such as river, sun, ray, stream, source, and light were used to more easily facilitate this
relationship.57
54
55
56
Ibid., 138.
57
18
Gregory of Nazianzus had a clear interest in the divinity of the Holy Spirit. It was
a difficult issue because the divinity of the Holy Spirit is not stated in the Bible, and his
critics said he was suggesting a “rival God.” Gregory and Basil both countered and
stated that inference from scripture was necessary in this instance.58 Gregory explained
his belief that there is gradual, progressive, unfolding of revelation by God in history.
This doctrine of slow unfolding proceeds with God enticing believers from stage to stage.
Gregory teaches that after Jesus had departed, God influenced the tradition of the divinity
of the Spirit by giving clarity through progressive revelation, i.e., “in gradual states
proportionate to their capacity,” reaching further than the scriptures to “a later stage”
including Gregory’s own time in history.59
In the Old Testament there is a clear disclosure of the Father, but a less exact
revelation of the Son. In the New Testament one finds the Son made manifest, and we
are given a glimpse of the Spirit’s Godhead. However, if the New Testament fully
revealed the Son, the Spirit is also encountered there.60 The Son is disclosed, and there
are hints of the deity of the Spirit. The rationale is that it would not be correct to preach
the Son openly while the deity of the Father had not yet been confessed or to force the
acceptance of the Holy Spirit before the deity of the Son had been recognized.61 But
58
McDonnell, The Other Hand of God, 141-42.
59
Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration, 31:26-27; cited in McDonnell, The Other Hand
of God, 143.
60
Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration, 31:26; cited in McDonnell, The Other Hand of
God ,143.
61
Ibid; cited in McDonnell, The Other Hand of God, 143-44.
19
Gregory believed the most complete revelation of the Spirit is outside the scriptures as a
required and gratifying deduction from what had preceded in the scriptures.62 Gregory
was certain of this fact: The Lord said that after he has departed for the Father, the Spirit
dwelling within will teach “everything” (John 14: 26; 16: 13). We will learn more about
the Godhead of the Spirit, which will be more understandable when the timing is better
for this knowledge to be received.63 Gregory argued that the post-biblical tradition
discloses more completely what was present in the biblical witness. He stated that
currently the Spirit lives amongst us and continues to give us a more lucid manifestation
of himself than previously.
Gregory of Nazianzus maintained that inference from scripture is not only
acceptable, it is necessary.64 Gregory’s theology was instrumental in elucidating the
process by which the church came to a better understanding of the Spirit.65
Gregory of Nyssa, Basil’s brother, continued to develop the doctrine of the
divinity of the Spirit. Gregory believed that together with the Father and the Son, the
Spirit produced all grace, power, direction, life, comfort, the road to liberty, the change to
immortality, and every good that exists and descends on us.66 Using the work of his
brother’s and Athanasius’ formulations, he argued that according to Christ’s model the
62
Oration, 31: 26; cited in Ibid. 143.
63
Oration, 31:27; cited in Ibid. 144.
64
65
66
Ibid., 167.
20
forming of the Christian and his perfection were the labor of the sanctifying Spirit; and,
therefore, the Spirit is consubstantial with the Father and Son. Gregory is stating that
there is a distinction between hypostases, yet there is a unity of nature.67 One of the
models of the Trinity for Gregory is “the revolving circle of glory from like to like.”68
Gregory desired to portray the equality of the three persons in the powerful, continuous,
and eternal circular movement. “This intra-Trinitarian stream of glory begins from the
Father, moves through the Son, in the Spirit, in whom it returns through the Son, and
back to the Father, a movement from like (Father) through like (Son) in the (Spirit).”69 In
this circular movement, the Spirit is the point at which contact is made with people.
Believers are united among themselves and with God by the Spirit in a manner
comparable to the way the Spirit joins the Father and the Son in the circle of glory. How
can the Spirit achieve this? The Spirit achieves this because she not only possesses glory,
the Spirit is glory. Because the Spirit possesses glory and is glory, the Spirit can operate
at all three levels of glory: (1) within the Trinity itself; (2) between God and humanity/
and (3) within humanity itself. The Spirit must be equal to the Father and Son and share
in the divine glory, or the Spirit would not unify the Father and the Son. Therefore, there
67
68
Gregory of Nyssa, Against the Macedonians, 22; cited in McDonnell, The
Other Hand of God, 106.
69
21
would be no Trinity. Humans would have no internal relationship with other humans, no
communion among themselves or with God.70
The Council of Constantinople
In 381 AD the Council of Constantinople drafted the Nicene-Constantinopolitan
Creed, the first significant move toward a doctrinal understanding of the church
concerning the Spirit. This Creed stated neither that the Spirit is God nor
“consubstantial” with the Father and Son. The Holy Spirit is the “Lord and life-giver,
proceeding from the Father, object of the same worship and the same glory with the
Father and the Son.”71 Since only God is worshiped, this statement is as bold as the
church was willing to make at this time in acknowledging that the Holy Spirit is God.
The Trinity is a triadic unity composed of three co-eternal and co-equal persons. The
heresies that led to the definition of this doctrine had made the mistake of overly
spotlighting the distinctness of the three persons to the detriment of their community or
by overly spotlighting the community of the three persons at the cost of the distinction
among the persons.72
Stanley Burgess states that the main Eastern patristic orientations in
pneumatology include the divine Spirit being the giver of life, which means his main
70
Ibid.
71
Bernd Jochen Hilberath, “Pneumatologie” in Handbuch der Dogmatik
(Dusseldorf: Patmos, 1992), 1:448-49; cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 45.
72
Robert Davis Hughes, Beloved Dust: Tides of the Spirit in the Christian Life
(New York: Continuum, 2008), 99.
22
soteriological operation is the divinization of human beings (theosis). Emphasis is placed
on the experiential nature of the divine Spirit.73 Therefore, in 381 AD at the Council of
Constantinople, the climax was reached in the argument over the divinity of the Spirit.
Although it was indirectly stated, a profession of the divinity of the Spirit was declared
and signed.74
Augustine of Hippo (354-430)
Augustine, in the Western wing of the church, gave the basis for the position on
the Holy Spirit. His interest in the Holy Spirit was a life-long concern. His most
comprehensive treatise on the Holy Spirit was De Trinitate (399-419). John 16:13
reveals, for Augustine, the basic truth that the Father is only the Father of the Son and the
Son is only the Son of the Father, but the Spirit is the Spirit of both the Father and the
Son! While the Spirit is quite separate, he is common to both as their shared love and
holiness. Augustine also cited passages concerning the Sprit as the Spirit of the Father
(Matt. 10:20; Rom. 8:11) and passages that refer to the Spirit as the Spirit of the Son
(Rom 8:9; Gal. 4:6).
According to Augustine, three of the traditional names given the Holy Spirit, e.g.,
Holy Spirit, Love, and Gift, are most characteristic of the nature of the Spirit. However,
73
Stanley Burgess, The Holy Spirit: Ancient Christian Traditions (Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson, 1984), 1-9.
74
23
Augustine finds a problem in regard to the name Holy Spirit.75 The name can also be
properly used for the Father and Son; therefore, it does not reflect uniqueness. However,
this provides an important clue to who the Holy Spirit is. One can conclude that the Spirit
shares what the Father and the Son have in common. Karkkainen states that the Spirit is
the communio between the Father and the Son. Additionally this relates to ecclesiology,
that is, the Spirit is the communio between Christians and God and among Christians.
Love is another name for the Spirit in the Bible. “God is love” is found in 1 John
4:16. Augustine ingeniously deduced from 1 John 4:7-16 that “God is love” applies
specifically to the Spirit as well as to the undivided divinity and from Romans 5:5 that the
Spirit is the gift of love.76
In regard to the above, an all important conclusion was formulated by Augustine
that the principal presence of the Holy Spirit is love, not knowledge. Augustine’s
reasoning directed him to vital ecclesiological inferences, that is, the church is the temple
of the Holy Spirit, the Spirit of unity.77
Augustine stated that Gift is the third fundamental name for the Spirit. New
Testament teaching is the foundation for this name and specifically John 4:7-14. “The
water” is the pledge given in John 7:37 and explained in John 7:39. 1 Corinthians 12:13
states, “We were all given the one Spirit to drink.” A close link between Christology and
75
76
Joseph Ratzinger, “The Holy Spirit as Communio: Concerning the Relationship
of Pneumatology and Spirituality in Augustine,” Communio 25 (1998): 327; cited in
77
24
Pneumatology is created; and, for Augustine, this facilitates understanding the distinction
between the Son and the Holy Spirit: “He [the Holy Spirit] comes from God not as born
but as given.” The Holy Spirit is not born like Jesus so he is not called son, and he was
not created as we were.78 In his essence, the Holy Spirit is the “gift of God.”79
Immutability and other theistic attributes were important for Augustine, but he also
appeared to propose that humans are all sharers and participants in the very being of God.
Although there are significant ambiguities existing in Augustine’s concept of the Spirit,
the Spirit is portrayed as God dynamically connected to the world.80
Even through the Middle Ages Augustine’s work was formative. Medieval
mystics Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153), Bonaventure (1132-1202), and Catherine of
Siena each upheld the Augustine perspective.81 In accord, nothing unique in reference to
pneumatology was constructed by Thomas Aquinas (1224/25-1274) who concentrated his
efforts on a more exact comprehension of Augustine’s writings.82
Martin Luther’s Perception of the Spirit (1483-1546)
The entire Western theological tradition has highlighted Christology in contrast to
the Eastern Church which has deliberately constructed its theology on pneumatological
78
Augustine, De Trinitate, 5.14.15; cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 48.
79
Ratzinger, The Holy Spirit, 330-33; cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 47.
80
Blair Reynolds, Toward a Process Pneumatology (London: Associated
University Presses, 1990), 119-31.
81
82
Ibid., 48.
25
foundations. The Lutheran form of Reformation theology follows the Western focus. In
different manners, both Lutheran and Eastern theologies have been Trinitarian.83 Some
have presented Luther as not very concerned with the Spirit because his writings
emphasized Christ and the Trinity. This is not necessarily a true deduction. Although
Luther did not write a separate work on the Spirit, his study of the Spirit is part of the
body of his theological work. In Luther’s explanation of the third article of the Nicene-
Constantinopolitan Creed, Luther associates everything with the Spirit, e.g., forgiveness
of sins and the church.
Augustine’s work was frequently the basis for Luther’s theology.84 A distinction
had been made between the “person” of the Holy Spirit and the Holy Spirit as “gift,” and
at times Luther accepted this view. In later years, Luther heartily embraced the idea of
Spirit as Gift. The Spirit was identified with “grace” and this established the essential
link between soteriology and pneumatology. In general Luther emphasized the Spirit’s
Godhead and personhood.85
Luther teaches in the Large Catechism that the Holy Spirit is the spirit of
sanctification, separate from the Father of creation and the Son of redemption. In 1538
Luther wrote that the Son was born in flesh unlike the Father and the Spirit, and that the
Holy Spirit proceeded in a material/bodily way. For Luther “proceeding” relates to intra-
trinitarian relations, and the “material/bodily” sending refers to his relationship to
83
84
Ibid., 80.
85
Ibid., 81.
26
creation. He states that the Son and the Holy Spirit possess an image corresponding to
their internal essence.86 In accord with traditional dogma, Luther declared that the Spirit
proceeds from the Father and the Son but unlike the Son the Holy Spirit is not born.
Luther intimately interwove the inward and outward works of the Spirit.
Therefore, there is an “incarnational” side to the work of the Spirit. It follows that in the
world, the Holy Spirit’s work corresponds in many ways to that of the Son. In Luther’s
Pentecost sermons he refers to the sending of the Spirit as a perceptible coming to the
world. While the Holy Spirit operates through material signs at a specific point in time,
the Son took on flesh, a human nature and retained his nature as God-man even after the
resurrection and ascension.
Luther believes that the work of the Trinity is indivisible. How does this affect
the role of the Holy Spirit? While the work of the Trinity is indivisible according to
Augustine, each of the three persons has a specific role. Even in creation the Spirit was
active; the Spirit made creation live.87 When discussing Genesis, Luther likens the Holy
Spirit to a chicken sitting on eggs to cause them to hatch.
Luther states that the mission of the Holy Spirit is to point to Christ, and whatever
the Spirit does his main focus is to glorify Christ or to mediate the work of Christ to us.
Luther believes that when Jesus speaks, the entire Godhead is speaking. Luther points to
John’s gospel concerning the sending of the Spirit by Christ to do his work and to prompt
86
Martin Luther, Weimarer Ausgabe 50: 275; cited in Karkkainen,
Pneumatology, 81.
87
Ibid.
27
us to remember what Christ had spoken. Luther embraced the belief that there was not
one doctrine in all theology in which the work of the Spirit was not fundamental.88 We
cannot limit the Spirit’s work and activity to the realms of faith and the church alone.
Luther declares that the law, the Ten Commandments, was also given by the Holy
Spirit who, in turn, elicits the feelings of the sinfulness of man. He believes that without
the Holy Spirit it is impossible for the law to convict people of sin and to move them to
contriteness. According to the law, it is necessary to have Christ and his Spirit. The
Gospel declares here is Christ and his Spirit.
Perhaps the most characteristic fact of Luther’s view of the work of the Holy
Spirit is that the Spirit works in the preached Word and in the sacraments.89 Luther did
not think he could believe in Jesus Christ or come to him by his own reason or power.
He believed the Holy Spirit, through the gospel, called him and informed him with his
gifts, sanctified him, and supported him in true faith.90 The tools of the Holy Spirit given
to the church are found in the Word and the sacraments. Luther believes God moves
toward humans in two ways, the “outer way” through the sacraments, and the “inner”
way through the Holy Spirit and his gifts. He states that God does not give the Spirit
apart from the Word and Sacraments, the visible word. He was against the spiritualists
who he believed sought immediate grace and did not believe the Word and sacraments
88
Ibid., 82.
89
Ibid., 83.
90
Luther, Weimarer Ausgabe 30, 1367- 68; cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology,
84.
28
are necessary for that end. Luther did believe that the Spirit lives inside believers.
Several spiritual gifts, such as healing, were a common part of spiritual life in Luther’s
perspective.
Generally Reformation theology believed faith to be the significant work of the
Spirit, but later expressed a more christological than pneumatological view. The most
recent Luther scholarship generally agrees that the commonly believed forensic doctrine
of justification by faith as some present it is one sided. Luther actually spoke of the real
presence of God in Christ and the Holy Spirit in the believer. When theological talks
began in the 1970s between the Eastern churches and the Lutheran churches, they looked
back to original Lutheran sources to expose abounding pneumatological resources. An
unexpected motif of deification and a pneumatological concept of grace were discovered
within Luther’s writings.91 Deification is a pneumatologically-filled illustration of
salvation and makes feasible an approach to soteriology from the viewpoint of the Spirit.
It is by the influence of grace of the Holy Spirit that deification occurs by a deep and
genuine faith together with hope and infused by love (1 Cor. 13:13).92
Luther’s main idea that Christ is present through faith can be approached
pneumatologically, that is, through the Spirit of Christ salvatory gifts are arbitrated. The
91
Ibid., 84.
92
Hannu Kamppuri, ed., Dialogue between Neighbours: The Theological
Conversation between the Evangelical-Lutheran church of Finland and the Russian
Orthodox Church 1970-1986 (Helsinki: Luther-Agricola Society, 1986), 73, cited in
29
Spirit of Christ makes participation in God possible. Without the Holy Spirit, there is no
justification by faith.93
John Calvin (1509-1564)
Calvin emphasized the presence of the Holy Spirit in nature as the source of
“essence, life, and movement.” Human beings are required to be stewards of nature,
because they are in it and of it. Humans and nature are united.94
John Calvin had an extraordinarily balanced understanding of the work of the
Holy Spirit in bringing persons to faith through the preaching of the gospel. He said that
God’s plan is to have men spread the seeds of the Bible which can only be responded to
by the Holy Spirit. In Scripture it is clear that that the word alone is not enough to
penetrate and alter the heart of natural man (who is hostile to God's word), but that the
heart must be opened and the mind elucidated by the simultaneous work of the Spirit. A
biblical example of this can be found in 1 Thes. 1:4, 5. “For we know, brothers loved by
God, that he has chosen you, because our gospel came to you not only in word, but also
in power and in the Holy Spirit and with full conviction. . . .”
Calvin taught that not only faith, but also all understanding of spiritual things, is a
special gift of God. Consequently ministers do not accomplish anything by speaking,
unless the inward calling of God is added at the same time.95
93
94
Hughes, Beloved Dust, 319.
30
John Wesley (1703-1791)
Wesley’s success with the workers in northern England and later in London
paralleled the work of George Whitefield in the “Great Awakening” in America. He
believed the revivals were works of the Holy Spirit. In 1738, when Wesley was at
Aldersgate, he had a conversion experience when his heart was “strangely warmed.”
Wesley’s move toward interiority was realized in his perception of faith of assurance as
an experiential knowledge of God, the Holy Spirit, being in a person’s heart. This
experience was not for the elite. He was adamant that this is for all Christians who are
called to Christian perfection.96
Wesley believed that sanctification is the healing of the spiritual life in men and
women, and there are stages that believers experience in their growth in sanctification. In
the last stage believers are completely interpenetrated by the Holy Spirit and reach the
state of Christian perfection, the theosis. For Wesley, this was the final goal, instead of
an achievable experience in this life. Therefore, sanctification, being filled with the Holy
Spirit, was viewed as an active waiting for complete salvation.97
95
Reform Theology, Jan. 16, 2007, “Word & Spirit by John Calvin,”
http://www.reformationtheology.com/2007/01/work_spirit_by_john_calvin.php//
(accessed 11/28/08).
96
F. L. Cross, ed., Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford, NY:
Oxford University Press, 2005), 1739-40.
97
Jurgen Moltmann, The Spirit of Life: A Universal Affirmation, trans. Margaret
Kohl (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001), 165.
31
Leading Contemporary Theologians’ Perspectives on the Holy Spirit
The focal point of several representative theologians will be highlighted to
exemplify the diverse perspectives on the person of the Holy Spirit in this day and time.
These theologians are: John Zizioulas of the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Karl Rahner of
the Roman Catholic Church, Wolfhart Pannenberg of the Lutheran tradition, Jurgen
Moltmann and Michael Welker of the Reformed Church, and Clark Pinnock of the
Baptist/evangelical tradition.98 In addition, Robert Hughes of the Episcopal tradition,
feminist Roman Catholic theologian Elizabeth Johnson, Eugene Rogers formerly of the
Presbyterian tradition, and Yves Congar, the Catholic Church’s most prominent
contemporary theologian, will have their viewpoints presented. It should be noted that
there are several Roman Catholic, Lutheran, or Pentecostal/charismatic theologies, and
these theologians do not confine themselves specifically to only the theologies within
their tradition.
John Zizioulas (1931 - )
John Zizioulas, the Metropolitan of Pergamon, Greece, is typically thought of as
the most noteworthy Eastern Orthodox theologian of current times, and he has been
significant in spanning the gap between the East and West. His most unique perspective,
infusing all of his theology and view of the church is koinōnia, that is, communion. In
the Trinity, the three Persons interconnect with each other in a love relationship and
98
32
being in relationship is the main characteristic of God. The love encountered among the
members of the Trinity is the same love with which the Trinity relates to human beings
and the world and embraces them in divine-human koinōnia.99 Since the time of Paul,
the Holy Spirit has been linked with the idea of koinōnia, and Christology’s aspect of
communion is generated by pneumatology.100 The integral relationship between
Christology and pneumatology is the basis of Zizioulas’ communion ecclesiology.101
One of the several foremost effects of a pneumatological positioning for the life
of the church is that there are consequences for ministry. Christ’s ministry is the ministry
of the church, and when it is pneumatologically founded the Spirit constitutes the
relationship between the ministry and Christ. This stance agrees with Paul’s argument in
1 Corinthians 12, that is, in terms of the gifts of the spirit, the life and ministry of the
body of Christ is regarded pneumatologically. Among the members of the body of
Christ, in regard to the ministry of the ordained or the laity, the correct context is the
koinōnia of the Spirit. The church’s being is constituted by the charismatic life.102
Karl Rahner (1904-1984)
Karl Rahner is said to be the single most influential theologian of the post-
conciliar Catholic Church, and he has provided a revolutionary perspective on the Spirit.
99
Ibid., 106.
100
Ibid., 108.
101
Ibid., 107.
102
Ibid., 111.
33
Rahner states that a person may live as one whose life receives ultimate meaning from
that person’s openness to God. By nature, humans are “spirit,” which means human
beings are open to accepting revelation. God is an intrinsic part of human nature as an
inherent part of it that is the required condition for human subjectivity.103 Each person is
the occasion of a gratis, unmerited and forgiving, and total self-communication of God.104
In his Holy Spirit, God has communicated himself forever and universally and to every
human being as the innermost center of human existence.105 At a foundational level, our
encounter with God occurs in our encounters with others.
Rahner was very uneasy about the place of the charismatic constituent of the
church. He stated that the Spirit is everywhere and will not be able to obtain adequate
expression only in the forms of what we call the church’s official life, her principles,
sacramental system and teaching. Immediately before Vatican II began, he wrote a
fervent appeal for openness to the Spirit, and while Vatican II was occurring he published
an appeal for the charismatic component in the church. Rahner made a powerful call for
the charismatic organization of the church by bringing to the fore that the Holy Spirit is
pledged and given foremost to ecclesiastical ministry to create room for it, not to hinder
103
Ibid., 112.
104
Karl Rahner, Foundations of Christian Faith, trans. William V. Dych (New
York: Seabury Press, 1978), 116.
105
Ibid., 139.
34
the limitless flow of the Spirit.106 The church should always be the dwelling place of the
Spirit.107
Rahner proposes that one must become aware of charismata when they first
emerge instead of canonizing charismatic persons after their death. Rahner states, “It is
almost of greater importance to perceive such gifts of the Spirit on their first appearance,
so that they may be furthered and not choked by the incomprehension and intellectual
laziness, if not ill-will and hatred, of those around them, ecclesiastics included. . . .”
Rahner continues by stating that the charismatic is basically new and constantly
surprising. It stands in internal though concealed continuity with what came previously
in the church. It is new and immeasurable and not instantly evident that all is as it was in
the lasting totality of the church. Therefore, when the charismatic trait is new it has an
element of being rather shocking.108
Rahner also states that the church is fundamentally the “historical concretization
of the charismatic as brought about by the Spirit of Christ.”109 It is very obvious that
Rahner’s perception of the term charismatic does not indicate any particular group in the
church; instead, it refers to the life and ministry of all believers.
106
Karl Rahner, The Dynamic Element in the Church, trans. W. J. O’Hara (New
York: Herder & Herder, 1964), 42ff; cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 114.
107
Ibid., 47-48; cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 114.
108
Ibid., 82-83.
109
Ibid., 86.
35
Yves Congar (1904-1995)
Yves Congar is the most prominent contemporary Catholic theologian on the
Spirit. He believes the challenge of the Spirit experience should be approached by
seeking a balance between a distrust of “personal principle” and a concealment of an
“institutional principle.” The “personal principle” is concerned with the position given to
the initiatives of individuals as persons and to what those persons say on the basis of
personal beliefs. The “institutional principle” views the church as a communion of these
people led by the Spirit.”110
Congar maintains that in the beginning the church viewed itself subject to the
action of the Holy Spirit and filled with the gifts of the Spirit. Clement of Rome is given
as an example. Clement stated that the apostles set forth on their journey filled with the
assurance of the Holy Spirit, to declare the good news of the approaching of the kingdom
of heaven. Near the end of the first century, Clement was required to supply rules for the
church at Corinth as to the correct use of charisms. This implied that spiritual gifts were
effective at that time. In the middle of the second century, this supposition is confirmed
by the witness of Justin Martyr when he declared that prophecy and charismatic gifts still
existed, and in fact it was understood that charisms should accompany the church to the
end.111
110
Yves Congar, I Believe in the Holy Spirit, trans. David Smith (New York:
Crossroad Herder, 1997), 2:152-153.
111
Ibid., 1:65-72.
36
Congar states that during the period of Clement of Rome there was no
disagreement between “hierarchical” and “charismatic” ministries in the church. At this
time ministry, as well as the entire church, was considered charismatic. Anyone who
doubted the church’s charismatic nature was perceived as sectarian. According to
Congar, bishops were charismatics; and, therefore, their emerging role was not viewed as
a way of quenching the Spirit.112
Elizabeth Johnson (1941 – )
Elizabeth Johnson is a Roman Catholic feminist theologian. She states that while
love portrays God as a whole, it is a particularly appropriate term for that discrete manner
of divine subsistence which is truly present and active in the world and which people call
Spirit.113
The Holy Spirit is spoken of as gift. A genuine gift is given freely, out of love
and not because it is necessary. Receiving a gift is a time for thankfulness and happiness.
The Spirit is the first gift, given freely and giving. Her loving in the world is gracious
and appealing, respectfully summoning to human freedom, as is suitable for a gift.
Love and gift, each are names for the Spirit, are meant to point toward both the
innermost nature of divine mystery and the outmost scope of God’s power freely flowing
112
Ibid., 1:152.
113
Elizabeth Johnson, She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist Theological
Discourse (New York: The Crossroad Publishing company, 2002), 142.
37
around creation to quicken and renew. Johnson cites Paul’s words, “The love of God is
poured forth in our hearts by the Holy Spirit who is given to us.” (Rom. 5:5) Love and
gift have the possibility of contributing to feminist discussion about God, but they must
be appropriated critically for truly liberating language to emerge.114
Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928 – )
Pannenberg’s life’s work reached maturity in his Systematic Theology. He, a
leading theologian of the Lutheran tradition, believes that theology, and consequently
pneumatology, is not an exercise in piety but a public discipline. There is no special
“religious truth”; therefore, theology has to speak to common concerns. The rapport
between theology and science is essential, because they have the same object of study,
creation. “There can be only one truth,” and if it is true then it is true for all people, not
just one.115 Pneumatology is interfingered throughout every significant point.
Pannenberg is critical of pneumatology being given a secondary place in theology and the
limits imposed on the Holy Spirit’s actions to reference to soteriology in Reformation
theology.116
The Spirit is portrayed as the life-giving principle in the Bible, and the one to
whom all creatures owe their life, activity, and movement. Psalm 104:30 declares, that
“When you send your Spirit, they are created, and you renew the face of the earth.” In
114
Ibid., 143.
115
116
Ibid., 118.
38
accord with this, the second creation account says that God “formed the man from dust
and the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a
living being (Gen. 2:7). Conversely, when God extracts his Spirit, all life expires (Job.
34: 13-15). The breath of all humans and the souls of all living things are in the hands of
the Spirit (Job. 12: 10).117
The question Pannenberg asks is how this biblical view can be merged with
today’s biology where life is a behavior of a living cell of a living organism as a self-
sustaining and reproducing system? He uses the term “field concept,” a term borrowed
from modern physics (Michael Faraday), to address this vital question. This depiction of
the Spirit as a “force field” is Pannenberg’s unique proposal. Karl Rahner used the term
“energy field” in the 1970s.118 Pannenberg believes that the utilization of “field concept”
in relation to the Holy Spirit is consistent with the biblical use of ruach/pneuma. He
predicts “surprising possibilities” for consensus between theological concepts and newer
scientific theories. This has been an impetus for a new approach in viewing modern
physics in a “spiritual” manner and not only a “physical” manner. Bodies are also forms
of forces that are independent realities and not qualities of bodies.
117
Wolfhart Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley
(Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994), 2:76-77.
118
Pannenberg and several modern systematicians and pneumatologists have
come to speak about the Spirit as “field of force/field force,” using a standard concept of
modern physics: Michael Welker, God the Spirit, trans. John F. Hoffmeyer
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994); and Bernd Jochen Hilberath, Pneumatologie (Dusseldorf:
Patmos, 1994). Even Karl Rahner, already in the 1970s, referred to the concept of
“energy field” in his “Experience of Self”, in Theological Investigations 13 (New York:
Seabury Press, 1975); quoted in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 119.
39
Pannenberg uses the term “Spirit” in two ways. First, God is spirit, a non-
physical entity. Second, it refers to the Third Person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit.119
The Holy Spirit binds together the Father and the Son. The Holy Spirit is the personal
hub of activity as well as the common life of the Father and the Son. The Spirit of God
includes both transcendence and immanence. The Spirit exists in and extends into all
parts of creation, the life principle, and the Spirit transcends the world.120
Pannenberg believes the Spirit is a distinct person, as are the Father and the Son.
He rebuffs the filioque outlook, that is, the Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the
Son, because it presupposes that the Father and Son are in a fundamental relationship
from the beginning and the Spirit is added. Placing the Spirit in a secondary position
corresponds to subordination of the Spirit.121
He offers us a trinitarian doctrine of creation, and the Spirit participates in a
crucial manner. The Spirit is the causal factor of the immanence of God in creation, and
the causal factor of the involvement of creation in the divine life.
Pannenberg is a very strong proponent of the Spirit as the life-principle as set
forth in the Bible against the setting of “life is essentially ecstatic.” This means that
every organism subsists in an environment that nurtures it, and each organism is directed
by its own drives beyond its immediate environment, on which it is dependent, to its
future and the future of its species. The environmental system or “field” that lifts
119
120
Ibid., 120.
121
Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, 2:317-319.
40
creatures above their environment and directs them toward the future is the Spirit.
Simply because creatures are alive, they participate in God through the Spirit. The Spirit
is the “force” that raises organisms above their surroundings and orients them toward
their future. The Spirit as force field is the most all-inclusive and mighty field in which
organisms move. 122
Universally the work of the Spirit is intimately connected to that of the Son. Jesus
receives the Spirit and his work in conception (Luke 1:35), baptism (Mark 1:10), and
resurrection (Rom. 1:4; 8:11).123 John tells us that the Spirit is given to Jesus Christ
“without limit” (John 3:34), but believers receive the Spirit as a gift corresponding to
their becoming sons and daughters by fellowship with Jesus Christ (Rom. 5:15; 6:3ff).124
Because the risen Lord is totally infused by the divine Spirit of life, he can give the Spirit
to others insofar as they have comradeship with the Lord.125
Pannenberg gives another example of the work of the Spirit being closely related
to that of the Son. He states that Paul’s writings tell us that Jesus Christ is the foundation
of the church (1 Cor. 3:11), while in Acts the church appears to be founded by the
“power” of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2). Therefore, the Spirit and Jesus Christ are co-creators
of the church.126
122
Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, 2:198-99, 2:451-52.
123
Ibid., 1:316, 2:84, 3:4-5.
124
Ibid., 3:9.
125
Ibid., 1:269
126
41
Jurgen Moltmann (1926 – )
Jurgen Moltmann, a theologian of the Reformed Church, is cited as one of the
most prolific and creative modern theologians. His most significant pneumatological
work is The Spirit of Life (1992).127 His book spotlights the essential role of the Spirit of
God giving birth and supporting life, and he aspires to produce a pneumatology that is
inclusive to all areas of life. His approach is ecumenical, as is Pannenberg’s approach.128
He believes there is a mutual relationship between the Word and the Spirit, and he
expresses that there are no words about God without human experiences of God’s Spirit.
In some way, the Spirit is the subject determining the Word, not just the operation of the
Word. The Word and Spirit are envisioned as existing in a mutual relationship.
Jurgen Moltmann maintains that revelation “is to be found in God’s immanence in
human experience, and in the transcendence of human beings in God.” Due to the fact
that God’s Spirit is at hand in human beings, the human spirit is self-transcendently
pointed toward God.129 Moltmann also believes that each experience of a creation of the
Spirit is, therefore, an experience of the Spirit. And each encounter of the self will be an
encounter of the divine spirit of life in the human being.130
127
Ibid., 125.
128
Ibid., 126.
129
Moltmann, The Spirit of Life, 7.
130
Ibid., 35.
42
Moltmann believes that the Holy Spirit has been basically ignored in the Spirit’s
role in the world and creation due to the filioque. He excitedly greets the new approaches
to the study of the Spirit. These slants are initiated with the Hebrew comprehension of
the Spirit as the Spirit of creation. “So experience of the life-giving Spirit in the faith of
the heart and in the sociality of love leads of itself beyond the limits of the church to the
rediscovery of the same Spirit in nature, in plants, in animals, and the ecosystems of the
earth.”131 The life force in every living being, in body, sexuality, ecology, and politics is
God’s ruach. The typical view of the “communion of the Holy spirit” is expanded to
include the entire community of creation, from the most basic particles to atoms to
molecules to cell to living organisms to animals to human beings to communities of
humanity. Every human community is entrenched in the ecosystems of the natural
communities and lives on the trading of energy with them.132
Moltmann further expands the customary pneumatological divisions, and speaks
of charismata, the gifts of the Spirit, in expansive terms. The two traditional groups are
“supernatural” (1 Cor. 12: 6-10) and “natural” (Rom. 12:6-8), and they functioned within
the limits of the church and individual piety. Moltmann maintains that the Holy Spirit
bestows spiritual gifts for service in the world, e.g., prophetic words in liberation and
ecology movements.133
131
Ibid., 9-10.
132
Ibid., 225-226.
133
43
Jurgen Moltmann considers the church as a “charismatic fellowship” of equal
people. The people and the office-bearers have no separation.134 For Paul (1 Cor. 12-14)
and Moltmann, the church is where the Spirit’s self-manifestation takes place in
overflowing powers, charismata. Subsequently God’s people view themselves in their
existence as “the creation of the Spirit.”135
Michael Welker (1947 – )
Many pneumatologies have been written in the past ten years or so, but Michael
Welker’s God the Spirit is the most distinct in its structure and subject matter.136 The
book is a comprehensive coverage of biblical texts from both the Old and New
Testaments where they relate to the Spirit of God, and it could be called a “biblical
theology of the Holy Spirit.137 However, it is not a traditional approach.138 Welker is a
leading theologian in the Reformed Church.
Welker’s approach is both “realistic” and “pluralistic.” Welker concludes that “we
encounter the attested experiences of God’s Spirit firmly embedded in various life
experiences, particularly in experiences of life that is threatened and endangered, but also
134
Jurgen Moltmann, The Church in the Power of the Spirit: A Contribution to
Messianic Ecclesiology, trans. Margaret Kohl (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 298.
135
Ibid., 294.
136
137
Welker, Michael, God the Spirit, trans. John F. Hoffmeyer (Minneapolis:
Fortress Press, 1994), xii.
138
44
life that has been delivered and liberated.” Welker discusses the experience in today’s
world that he calls “the modern consciousness of the distance of God.”139 He points out
the difference between this impression of being alienated from God, which occurs in
most modern (Western) people, with the Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians’ vibrant,
almost childlike fervor of God’s presence here and now.140 Welker affirms that there are
many biblical testimonies regarding the encounter of God’s Spirit entering into varied
realities of human life.141
The Spirit of God is responsible for making God’s power knowable, that is, the
creative power of God which brings the variations of all that is creaturely into rich,
fruitful, life-sustaining relationships. The modern mind-set favors the belief that
experiences of God’s Spirit are only personal experiences, and the Charismatic mind-set
prefers to believe that these experiences are limited to isolated groups. Theological
pneumatology’s foremost challenge is to confront the conflicts and tensions between the
biblical testimony of the Spirit God acting in concrete manners that can be experienced
and the claim of secular common sense that God is remote and powerless.142
Welker calls attention to the fact that Jesus’ life was portrayed by the concrete
presence of the Spirit. Jesus, through the power of the Spirit, aided powerless individuals
139
Welker, God the Spirit, 1.
140
141
Ibid, 6.
142
Ibid., 135.
45
by expelling demons and liberating those imprisoned with no escape. The Spirit-filled
Messiah’s authority was then given to his followers to heal the sick and free the
prisoners.143 One can declare that the Spirit is Christ’s domain of resonance, a kind of
force field.144
Welker contends that the true and real church, the ecumenical and
transcontinental church, reaches beyond specific epochs, is concretely present here and
now, was and is built up by the Holy Spirit. He is adamant that God’s Spirit is not
satisfied to work only in observable churches. The Holy Spirit is also identifiable in
numerous religious and secular environments.145
Clark Pinnock (1937 – )
Clark Pinnock, of the Baptist/evangelical tradition, is one of the leading
theologians of the evangelical movement. Evangelicalism asserts to safeguard the
classical doctrines of the Christian tradition and also to encounter openly the challenges
of the post-Enlightenment and postmodern world. Pinnock is a Free Church theologian
who spotlights the Baptist heritage. Flame of Love: A Theology of the Holy Spirit is his
main pneumatological work, and he challenges the fact that the Spirit is usually given a
143
Ibid., 137.
144
Welker, God the Spirit, 314.
145
Ibid, 280-283.
46
secondary role.146 The book’s experiential and nearly enthusiastic style renders it quite
appealing. He desires to engage both the mind and the heart.
Outside of the church/Christ, is there salvation or minimally salvific elements?
Pinnock has written extensively on a responsible inclusivist position and has made an
important appeal for a truly pneumatological theology of religions.147 This stance
declares that although Christ is the standard and unquestionable Savior, salvation cannot
be limited to the proclamation of the gospel.148
Pinnock views glossolalia as associated with renewal, albeit he does not assert
that is necessary for every believer to speak in tongues. Glossolalia is one confirmation
that the Spirit is present. Therefore, it is more accurate to state that speaking in tongues
is normal rather than normative. When the apostles were filled with the Spirit, they
spoke in tongues; however, this may not be the pattern for everybody forever.149 For
Pinnock, speaking in tongues is a noble and edifying gift (1 Cor. 14:12). Speaking in
tongues is not a comprehensible language. It is a manner of replying to the
inexpressibility of God, “a way of crying to God from the depths and expressing the too-
deep-for words sighings of the heart. Tongues is prayer without concepts, prayer at a
deep, noncognitive level.”193
146
Clark Pinnock, Flame of Love: A Theology of the Holy Spirit (Downers Grove,
Ill.: Intervarsity Press, 1996), 10-11; cited in Veli-Matti Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 139.
147
148
Pinnock, Flame of Love, 185-215; cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 140.
149
Pinnock, Flame of Love, 172; cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 144.
47
Pinnock declares that in baptism the Spirit is given and is brought to fruition in
experience through life. Believers who are unaware of charisms and whose experience
runs dry should seek renewal. Individual Christians receive the Spirit in the form of a
particular charism: “Each has a particular gift from God” (1 Cor. 7:7 NRSV).150
Eugene Rogers (1961 –)
Eugene Rogers’ teaching concerning the Holy Spirit was influenced by his
opportunity to dabble unhurriedly with Greek and Syriac texts of previous centuries of
the Christian era. He noticed that when the Holy Spirit was discussed the Spirit was
typically connected to holy places, holy people, and holy things. The Spirit was not
freely floating around in space outside of bodily existence as is found in North Atlantic
Christian discussions and worship. The Spirit was embodied, and not only transcendent.
The Spirit was immanent in bodily things.151
Rogers, formerly a Presbyterian, believes that the deeds of the Trinity toward the
world are indivisible, and the only time one could differentiate the Spirit from the Son
would be when the accounts give glances of their intratrinitarian interaction. Therefore,
the only communication of the Spirit with plan and circumstance that could differentiate
the Spirit from the Son will be the Spirit’s interactions with the Son. Rogers states that
the theologian is never in quest of the identity of the Spirit separate from that of the Son.
Normatively, the Spirit is identified in her communications with Jesus; and, therefore, is
150
Pinnock, Flame of Love, 173; cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 144-145.
151
Rogers, After the Spirit, 1-2.
48
then neither identical with him, nor apart from him. Doctrinally, the Spirit abides,
alights, or comes to rest on the Son. Doctrine and narrative are brought together in the
creeds.152
Rogers declares that the works of the Trinity toward creation are inseparable.
Therefore, the Spirit is the Creator, as is the Father; and the Spirit is the Redeemer, as is
the Son. The persons are indivisible in their actions toward us, and they are differentiated
by their actions among themselves, that is, the Trinity.153 Rogers believes that
intratrinitarian relationships are glimpsed because the Holy Spirit reveals them in
Scripture. The Holy Spirit also reveals (1 Cor. 12: 7) them in humans as the
circumstances for the opportunity of human participation in the trinitarian life.154 Rogers
uses Paul’s version of the resurrection to depict a time when all three Persons are present
and identified, and their relationships are illustrated. Paul states: “If the Spirit of the One
Who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, the One who raised Christ Jesus from the
dead will give life to your mortal bodies also through his Spirit which dwells in you”
(Rom. 8:11). Rogers believes that by reflecting on Scripture we gain glimpses into God
in Trinity.155 In addition, he writes that at baptism humans are in the process of moving
to the interior of trinitarian life so they get a true peek, although they will probably not
152
Ibid., 7.
153
Ibid., 11.
154
Ibid., 13.
155
Ibid., 12.
49
comprehend what they are glimpsing.156 Rogers believes that the Spirit either crosses the
distance between God and humans by entering into the heart; or the Holy Spirit integrates
human beings into the triune community.157
Robert Hughes (1943 –)
Robert Hughes, an Episcopal theologian, maintains that spirituality is about the
life of the Holy Spirit. He speaks of the Holy Spirit as the “fitting” author of the spiritual
life, and writes that each appropriate theology of the spiritual life has the actions of the
Holy Spirit as it principal subject. He states that pneumatology, the doctrine of the Holy
Spirit, should be an autonomous theological locus, coming between Christology and the
church. Hughes believes that the Holy Spirit needs to be afforded her own locus in
systematic theology in order to move past binitarianism or christological monism.158
Robert Hughes promotes the dividing of pneumatology into two parts as is done
in Christology. The first division of pneumatology would study the teaching on the
person of the Holy Spirit, the third person of the Trinity, particularly as seen mirrored in
the dance with the Word in the mysteries of the incarnation. The second division would
focus on the Spirit’s sanctification mission in which spiritual theology would be included
among other things, such as moral theology, the practical application of the Spirit’s gifts
of virtue(s), character, and beatitude. Spiritual theology would be included as teaching
156
Ibid., 13.
157
Ibid., 15.
158
50
on the life in the Spirit. It is the study of the plan for the universe from creation to final
consummation or the work of the Holy Spirit in the divine economy. Spiritual theology
should be related to the doctrine of the Holy Spirit as soteriology is related to
Christology. Hughes suggests that spiritual theology should be based not only in a new
pneumatological locus but explicitly in a doctrine of the Spirit’s mission.159
In the Holy Spirit’s own proper mission she is accountable for directing the entire
universe toward its perfect consecrated fulfillment, the concept of the sacramental
pleroma – the fullness of all things. The Holy Spirit is responsible for the “already-but-
not-yet” nature of the commonwealth, for the reign of God being current and inbreaking,
but also still approaching.160
Hughes believes that many of the things that Western theology in particular has
attributed to Christ should be attributed to the Spirit, especially everything in the third
paragraph of the creeds. He also reminds us that we must be cognizant that all grace is
basically a name for the third person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit, at work.161
Kathryn Tanner (1957 – )
Tanner, an Episcopal theologian, teaches that through the power of the Spirit,
Jesus’ humanity received everything for its good directly from the source of goodness
that is the Father. The Word as a human being is favored by God the Father with gifts
159
Ibid., 45.
160
Ibid., 99.
161
Ibid., 43.
51
through the workings of the Holy Spirit, e.g., at Jesus’ baptism, over the course of his
struggles, and on the cross.162
Through the working of the Holy Spirit, gifts are inpoured from the Father on
Jesus, and once perfected by these gifts Jesus’ humanity becomes the means by which
those gifts are out poured to us. Replicating with humanity what occurs in the dynamic
life of the Trinity which is separate from us, the Spirit proceeds from the Father to rest on
Jesus, the Word incarnate. Tanner states, “The Spirit radiates from the humanity of Jesus
with the Father’s own gifts of light, life and love; and shines through him, not simply
back to the Father, but through his humanity to us, thereby communicating to us the gifts
received by Jesus from the Father.”163 Correspondingly, the gifts of the Father live
within us and through the gift of the Spirit itself shining through the glorified humanity of
the Son. Therefore, the Spirit living in us effects created gifts in and for our humanity.164
The stipulation for our inclusion in the dynamic of the Trinity’s own life is our
being united with Christ, which is made possible by the Holy Spirit as the Spirit of Christ,
the Son, who was sent by him for the completion of the Father’s work ad extra. In the
manner we are united to Christ by the Holy Spirit, we obtain the perfections that Jesus
received in his humanity. By the action of the Holy Spirit we are united with Christ and
then go with Christ to the Father. Subsequently from the Father we receive, as the
162
Kathryn Tanner, Jesus, Humanity, and the Trinity: A Brief Systematic
Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001), 51.
163
Ibid., 53.
164
Ibid., 53-54.
52
humanity of Christ did, gifts from the Father. The Holy Spirit unites us in Christ as the
Holy Spirit promotes the uniqueness of our persons by a variety of gifts of the Spirit. Our
differences are respected by the Holy Spirit while uniting us in Christ in the same way
that the Holy Spirit respects and upholds the differences between Father and Son.165
Through this unification with Christ, the Father’s gifts flow to us. The visible
manifestation of this is the Eucharist.166
The transmission to us of the perfections of Jesus’ humanity takes a trinitarian
form, because Jesus’ humanity saves in virtue of its being in the mode of the second
Person of the Trinity. It is the specificity of Jesus as a person, not his humanity per se,
that has universal efficacy, in so far as everyone is drawn to it, united with Christ’s own
life. We are made to participate in this life by the Holy Spirit.167
Summary and Conclusions
Chapter one has focused on the person and role of the Holy Spirit in the Old
Testament, New Testament, and in the thoughts of leading theologians. Inquiry into the
theologians’ individual understandings of the Holy Spirit reveals connections between
their theologies and their overall theological contexts. However, it is also noted that the
positions among the individual theologians are not necessarily synonymous with the
specific church tradition to which they belong. If there is any one common aspect to the
165
Ibid., 82.
166
Ibid., 60.
167
Ibid., 54.
53
continual variety of contemporary theologies, it is the unity-in-diversity nature of the
theologians’ “confessional” theologies. With each individual theological approach, the
doctrine of the Spirit is integrally connected to the particular structures and emphases of
each theologian’s own general theology.168
There are many conclusions concerning the Holy Spirit that can be deduced from
reading Scripture and the teachings of theologians. The Spirit represents life itself, is a
free gift of God to us, and indwells all of creation. The terms “ruach” in the Old
Testament and “pneuma” in the New Testament refer to the Spirit as breath, wind, air,
soul, and spirit. The Holy Spirit is the “life force” of an individual and is known as the
“life-giver.” God breathed life into human beings, and Jesus Christ said, “Receive the
Holy Spirit” as he breathed on his disciples (John 20:22). The Holy Spirit is the causal
factor of the immanence of God in creation, and the causal factor of the involvement of
creation in the divine life.
It is believed that there is a mutual relationship between the Word and the Spirit,
and there are no words about God without human experiences of God’s Spirit. In some
way, the Spirit is the subject determining the Word, not just the operation of the Word.
The Word and Spirit are envisioned as existing in a mutual relationship.
Rahner, in the 1970s, was the first to refer to the Holy Spirit as an “energy field.”
Subsequently, Welker and Pannenberg used the term “force field” when referring to the
Holy Spirit, and Moltmann used the term “life force.” The idea of the Holy Spirit as “life
force” corresponds to the Old Testament presenting the Holy Spirit as the “source of
168
54
life.” This is the basis for the New Testament’s focusing on the role of the Spirit in
Jesus’ life, and the charismatic power that Jesus passed on to his disciples,169 which will
be with the church until the end.170 It would appear that, of the various charisms given to
humans, the charism of healing would be an excellent demonstration of the Holy Spirit’s
role as the “source of life,” or “life force,” or “energy field” being manifested. Individual
Christians receive the Spirit in the form of a particular charism. “Each has a particular
gift from God” (1 Cor. 7:7). These “gifts of the Holy Spirit,” the charisms, that Jesus
bequeathed to his disciples will be discussed in general, and the “charism of healing” will
be discussed specifically in the next chapter.
169
Ibid, 37.
170
Congar, I Believe in the Holy Spirit, 1:65-72.
55
Chapter 2
The Gifts of the Holy Spirit
Scripture
The Bible acknowledges the activity of the divine spirit that permeates the human
being in service, worship, and religious ecstasy, whether in the Old Testament as ruach
Yahweh or in the New Testament as the Holy Spirit. Possessing “spiritual gifts,”
however, anticipated the messianic age when the prophecy in Isaiah 11:2 was to be
fulfilled, and the spirit of Yahweh was alleged to rest upon and endow God’s anointed
one. The latter is connected with Jesus’ baptism and ministry, e.g., Luke 4:18-19, and
typified in Acts 2:22; 10:38. Following Pentecost, the birth of the Church was confirmed
by “signs of power” as a sign of the new age of messianic fulfillment which began with
the exaltation of Jesus the Messiah and the gift of the divine Spirit (Acts 2: 17-39).171
Miroslav Volf asserts the importance of differentiating between the “gifts of the
Spirit” and the “fruits of the Spirit.” The “fruits of the Spirit” designate the overall
character of the Christian existence, “the lifestyle of those who are indwelled and
171
Ralph P. Martin, “Gifts, Spiritual” in the Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David
Noel Freedman (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 2:1015.
56
energized by the Spirit.”172 The “gifts of the Spirit” are associated with the specific roles
to which God calls each Christian.173
Old Testament
Isaiah
The first citing in the Bible of the gifts of the Holy Spirit is found in the Old
Testament. The impressive poem found in Isaiah 11:2 depicts the great emphasis on
spirit-endowment at this time in history. The spirit of the LORD, the charismatic gifts of
King David, is articulated in three pairs of attributes: the spirit of wisdom and
understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and the fear of the
LORD. The Septuagint, LXX, appends “the spirit of piety,” providing the foundation of
the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit in Christian theology.174
Joel
It was promised that “It will come to pass in the last days, says the Lord, that I
will pour out my spirit on all flesh; and your sons and daughters will prophesy.” (Joel
172
F. F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Galatians. A Commentary on the Greek Text.
NIGTC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), 251; quoted in Miroslav Volf, Work in the
Spirit (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 111.
173
Miroslav Volf, Work in the Spirit (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991),
111.
174
Michael D. Coogan, ed., The New Oxford Annotated Bible (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2001), 995.
57
2:28). Moltmann interprets this verse to mean that in the kingdom of the Spirit, every
person will experience his and her own gift(s), and everyone will experience the new
fellowship together. All persons, men and women, will be equal, and there will be no old
or young, no masters or slaves.175
New Testament
In this thesis I will primarily focus on two listings of gifts of the Holy Spirit in the
New Testament. Although there are a variety of ways to categorize the gifts of the Spirit,
I have chosen to focus on the categories designated by Jurgen Moltmann. He states that
traditionally the gifts, charismata, have been divided into two groups: “supernatural” (1
Cor. 12:6-12) and “natural” (Rom. 12:4-8). Each of these groups has functioned within
the boundaries of the church and individual piety.176 The “supernatural” gifts which are
found within 1 Corinthians 12: 4-11 follow:
1 Corinthians: 12:6-8
4
Now there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; 5and
there are varieties of services, but the same Lord; 6and
there are varieties of activities, but it is the same God who
activates all of them in everyone. 7To each is given the
manifestation of the Spirit for the common good. 8To one
is given through the Spirit the utterance of wisdom, and to
another the utterance of knowledge according to the same
Spirit, 9to another faith by the same Spirit, to another gifts
of healing by the one Spirit, 10to another the working of
175
Moltmann, The Spirit of Life, 239-241.
176
58
miracles, to another prophecy, and to another the
discernment of spirits, to another various kinds of tongues,
to another the interpretation of tongues. 11All these are
activated by one and the same Spirit, who allots to each one
individually just as the Spirit chooses.177
The “natural” gifts of the Spirit, as declared by Moltmann, are listed in Romans
12:6-8. They, along with introductory verses Romans 12:4-5, follow:
Romans 12:4-8
4
For as one body we have many members, and not all the
members have the same function, 5so we, who are many,
are one body in Christ, and individually we are members
one of another. 6We have gifts that differ according to the
grace given to us: prophecy, in proportion to faith;
7
ministry, in ministering; the teacher, in teaching; 8the
exhorter, in exhortation; the giver, in generosity; the leader,
in diligence; the compassionate, in cheerfulness.178
Interpretations of Various Leading Theologians
The various spiritual gifts that have been enumerated are all related,
though not exclusively, to the very adaptable ministry of the early church, a
ministry of varied functions inspired by the Spirit for the good of the corporate
body. As the number of Christians increased and the church more clearly
comprehended its needs, new abilities or gifts were found to meet these needs
which clearly indicated the constant provision of the Spirit. Paul introduced the
165
Coogan, ed., The New Oxford, 285.
178
Ibid., 261.
59
correlation of the body (I Cor. 12:12-26) with its organic unity, variety of
functions, interdependence of members, to the gifts of the Spirit in order to
illustrate how the gifts are also varied in function, interdependent, and designed
to give unity, solidarity, and beneficial growth to the Christian fellowship. All
gifts of the Spirit are powers and activities given by God. Their worth is to be
judged by the degree in which they encourage the church’s well-being.179
Jurgen Moltmann challenges Paul’s statement that to each is given the
manifestation of the spirit for the common good (1 Cor. 12:7) and the
corresponding statement by Andrews that the worth of a gift should be judged
by its promotion of the welfare of the church. Moltmann asks if the charismata
must be wholly judged on their relation to their usefulness in building up the
Christian community and our life together. Moltmann senses the charismata
have a value in themselves that is very different from their usefulness for the
community, and charismatic experiences also have a value for the people
involved, even separate from “the common good.”180 I agree with Moltmann in
this matter. It would seem that all charismata are gifts for the common good, as
well as having an inherent value in themselves and for the people involved. It
would be surmised that the “gifted” people feel fulfilled when they realize their
gift(s) from the Holy Spirit and closer to God because they are utilizing the
179
E. Andrews, “Spiritual Gifts” in The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, ed.
George Arthur Buttrick (Nashville: Abington, 1962), 4:435.
180
60
Spirit’s gifts to them. Simultaneously the common good of the community
would be expected to be enhanced.
Paul lived in the enthusiastic springtime of a youthful Christianity. The early
congregations obviously experienced an ‘overflowing abundance’ of spiritual gifts. Paul
believed that different gifts should be united by love; but today we realize that freedom is
required to release this variety of gifts. Jurgen Moltmann states that are as many powers
and energies as there are created beings.181 Since all gifts are given by the one God, there
is a basic unity and equality among the gifts. All gifts are for the common good (1 Cor.
12:7), not by accidental choice of an impersonal force, but by the guidance of a personal
spirit, the action of a living God (1 Cor. 12:11).182 Paul and other New Testament writers
hold an extremely egalitarian view of these gifts, and believe that every Christian
possesses some of the spiritual gifts, with varying degrees of fullness (Rom. 12: 7).183
Yves Congar concurs that the early church viewed itself as subject to the action of
the Spirit and filled with the gifts of the Spirit. He states that near the end of the first
century, Clement of Rome was required to make available rules for the correct use of
charisms for the church at Corinth, suggesting that spiritual gifts were active at that time.
This hypothesis was corroborated by the witness of Justin Martyr in the middle of the
181
Moltmann, The Spirit, 184.
182
Luke Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament: An Interpretation,
Revised Edition (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999), 309.
183
Andrews, “Spiritual Gifts”, 435.
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second century, when he declared that prophecy and charismatic gifts still existed. It was
also believed that the charisms would accompany the church until the end.184
In agreement with the belief that the charisms have been with the church since its
inception and will remain with the church until the end, Donald Gelpi, a Roman Catholic
and Jesuit theologian, is critical of his own church for not taking seriously the Second
Vatican Council’s charismatic and pneumatological teaching. He believes that the
charisms of the Spirit have an indispensible role in the life of the church, and they
therefore cannot be confined to the first generation of Christians, as most Catholics were
taught to believe before Vatican II.185 Substantial changes in the thinking of the Roman
Catholic Church occurred during Vatican II, which is often alluded to as the “Council of
the Holy Spirit.” The Vatican II document Lumen Gentium insists that the Holy Spirit
sanctifies and leads the people of God through special charisms bestowed freely on all the
faithful in a variety of ways as well as through the sacraments and church ministries. The
document emphatically stated that believers have “the right and duty to use them in the
Church and in the world for the good of humankind and for the upbuilding the
Church.”186
According to Kilian McDonnell, during this early time in the church, the basic
elements of Christian initiation were water baptism, “inviting and welcoming the Holy
184
Congar, I Believe in the Holy Spirit, 1:65.
185
Donald. J. Gelpi, Charism and Sacrament (New York: Paulist Press, 1976),
97-110.
186
Apostolicam Actuositatem, par. 3; quoted in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 75.
62
Spirit,” with accompanying gifts such as prophecy and tongues as “patrimony.” Gifts of
the Spirit were expected and received during baptism, because they are part of the
Christian tools for building up the community.187 Clark Pinnock is in agreement with
McDonnell concerning the Spirit’s being given in baptism. He believes that the Spirit is
realized in experiences all through one’s life. Pinnock reemphasized that each Christian
receives the Spirit in the form of a particular charism: “Each has a particular gift from
God” (1 Cor. 7:7 NRSV).188
In the New Testament the term “spiritual gifts” is used to label the special gift(s)
of the members of the church for its service. From the beginning the church was pictured
in the New Testament as a community under the guidance of the Spirit. Being in the
church, Christians were depicted as “in the Spirit” and as having tasted the “fruits of the
Spirit” (Rom. 8:9, 23). Exceptional signs of the Spirit’s presence and power are obvious
everywhere. The gospel of salvation, that was first stated by Jesus and later by those who
had received it, has been authenticated by God “by signs and wonders and various
miracles and by gifts of the Holy Spirit distributed according to his own will” (Heb. 2:4).
These phenomena are designated as “spiritual gifts.” In agreement with Paul (1 Cor.
12:7), Andrews declares that their worth is to be judged by the degree to which they
187
Kilian McConnell, “Five Defining Issues: The International Classical
Pentecostal/Roman Catholic Dialogue,” Pneuma 17, no. 2 (1995): 180; cited in
188
Pinnock, Flame of Love, 173; cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 145.
63
promote the well-being of the church. The primary gift, the source of all others, is the
Spirit.189
Charisms are very important according to Paul. He believes they
participate in a crucial role in an individual believer’s life and in the communal
life. Charismata may be regular ministries used for service in the everyday
world (Rom. 12:6-8; 1 Cor. 12:28-30; Eph. 4:11) or more dramatic Spirit-
motivated acts or words (1 Cor. 12: 8-11). Our responsibility, according to
Paul, is to search for an equilibrium between not overemphasizing and
exploiting the charisms (Rom. 12:3; 1 Cor. 2:12-14; 1 Thess. 5:19-22) and not
confining the implementation of the gifts of the Spirit (1 Thess. 5:19-20).190
Jurgen Moltmann states that call and gifts, klesis and charisma, are transposable
terms. This conclusion infers that every Christian is a charismatic, albeit many people
never live out their gifts. The gifts which humans bring or receive are at the service of
their calling; for it is God who calls and takes people at the place where he reaches them
and as they are. God is quite specific when accepting people and, thus, places their entire
life at the service of his coming kingdom which renews the world. Therefore, Moltmann
states, if we ask about the charismata of the Holy Spirit, we must not look for the things
we do not possess. First, we must discern who we are, what we are, and how we are, at
the point in time where we feel the touch of God on our lives. According to Romans:
6:23, the gift of the Holy Spirit is given to all believers in common and equally: “The
189
Andrews, Spiritual Gifts, 4:436.
190
64
charisma of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord.” To each person, individually
and uniquely, is given a different gift(s) which is filled with diversity: to each his or her
own! These gifts, individual powers and energies, become charismatic in the
relationships which give form to the shared life-process. Frequently in these living
relationships people discover these powers for the first time and become aware of
them.191
Karl Rahner recommends that people learn to perceive charismata when they first
materialize.
It is almost of greater importance to perceive such gifts of

the Spirit on their first appearance, so that they may be
furthered and not choked by the incomprehension and
intellectual laziness, if not ill-will and hatred, of those
around them, ecclesiastics included….And so the
charismatic feature, when it is new, and one might almost
say it is only charismatic if it is so, has something shocking
about it.192
Karl Rahner has informed us that the charisms need to be recognized and nurtured
early in their reception so they will develop. His reasons for charisms being stifled are
the laziness of the person or the ill-will around them. Jurgen Moltmann discusses another
reason that charisms are not materialized by individuals. He believes that most people
can do more than they believe they can. What is the reason for this? Humans are fearful
of attempting things because of their fear of failing. We tell ourselves, “If you don’t try,
you can’t fail.” But when people withdraw and pull into their shells because they fear
191
Moltmann, Spirit of Life, 180-81.
192
Karl Rahner, The Spirit in the Church, trans. John Griffiths (New York:
Seabury Press, 1979), 72-73.
65
defeat or losing some personal relationship, they will not have the opportunity to know
their own potentials. They are saying they will not participate in all the opportunities life
is offering them. To do this is also never to learn one’s own limitations.193
One would want to believe that the possessors of the gifts, each of us,
would be nourished and encouraged by other Christians to utilize our gifts. As
Rahner points out so knowingly, that is often not the case. He states that too
often the gifts are not used overtly because of the negative attitude demonstrated
against any person who claims to possess them, especially the “supernatural
gifts.” Sarcastic remarks, eyes rolling, supposedly clandestine smirks aimed at
the gifted people are frequently noticed by the gifted people to whom they are
directed. These seen gestures frequently, very frequently, coerce the person to
hide their gift(s), because it is human nature to want to be accepted and
respected. And, yes, both Christian laity and clergy are guilty of such acts. I
suspect that the person who has been given the gift of healing is probably the
person who is most often the recipient of ill-wishes, jealousy, and even hatred.
On the brighter side, there are those who recognize the gift(s) in others, show
them respect, give encouragement, and support them in the realization of their
gift(s). We are all gifted and in need of mutual support in following God’s call
for which we have been given the appropriate gifts. It is God’s call and the
Holy Spirit’s dissemination of gifts to whomever the Spirit chooses. We have
no voice in the matter. We are simply the recipients of God’s call and the gifts
193
Moltmann, The Spirit, 186.
66
of the Spirit, and we are charged to go into the world, guided by the Holy Spirit,
to utilize these gifts in service for the kingdom of God.
The Charism of Healing
Healing Discussed in Scripture and in the Ministry of Jesus
Even a superficial reading of the gospels demonstrates the centrality of
healing in the ministry of Jesus. Healing means restoration to wholeness, and
this wholeness is what God intends for body, mind, and spirit. This is what
Jesus’ ministry entailed. Jesus’ physical healing of people encompasses one-
third of the stories in the gospels. If the definition of “healing” is expanded to
include spiritual and relational healing, then all stories about Jesus concentrate
on some form of healing.194 In the Synoptic Gospels healing stories appear
twenty-five times in Luke, seventeen times in Matthew, eight times in Mark,
and three times in John.195
Literally interpreted, charismata iamatōn, “gifts of healings,” are found
three times in the New Testament, I Cor. 12:9, 28, 30. “Gifts of healing” are
designated by other terms in other places in Paul and in the New Testament.
194
Jay A. Gibble, ed. The Lafiya Guide: A Congregational Handbook for Whole-
Person Health Ministry (Elgin, IL: Association of Brethren Caregivers (ABC), 1993), 19.
195
John J. Pilch, Healing in the New Testament: Insights from Medical and
Mediterranean Anthropology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000), 119.
67
Only in the Corinthian context is the noun used here for “healing,” iama,
found. There is no known reason for comprehending anything other than the
typical meaning of the Greek word, i.e., healing, physical cure. The other noun
utilized in the New Testament for healing, iasis, also occurs only three times, in
Luke 13:32 and in Acts 4:22 and 4:30. Here the Lukan contexts demonstrate
the meaning with miracles of physical healing of the stooped woman (Luke
13:10-17), the dropsical man (Luke 14:16), and the lame beggar (Acts 3:1-10,
the referent of 4:22 and model for 4:30, picking up on the “wonders and signs”
pattern of 2:19, 22, 23). Since Paul typically associates charismata with charis
(the grace of God), charismata iamatōn are accurately experienced as gifts of
God, not merely as human abilities.
Paul’s position is that different persons have been given different gifts
for the benefit of the community. This position implies that certain Christians
have been given the special ability to mediate physical cures on a regular basis.
Therefore charismata iamatōn is a standard phrase referring to a charism
parallel to the eight other charismata (see 1;7; 7:7;12:4,31) or pneumatika
(“spiritual gifts”; 12:1; 14:1) listed by Paul in 1Cor. 12:8-10, or to the seven
others listed (twice) at verses 28-31, or to the seven listed at Rom 12:6-8
(described there as charismata deriving from the charis [“favor”] “bestowed
upon each of us”). Different from glossolalia or prophecy (see Corinthians 14),
the gift of healing is merely alluded to as a fact of Christian life, and it never
becomes a focal point of Paul’s pastoral concern.
68
Although all divisions of the gospel tradition (Q, Mark, Matthew, Luke,
John) testify to healing as a part of the activity of Jesus, it is Luke who most
closely duplicated Paul in presenting healing activity as a divine gift, e.g., Luke
4:14-44, where Jesus’ ministry is understood as an expression of a divine gift of
the Spirit. Luke’s explanation of Jesus’ healing as a type of prophetic gift is
most precise in Acts 10:38, where the healing work is a result of divine
anointing with the Holy Spirit and power. Luke also interprets healing in the
ministry of the disciples according to the identical model of prophetic gift. The
healing actions of both Jesus and his disciples are referred to as “signs and
wonders” (Acts 2:19, 22, 43; 4:30; 5:12; 6:8; 14:3; 15:12), a standard Old
Testament phrase recalling the signs and wonders accompany the first exodus
(Acts 7:36; see Exod. 7:3; Deut. 4:34; 6:22; 26:8).196
Jesus came to earth to “save,” and the meaning of this word in its
original Greek is “to heal.” Actually, biblical Greek has only one word to
represent the two words, “save” and “heal,” and this Greek word can be
translated into either depending on the context. One example of Jesus’ whole-
person healing ministry is the story of the paralytic being brought to Jesus by
four friends (Mark 2:1-12). It is blatant that the paralyzed man’s friends want
him to be healed. In fact, they are so determined to approach Jesus that they cut
a hole in the roof of the house where Jesus was addressing a crowd of people.
196
M. Dennis Hamm, The Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel Freedman, H-
J (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 89.
69
Jesus did not heal him, but instead forgave him. This upset some religious
leaders who disputed his authority to forgive sins. Jesus ended the argument by
speaking to the paralytic, “Stand up, take your mat and go to your home” (Mark
2:11).
When Jesus is expected to heal, he forgives, and when he forgives, he also heals.
This is an attribute of whole-person healing, and the gospels have many stories similar to
this one. Would it not be logical to glean from the fact that healing was central to the
ministry of Jesus, that Christians are called to do the same? The church has answered
“yes” throughout the ages. We witness this in the Acts of the Apostles, in the writings of
the church fathers, in the establishing of medical schools, in the building of hospitals, in
the establishing of support groups, and in the sending of medical missionaries.197
Marita Aicher-Swartz wants to be more like Jesus, and this goal has led her to
discover various ways of ministry as a nun, a teacher, a minister of religious education, in
married life, and as a spiritual director. She writes about Jesus and his impact on lives.
She emphasizes that Jesus saw goodness in all people, even his enemies. Jesus taught his
disciples and followers that “the Kingdom of God is at hand (in him) and within you
(us).” As some of us experience daily, Jesus found God’s presence in the birds of the air
and the lilies of the field, and in eating and drinking with enemies and friends alike. He
found comfort in prayer and meditation as well as in walking the roads and hills of his
native land. Jesus is a Christian’s role model. Jesus’ love for God and people
overflowed into a ministry of physical, mental, and spiritual healing which touched some
197
Gibble, Lafiya Guide, 19-20.
70
and frightened others. Aicher-Swartz discerns that healing was the heart and soul of
Jesus’ ministry. Jesus, the Jewish healer, perceived people in terms of their original
wholeness long before the appearance of whole-person medicine in the West. Body,
mind, and spirit interweave with each other seamlessly. She states that during times of
prayer and meditation on the life of Jesus, she felt drawn to a ministry of healing and
began to question what has happened to the practice of hands-on healing that Jesus taught
the twelve disciples and others around him. Aicher-Swartz notes the following
quotations in scripture which depict Jesus giving his followers the power to heal and
charging them to do so.
Jesus now called the Twelve together and gave them power
and authority to overcome all demons and to cure diseases”
(Luke 9:1). At another time it is written, “After this, the
Lord appointed a further seventy-two and sent them in pairs
before him to every town and place he intended to visit. He
said to them….Into whatever city you go, and they
welcome you, eat what they set before you; cure the sick
there who are there, and say to them, “The kingdom of God
has come near to you” (Luke 10, 1-9).198
Another example of Jesus empowering and charging his disciples to heal follows.
Then Jesus summoned his twelve disciples and gave them

authority over unclean spirits, to cast them out, and to cure
every disease and every sickness (Mark 10:1). These
twelve Jesus sent out with the following
instructions….Cure the sick, raise the dead, cleanse the
lepers, cast out demons (Mark 10:8)
198
Marita Aicher-Swartz, “Reiki and The Teachings and Values Of Jesus,” 2006,
www.christianreiki.org/info/articles/teachings and values.htm. (accessed January 5,
2009).
71
The occurrences of healing in physical and mental illnesses also belong to the
charismatic experience of life. In the environment of faith, healings are indicators of the
new creation and the rebirth of life. If the Holy Spirit is encountered as the Spirit of the
resurrection of the dead, then healings experienced should be comprehended as
foretokens of that resurrection and of eternal life. Grave illnesses are foreshadowings of
death, and healings are to be recognized as foretokens of the resurrection. In each serious
illness “we fight for our lives.” In every healing, we experience being restored to life.
Miraculous healings were common in the ancient world, and were, in fact, witnessed
throughout all of history, as well as today.199
Characteristics of Authentic Healers
Jerome Frank, a psychiatrist who was quite influential in the 1960s and 1970s,
spoke of characteristics found in true healers. In his book, Persuasion and Healing,
Frank calls attention to the interdependence of psychological and other biological
processes, and to religious healing as a model for physicians in developing their bedside
manner. He emphasized that religious healers see “illness as a disorder of the total
person, involving not only his body but his image of himself and his relations to his
group.” To further his thoughts he writes,
Instead of emphasizing conquest of the disease they, the

healers, focus on stimulating or strengthening the patient’s
natural healing powers. They believe that this can be done
by the ministrations of a healer who, whatever his methods,
enters into an intense relationship with the patient….Those
199
72
operating in a religious context, which includes all forms of
healing in primitive societies and faith healing in industrial
ones, also see themselves as bringing supernatural forces to
bear on the patient, with the healer acting primarily as a
conduit for them.200
It is safe to state that most human beings want to be whole, and when they
become ill they often pray for healing. Donald Gelpi instructs us to remember that God
wills our salvation; and salvation brings healings. God’s will to heal should never be
doubted. However, those who pray for healing must consent to God being God and to
heal them in the way God chooses. God may choose to transform their sufferings into an
opportunity for deeper conversion and growth in faith instead of removing their suffering.
People who are authentic Christian healers, like the authentic teachers, will not be
concerned with demonstrating the charismatic power bestowed on them by the Holy
Spirit. The healer will focus only on proclaiming the Lordship of Jesus, and will leave
the healing to God. The genuine healer is not superstitiously apprehensive about the
human mechanics of healing, i.e., with pronouncing the “correct words” or using the
“correct gestures” to insure God’s healing action through the power of the Holy Spirit.
Nor will the healer endeavor to dictate to God in advance the form the healing will
manifest. The authentic healer will be peacefully content with a deepened conversion or
with the transformation of suffering or distress into grace, if this is the will of the Lord.
Simultaneously, the healer will not attempt to suppress God’s healing power by
200
Jerome Frank, Persuasion and Healing: A Comparative Study of
Psychotherapy, rev.ed (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1974), 47; quoted in
Amanda Porterfield, Healing in the History of Christianity (Oxford: University Press,
2005), 15.
73
discouraging others from believing in the divine power of the Holy Spirit to heal
efficaciously and even miraculously.
When healers pray with others for healing, they must be attentive to their being
properly disposed and properly instructed, in order that in approaching the divine healer
they may truly seek the Holy Spirit who is selfless love, rather than covet the Spirit’s
healing gifts. It is important that in every healing granted, the authentic healer will
always give all glory to God.201
Agnes Sanford reminds us that authentic healers are deeply aware that no human
being has power to heal, and according to the will of God, God’s love is sent through the
healer to his children. Jesus healed people because he loved them. The essence of all
healing is the healer’s becoming so immersed in the Being of God that everything about
oneself is entirely forgotten.202
Healing in the Christian Tradition
Healing in the Early Church
Healing is a component of many, if not all, religions and is powerful in
explaining why propensities to be religious and capacities for religious feeling
and ideation appear to have evolved as instinctive parts of human nature.
201
See endnote 25 on page 95 of Gelpi’s Charism and Sacrament for the
complete bibliography used for this source of information cited in Gelpi, Charism and
Sacrament, 90-91.
202
Agnes Sanford, The Healing Light (St. Paul, Minnesota: Macalester Park
Publishing Co., 1947), 114-115.
74
However, even in the framework of long-standing, worldwide insisting for
religious healing, Christians have distinguished themselves, and they have
frequently borrowed techniques and ideas from other religions and from
numerous forms of medicine. Christians have repeatedly disseminated their
religion as a channel to healing and eternal good health. Christian healing is
more concerned about a sense of relationship to a divine person than it is about
doctrine, albeit doctrine has been significant in preserving and inspiring this
sense of relationship and defining its boundaries. It is true that many have been
healed because they believed; however, we need to be cognizant of the fact that
others believed because they had been healed.203
Jesus Christ, the charismatic healer, commissioned his disciples to
exorcise and to heal.

15
And he said to them, “Go into all the world and proclaim
the good news to the whole creation. 16The one who
believes and is baptized will be saved; but the one who
does not believe will be condemned. 17And these signs will
accompany those who believe; by using my name they will
cast out demons; they will speak in new tongues; 18 they
will pick up snakes in their hands.a and if they drink any
deadly thing, it will not hurt them; they will lay their hands
on the sick, and they will recover.” (Mark 16:15-18).204
Did the early Christians obey the charge of Jesus to heal? Yes. To prepare and
outfit themselves as fitting containers for the healing power of Christ, many early
203
Amanda Porterfield, Healing in the History of Christianity (Oxford: University
Press, 2005), 8-10.
204
Coogan, The New Oxford, 91.
75
Christians took time to purify their bodies. An early second-century sermon taught
Christians to “guard the flesh” in order to “receive the Spirit.” They believed the spirit of
Christ was manifest in their bodies (1 Cor. 6:13-20).205
As Christianity spread throughout the ancient world, belief in Christ’s healing
power came to be expressed in various ways. In Syria and Egypt, holy men retreated
from society in order to fight demons and prepare their bodies for Christ. They attracted
streams of visitors to their settlements enthusiastic to be cleansed and healed. In urban
areas, Christians came together for worship services that included exorcism and healing
along with other practices that strengthened individuals through union with Christ and
with one another as members of his collective body on earth. Missionary outreach
programs began to the sick and poor of the ancient world, especially around
Constantinople. Churches and monastic communities provided nursing care, medical
services, and religious rituals through which people found repentance for their sins and
absorbed the protective, cleansing, and transforming vitality of Christ.206
As the Christians ministered to the sick, they adopted a simple rite, based on
descriptions of the healings that Jesus performed, using oil to anoint the sick “in the name
of the Lord.” They anointed the sick on the lips, ears, and eyes, where demons could
enter. Early Christians performed rites “to guard the flesh as a temple of God.”
The Epistles of James, strongly acclaimed the ritual of anointing as an enactment
of Christian faith. This letter was known to Irenaeus in the second century. It indicated
205
Porterfield, Healing in the History, 44.
206
Ibid., 44-45.
76
that anointing the sick was an important task performed by church elders. The writer
asked, “Is one of you ill?” The writer said, “Let him send for the elders of the church to
pray over him and anoint him with oil in the name of the Lord; the prayer offered in faith
will heal the sick man, the Lord will restore him to health, and if he has committed sins
they will be forgiven. Therefore, confess your sins to one another, and pray for one
another, that you may be healed” (James 5:14-16).207
Barrett-Lennard also found healing to be important in some of the earliest documents
associated with monasticism. In the mid-fourth-century Egypt, five letters to ascetic holy men
indicate that these men were celebrated for the healing effects of their prayers for the ill. Barrett-
Lennard deduced that these letters were evidence that healing held a central role in the rise of
monasticism in Egypt. The letters also indicated that holy men in late antiquity had continued
the performance of healing earlier associated with Jesus and the apostles; outreach to the sick
was an essential part of their holiness.208
In early Christianity the rite of baptism was an exalted form of healing. It was a
rite of initiation in the mystery of Christ that gave people eternal life and strengthened
them against sickness and sin. It was also an initiation into the Christian community,
which remade individuals into members of the living body of Christ. As the ultimate
healing ritual in early Christianity, baptism reenacted the death of Jesus, his resurrection,
and triumph over evil.209
207
Ibid., 47.
208
Ibid., 48.
209
Ibid., 60-61.
77
Dramatic performances of Christian healers, the attractive resonance between
Christianity and medicine and the good reputation of Christians as caretakers of the sick
were well known. However, some Christians were disappointed by their high
expectations of being transformed in baptism. Their yearning eventually led to new ways
of eliciting Christ’s healing power. Craving for healing in Europe, Asia, and Africa led
to the veneration of saints who healed and whose lives and deaths characterized the
spiritual purity and proximity to Christ that so many believers sought. The miraculous
healing associated with Jesus and his disciples was renewed and revitalized by relics,
images, and stories of these saints.210
Healing in Medieval Christianity
In The History of the Franks (c. 592), Gregory of Tours described a healer who
lived outside of Nice. Hospicius had “iron chains wound round his body, next to the
skin, and a hair-shirt on top.” Gregory described Hospicius as a direct spiritual
descendent of the founders of Christianity, and he linked his actions as a local saint in
sixth-century Gaul to cures performed by Jesus, the apostles, and the holy men of early
Christianity. In casting out the demon which had caused a young man to lose his hearing
and speech, Hospicius duplicated one of the cures credited to Jesus in the gospels (Mark
7:31-37) as well as the rite of exorcism that played a prominent role in early Christianity.
He also used oil as a component of his healing the young man, which followed the path
of the apostles, bishops, deacons, and lay exorcists in early churches who used oil to
210
Ibid., 64-65.
78
exorcise and heal. Gregory was emphasizing that the sick did not need to travel to Rome
to be cured, because they had saints near them through whom the healing power of Christ
flowed as it had five centuries earlier.
During the early medieval period, Christianity underwent changes as it spread into
Europe. In its medieval European movement into the countryside, Christianity became
less philosophical and less sophisticated than it had been among Jews and Gentiles in
Hellenistic culture. Albeit it lost some of the intellectual complexity it had demonstrated
in early medieval Europe, its pragmatic side flourished. In a time filled with violence,
blindness, bloodshed, crippled limbs and festering sores, Christianity showed progress in
the Middle Ages as a popular aid to human healing, strength, and vivacity.
During this age, Christian healing expanded in Africa, Asia, and Europe through
devotion to the miraculous powers of the saints and their relics. Healing miracles were
attributed to the bones and even the dust of saints. Tonics made from the detritus of
saints’ remains and from the dust where they fell in battle were highly advertised and
praised.211
Although Christians venerated saints for many different reasons, including victory
in battle, revenge, happiness, repentance, goodness and purity, fear of hell, and desire for
eternal life in heaven, by far the most common reason was expectation of a cure. In
Ronald Finucane’s analysis of three thousand miracles reported at twelfth-and thirteenth-
211
Ibid., 69-70.
79
century English and French shrines, he discovered that 90 percent of them involved
healing.212
Especially in the West after the tenth century, commercial traffic and marketing
developed around shrines and monasteries, religious and health care centers, which
contained the relics of saints. The entrepreneurial culture of medieval Christian healing
was a factor in Christianity’s development as a pragmatic religious tradition dedicated to
experimental effects and healing outcomes.
Medicine developed in a kind of symbiosis with Christianity within the context of
monastic life. Gregory of Tours was an avid advocate of the superior efficacy of
Christianity over ordinary medicine, because the power of the saints succeeded after the
efforts of doctors had failed. However, he did not discount their subordinate effects, and
he consulted medical and pharmacological handbooks derived from Greek texts. Like
Pope Gregory (d. 604), he championed the healing miracles of the saints while
maintaining a physician from Alexandria as part of his household.213
There was tremendous enthusiasm for miracles at this time, but miracles played
an important role in Christianity from the start. Even the most learned Christians
acknowledged miracles, especially miracles of healing, as a crucial characteristic of
212
Ronald C. Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims: Popular Beliefs in Medieval
England (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995), 69; cited in Porterfield, Healing in the
History, 70.
213
Darrel W. Amundsen, “The Medieval Catholic Tradition” in Caring and
Curing; Health and Medicine in the Western Religious Traditions, ed. Ronald L.
Numbers and Darrell W. Amundsen (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1998),
82; cited in Porterfield, Healing in the History, 71.
80
Christian life and a symbol of the power of Christian faith. As Christianity spread
throughout Europe with rather lax theological management and ecclesiastical oversight,
this Christian enthusiasm for miracles flowered everywhere and, as critics charged, ran
unbridled. To some extent, the profusion of miracles in medieval ethos, which were
thought to be a part of nature, reflected enthrallment with nature and its hospitality to
miraculous displays of beauty and power.214
Baptism, with the warlord uprisings, tribal conflict, and reform by military
conquest, did not represent the culmination of an extended process of individual
transformation as it had previously. It became a representation of collective camaraderie
or collective surrender or hope of miraculous aid in battle.215
Penance and the Eucharist were other forms of healing during this era. Penance
was considered analogous to medical treatment from antiquity, and healing was a
component of the Eucharist from the beginning of Christianity. Early Christians
expected bodily resurrection because of participation in fellowship with Christ during the
Eucharistic meal, and physical healings in the course of the meal were common.216
Healing in Early Modern Christianity
The sixteenth century felt an atypical kind of religious turbulence in that the belief
in the existence of spiritual realities declined under extensive scrutiny, albeit the material
214
215
Ibid, 83.
216
Ibid., 81-82, 87.
81
demonstrations of those realities and testimonies increased. The strong desire for
religious purity typical of early modern reformers coincided with increasing unease
about religious authority. They wanted religious truth and had an increasing concern
related to the proper reach of human knowledge and power. Resistance to clerical
authority flourished. Insistence for religious purity and truth escalated with the invention
of the printing press, expanding market economies, civil unrest, the growth of urban
centers, and the exploration of the world.
Religious grandeur and evangelical fervor of Catholic Christianity had never been
greater. The emergent prosperity of the middle class, the wealth of guilds affiliated with
saints and chantries (endowments for masses and prayers), the popularity of devotion to
Mary and the Eucharist gave impetus to a profusion of religious art.
Amid the grandeur and evangelical fervor, the clergy was mocked and there was
growing resistance to clerical authority because of the appeal to particular saints to
address specific problems. Lay people published pamphlets ridiculing the clergy and
condemning the cult of saints and images as ruses for deceiving them and keeping them
submissive to the church.217
It was a violent and revolutionary time due to the anger against the Catholic
Church and the cult of saints. Participants insisted on a return to the primitive
Christianity portrayed in the New Testament and to direct communication with Christ. In
northern Germany, home of Martin Luther (1483-1546), apocalyptic rhetoric, street
217
Carlos Eire, War Against the Idols: The Reformation of Worship from Erasmus
to Calvin (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 37-38, 95.
82
dramas, pamphlets and woodcuts depicted a world upheaval in which Christ materialized
to unmask princes and prelates as swine. There was radical religious activity in the
streets of northern Germany announcing, “The time is now and the place is here!”218
Sectarians who believed the declarations of the nearness of the end of time
engaged in laying on of hands, anointing, and other performances designed to manifest
God’s living spirit and healing power.219 Luther and other more conservative reformers
opposed such dramatic, inflammatory performances, but they also sought healing in
Christ. Numerous radicals desired to see Christ himself and witness miracles of healing
performed in the Holy Spirit; other reform-minded Christians yearned to live in complete
consciousness of God without the diversion of saints or priestly rigamarole.
Vocal minorities of the theologians and lay people challenged the soundness of
healing miracles promoted by, and benefiting the Catholic Church. The French reformer,
John Calvin (1509-1564), was one of the most clear and most influential expositors of
this challenge. Calvin condemned petition to the saints for healing miracles. He said this
was misguided and sinful, and he composed a framework for Christian living that
spotlighted worship of a transcendent God. In his work to restore Christian life to its
initial strength and simplicity, he used the letters of Paul as a yardstick to determine what
constituted Christian life and ministry. However, Calvin dismissed Paul’s reference to
healing as one of the gifts that Christian saints could claim. Calvin, in this sweeping and
218
Peter Matheson, The Imaginative World of the Reformation (Minneapolis:
Fortress Press, 2001), 7.
219
Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York: Scribner's`,
1971), 125-128.
83
almost offhanded dismissal, removed healing from the list of Christian ministries. He
stated that healing and interpretation were extraordinary gifts of the spirit bestowed only
on Christ’s earliest followers to remind us of the momentous events of his actual
appearance on earth.
Martin Luther, the Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531), and other
theologians critical of corruption in the Catholic Church, had a poor view of many of the
practices and beliefs connected with miracles of healing and with the cult of saints that
was so prominent in religious life and brought considerable capital to the Church. Luther
condemned any effort to manipulate God through petitions to healing saints and was
infuriated by the materialism of the church.220
Healing in Western Christianity’s Global Expansion
Starting in the sixteenth century, Franciscan, Dominican, Jesuit, and other
Catholic orders again introduced Christianity to Persia, India, Africa, and China, where it
had abated or died out during the Middle Ages. In the seventeenth century British,
German, Dutch, and Danish Protestants began organizing mission societies, and
Protestant missions were growing faster than any other branch of Christian missions by
the middle of the nineteenth century. Supporting foreign missions became a hallmark of
220
Martin Luther, Luther’s Works, ed. J. Pelikan et al. (St. Louis: Fortress Press,
1955), 40:146; Eire, War Against the Idols, 65-86, cited in Porterfield, Healing in the
History, 96.
84
evangelical religion in Britain and America, and missionaries, especially evangelical
women, were greatly admired for their self-sacrificing benevolence.221
Endeavors by Western missionaries coincided with Western political and
economic expansion. Later in the nineteenth century, the fast-growing global expansion
of Protestant Christianity coincided with full-scale development of industry in Western
Europe and the United States.
At this time, in contrast to the de-emphasis on transcendence in some types of
social justice theology, many converts integrated Christianity with traditional values and
customs with an ease that surprised many Western missionaries. These new native forms
of Christianity frequently revolved around healing and incorporated miracles of healing
into modern forms of social consciousness. In Africa, Latin America, Eastern Europe,
and Asia, Christians merged social visions of Christian healing with practices of spiritual
healing obtained from indigenous traditions. This investment in indigenous types of
spiritual healing stimulated fresh interest in the miracles of Jesus, Mary, and the apostles
and saints.222
Interaction between Christianity and indigenous religions came about in the
situation of the revolutionary social and cultural changes Western expansion produced in
virtually all areas of the world. These changes included the development of market
221
See endnote 1 on page 199 of Porterfield’s Healing in the History of
Christianity for the complete bibliography used for this source of information cited in
222
Andrew F. Walls, The Cross-Cultural Process in Christian History
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002), 121-133.
85
economies, the breakdown of traditional kinship structures, and the appearance of
modern forms of individualization. To find a way to manage these forces, people turned
to religion. Often religion was a means of negotiating social change and exercising some
control over it. In these circumstances, healing came to the fore, both as a means of
dealing with the suffering produced by social change and as a way of constructing new
visions of society that would enable people to be healthier and more productive.
A feeling of living relationship to the healing miracles of Jesus and the Apostles
has been vital to Christianity’s reception in numerous locations. Pentecostalism emerged
as a worldwide movement and affirmed that miracles of healing poured down on God’s
people in the middle of secularized societies. In countless parts of the world,
Pentecostals’ celebration of healing miracles offered continuity with traditional forms of
religious healing, even as they addressed modern types of social stress and alienation.
These people embraced the healing miracles performed by Jesus and confirmed their
reappearance in the current world.223
Christian Healing Practiced Today
Pentecostals
According to David Martin, Pentecostalism has been the most dramatic
development in the twentieth century. It is proliferated mainly among the poor
of the non-western world; however, it is also developed in the West and
223
Porterfield, Healing in the History, 125-26.
86
globally. A reasonably conservative estimate of the number of Pentecostals is
about a quarter of a billion people, and, therefore, the most widespread form of
non-Roman Catholic Christianity. Pentecostalism includes one in eight
Christians. It is attached to Christian “fundamentals” and to a conservative
comprehension of Scripture; however, the basis of its unique appeal lies in
empowerment through spiritual gifts offered to all.224
There has been a long tradition of belief in divine healing throughout
Christian history, especially among Roman Catholics. The modern stress on
supernatural healing was entrenched in the late-nineteenth-century Holiness
movement and inherited by its Pentecostal descendants. Albeit speaking in
tongues was believed to be confirmation of Holy Spirit baptism, divine healing
was equally important to the movement in its early years.225
William J. Seymour, an African-American preacher, was the motivation
for the beginning of Pentecostalism when he sparked the Azusa Street Revival
in Los Angeles in 1906. This was the first newsworthy outpouring of the Holy
Spirit. This event is regarded as the beginning of the Pentecostal renewal
224
David Martin, Pentecostalism: The World Their Parish (Oxford: Blackwell
Publishers Inc, 2002), 1.
225
Scott Billingsley, It's a New Day: Race and Gender in the Modern
Charismatic Movement (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 2008), 22.
87
because of the impact it had on the world, and subsequently it spread across the
world.226
The contemporary Pentecostal movement is a renewalist religious
movement within Christianity typified by belief in the possibility of receiving
the same experience of Spirit and spiritual “gifts” as did the first Christians on
Pentecost (Acts 2:1-4). Pentecostalism is an umbrella term including a wide
range of different theological and organizational perspectives resulting in no
central organization or church which directs the movement. Most Pentecostals
are part of broader Christian groups, e.g., Evangelical groups, Protestants, or
Restorationists.
Emphasis is placed on the corporate constituent in worship which is frequently
marked by great spontaneity. Special emphasis is placed on the practice of the gifts of
the Holy Spirit as found in 1 Cor. 12:8-10, and recorded in Acts, e.g., speaking in
tongues, prophecy, divine/spiritual healing, and exorcism. It is professed that all true
believers possess these gifts. Most believe that the ability to exercise these gifts is given
initially in an experience known as “baptism in the Holy Spirit.” This baptism is seen to
be different from conversion and from sacramental baptism with water. The claim was
first made in 1900 that “Spirit baptism” is typically signified by the recipient’s breaking
into speaking in tongues. Many Pentecostal churches have formed, e.g., the “Church of
God,” the largest Black Pentecostal church, “Church of God in Christ,” and the
226
“Pentecostalism,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentecostal/ (accessed January
10, 2009).
88
“Assemblies of God,” which is the largest such church and formed from an affiliation of
churches in 1914.
Pentecostalism is theologically and historically related to the Charismatic
Movement which was influenced by the Pentecostal Movement, and various Pentecostals
use the two terms interchangeably.227
Charismatic practices
In 1960, two marginal parishioners of a California Episcopal parish attended a
neighborhood prayer meeting led by a neighbor who was a Pentecostal. They wanted
the joyous faith their neighbor had, and so they went with him to his Pentecostal church.
The pastor prayed they would receive the Holy Spirit and the gift of glossolalia,
speaking in tongues. In addition to becoming able to speak in tongues, they were able to
guide neighboring parish priest Dennis Bennett (1917-91) to do the same.228 Similar
experiences began to be reported by Episcopalians in different areas of the United
States. The growing number of Episcopalians who experienced glossolalia was joined
by Christians from the Lutheran and Methodist traditions. In 1967, they were joined by
the Roman Catholics. These Christians discovered in the exercise of spiritual gifts a
227
Cross, Oxford Dictionary, 1262; “Pentecostalism,” Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentecostal. (accessed 1/10/09).
228
Dennis J. Bennett, Nine O'Clock in the Morning (Plainfield, N.J.: Logos
International, 1970), 8-20; quoted in Robert W. Prichard, A History of the Episcopal
Church (Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Publishing, 1999), 266.
89
reassurance of God’s personal presence in a time in which many other Christians
preferred to speak of faith in social rather than personal expressions.229
The Charismatic Renewal Movement is also known as “Neo-Pentecostalism.”
Herald Bredesen, originally a Reformed and later a Lutheran minister, did not like the
term so he coined the term “charismatic” in 1962 to differentiate themselves from the
older Pentecostal denominations such as the Assembly of God.
This movement, which was begun in North America, has expanded world-wide.
Like Pentecostalism, from which it originated, it is characterized by a focus on group
worship and the exercise of the “spiritual gifts,” charisms, especially divine or spiritual
healing and speaking in tongues, glossolalia.
There are several differences between charismatics and Pentecostals. The
charismatics do not have Pentecostalism’s tight connection between glossolalia and
“baptism in the Holy Spirit.” Also, within the Charismatic Movement the commitment is
embedded within the full variety of historic denominations, and, therefore, in each
context theology, culture and acceptance can vary tremendously. The Pentecostals are a
family of separate denominations.
Since the 1970s, the Pentecostal roots of the Charismatic Movement and
“enthusiastic” features have become less noticeable, and its advocates have extensively
emphasized its orthodoxy. In the Roman Catholic Church since c. 1980, it has become
229
Robert W. Prichard, A History of the Episcopal Church (Harrisburg, PA:
Morehouse Publishing, 1999), 266.
90
one of the major lay movements and was documented as such by the Vatican. Since it
first appeared it has become more structured and theologically conservative.230
Healing Services: Three Representative examples
Worship directs persons toward the source of all healing and wholeness. In
worship, we affirm that God’s healing love surrounds us, arises from the depths of our
being, and bursts forth in actions of healing touch, symbols, and songs. When one
worships, God’s love is recognized as the source of the original wholeness that grounds
creation’s journey and motivates our own healing adventures. In being cognizant that we
live, move, and have our being in God’s creative and transformative energy of love, we
are stirred to let that love flow through us by our words, touch, silence, presence,
forgiveness, or intercession. Flowing out of the abundance of God’s love is our
encouragement and impetus to mediate God’s healing touch to our neighbor.231
Three examples of healing services are presented in detail in Appendix 1. The
first example is a healing service used in the Episcopal Church. The second healing
service is a Reiki healing service for application in any Christian church. A service of
healing and blessing for application in any Christian church is the third example
provided.
230
Information on the Charismatic Movement found in the following articles was
intertwined throughout the discussion presented. Cross, Oxford Dictionary, 324.
Wikipedia, “Charismatic Movement,” http://en.wikipedia.orf/wiki/Charismatic
Movement. (accessed 1/11/09).
231
Bruce G. Epperly, Katherine Gould Epperly, Reiki Healing Touch and the Way
of Jesus, ed. Michael Schwartzentruber (Kelowna, BC, Canada: Northstone, 2005), 107.
91
Anointing of the Sick
Anointing is the sacramental use of oil as an outward sign of God’s
active presence for initiation, healing, or ordination. Anointing with oil by
smearing or pouring typically accompanies prayers for healing and the laying
on of hands.232
The rite of Ministration to the Sick in the Episcopal Church is found in
the Book of Common Prayer. A detailed, step-by-step procedure is given
demonstrating the anointing with oil.
From ancient times in the liturgical traditions of both East and West,
there are testimonies to the fact that the sick were anointed with blessed oil.
Over time and centuries the Anointing of the Sick was bestowed more often
exclusively on those near death. Subsequently this practice received the name
‘Extreme Unction” which means “final anointing.” However, the liturgy has
always beseeched the Lord to strengthen the sick people so they would
recover.233
232
Don S. Armentrout and Robert Boak Slocum, eds., An Episcopal Dictionary of
the Church: A User-Friendly Reference for Episcopalians (New York: Church Publishing
Incorporated, 2000), 21.
233
Christus Rex, “Catechism of the Catholic Church,” http://www. christusrex.
org/wwwl/CDHN/heal2.html (accessed January 10, 2009).
92
Roman Catholic Church
Today Anointing of the Sick is the ritual anointing of a “dangerously
ill” person, and it is a Sacrament in the Roman Catholic Church. A less
common name for the sacrament, used in some ecclesial communities, is the
“Administration to the Sick.” In the Eastern Church the later technical name,
i.e., euchelaion (i.e., prayer-oil) is used. Other names which have been and
still are in use are elaion hagion (holy oil), or hegismenon (consecrated).
Anointing of the Sick is a sacrament, and only a priest or bishop can administer it
because of its relationship to sins being forgiven. Canon Law in the Roman Catholic
Church designates who may receive the anointing of the sick can be administered to any
member of the faithful who, having reached the use of reason, begins to be in danger by
reason of illness or old age. A new illness or the renewal or worsening of the first illness
enables a person to receive the sacrament again. If a person is chronically ill, or elderly
and in a weakened condition, the sacrament of anointing may be repeated when in the
pastoral judgment of the priest the condition of the sick person warrants the repetition of
the sacrament.
The established form for administering the sacrament of the “Anointing of the
Sick” is to use olive oil; however, other vegetable oil may also be used. Typically this oil
is blessed by the bishop of the diocese at the Chrism mass celebrated on Holy Thursday
or on a day near it.
The following form was established in 1972 for the Roman Rite through the papal
document Sacram unctionem infirmorum. The Roman Catholic Church priest anoints the
93
ill person’s forehead with oil (usually in the form of a cross) saying: “Through this holy
anointing, may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy
Spirit.” Then the hands are anointed while the priests says, “May the Lord who frees you
from sin save you and raise you up.” The priest may anoint other parts of the body as he
sees fit, but he does not repeat the sacramental formula.234
Episcopal Church
Anointing of the sick is administered on various occasions under different
circumstances. The anointing may be in conjunction with a healing service in a church,
or in a home, hospital, retirement home when someone is seriously ill or not.
Healing service in the church. Under the section of Healing Services in the Episcopal
Church found on the previous page in this thesis, any person who wishes may be anointed
at a healing service, because every person faces health, or emotional, or mental, or
spiritual problems to different degrees during their life. The anointing gives strength to
the person to persevere with God’s blessing in facing his/her particular problem or
challenge. In the Episcopal Church, the sick person’s rector should be called when a
person is ill and wants to be anointed; however, a deacon or lay person can also be the
one who officiates at the service and administers the anointing, especially in a hospital
234
Wikipedia, “Anointing of The Sick (Catholic Church),”
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anointing_of_the_Sick_(Catholic_Church) (accessed
January 10, 2009).
94
setting or in an emergency. Oil to be used, however, must be blessed by a bishop or
priest.
Ministry in a home or health care facility. The Episcopal Church anoints sick people
with blessed oil whether they are at home or in a health facility. The service includes an
opening greeting, the reading of a Collect, the reading from the Old Testament, the
recitation of a Psalm which is followed by a reading from the New Testament.
Subsequently, the gospel is read, prayers are said for the world and the Church,
particularly for God’s healing grace, and there is a general confession of sins. This is
followed by a confession of the need for God’s healing grace and the laying on of hands
and anointing with oil of the sick person. Next is the exchange of peace, the
administration of the sacrament of Christ’s body and blood, and a closing prayer. The
complete service is found in Ministry with the Sick on pages 13-24.235
Ministration at the time of death. The service is officiated by the clergy in charge of the
congregation of the dying person’s church. The service includes opening prayers, a
psalm, the Litany at the Time of Death, the recitation of the Our Father, and the laying on
of hands and the anointing. This is followed by Holy Communion, concluding Collects,
and the Commendation at the Time of Death. The complete service is found in Ministry
with the Sick on pages 90-100.236
235
Episcopal Church, Ministry with the Sick (New York: Church Publishing
Incorporated, 2005), 13-24.
236
Ibid., 90-100.
95
Ministration when life sustaining treatment is withheld or discontinued. This rite is
proper when family, friends, and/or caregivers gather for prayer to mark a transition from
life-sustaining to palliative care. This rite may also be used when extraordinary measures
are to be withheld or discontinued.
The service is appropriate for situations when death is anticipated to follow not
long after the withholding or discontinuing of treatment. When death is expected
immediately after the discontinuing or withholding of treatment, traditional rites at the
time of death may be preferred. The rite takes the form of opening prayers, a reading
from the Old Testament, the reading of a Psalm, a reading from the New Testament, the
Gospel, a Litany for the Discontinuing of Life-Sustaining Treatment, and, if communion
is not to follow, then the Our Father is recited by all. The laying on of hands and
anointing with blessed oil is followed by an act of commitment by family members
and/or friends to the individual from whom treatment will be withdrawn. Next, the
peace, and then the Eucharist may be celebrated by a priest or bishop beginning with the
Offertory. If the reserved sacrament is to be used for Communion, the service continues
with the Lord’s Prayer, followed by a closing prayer. The complete service is found in
Ministry with the Sick on pages 108-118.237
237
Ibid., 108-18.
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The major topics that have been discussed thus far are the Holy Spirit as
demonstrated in the Old and New Testament and discussed by noted Christian
theologians throughout history, the charisms of the Holy Spirit as written in the Old and
New Testament, and specifically the charism of healing. The charism of healing has been
surveyed through a review of scripture focused on the healing ministry of Jesus, a
discussion of the subsequent practices of healing in the Christian tradition, and the
practice of Christian healing as it is practiced today.
The gifts of the Holy Spirit are associated with the precise role(s) each Christian
is called to by God. These “gifts of the Spirit” are varied, and they are discussed both in
the Old Testament (Isaiah 11:2 and Joel 2:28) and in the New Testament. Paul preaches
that charisms, “spiritual gifts,” are very important. Charisms may be regular ministries
used for service in the everyday world as depicted in Romans 12:4-8, 1 Corinthians
12:28-30, and Ephesians 4:11, or charisms may be the more dramatic Spirit-motivated
acts or words as found in 1 Corinthians 12:6-12. Every Christian is a charismatic, and
our gift(s) are to service our calling. It is God who calls and accepts us where he finds us
and as we are. Each person receives a particular gift, and we are duty-bound to use the
gift(s) we have been given as Christ did for the world and to allocate them to others.
Different people have been given unique gift(s) for the benefit of the community.
Unlike glossolalia or prophecy, the gift of healing is merely mentioned by Paul as a fact
of Christian life. Using Jesus’ ministry of healing as a model, the followers of Jesus have
done as they were charged by Jesus and used their “gift of healing” from the time of the
97
apostles through today. This continues a tradition of healing first declared in the Old
Testament accompanying the first exodus (Exod. 7:3; Deut. 4:34; 6:22; 26:8).
Today the “charism of healing” is practiced in Christianity in numerous and
varied ways for spiritual, emotional., mental, and physical healing., e.g., by Pentecostals,
charismatics in various denominations, and in public healing services in main-line and
other churches as well as in private locations. Authentic Christian healers will focus on
the Lordship of Jesus or the Holy Spirit and leave the healing to God.
Each person has been given a charism(s) by the Holy Spirit and must go through
training to more fully develop the charism. Subsequently the charism(s) need a means of
expression. The focus of this thesis will narrow once more into a detailed discussion
concerning one means of training and expressing a gift of healing, a specific approach to
healing that began thousands of years ago and is still being practiced today, i.e., the
practice of Reiki. This thesis will focus on Reiki as practiced and interpreted from a
Christian point of view.
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Chapter 3
Reiki: One Means of Expressing and

Training the Charism of Healing
Healing and the Holy Spirit
The healing ministry of Jesus is being rediscovered both within and outside the
church. Twenty-first century Christians are “meeting Jesus again for the first time” as
they encounter the healer’s compassion, healing touch, and commitment to justice, thus
providing a spiritual foundation for the growing interest in complementary medicine and
spiritual formation. Within Protestant and Roman Catholic communities of faith, Jesus
the healer is being given new emphasis, and this has promoted interest in traditional
religious practices, such as laying on of hands and anointing with oil. The healing power
of compassionate touch is being claimed at a time in our world in which touch is often
objectionable or even abusive.238
Healing practices did not originate with Jesus. From the beginning of the history
of mankind healing methodologies have always been present. Healing methodologies
were founded on the transfer of universal all-pervading life energy from the healer to
another, the identical energy which brings forth all life in the universe and nourishes it.239
This universal life energy is what Christians now refer to as the Holy Spirit. This
information appears to contradict the words of Jesus when he was leaving the earth and
238
Epperly and Epperly, Reiki: Healing Touch, 12.
239
Ibid.
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promised to send the Holy Spirit to be with us (John 20:21-22; Acts 2:1-4). It seems that
the Holy Spirit already was indwelling human beings before Jesus made this statement.
Karl Rahner confirms the latter statement when he writes, “God…has already
communicated himself in his Holy Spirit always and everywhere and to every person as
the innermost center of his existence.”240 Rahner speaks of “anonymous Christians,” a
state of being of explicit faith prior to the hearing of the gospel when a person is able to
respond positively to the grace of God. Rahner believes that Christ is present and
efficacious in the non-Christian believer, and therefore in the non-Christian religions,
through his Spirit. Anonymous Christians are “justified by God’s grace and possess the
Holy Spirit.”241 An understanding of the Spirit of God as the power of creation and the
wellspring of life is theologically grounded. To experience God in all things from the
beginning of time presupposes that there is a transcendence which is immanent in all
things and which can be inductively discovered.242 Thus, healing energy, the Holy Spirit,
has been with all creation since the beginning of time, because a creator is in the creator’s
creation. The Holy Spirit is as equally the Creator as any member of the Trinity. It can
be concluded that the power of the Holy Spirit, the Universal Life Force, has indwelled
humankind since humans emerged, regardless of race, creed, or culture, as the “giver of
life,” and thereby the source of all healing.
240
Rahner, Foundation of Christian Faith, 139; cited in Karkkainen,
Pneumatology,112.
241
Karl Rahner, “Jesus Christ in the Non-Christian Religions,” Theological
Investigations, no. 17 (1981): 46.
242
100
The question arises as to why Jesus told his disciples he would send the Holy
Spirit if the Spirit already indwelled all of creation. Concerning this enigma, Robert
Hughes, an Episcopal theologian, explains that the Holy Spirit has been in all creation
since the beginning of time, however, in different degrees of intensity or in different
dimensions. First, Hughes claims that the Spirit indwells organic matter more intensely
than inorganic material. Second, Jesus promised he would send the Holy Spirit as an
Advocate for humankind, which intensifies the relationship of human beings with the
Spirit. Hughes adds that when one is baptized the level of intensity increases even more.
Therefore, there is no conflict between the Holy Spirit being a part of healing throughout
the history of mankind; albeit, at a much later time Jesus promised that he would send the
Holy Spirit to be with us as our Advocate. The difference in these situations is one of
intensity of relationship or dimensions.243 The story of ancient healing continues.
The Tibetans possessed a profound understanding of the nature of the spirit,
energy and matter, and used this knowledge thousands of years ago to heal their bodies,
synchronize their souls, and lead their spirits to a unified experience. We find this
knowledge later in India and find modified forms of it in the Chinese, Egyptian,
Japanese, Greek and Roman cultures. It is also found in the various rituals in the
indigenous cultures of the Americas and other parts of the world.
This information was safeguarded and preserved by the mystery schools of the
majority of ancient cultures and was accessible in its entirety to only a few people,
243
Robert Hughes, interviewed by Ruth Allen, January 21, 2009, School of
Theology, University of the South.
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typically priests or spiritual leaders who subsequently passed it on to their own disciples
by word of mouth. Modern scholars have frequently found some handed-down forms of
this inner knowledge; however, they usually misinterpreted it because it is masked in
cryptic symbols and language. One form of this information was rediscovered at the end
of the nineteenth century by Dr. Mikao Usui, who found a thousand-year-old tradition of
healing in 2,500 year old Sanskrit sutras.244 Dr. Usui called this healing tradition,
“Reiki,” and passed it on to Dr. Chijiro Hayashi, who subsequently passed it on as an oral
tradition. Approximately thirty years ago, people began to write down the tradition and
its techniques. The essence of the various expositions is the same, but some differences
do exist due to slight changes in the oral tradition over the years and different writers
recording the information.
Today, in addition to Reiki, many western Christians have discovered the healing
potential of additional complementary health practices such as acupuncture, healing
touch, massage, yoga, Tai Chi, Qi Gong, meditation, and therapeutic touch. In spite of
the growing interest in Reiki and other forms of healing touch among Christians, few
Reiki Masters and Teachers have endeavored to create a synthesis of Reiki healing touch
and traditional Christian comprehension of healing and wholeness. Unfortunately, in
North America, this has led to the false belief that among many progressive and
conservative Christians that Reiki is associated with New Age spirituality. Although
Reiki energy is non-sectarian and universal in nature, its gentle touch uniquely manifests
244
Bodo J. Baginski, Shalila Sharamon, Universal Life Energy, trans. Judith
Harrison and Christopher Baker (Essen, Germany: Life Rhythm Publication, 1988), 15.
102
the healing ministry of Jesus for our time. Many have been led to discover the practice of
Reiki through unexpected pathways or coincidences. Numerous people, Christians and
non-Christians, have discovered their charism of healing when practicing the
complementary health practice of Reiki, which will be the focus of this chapter.
The Emergence of Reiki
The story of Reiki, pronounced “Rayʹ-Key,” involves the search for healing that
unites East and West, medicine and spirituality, action and reflection, mysticism and
rationalism, personal growth and world-wide healing. Some challenge the accuracy of
the facts of this story, which has been handed-down by oral tradition from Reiki Masters
to their students. Albeit the story may not be completely accurate historically, it
illuminates a personal story and seeks to join East and West so that we can heal ourselves
and our planet.
The story begins at the turn of the twentieth century. “Once upon a time” a young
Japanese man, Mikao Usui, rose in the ranks of religious and academic life. Usui was
born August 15, 1865, in the village of Yago in the Yamagata district of Gifu prefecture,
Japan, and died on March 9, 1926, in Fukuyama. Although a Buddhist, he was educated
by Christian missionaries and became headmaster and chaplain in a Christian boys’
school in Kyoto, Japan. After one of the school’s chapel services, some of the young
students boldly confronted Usui with the following question: “Do you believe that the
Bible is God’s word?” Usui answered in the affirmative. Subsequently they asked him if
he could then heal others like those credited to Jesus of Nazareth and his disciples. After
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Usui told them he had no healing powers, the students challenged his faith and his
qualification to be their spiritual guide.
In response to their query, Usui began a spiritual quest for the healing light of
Christ. This legend tells us his mission took him to the University of Chicago, where he
studied both theology and the Bible and received a Doctor of Theology degree. Dr. Usui
was quite adept in languages and had a command of Japanese, Chinese, English, and
Sanskrit (one of the oldest and most sublime spiritual languages, which Buddha
Shakyamuni himself spoke and taught over 2,000 years ago). Usui traveled to Europe
and China to further his education in medicine, psychology, and religion. In addition, he
traveled to North India and Tibet, searching manuscripts for the key to healing. He
returned to Japan and sought the guidance of Buddhist teachers.
Dr. Usui sought wisdom from the East and the West. However, neither the
rationalism of the liberal Protestant Christianity or the spiritual teaching of Buddhism
fulfilled his quest to embody the healing ministry of Jesus in his personal life and
ministry.
The liberal Protestantism of the early twentieth century believed that in light of
the discoveries and conclusions of science and biblical scholarship the miracles of Jesus
violated the laws of nature and were no longer relevant to modern persons. At that time,
liberal and conservative Christians agreed on one thing: when someone is sick they
should visit a doctor; there is no need to depend on divine intervention to heal a person.
Conservative Christians believed in Jesus’ miracles; however, they believed the purpose
of these miracles was to prove Jesus’ identity as the Son of God, and now the established
104
Church mediates the good news. The church no longer found it necessary to experience
divine healing to affirm that Jesus is the Son of God.
The attitudes of Buddhist monks also frustrated Usui. They believed that
although Gautama the Buddha may have healed people, presently physical healing was to
be done by physicians. The monks taught that the search for enlightenment took humans
beyond the interest for the body and its well-being.
Usui was undaunted by these setbacks, and continued to search for the keys to
healing energy. His quest turned to ancient Buddhist healing texts. He deeply believed
that the secret to a healing path for the modern world was hidden in ancient texts of
Christianity and Buddhism. Usui continued to study and meditate on the Buddhist
scriptures, or sutras. Eventually Usui found several healing symbols from Tibetan
Buddhism written in Sanskrit, but he originally discovered no way to employ them.
Undeterred, Usui continued to seek an answer to his prayers by meditation and fasting.
In the remoteness of a mountain near Kyoto, Japan, Usui wordlessly opened
himself to divine guidance. On the twenty-first day of his retreat, in accord with one
Reiki story, a light burst forth from the heavens. It hurtled across the horizon, struck
Usui on the forehead, and he fell unconscious to the ground. When he regained
consciousness, he recalled that the light surrounded him and transmitted the meaning of
the ancient healing symbols he had found and had been studying. He immediately
understood that the way to share the energy of love was through the spiritual practice of
laying on of hands. Usui had rediscovered the path that was to eventually join East and
West in the search for healing. He gained the gift to heal others without depleting his
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own energy. Although Reiki is grounded in Japanese culture and Buddhist healing
practice, Reiki complemented and presented a way to mediate the healing touch of Jesus
of Nazareth.245
About 1925 Dr. Usui initiated Dr. Chujiro Hayashi, a retired Naval Officer, as a
Reiki Master at the age of forty-seven. Hayashi opened a Reiki clinic in Japan and used
the information given to him to create the standard hand positions, the system of three
degrees or levels of Reiki practitioners, and their initiation or attunement procedures. At
Dr. Hayashi’s Reiki clinic Hawayo Takata, a woman from Hawaii who was visiting in
Japan, sought treatment for a tumor, gallstones, and appendicitis. After four months of
daily treatments, she was completely healed. She was so impressed with her healing that
she wanted to learn Reiki. After relentless requests to learn Reiki, in the Spring 1936
Mrs. Takata was attuned to the level of First Degree Reiki by Dr. Hayashi. After one
year of working with Dr. Hayashi, she was initiated to the level of Second Degree Reiki.
Takata returned to Hawaii in 1936. Later, Hayashi and his daughter visited Hawaii to
facilitate Mrs. Takata in establishing Reiki there. In the Winter of 1938, Dr. Hayashi
initiated Hawayo Takata to the level of Reiki Master. When Dr. Hayashi died in 1941,
Takata succeeded him and became the Grand Master. From 1945-1970, Takata was the
only living Reiki Master in the world. Between 1970 and her death on December 11,
245
The information from William Rand’s book was found in an article titled
“What is the History of Reiki?” which was located on the website:
www.reiki.org/FAQ/HistoryOfReiki.html. Mr. Rand requested that the original source be
cited. William Rand, Reiki, the Healing Touch, Southfield, MI: Vision Publications,
1991); Epperly and Epperly, Reiki Healing Touch, 20-23; Vennells, Reiki for Beginners,
15; Begin Within Reiki, “What is the History of Reiki,” www.spreadreiki.com/ (accessed
September 7, 2008).
106
1980, Mrs. Takata initiated twenty–two Reiki Masters. Hawayo Takata’s granddaughter,
Phyllis Lei Furumoto, is currently the Grand Master.246 Dr. Barbara Weber Ray was one
of the twenty-two taught and attuned by Hawayo Takata to the Master Level of Reiki.247
I am a Reiki Master and Teacher, and I am in the direct lineage from Barbara Weber Ray.
What is Reiki?
Reiki practice is a form of “hands-on healing.” It is a method of stress reduction
and relaxation that promotes healing at the spiritual, emotional, mental, and physical
levels. It is a non-invasive technique of gentle touch that recharges the ki, or chi, or
prana, i.e., the human energy field. A Reiki session facilitates the releasing of physical
and psychic blocks, as it concurrently reduces pain and stress, while accelerating the
process of healing. Reiki revitalizes and rebalances the body, mind, emotions, and spirit
in bringing about an overall sense of well-being and relaxation.
A Reiki session is a way of increasing one’s life energy. A Reiki practitioner
transmits “life-source energy” through his/her hands to the client. The hands are very
lightly placed on or near the major energy centers, chakras, of the body. The energy
246
Baglinski and Sharamon, Reiki Universal Life Energy, 22-28; Diane Stein,
Essential Reiki: A Complete Guide To An Ancient Healing Art (Freedom, CA: The
Crossing Press Inc, 1948), 12-14. Begin Within Reiki, “What Is The History Of Reiki?,”
www.spreadreiki.com/ (accessed September 7, 2008); Rand, “What is the History of
Reiki?,” www.reiki.org/FAQ/HistoryOfReiki.html/ (accessed July 24, 2005). William
Rand has requested that users of this article cite the original source. Rand, Reiki The
Healing Touch.
247
The article “What is the History of Reiki?” can be found at
www.reiki.org/FAQ/HistoryOfReiki.html. William Rand has requested that users of the
article cite the original source. Rand, Reiki The Healing Touch.
107
coming from the practitioner’s hands can feel like a warm glowing radiance that flows
through the body. It is typically a very relaxing experience, and the treatment will
usually release negative feelings or thoughts which results in the client feeling more
positive, light hearted, and experiencing a sense of wellbeing.248
It is important to remember that healings happen when and where God wills it.
Prayers are offered for the healing of the person who is sick, and hands are laid on the
person so that the desired healing may occur. There are ways of working with the body
so that the mind and soul can be healed. It is possible for tormenting and oppressive
memories to be healed if the tense body is relaxed.249 Moltmann’s words aptly resonate
with what Reiki sessions are, the laying on of hands, and their results.
Also in accord with Reiki, Moltmann declares that Jesus healed the sick by
restoring their fellowship with God.250 Paul Tillich’s comprehension of disease furthers
this concept. Tillich teaches that disease is the failure of a person or community to
reintegrate, to reestablish the center after a change that necessitates new material being
assimilated. He states that many diseases, especially infectious ones, can be
comprehended as an organism’s inability to return to self-identity. The process of self-
integration is essential for life, but it is in an incessant struggle with disintegration, and
integrating and disintegrating propensities are ambiguously mixed in any given moment
248
Reiki For Christians, “What is Reiki?” www.christianreiki.com/ (accessed
January 25, 2009).
249
Moltmann, The Spirit of Life, 190-191.
250
Ibid.
108
of time.251 Tillich informs us that the Holy Spirit is the answer to the ambiguity. The
Holy Spirit gives us the center, our reintegration, our grounding, as a gift. Being
grounded, returning to center and integration is being in touch with the Ground of Being,
God.252 The Reiki energy, the life source or Holy Spirit, which flows from the hands of
the Reiki practitioner facilitates the restoring of dysfunctional vibrations sporadically
found in all living beings and consistently expressed in the physically, mentally, or
spiritually ailing, to a resonance closer to the resonance of God who indwells all. The
closer in harmony we are to the resonance of the indwelling Trinity, the healthier we are
in all dimensions of our being. This describes the mechanism for healing promoted by
Reiki energy.
I have entered into a Reiki session as the client feeling in extreme turmoil
concerning whether or not to leave a teaching position, ask to go part-time, or whether I
should stay in the position although it was causing me unhappiness. After the Reiki
session I felt as though a veil had been lifted, and the answer was so clear before me.
The Reiki energy had balanced my dysfunctional energy and brought me into closer
resonance with the vibrations of the Trinity who indwells me.
Moltmann’s statement, Reiki teachings, and the previous personal example are in
accord with the understanding that the pulsing energy vibrations coming from the hands
of the Reiki practitioner create conditions so that the client may become more in tune
251
Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1963), 3:35.
252
Robert Hughes, interview by Ruth M. Allen, February 18, 2009, transcript,
School of Theology, University of the South.
109
with the resonances of the Trinity within the client. This is what the energy of Reiki
offers to the client, who is free to accept or reject it. If accepted, this self-transcendence
requires a source beyond our own given nature. This is the means by which the One
might account for that resonance in us that always transcends any effort on our part. This
calling to transcendence is its own self-transcendence which continually transcends any
effort we can make to grasp or objectify it.253 We are free to answer the call or reject it,
just as we are free to accept or reject Reiki energy, the Universal Life Force, the Holy
Spirit.
Rahner teaches that Christ is present and efficacious in the non-Christian believer,
and therefore Christ is present in the non-Christian religions, through his Spirit. He states
that “anonymous Christians” are “justified by God’s grace and possess the Holy
Spirit.”254 Rahner’s statements roused my curiosity as to what non-Christian Reiki
practitioners believe about the energy that is transferred from them to a client. In an e-
mail I asked a very well-respected healer, a Reiki Master and a Buddhist whom I have
worked with, what she believes about the Reiki energy. She responded that she is guided
by “spirit life force energy,” and she believes that she acts as a conduit when this energy
is passed from her to a client.255 Her understanding of the energy in Reiki completely
253
In this paragraph I have intertwined Reiki teachings with the theological
beliefs of Robert Hughes which are found in his book. My personal discussions with
Hughes have confirmed the relationship of his beliefs and Reiki teachings. Hughes,
Beloved Dust, 166.
254
Karl Rahner, “Jesus Christ in the Non-Christian Religions,” Theological
Investigations, no. 17 (1981): 46.
255
Pam Eveline, interview by Ruth M. Allen, September 18, 2008.
110
coincides with the beliefs of Christians who practice Reiki. Christians who practice Reiki
name this life force energy, God, which includes the entire Trinity or more specifically
the Holy Spirit. This concurs with Rahner’s statement concerning non-Christians,
“anonymous Christians” also possessing the Holy Spirit.
The Reiki practitioner’s Reiki energy is never depleted. Actually, it is believed
that both practitioner and client are in need of healing, so both receive treatment as the
divine energy travels through the Reiki practitioner to and through the client. Therefore,
giving a treatment increases the practitioner’s and client’s energy and leaves them
surrounded with loving feelings of well-being and relaxation.256
Reiki is a complementary medical practice; and it is therefore used along with
conventional therapies a medical doctor may prescribe, e.g., meditation, yoga, massage,
physical therapy, Reiki, tai chi (both used for 1000s of years) in addition to prescribed
medicine.257 I have personally been asked by three medical doctors, a rehabilitation
specialist, a gynecologist/obstetrician, and an integrative medicine specialist if they could
send difficult patients to me. Healing is often the result of a team effort in effecting
maximum success in the achievement of wellness.
Christians have discovered the gentle healing spirit of Dr. Mikao Usui’s Reiki.
The number of Christians who believe Reiki is a practice that provides an opportunity to
follow more closely the teachings and examples of Jesus healing the sick is constantly
256
Reiki, “How Does Reiki Work?”
http://reiki.org/FAQ/HowDoesReikiWork.html.
257
Reiki for Christians, “What is Reiki?” www.christianreiki.org/ (accessed
January 25, 2009).
111
increasing. Joining East and West and body, mind and spirit, Reiki healing touch
increases personal well-being, reduces pain, accelerates healing, and connects us with the
universal healing energy that envelops and permeates us. Some call Reiki grace in
action. A person who is attuned/initiated into the practice of Reiki requires only the
intent to be an instrument of God’s healing touch, because Reiki embodies the vibrant
energy of love that enlivened Jesus’ healing ministry.
Reiki is a Japanese word that is derived from two words – Rei and ki. In the
Japanese language (Kanji), these words, Rei and ki, have different meanings, and each
has several layers of meaning depending on how they are used and how they are
combined with other words. When Rei and ki are used in reference to healing, the word
Rei means Universal Spirit, Universal Life Force, Higher Power, God or Holy Spirit. The
word ki refers to the life energy that flows through all of creation, which is another way
of saying Holy Spirit. This energy is the power that acts and lives in all created matter
whether organic or inorganic, e.g., people, animals, plants, and rocks. Christians call it
God and Buddhists call it Buddha. Ki is analogous in thought to “Chi” in Chinese
medicine, Hindu “prana” and Christian “light.” The word Reiki can thus mean life
energy that is guided by God or God energy. The word Reiki is typically translated to
mean Universal Life Force, which for Christians is another name for the Holy Spirit.
When the two words are written together, Rei and ki, also represent the universal spirit
coming together with our own spirit. Various people believe Reiki is another way of
saying Holy Spirit. When one is attuned and trained in the use of Reiki, the practitioner
is a conduit for the flow of the Universal Life Force energy to the recipient to be used for
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self-healing.258 In accord with Usui’s speaking of energy love, Stein states that Reiki is
Universal Love.259 Love is another name for the Holy Spirit in Christian tradition.
It is important to note that because our culture has separated science from
philosophy, which is based on the Cartesian separation of mind, body, and spirit, the idea
of such subtle although powerful life-force energy has existed exterior to the general
theoretical framework of modern Western medicine. Consequently it is challenging to
discuss the nature or the source of chi, prana, or ki in precise terms, since in the West we
do not have an equivalent word for this energy.260
This understanding of “life force energy” is in agreement with the teachings of
Wolfhart Pannenberg, as we discussed in chapter 1. Pannenberg states that the Spirit is
portrayed as the life-giving principle in the Bible and as the one to whom all creatures
owe their life, activity, and movement. The Holy Spirit is the “life-giver” and when God
extracts his Spirit, all life expires (Job.34:13-15). The ki of Reiki is consistent with the
term “ruach” used in the Old Testament, and the term “pneuma” used in the New
Testament to denote the Holy Spirit, the “energy field” or “life source.261 It is very
258
Reiki for Christians, “What is Reiki?” www.christianreiki.org/ (accessed
January 19, 2009); Baginski and Sharamon, Universal Life Energy, 15; Begin Within
Reiki, “What is Reiki?,” www.spreadreiki.com/ (accessed September 7, 2008;
Gendaikireiki.com/gendaikihoreikifaq.html (accessed September 7, 2008).
259
Stein, Essential Reiki, 1.
260
Libby Barnett and Maggie Chambers with Susan Davidson, Reiki Energy
Medicine: Bringing Healing Touch into Home, Hospital, and Hospice (Rochester, VT:
Healing Arts Press, 1996), 2.
261
Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, 120.
113
important to realize that when Rei refers to the universal, boundless aspect of the energy
that ki is itself a part of rei, as it is the vital life force energy which flows through all
creation. According to this understanding of the word Reiki, one has additional evidence
from which to deduce that when we speak of Reiki we are speaking of the Universal Life
Force, the Holy Spirit working in the world through human beings.262
The technique used in Reiki was initially developed thousands of years ago and
utilizes the laying on of hands. Reiki is based on the premise that all living things have a
special energy flowing through them called “life energy.”263 “Life energy” or “life force
energy” is the basis of all life. It supports, nourishes, and sustains life. When it is gone,
life is over.264
A Mayo Clinic Health Information Article informs the public that Reiki, and other
complementary alternative medicines, stress prevention of illness. Practitioners do not
necessarily want to work with clients only when they are ill or have a problem, because,
for example, Reiki helps to maintain balanced energy in the body and keep the body
healthy. In this capacity Reiki serves as a form of preventative complementary medicine.
262
Baginski and Sharamon, Universal Life Energy, 15.
263
Christian Reiki, “What is Reiki?,” www.christianreiki.org (accessed January
19, 2009).
264
David F. Vennells, Reiki for Beginners: Mastering Natural Healing
Techniques (St. Paul, Minnesota: Llewellyn Publications, 2002), 2.
114
It is important that one know that her/his body is capable of healing itself. One needs
Reiki treatments to encourage one’s natural healing process.265
Human beings are composed of energy at our most basic level of existence, and
the energy that flows through us in pathways can become blocked as a result of various
experiences ranging from stress in everyday life, illness, exam periods, surgery, an
accident, incest, rape, or death of a loved one. Unless we can rise above these situations,
blockages in our flow of life force energy will result. These blockages affect our health
on the spiritual, emotional, mental, and finally on the physical level.266
As a scientist, I was extremely skeptical when I first encountered this information
regarding energy blockages, which if not addressed at the spiritual, emotional, or physical
level, can lead to physical problems. The more articles I read concerning Reiki, hands-
on-healing, and Einsteinian physics, the more comprehensible this information became.
Subsequently I discovered that numerous medical doctors practicing western medicine,
even a few I knew personally, are cognizant of this information, concur with it, and use it
in working with their patients.
One example of what I discovered follows. During an interview with Dr.
Kathleen Dunlap, a medical doctor specializing in gynecology and pain management, we
discussed the issue concerning physical problems emanating from spiritual, or emotional,
265
Mayo Clinic staff, “The Philosophy of Complementary and Alternative
Medicine,” Mayo Foundation For Medical Education And Research, November 17,
2003, http://secure.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?id=PN00001. (accessed February 13,
2009).
266
Vennells, Reiki for Beginners, 2-3.
115
or mental sources. She told me it is routine for a patient who has chronic pain related to
the female reproductive organs to be sent to a psychiatrist or social worker for an
evaluation, and if necessary, for therapy. Dunlap’s rationale was that patients with
chronic pain may have ignored their spiritual and/or emotional and/or mental problems
until they have surfaced on the physical level. If this is the case, the source of the
problem must be attended to by a psychiatrist or social worker if the doctor is to have
success in dealing with the symptoms of chronic physical pain and the condition or
disease that has been realized. Dunlap stated that a patient’s chronic pain may emanate
from a mental, emotional, or spiritual level and/or a diseased or injured area.267
Science, the Human Energy Field, and Healing Energy
In my quest for understanding how Reiki works I spoke with Reiki Masters and
read many articles and books on Reiki. One of the most informative articles I read was
concerned with healing and the human energy field discussed during an interview of
James L. Oschman, Ph.D., by William Lee Rand. Dr. Oschman has written a series of
articles published in the world’s leading journals and two books on “healing energy.” He
has degrees in biophysics and biology, and he has worked in major research labs in
several parts of the world. He is highly qualified to do research on the energy of Reiki.
His findings have given the most skeptical academic scientists a theoretical basis for
exploring the physiology and biophysics of energy medicines.
267
Kathleen Dunlap, M.D., interview by Ruth M. Allen, January 29, 2009.
116
Dr. Oschman states that all medicine is energy medicine. Scientists are now
certain that there is an energy field around the human body and such fields are medically
important. The biomagnetic field initiates from the pulsing electric currents set up by the
tissues. The overall field, seen from a distance from the body, is a combination of all the
fields, the largest being the field of the heart. The blood is an excellent conductor of
electricity, and the entire circulatory system pulses with electricity each time the heart
beats. The second strongest source of electricity is the retina, which functions like a large
battery, and changes its polarity when light strikes it. The third-strongest field is that
produced by the various muscles, with the size of the muscle being directly related to the
amount of electricity it produces. The overall biomagnetic field, the aura, is a composite
of all these energy fields produced within the body. The people who are able to see the
aura around the body possess a gene that affects the retina and subsequently allows them
to detect minor changes in the biomagnetic field. It is no longer something “spooky” and
“out there” for one to identify auras.268 Beside our aura, our energy body is also
composed of the chakras (energy centers), and the meridians (energy pathways). The
energy field absorbs energy, the chakras break it down, and the meridians distribute the
energy throughout the body.269
For years doctors have made treatment decisions on the basis of biofield
measurements. Oschman reminds people who react negatively to the term energy
268
James L. Oschman, “Science and the Human Energy Field,” interview by
William Lee Rand (2002), Reiki News Magazine, no. 1:3 (Winter 2002).
269
Kathie Lipinski, “Distant Healing and the Human Energy Field,” Reiki News,
http://www.reiki.org/reikinews/DistantHealing.htm. (accessed January 23, 2009).
117
medicine that many medical technologies use different forms of energy for diagnosis and
treatment, e.g., X-rays and MRIs. Passive measures of human energy fields produced by
the body are important in diagnosis: electrocardiograms, electroencephalograms,
electroretinograms, and electromyograms. Each of these tools has a biomagnetic
counterpart: magnetocardiograms, magnetoencephalograms, and so on. Energy medicine
diagnostic tools have been used for nearly a century.
Transcutaneous nerve stimulators, cardiac pacemakers and defibrillators, lasers,
pulsing magnetic field therapy are examples of energy treatment modalities that are part
of conventional medicine. Energy medicine based on the use of medical equipment is
being used in hospitals, clinics, and medical research centers. Reiki and other forms of
hands-on healing are another form of energy medicine that is based on scientifically
measureable energy fields emitted from the healer’s hands.270
Regarding healing energy, research has shown that certain magnetic fields can
jump-start the healing process in fractures that have failed to heal, even for as long as
forty years. Pulsing electromagnetic field therapy (PEMT) for bone healing is being used
for bone healing in mainstream medicine. At various extremely low frequencies (ELF)
tissue, ligament and nerve regeneration will be initiated. One machine will emit two
cycles per second (Hz) to initiate nerve regeneration, another machine will vibrate at
seven Hz for bone growth, and a different machine has a frequency of ten Hz for
ligament regeneration. Slightly higher frequencies are effective for skin and capillary
growth. One machine is necessary for each different frequency.
270
Oschman, Science and the Human Energy Field.
118
What is important about this scientific information is that there is evidence that
practitioners of various hands-on therapies such as Reiki emit the same extremely low
frequency vibrations from their hands. Additionally, Dr. John Zimmerman’s valuable
research indicated that this pulsing energy field produced by machines in hospitals is the
same as produced by the hands of practitioners of Reiki. Non-practitioners do not
produce such signals.271
Dr. Zimmerman confirmed that the pulsing field produced by the hands of energy
practitioners is not steady in frequency, but varies from moment to moment. The
frequency emitted from the hands sweeps up and down through the identical range of
frequencies in the ELF band that have been identified by medical researchers as being
effective for jumpstarting the healing process in the various tissues they have
investigated. A major synergy between clinical biomedicine and complementary
medicine has been revealed.272
Zimmerman discovered that the vibrational energy emitted from the hands of
Reiki practitioners automatically switches frequencies as the need of the client changes in
different areas of the body, whereas in hospitals, a different machine is needed to emit
271
John Zimmerman, “New technologies detect effects of healing hands,”
Brain/Mind Bulletin 10, no. 16 (September 30 1985): 3; John Zimmerman, “Laying-on-
of-hands healing and therapeutic touch: a testable theory,” BEMI Currents, Journal of the
Bio-Electro-Magnetics Institute 2 (1990): 8-17; cited in Oschman, Science and the
Human Energy Field.
272
Ibid.
119
each individual frequency. The vibrational biomagnetic fields produced by a Reiki
practitioner’s hands induce current flows in the tissues and cells of the client.273
Oschman believes that energy therapies such as Reiki are valuable for the
prevention and even cure of some of the serious diseases that are so costly in terms of
human suffering and health care services. He suggests that one of the ways Reiki works
is by opening up the communication channels that allow cells in the body to
communicate with each other and opening up the environment through which cells are
able to migrate to places where they are needed to initiate repair or to fight diseases.
Another result of Reiki is the calming of the clients which allows their immune functions
to operate smoothly. Dr. Oschman summarized his findings by stating that the healing
energy, whether produced by a medical device or projected from the human body, is
energy of a particular frequency or set of frequencies that stimulates the repair of one or
more tissues.
In his interview, Rand addresses the following to Oschman. Rand states that
Reiki healers notice from experience that Reiki healing energy seems to guide itself and
seems to contain a higher intelligence or higher power that creates exactly the correct
frequency or frequencies needed by the client. He adds that the higher intelligence also
appears to guide the practitioners to place their hands in the right locations and to remain
in that location for the necessary length of time. Oschman gives a scientific response.
He responds that the higher intelligence being referred to by Reiki practitioners is the
innate intuitive inner wisdom that we all possess. It can be accessed when we relax our
273
Ibid.
120
mental processes and allow our subconscious to sort out what is really going on. He
explains that living tissues are composed of semiconductor materials that form a
sophisticated electronic circuit. He thinks that the “operating system” of the Reiki
practitioner, one that is similar to a computer and works silently in the background, tunes
in to the signals or vibrations being emitted by the client and causes the energy frequency
emitted from the hands of the practitioner to change into a frequency that when projected
into the client will produce a mirror image to the dysfunctional frequencies and cancel
them out. This subsequently will balance the client’s energy flow and initiate a healthier
state of being.274
I believe that God speaks to us and interacts with us in various ways. Is our
innate intuitive inner wisdom actually one way God guides and directs us? Many answer
in the affirmative, including myself, and believe God speaks to us and can guide us
through our subconscious intuitive mind. In other words, our innate intuitive inner
wisdom or the higher power mentioned by the Reiki practitioners is the Universal Life
Force, for Christians the Holy Spirit, who indwells us and speaks to us and guides us in
quiet meditative moments, as in a Reiki session, when we are able to listen attentively
and hear our inner voice.
Robert Hughes, Episcopal theologian, explains that the Holy Spirit indwells both
the healer and the healee and is the higher power being alluded to in the previous
statements. “Wisdom as Gift” is another name of the Holy Spirit, our inner operating
system, and our innate intuitive inner wisdom. He believes that the vibrational energy
274
Oschman, “Science and the Human Energy Field.”
121
being emitted from the hands of the practitioner can create conditions so that the client’s
vibrational energy may become more in tune with the resonances of the Trinity within the
client.275 By doing so, the client’s vibrational dysfunctional energy is restored to a
normal state, which results in healing in the spiritual, and/or emotional, and/or mental,
and/or physical levels.
Balancing Dysfunctional Vibrations
Scientific proof has documented the low-frequency energy that is emitted from
the hands of a Reiki practitioner, and that this energy, upon entering the client, balances
dysfunctional energy by restoring the energy to its normal vibratory rate. When Reiki
energy comes into contact with the life force energy that is blocked, sluggish, or
imbalanced, it effortlessly dissolves, transmutes, and raises the quality of that energy to
the healthiest level that our body, mind, and environment will allow.276 How does this
universal energy accomplish this feat? The following is an explanation of the mechanism
involved when Reiki energy dissolves blockages in the energy pathway which leads to
illnesses. How the use of Reiki accelerates the healing of tissues after surgery or after
injuries will also be discussed.
The subsequent information is found in the Reiki Manual given to me in 1997
when I was attuned into the first level of Reiki. This information in the Reiki Manual has
275
Robert Hughes, interview by Ruth M. Allen, January 28, 2009, transcript,
276
Vennells, Reiki for Beginners, 3.
122
been passed down from Reiki Masters in my lineage to their students for many years, and
its essence has not been altered. Six years after my first attunement, I was attuned to the
level of Reiki Master. At the Master Level in Reiki I had the authorization to update the
manual using my own scientific background in corroboration with my husband who is
also a scientist and professor. My goal was to produce a clearer and more comprehensive
statement concerning the scientifically related information found in the manual. The
following is an explanation taken from revised Reiki Manuals on how Reiki energy
functions to release blockages and restore balanced energy in the body which results in a
state of healthier being.
Once Reiki energy leaves the subatomic world this energy must polarize, i.e.,
move in one plane, because it is entering the physical, manifest world where it is acted
upon by time. Because it is by nature a vibrational harmonic, it will seek out and form a
“mirror image” of any disharmonious frequency in the energy blueprint, the client, which
cancels out the dysfunctional frequency, thereby restoring normal energy balance and
accelerating the natural healing process of the body.277 Mirror images are 180 degrees
out of phase which causes cancellation of both phases.
Therefore, in summary, the vibrational energy emitted from the Reiki
practitioner’s hands, becomes polarized when it enters a person’s body, and being a
harmonic it naturally seeks out dysfunctional energy vibrations. Upon encountering
277
Reiki Masters in the Lineage of Barbara Weber Ray, “Reiki Training
Program” ed. Ruth M. Allen (New Orleans, 2002), 1.56-1.58.
123
dysfunctional vibrations, it forms a mirror image of this vibration which, in accord with
the laws of physics, cancels the dysfunctional energy vibration and restores energy
balance to the body which results in relaxation and the body being able to heal itself.
Every organ has its own vibrational rate and slows down if distressed or diseased.
Relaxation is conducive to allowing vibrations throughout the body to return to a normal
rate. Ultimately, only the client, through the power of God, can heal himself or herself.
God, Intuition, and Healing
How does this scientific explanation interweave with statements declaring that
God is the healer? The Holy Spirit is the Universal Life Force energy that flows through
all of creation. Is our “internal operating system” also known as our “higher intelligence”
and as our “innate intuitive inner wisdom,” which we all possess, one way God speaks to
us from within? The answer to this question comes from Robert Hughes, theologian.
Hughes states: “As Lord and Life Giver, the Holy Spirit is the author of the ‘internal
operating system,’ as well as the power that makes the ‘hard drive’ spin. ‘Innate inner
wisdom’ is another name for the Holy Spirit who is also known as ‘Wisdom-As-Gift.”’278
One analogy is what occurs when one is listening to the radio in a car and passes near
power lines. Static and muddled sounds begin to emanate from the radio. In this
situation, only confusion is sensed. In a human being, every second, eleven million bits
278
Robert D. Hughes, Inner Operating System, Higher Intelligence, and Innate
Inner Wisdom, e-mail message to Ruth M. Allen, January 25, 2009.
124
of information are sent to our brains from our senses.279 That equates with a lot of static!
However, our consciousness reveals to us only a tiny fraction of this information. Most
of the information goes to our unconscious, where it is processed below our level of
awareness. When we contact our subconscious, e.g., in meditation or as a Reiki
practitioner does during a Reiki session, all or at least most of the static experienced in a
conscious state is eliminated. In a meditative state of being, one can hear more clearly
what was unclear or even unheard while in a more conscious state. As a Christian and
Reiki practitioner, in this meditative state I feel especially guided by the Spirit, whom I
believe can choose to speak to me in whatever way chosen. I know that when I am
giving a Reiki session, I have been guided many times to place my hands in unorthodox
positions, i.e., positions not shown in the Reiki Manual. Invariably, after the session the
client has told me that when my hands were in that position, the pulsing of energy and the
breaking of blockages was experienced. As a Reiki practitioner, I knew in the depth of
my being that God, the Holy Spirit, was at work through me, and I never feel closer to
Jesus than when I practice Reiki. At the same time, I feel extremely humbled and
fulfilled, and I give all honor to God for what has occurred in a session. I am well aware
that I am only a conduit for God’s healing love and energy. I have no power of my own.
It is typical for a Reiki practitioner, while practicing Reiki, to feel the closeness of
God, the Trinity, in a way not experienced in other situations. Hughes explains that this
ties in with the fact that the vibrations of Reiki, the Universal Life Force or Holy Spirit,
flowing through the Reiki practitioner and then being emitted from the hands of the
279
125
practitioner into the client creates conditions that enable both the practitioner and the
client to become more in tune with the resonances of the Trinity within the human
body.280 The Reiki practitioner and the client, individually and to different degrees, are
potentially able to tune into frequencies closer to the frequency or vibrations of God, the
Trinity. Some Reiki practitioners and clients, albeit less frequently, experience a
sensation of transcendence during a session.
Hawayo Takata believes that a vibrating spiritual power, a dynamic force, is the
healing power of Reiki. Her writing summarizes her beliefs concerning Reiki and God.
This writing supports the belief in the vibrating Life Force, the Holy Spirit, being the
energy of Reiki. Reiki is the Universal Life Force at work in the world. Takata writes:
“I believe there exists One Supreme Being – the Absolute

Infinite – a Dynamic Force that governs the world and
universe.
It is an unseen spiritual power that vibrates and all other

powers fade into insignificance beside it. So, therefore, it
is Absolute!...
I shall call it “Reiki”….
Being a universal force from the Great Divine Spirit, it

belongs to all who seek and desire to learn the art of
healing.281
280
Robert Hughes, interview by Ruth M. Allen, January 20, 2009, School of
Theology, University of the South.
281
Hawayo Takata, Reiki: The Usui System of Natural Healing (Coeur d’Alene,
ID: The Reiki alliance, 1985), 5-6; quoted in Essential Reiki, Stein, 0.
126
Similarities between the Healings of Jesus and Reiki
I tell you the truth, anyone who has faith in me, can do the
same miracles I have done, and even greater things than
these will you do (John 14:12).
One of the exceptional features of Jesus’ life was the miracles he worked.
According to the Bible, Jesus walked on water, fed five thousand people with five loaves
of bread and two fishes, changed water to wine and raised people from the dead.
However, the healings he performed were the most meaningful of his miracles. Jesus
healed paralysis, lameness, fever, catalepsy, hemorrhage, skin disease, mental disorders,
spirit possession, deafness, and blindness. He used the laying on of hands to accomplish
many of these healings. This is specified frequently in the New Testament, e.g., Luke
4:40 states: “When the Sun was setting, the people brought to Jesus all who had various
kinds of sickness, and laying his hand on each one, he healed them.”
Jesus used touch to heal Peter’s mother-in-law (Matt. 8:14-15; Luke 5:12-13), a
man with leprosy (Mark 1:40-42), two blind men (Matt. 20:29-34), another blind man
(Mark 8:22-25), a man who was deaf and could not speak (Mark 8:32-35), raise a dead
man (Luke 7:12-15), and to return a dead girl to life (Luke 8:49-55).
The healings Jesus performed have numerous similarities to the practice of Reiki.
One important similarity is the fact that Jesus could pass the power to heal on to others,
which is comparable to the Reiki attunement process. Jesus gave his twelve disciples
power to drive out all demons and to cure diseases (Luke 9:1-2). We do not know the
process Jesus employed to give healing power to his disciples, but the fact that he was
able to pass this power to heal on to them indicates an important similarity with Reiki.
127
Faith is another aspect of Jesus’ healing practice that is similar to Reiki. Faith
was not required for each of Jesus’ healings, and it appears when someone did not have
faith Jesus always touched them with his hands to heal them. One example is instance of
Jesus’ healing someone using touch when the person did not have faith was on the Mount
of Olives. Luke 22:49-51 states:

49
When those who were around him saw what was coming,
they asked, “Lord, should we strike with the sword?”
50
Then one of them struck the slave of the high priest and
cut off his right ear. 51But Jesus said, “no more of this!”
And Jesus touched his ear and healed him.282
In accord, Reiki does not require faith on the part of anyone receiving a treatment
in order for it to have an effect. However, the client must ask a Reiki practitioner for a
Reiki session in order to demonstrate a willingness to receive a Reiki session of his/her
own free will.
Matthew 13:10-11 clearly indicates that Jesus had secret teachings he gave only to
those to whom he had given healing power, his disciples. Very similar to Matthew, Mark
4:10-12 states:
When he was alone, those who were around him along

with the twelve asked him about the parables. And he said
to them, “To you has been given the secret of the kingdom
of God, but for those outside, everything comes in
parables; in order that ‘they may look, but not perceive,
and may indeed listen, but not understand; so that they
may not turn again and be forgiven.’”283
282
Michael D. Coogan, ed., The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised
Standard Version (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).
283
Coogan, The New Oxford Annotated Bible, 63-64.
128
Reiki teachings also incorporate secret knowledge in that the symbols and the
process of doing attunements are traditionally kept secret and are made available only to
those being trained in Reiki.
It is not known if Jesus was born with the ability to heal through touch or if this
was something he acquired. His activities between the age of twelve and thirty are not
mentioned in the Bible. Several researchers speculate that during these years that Jesus
traveled to the East and was taught many of the mystical teachings of India, Tibet, and
China. They also conjecture that during this time it is possible that Jesus was initiated
into a healing technique. Also, it is possible that Jesus was taught directly by God or the
Holy Spirit or simply had these abilities from birth.284
After my church lost its pastor, the interim priest and I had a discussion about
Reiki. He told me that one of his sons has a doctorate in Oriental Medicine, and his son
went to India to study Reiki. In India they teach that St. Thomas, the Apostle, brought
Reiki there, and St. Thomas learned it at the knee of Jesus. Presently the Mar Thoma
Church, a Christian denomination from Kerala, a state in southwestern India, has around
a million members and is in full communion with Anglican Churches. Kerala is
reportedly where St. Thomas first landed in India, and Kerala has been the headquarters
of the church since the first century of the Common Era. The Church claims that the
original Malankara Church was established by Thomas the Apostle at the same time as
284
William Lee Rand, “Similarities between the Healing of Jesus and Reiki,”
Christian Reiki, www.christianreiki.org/info/Articles/JesusandReiki.htm. (accessed
February 27, 2008).
129
Saint Paul established the church in Corinth. It is believed St. Thomas prayed and laid
his hands upon them in a manner similar to what other disciples did.285
Christians believe that Jesus was God, the second person of the Trinity, from the
time of his conception. As stated previously we do not know if Jesus was born with the
ability to heal through touch or if this was something he acquired, however, all gifts need
to be discovered and all gifts need training and a means to express them. The above
possibilities present various ideas and speculations concerning Jesus’ life between his
twelfth and thirtieth year and how he may have been trained to express his gift of healing.
Rand states that there is good information which would lead one to believe that
the healing methods of Jesus were preserved by the Church of the East and subsequently
passed on by its missionaries who traveled the Silk Road and other trade routes to India,
Tibet, and China. Possibly this information on healing could have been integrated into
the religious teachings of the East and, therefore, could have been the original source of
the Reiki techniques that were used by Dr. Usui.
The early followers of Jesus’ teachings were composed of several groups
including the Docetists, the Marcionites, the Ebionites, the Thomasines, the
Carpocratians, and the Gnostics. The Gnostics and several of the other groups practiced
laying on of hands and claimed to have a secret knowledge that had been passed on to
them by Jesus and his disciples. Their core beliefs united them, i.e., a personal
experience of Jesus or the “kingdom of heaven within,” their freedom and lack of rules,
285
Wikipedia, “Mar Thoma,” http://www.wikipedia.org/Mar_Thoma (accessed
January 30, 2009).
130
guidelines or creeds and their reliance on inspiration and inner guidance. The Gnostic
gospels, which are a part of the Nag Hammadi Library, were discovered in Egypt in
1945, attest to the existence of this group. Jesus has additional teachings not recorded in
the Bible which are attested to in a letter written in the second century AD by the early
Church father, Clement of Alexandria. Clement spoke of a secret gospel of Mark that
was based on the normal canonical one, but with additions for special followers of Jesus.
These additions are referred to as “those who were being perfected” and “those who are
being initiated into the great mysteries.”286
Jesus possessed tremendous self-assurance in his capability and was able to heal
in an instantaneous way with dramatic results. It was evident that he had perfected many
skills and used them in combination to get the results he created. It is obvious the Bible
indicates that Jesus healed by laying on of hands and also indicated that we should do the
same. The teachings and example of Jesus are a great inspiration for us.287
Frequently Asked Questions about Reiki
There are numerous questions that are typically asked about Reiki. Commonly
asked questions may range from wanting to know the best way for a Christian to practice
Reiki to asking how Reiki heals to questioning if all healers use Reiki energy. These
questions and several others are listed with their accompanying answers in Appendix 2.
286
Rand, Similarities Between the Healing.
287
Ibid.
131
Who or What is the Holy Spirit in the Charismatic Experience of Life?
Frequently in this thesis it has been stated that the Holy Spirit is the life force
energy, the healing energy that flows through and sustains the life of organisms. In the
charismatic experience, God’s Spirit is encountered as a vitalizing energy. This is the
reason that charisma is additionally described as dynamis or energeia. When we are near
God we are happy, and life starts to vibrate. In the vibrancies of the divine field of force,
we experience ourselves. From the earliest times, the charismatic encounter of the
Universal Life Force energy has been depicted as a flowing, an outpouring and a shining.
If we take the starting point as our experiences, we are able to comprehend that the Holy
Spirit, the Giver of Life, appears as the well of life, the source of the torrent of energy,
the origin of the light that gives the shining splendor. The language used focuses our
attention on the doctrine of emanation.
The Holy Spirit is said to be “poured out upon all flesh.” The gifts of the Spirit
are subsequently not creations of the Spirit, because the Spirit is poured out in the gifts.
Therefore we cannot distinguish between created and uncreated energies. The water of
life flowing from the wellspring of life has the same excellence as the spring itself. The
relation between the one Spirit and the many gifts of the Spirit, and the relation of the one
light to its numerous reflections, is not the detached relation of the creator to the creation.
There is more intimacy than that. Through the “pouring out” of the Spirit on all flesh, all
flesh becomes spiritual. In the “pouring out” of the love of God in our hearts through the
Holy Spirit, God is “in us” and we ourselves are “in God.” In the experience of the
Spirit, we experience a more intimate communion than in the community between
132
Creator and creature. This is the communion of reciprocal indwelling. In the Holy Spirit
the eternal God participates in our transitory life, and we participate in the eternal life of
God. This reciprocal community is an immense, outflowing source of energy.288
The energies of the Spirit, in which we charismatically experience divine energy,
have been called vitalizing energies, because they awaken us to life. At one and the same
time we experience our socialization and our individuation. “In the Spirit” we begin to
comprehend the love that binds us and the freedom which makes us our own individual,
separate selves.289
Jesus’ life was characterized by the real presence of the Holy Spirit. In the power
of the Spirit, Jesus helped powerless individuals by freeing those ensnared with no
escape, and driving out demons. The authority of Jesus Christ, the Spirit-filled messiah
was then passed on to his followers to free the prisoners and heal the sick. (Matt 10:8).
The power and presence of the Spirit was the determinative indication of Jesus’
messiahship. The Bible states, “but if I drive out demons by the Spirit of God, then the
kingdom of God has come upon you? (Matt 12:28).290
Mark Wallace delves deeply into the theological tradition to locate resources for
contemporary use. He emphasizes that in the Nicene Creed, the Spirit was named “the
Lord, the Giver of Life.” The life-centered model of the Spirit expands the intra-
288
289
Ibid., 195-196.
290
Welker, God the Spirit, 195-96.
133
trinitarian role of the Spirit to include the biocentric role as the power of healing and
renewal within all creation.291
Concurring with Wallace, I believe the Holy Spirit is the power of healing and the
Universal Life Force energy which emanates from the hands of Reiki practitioners. God,
the Holy Spirit, is the only healer. The Reiki practitioners have no power of their own.
They are conduits for the life force, the healing energy of the Spirit.
The Practice of Reiki
Who can Practice Reiki?
Anyone can practice Reiki from any walk in life. We are all born with some
natural healing ability through touch. Anyone who is attuned into Reiki will experience a
higher vibration rate of healing energy than they had before the attunement. Therefore
anyone can be a healer. Are there differences in healing abilities of practitioners? Yes.
Just as anyone can be trained to sing to some degree, there is a tremendous difference if I
sing and a person with the charism for singing sings. Pavarotti and I could have had the
same voice teacher and taken lessons the same length of time, but it would be evident
who had a gift of singing and who did not if we each sang a solo. The same is found with
Reiki. While everyone receives the same attunement, there will be different overall
results. Each attuned person will have a higher ability to heal others than before the
291
Mark I. Wallace, “The Green Face of God: Rediscovering the Spirit in an Age
of Radical Ecology,” in Advent of the Spirit: Orientations in Pneumatology, Conference
Papers from a symposium at Marquette University, 17-19 April 1998 (unpublished, 5ff);
cited in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 161.
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attunement. The bottom line is that anyone can be attuned to be a healer, but the one with
a charism for healing will have a higher level life force vibrational energy emanating
from their hands and will be more effective than the attuned person who does not have
the charism for healing.
The desire to use Reiki for the benefit of yourself and others should be an honest
one that is incorporated in a period of discernment. The decision to practice Reiki should
not be the result of a passing whim. By taking a Reiki class, an attunement is given to the
student which is comparable to turning on a switch that consequently turns on one’s Reiki
energy. Once the decision is made, there is nothing to stop you from taking a class,
becoming attuned, and becoming a Reiki practitioner.292
It may be important to note many priests, ministers, deacons, elders, and nuns
practice Reiki in different settings. Many work in hospitals as chaplains, some work in
retirement complexes, others work in hospice, and some are spiritual directors.293
Reiki Attunements and Reiki Energy
The attunement is a process performed by a Reiki Master who literally turns on
your healing energy. During the attunement one’s own energy becomes in closer
harmony with that of the rhythm of the indwelling Holy Spirit. The result is connecting
the person being attuned more strongly to God’s healing power, thus intensifying the
292
Baginski and Shalila Sharamon, Reiki: Universal Life Energy, 46.
293
Reiki for Christians, “Nun, Priests, and Ministers Who Practice Reiki,”
http://www.christianreiki.com/ (accessed Sept. 7, 2007).
135
healing energy emanating from the person’s hands.294 Everyone has some healing ability,
and, as discussed earlier in this thesis, there is evidence from scientific experiments that
those who experience a Reiki attunement have noticeably stronger healing energies
coming from their hands and are able to have more effective results in Reiki sessions.295
If you are a Christian, it is suggested that you say a prayer at the beginning of the
attunement process and ask God the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit to perform
the attunement through you, the Reiki Master. Christians have discovered the attunement
process to be very valuable and uplifting experience that strengthens their connection to
God and increases their healing ability.
Attunements into Reiki are hands-on and of a personal nature; therefore the
process used in the attunements cannot be discussed in any detail. They can only be
passed on from Reiki Master-Teacher to student. Attunements open, cleanse, and
transform the personal energy of the Reiki student. The following analogy is taken from
gardening. The energy that flows through a student before an attunement can be
compared to the intensity of the flow of water through a garden hose. After an
attunement the energy will flow with the power and intensity of a fire hose. Although
some students have brief mystical experiences, e.g., they see a light or experience
Christ’s presence in an intimate way and others feel a dramatic unblocking of energy,
most students experience the attunements as gentle, peaceful, and energizing.
294
Epperly and Epperly, Reiki Healing Touch, 67-69.
295
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The attunement ritual involving touch, breath, and use of the Reiki symbols by a
Reiki Master and Teacher awakens the divine healing power within the student at the
time of the attunement and continues throughout her/his lifetime. After the attunement,
from that time on, just the intention to share Reiki healing touch will activate the lively
flow of Reiki healing energy through the student’s hands. It is believed that the healing
energy is always flowing through our lives. The Reiki attunements increase the flow of
God’s energy in our lives and improve our own spiritual fruitfulness and the spiritual
fruitfulness of others.
An attunement models the actions of Jesus. As Jesus made preparations to leave
this world, he invited his disciples to be the pioneers in an adventure of healing and
wholeness. According to John’s gospel, Jesus breathes on them and thus attunes them to
a higher spiritual energy, whose power will flow through them from then on.
And Jesus said to them again, “Peace be with you. As God

sent me, so I send you.” When he had said this, he
breathed on them and said, “Receive the Holy Spirit” (John
20:21-22).
As one of many spiritual practices, rituals, and healing techniques that allow
Jesus’ followers to share the good news, Reiki healing touch uniquely embodies the
breath of life and the warmth of the Spirit. Reiki’s gentle touch passes the Healing Spirit
from person to person, through the limitless grace of God. Through the healing touch of
Reiki, God’s light continues to shine and bring healing to individuals and communities.296
296
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Reiki Methodology and Sessions
Before the actual Reiki session, it is typical for the Reiki practitioner and the
client to sit and talk for a few minutes to make the client feel as comfortable as possible,
to inform the client that strict confidentiality is insured, to find out what is expected from
the treatment, and to give time for any questions or concerns the client may have
concerning the session. Often the client decides on an affirmative statement or a
statement of intent. The latter is not necessary, but it can be very effective. For example,
the client may say he or she feels very stressed and concerned about an approaching
operation. The affirmative statement is a simple statement that cannot hold any negatives
within it. The statement could be, “I am going to heal quickly.” An “intent” statement
gives the client the opportunity to consider the possibility of an inner cause and solution
to the problem, and to address and work with these ideas to enhance the extent to which
Reiki can aid in lessening or healing the problem.
Some practitioners give the client a form to fill out and others do not. If a form is
used, it may have questions that may concern the reason for the visit, if the client is
presently seeing a doctor about a condition (Reiki is a complementary medical
treatment), do they have difficulty lying on their back or stomach, and if there is anything
the practitioner should know before the session begins. The patient’s comfort, both
physically and emotionally, is of prime importance during a session. The patient may
add that she/he is cold or hot natured or that he/she has a cut on a finger. This forewarns
the practitioner to have a blanket ready, or turn down the thermostat, and to be very
careful in the area of the cut finger.
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The Reiki practitioner also explains to the client what the client may experience
during a session, e.g., heat or cold from the practitioners hands, waves of energy going
through the body, the stomach may gurgle, tingling sensations are possible, colored
and/or white lights may be seen, visions may occur, or they may only feel the very light
and gentle touch of the practitioner’s hands. The Reiki healing energy is equally
effective whether or not one experiences different sensations during the session. It is best
and strongly recommended that no expectations are held by the practitioner or the client.
In addition the Reiki practitioner must feel unconditional love and remove all ego for a
session to be effective.
The session itself lasts about one hour under normal conditions. In severe or
extreme cases, the session could last longer. The patient is fully clothed except for taking
off her/his shoes and lies down on a massage table. Sometimes, a couch, chair, or bed is
used. The practitioner asks permission to touch the client during the session, although it
is not necessary to do so. However, the power of touch can be very healing in itself, even
without Reiki. Since the practitioner goes into a meditative state and the eyes are often
closed, a feather-light touching of the client allows the practitioner to know where his/her
hands are so they do not inadvertently “bounce” into the client, which would typically
impede the practitioners meditative state and patient’s relaxed mode or state of
meditation.
The session is very clinical, and the hands are very lightly placed over the seven
main energy areas of the body. The practitioner begins the session with a time of silence,
grounding, and prayer. Bruce Epperly, Reiki Master, recites the following prayer.
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Giver of life, love, and light, let your light shine through
me. Let you healing light rest upon ______. Surround
______ with your love, grace, and protection, that she/he
might experience the fullness of your healing. In Christ’s
name. Amen
Christians who practice Reiki place themselves in the presence of God by aligning
their deepest desires for healing and wholeness with God’s deepest desires for healing
and wholeness for the world. If we listen, in the silence we can each hear God’s gentle
voice of guidance, inspiration, and empowerment. Silence awakens our awareness of the
“inner light,” the Holy Spirit, whose power can energize our spirits and inspire us more
fully to become God’s mediators of healing.
In the hour session, the hands are also placed over joints. The hands exert no
pressure, do not slide, and there is no manipulation. The Reiki practitioner does this in a
methodical manner and checks for areas of dysfunction in the client’s body. When a
dysfunctional area is found, the hands are held over it until the energy vibrations
emanating from the area stops drawing energy indicating it has become balanced. This
energy flow will adjust itself automatically to the needs of the client. If the area under
the hands requires a large amount of energy, the flow will be felt very strongly. If the
requirement is small, the flow will be slight. Every Reiki session is different, and the
only typical result is for the client to be very relaxed.297
297
The following books provided information that is closely interwoven
throughout the discussion of Reiki Methodology and Sessions. Reiki Masters in the
Lineage of Barbara Weber Ray, Reiki Training Program, 1.7; Epperly and Epperly, Reiki
Healing Touch, 88-89; Vennells, Reiki for Beginners, 101-105.
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After the Reiki session, the practitioner and client typically share experiences of
the session if the client wishes to do so. The practitioner will also answer any questions
and give any asked-for explanations. The Reiki practitioner is not a therapist and does
not counsel a client after a session.
Distant Healing with Reiki
Physicians, scientists, and spiritual leaders have discovered that prayer is a non-
local phenomenon. Our prayers radiate across the universe, creating a healing field of
energy around and within those for whom prayers are offered. The healing ministry of
Jesus involved direct touch and words of healing, but it also included his mysterious
power to heal at a distance. While the essence of prayer, for example intercessory prayer,
will always remain unidentified, we believe that our prayers interlace themselves together
with God’s desire for the deepest good for all things in their unique circumstance. When
we pray, it’s not about our changing God’s mind; it is the question of our finally getting
in tune with the music, i.e., desiring to be in accord to God’s desires for the person.
Reiki is a prayer in action, and it is both local and non-local. In the holistic
ecology of life, there is no difference between local and non-local. In touching another
person, we bring wholeness to her or his body, mind, and spirit, and also create a field of
healing energy which radiates beyond her or his specific psychophysical organism.
When we nurture wholeness in one place, we convey wholeness to all places. In distance
Reiki, our focus on the well-being of another person surrounds that person with God’s
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healing light, tenderly altering his or her body, mind, spirit, and relationships.298
Scientific studies are confirming that effects of healing attempts at a distance, for
example, using prayer and distant Reiki, are effective. Over the last forty years, more
than 150 formal, controlled studies of distant healing have been published and more than
two-thirds of them showed significant beneficial effects.299 Although operations of
prayer cannot be totally manipulated or completely understood, it is obvious that we
become God’s partners in healing whenever we surround another person with prayer,
healing images, healing light, or hands-on or distant Reiki. When we pray, it’s not about
our changing God’s mind; it is the question of our getting in rhythm with God and God’s
wishes for the person in this unique situation. We pray for the person’s highest and best
good, whatever that is, and our acceptance of it.
When I participated in a two-week class in another city, a woman I had known
only a week asked me to send Reiki to her closest friend. The woman was having triple
bypass surgery the next day. Doctors were coming to check her at 1 pm before the
surgery for a final assessment of her condition. At 12:45 pm, when we broke for lunch, I
went to my car and sent the woman Reiki. The next day my new friend asked me if I sent
Reiki at 12:45 pm the day before. I responded affirmatively, and asked why. She said at
298
299
Elisabaeth Targ, MD, is director of the Complementary Medicine Research
Institute of California Pacific Medical Center, assistant clinical professor in the
Department of Psychiatry at the University of California, San Francisco, and a fellow of
the Institute of Noetic Sciences. She was the principal investigator of the studies of
distant healing in AIDS described in this article. Elisabeth Targ, 1992. “Distant
Healing,” Noetic Sciences Review, no. 49 (August-November 1999): 24; D.J. Benor,
Healing Touch, Vol.1. Deddington, England: Helix Editions, 1992.
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12:45 pm she was with her friend, and her friend exclaimed that she felt energy come into
her body through her feet and shoot to her heart. When the doctors came in a few
minutes later they determined that she did not need bypass surgery, and they would put in
one stint instead. Reiki is indeed healing prayer, and like prayer can be sent from a
distance and create powerful healing effects.
Applications of Reiki
The Reiki methodology or sessions discussed previously can be administered
anywhere that a quiet atmosphere can be found. Reiki can be administered to people who
are standing, sitting, or lying down. Reiki can also be administered while one’s
consciousness attends to other details. Reiki is extremely beneficial when used in less
typical situations than the home or Reiki office.
Hospitals and Medical Schools
I was sick and you took care of me…as you did it to one
of the least of these who are members of my family, you
did it to me (Matt. 25:36, 40).
People who are in the hospital often feel most alone and vulnerable. Every
medical diagnosis and intervention reminds them of their mortality. Although comfort
and curing are the goals of the medical profession and the hospital, patients are frequently
frightened, anxious, and feel manipulated by the institutional way of life. Reiki healing
touch provides comfort, reassurance, and connection. It augments the patients’ sense of
empowerment by connecting him or her to a larger healing reality and by reminding
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patients that they can be partners in their own healing process. Reiki may reduce the
negative side effects of medical interventions, as well as encourage the overall healing
process. Reiki, the energy of the Holy Spirit, complements and supports whatever
medical procedures are being utilized for the patient’s well-being, not only by balancing
the divine healing energy, but also by visibly witnessing to God’s presence in time of
crisis and need. For some, Reiki is considered a sacrament of divine healing in their life
– a visible indication of their ultimate connectedness with God.300
Reiki is used in hospitals in emergency rooms, with ill patients, in conjunction
with oncology facilities in the hospital, e.g., at M.D. Anderson in Houston, TX301 and at
Memorial Hospital in Chattanooga, TN, in the operating room, after surgery to accelerate
healing, with upset or grieving family members, and is administered to the dying. In all
cases, and especially in the latter case, I have witnessed patients becoming much more
accepting of their situation and reaching a place of peace that was not observed before the
Reiki was given.
Nurses and physicians have witnessed that Reiki helps relieve stress, agitation,
and acute or chronic pain; it is beneficial as an aid for sleeping and also as an energizer.
It promotes the release of emotions, e.g., grief, anger, or anxiety, and provides comfort in
palliative care. By restoring balance to the patient’s energy field, Reiki facilitates the
patient’s mobilizing of biological healing resources for recuperation. Surgeons and nurse
300
Epperly and Epperly, Reiki Healing Touch, 117-118, 126-127.
301
M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, “Energy Therapies: Reiki Therapy, University
Of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer, www.mdanderson.org/departments/cimer/. (Accessed
August 10, 2008).
144
anesthetists discover Reiki to be helpful pre-, intra-, and postoperatively because of the
lessened anxiety of the patient. Reiki also stops bleeding, and it never interferes with
anesthesia.
Pamela Pettinati, M.D., finds Reiki extremely beneficial when she performs
surgery in Third World countries. One day she was ready to perform surgery, except that
the cautery machine had not arrived. She used Reiki to control the bleeding.
Obstetricians and nurses find Reiki eases labor and delivery. Less medication is needed,
labor is shorter, and there are fewer complications. An emergency room physician with
fifteen years experience took a Reiki class and was attuned to become a Reiki
practitioner. She reported she has increased awareness and heightened intuition which
helped to support the decisive action so often needed in the emergency room. In response
to these observations and data, many medical schools and nursing schools teach and/or
require Reiki training of their students.302 It was reported in the Columbus Monthly,
December 2003, that hundreds of medical schools across the country, including The Ohio
State University College of Medicine, have added alternative medicine to their programs
of study (this would include Reiki).
Some of the biggest names in healthcare report that Reiki is proving beneficial in
the recovery of patients. Of “America’s Best Hospitals,” as ranked by “U. S. News and
World Report,” 60% have a hospital based Reiki program in place. A few examples are:
Harvard Medical School affiliate Dana-Farber Institute which has been ranked the best
302
Barnett and Chambers, Reiki Energy Medicine, 51-65.
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cancer hospital in the New England states, and it asserts on its web site that Reiki has
been effective in helping every known illness, including cancer; Duke Integrative
Medicine, NC, which is consistently ranked among the top ten health care organizations
in the country; Columbia University Medical Center’s New York Presbyterian Hospital
which was ranked as the sixth best hospital in the United States in 2007; and Yale
University School of Medicine and Nursing’s New Haven Hospital, CT, which maintains
that practitioners and patients using Reiki therapy at this institute confirm its ability to
promote relaxation, ease pain, and pave the way for healing.
Of the hospitals that do not use Reiki, it was reported that 50% would consider it.
Additionally, Reiki research is being conducted in partnership with the National Institutes
of Health at numerous facilities. A few examples follow: Johns Hopkins, MD; Columbia
Presbyterian Medical Center, NY; Beth Israel Medical Center, NY; Tucson Medical
Center, AZ; University of California Medical Center, CA; Hartford Hospital, CT,
Dartmouth Hitchcock University Hospital, RI; MD Anderson Medical Center, TX;
Stanford Medical Center, CA; University of Colorado Medical School; University of
Pennsylvania Medical School; and Yale School of Nursing.303
One of the beauties of Reiki is that it only requires holding the patient’s hand
while praying for and/or with him/her for the divine energy to flow. The practitioner
303
These two articles are interwoven to provide the information. Bioenergy
Associates, 2009, “Hospitals That Offer Reiki,”
http://www.bioenergyassociates.com/reikihospitals.htm. (accessed February 3, 2009);
Sean Mitchell, “Reiki in Hospitals;” California Reiki, June 8, 2008,
http://www.californiareiki.com/Articles/Article_00232)_Reiki_in_Hospitals_Reiki_Medi
cal_Settings.aspx (accessed February 3, 2009).
146
does not need to think about Reiki for the energy to flow and benefit the patient. When
praying with someone, I have felt our hands become extremely warm to hot as I prayed,
and it was obvious from the increasingly peaceful look in her/his eyes and the expressed
gratitude that something special had happened with him/her. Quite often the patient falls
asleep or enters a near-sleeping state near the end of a session/prayer. For me, the most
beautiful healings are the ones that occur on the mental, emotional, and/or spiritual level.
Of course, physical healings are very special too.
Reiki is being used at various facilities with patients who have cancer, AIDS,
fibromyalgia, prostate cancer, nerve pain diabetes (helps to control blood sugar levels or
improve heart function), ALS, depression, high blood pressure, Multiple Sclerosis, as
well as people who have had strokes, spinal cord injury, and traumatic brain injury. The
Department of Veterans Affairs uses Reiki in their hepatitis C treatment program, and the
Fort Bliss’ Warrior Resilience program uses Reiki as one tool to assist soldiers strengthen
and recover following combat. A complete list of all the beneficial uses of Reiki is too
lengthy to be incorporated in this thesis.
Hospice
Reiki not only address a person’s symptoms, it also directly improves the quality
of life. In the final weeks of life a person can be fraught with boredom, frustration,
loneliness, depression, or fear. Reiki imparts comfort and well-being in addition to deep
relaxation and reduction of pain, even when medicine no longer is effective, without
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sacrificing consciousness. This allows the patient to be more alert to deal with the
emotional issues of closure with loved ones.304
In my own experience with Reiki, one hospice patient was at home and the
morphine would no longer control her pain. I was asked to give her a Reiki session. She
was hooked up to many tubes, and I could not reach many of the typical hand positions,
so I mentally pictured where my hands would typically be placed while I touched her
shoulder or hand. She fell asleep during the session, and I left. There was no reason for
me to hope she would live through the night. Two days later I learned from the hospice
patient herself that after I left, she felt so much better that she was able to get out of bed
and go to the den to spend two hours with her husband and son just chatting. The next
week I was called again and told the morphine was no longer able to lessen the pain, and
I was asked to go to the home and give her Reiki. The day after the Reiki session, her
husband called to tell me that they had been able to take a thirty minute ride together after
the Reiki session to see the Christmas lights in their neighborhood. She died a very
peaceful death surrounded by her family a few days later.
Psychotherapy
It is obvious that the inclusion of Reiki in psychotherapy, when appropriate, can
encourage full resolution of difficult patterns. Sometimes after a breakthrough insight is
achieved in traditional psychotherapy, an emotional residue remains that continues to
control the behavior. Reiki accelerates the process of psychotherapy by eliciting
304
Barnett & Chambers, Reiki Energy Medicine, 72.
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additional insights in reference to the client’s situation as well as by allowing the
emotional residue to release gently from the body’s cells. This results in a sense of well-
being and empowerment.
Jane was a medical social worker at Massachusetts General Hospital, and the
basic principle that guided her Reiki psychotherapy practice is that all healing comes
from within. She believes the client is not fragile. The client’s powerful and whole,
having all the answers within. Reiki supports the accessing of this inner wisdom.305 For
Christians, this inner wisdom, as previously noted, is the Holy Spirit, the life source.
Spiritual Direction
Maureen Conroy, R.S.M., a Roman Catholic Sister of Mercy and Reiki Master,
teaches Reiki bi-annually at the Jesuit Spirituality Center in Grand Coteau, LA. She is
the co-coordinator of the two developmental programs for spiritual directors at the Upper
Room Spirituality Center in New Jersey and at Creighton University, Nebraska, and she
has educated spiritual directors and practiced spiritual direction for many years. When I
assisted her in teaching a level I course in Reiki, she was emphatic concerning the
benefits of holding a forty-five minute Reiki session preceding spiritual direction
sessions. Conroy related that the Reiki session relaxes the client and places them in the
nearness of God which facilitates the spiritual direction session.306
305
Ibid., 76, 79.
306
Maureen Conroy, “Reiki,” speech delivered to Reiki I class, April 4, 2003,
Jesuit Spirituality Center, Grand Coteau, LA.
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A Christian Theological Interpretation of Reiki
As discussed in chapter 1 of this thesis, in the 1970s Rahner referred to the Holy
Spirit as an “energy field.” Subsequently, Welker and Pannenberg used the term “force
field” when alluding to the Holy Spirit, and Moltmann used the term “life force.”
Describing the Holy Spirit as “life force” is in accord with the Old Testament bestowing
the name “source of life” to the Holy Spirit. This “life force,” the Holy Spirit, indwells
all creation, both inorganic and organic, from the beginning of time, and is also known as
the “life giver.”307 This “life force” was the Spirit of Jesus, and through the power of the
Spirit, Jesus worked miracles. The power to heal was passed on by Jesus to his disciples,
and Jesus commanded them to go out and heal (Luke 9:1-2, 6; John 20:21-22). Of the
various charisms given to humans by the Holy Spirit, it would seem that the charism of
healing would be an excellent demonstration of the Holy Spirit’s role as the “source of
life,” or “life giver,” or “life force,” or “energy field” being manifested and at work in the
economy, the world.
We have typically given only Jesus acclaim for his miracles. Robert Hughes
believes that many of the things that Western theology in particular has attributed to
Christ should be attributed to the Spirit, e. g., the healings performed by Jesus.308
McDonnell reminds us that Jesus sent the Spirit to us, and, therefore, the Spirit
appears to be an agent of Christ. From this viewpoint, Christology is the source of
307
Robert D. Hughes, Inner Operating System, Higher Intelligence, and Innate
Inner Wisdom, e-mail message to Ruth M. Allen, January 25, 2009.
308
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Pneumatology, the doctrine of the Holy Spirit. Additionally, parallel to the
pneumatology conditioned by Christology is a Christology conditioned by
pneumatology.309
What is the connection of the above statements to Reiki? Reiki, a Japanese word,
means Universal Life Force, another name for the Holy Spirit. People who have been
attuned into the practice of Reiki transmit “life-force energy” through their hands to their
client. Reiki practitioners are a vehicle for the manifestation and work of the Holy Spirit
on earth. Reiki can cause no harm as it comes from God. Healing occurs at the physical,
mental, emotional, or spiritual level if the person accepts the universal life-force energy.
No belief is required, but openness to a Reiki session is necessary. The amount of energy
offered to a client is dependent on the practitioner’s Reiki level, how often Reiki is
practiced, and the practitioner’s level of spirituality, i.e., their connection to God. The
practitioners are a conduit of the energy and have no personal powers of their own. A
Christian healer is desirous of following the command of Jesus “to go and heal.”
It is recommended that a Reiki practitioner offer a prayer before a session. In
prayer, I ask the Universal Life Force to come through Jesus Christ bringing love, light,
and wisdom. I ask Jesus to be with me and to work directly through me for the healing of
the client. As a Christian I offer myself to Christ and pray to be used as a conduit for
God’s healing love and energy, i.e., the flowing of the “life force,” Holy Spirit, offered to
the client for healing. The client is free to accept or reject this healing energy. Both the
client and the practitioner must accept that God heals as God chooses, and our wishes
309
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may not be God’s wishes. We can only ask, and then accept what God chooses. The
Reiki practitioners’ goal is to align their deepest desires for healing and wholeness with
God’s deepest desires for healing and wholeness.310
For Christians, the connection of Reiki to the healing energy of the Universal Life
Force, the Holy Spirit, is evident. Reiki energy is the energy of the Holy Spirit, the
Universal Life Force. As with Jesus, healing is done through the power of the Holy
Spirit, the “Giver of Life.” Is this correctly called Christian Reiki or is it a situation of a
Christian practicing Reiki?311 I pondered this question a long time, and although I have
said I practice Christian Reiki, I need to revise this belief. My thoughts flowed to the fact
that the Holy Spirit is the Creator and is in all of creation, and human beings have
practiced healing effectively since the beginning of human existence. The Holy Spirit
had been manifested as the “giver of life,” before Jesus Christ was on earth. My thoughts
flowed to my e-mail interview with a Buddhist Reiki Master. She told me that when she
practices Reiki she is guided by “spirit life force energy.” She believes she is a conduit
when this energy is passed from her to a client. Reiki Masters who are Christians also
feel guided by “spirit life force energy,” and they believe they are conduits when the
energy of the Holy Spirit is passed from them to a client. At the basic level of
310
All Around Fitness, “Is Reiki A Religion?”
http://allaroundfitness.com/reiki_h.html (accessed September 7, 2008).
311
These thoughts were inspired during a lecture by The Reverend Doctor
Richard Leggett when he stated “Christian marriage” is a misnomer, and it would be
more correct to say “a Christian getting married.” Leggett was the featured speaker of
the Annual Baynard Jones Lectures at the School of Theology of the University of the
South, Sewanee, Tennessee, on February 4, 2009.
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understanding Reiki is the same regardless of one’s religion or lack of religion. All Reiki
practitioners are conduits for the Universal Life Force energy, and, therefore, I feel it is
incorrect to speak in terms of Christian Reiki, Buddhist Reiki, etc. It would be more
correct to speak of Christians practicing Reiki or Buddhists practicing Reiki, etc.
When one practices Reiki, it is necessary to feel unconditional love for the client
and be mindfully cognizant that one is only a conduit for the healing energy of the Holy
Spirit. No ego can be involved. For myself, when I practice Reiki there ceases to be a
you and a me. We become “one in the Spirit.”
All charisms must be trained and have a means of being expressed. One means of
training and expressing a gift of healing is the practice of Reiki. Reiki practice is a form
of “hands-on-healing.” It is a method of stress reduction and relaxation that promotes
healing at the spiritual, emotional, mental, and/or physical levels. Reiki is a non-invasive
technique of gentle touch that recharges the ki, or chi, or prana, i.e., the human energy
field. Reiki practitioners are conduits for the Universal Life Force energy. For
Christians, the Universal Life Force is the Holy Spirit who was sent to be with us by
Jesus Christ. The Holy Spirit is called the Source of Life; and, therefore, is the source of
healing.
In order to practice Reiki, a person should be trained and must be attuned by a
Reiki Master. Anyone can practice Reiki if these conditions are met. As stated
previously, it can be concluded that at the foundational level of understanding Reiki is
153
basically the same regardless of one’s religion or lack of religion. All Reiki practitioners
are conduits for the Universal Life Force energy, and, therefore, I feel it is incorrect to
speak in terms of Christian Reiki, Buddhist Reiki, etc. It would be more correct to speak
of Christians practicing Reiki, Buddhists practicing Reiki, etc.
The amount of energy offered to a client is dependent on the practitioner’s Reiki
level, how often Reiki is practiced, and the practitioner’s level of spirituality, i.e., her/his
connection to God. Reiki is not a religion. It transcends all religions, cultures, creed, and
nationalities.
The Universal Life Force energy, that Christians call the Holy Spirit, facilitates
the restoration of dysfunctional vibrations to a resonance in closer harmony with the
indwelling Trinity. This produces healthier physical, mental, emotional, and/or spiritual
dimensions of being.
The healings Jesus performed have numerous similarities to the practice of Reiki.
One important similarity is the fact that Jesus could pass on the power to heal to others,
which is comparable to the Reiki attunement process. Jesus gave his twelve disciples
power to drive out all demons and to cure diseases (Luke 9:1-2). Jesus told his disciples,
“I tell you the truth, anyone who has faith in me, can do the same miracles I have done,
and even greater things than these will you do” (John 14:12).
Reiki is used in hospitals, hospice, medical doctors’ offices, and in private Reiki
practice. It is also used in conjunction with psychotherapy sessions and spiritual
direction. For Christians, the Universal Life Force is the Holy Spirit at work in the world
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today. This thesis focuses on Reiki as practiced and interpreted from a Christian point of
view.
I feel extremely blessed to be called to be a Christian who practices Reiki using
Jesus Christ as my model. It is my wish that other Christians who read this thesis will be
inspired to search their soul to discern if they too have a call to the healing ministry.
The following prayer, attributed to St. Theresa of Avila, a Spanish saint and
mystic of the 16th century, concludes this thesis.
You are Christ’s hands.

Christ has no body now on earth but yours,
no hands but yours, no feet but yours.
Yours are the eyes through which Christ’s
compassion is to look upon the world.
Yours are the feet with which God is to go about
doing good.
Yours are the hands through which God is to
bless women and men now.312
312
Helen Haberly, Reiki: Hawayo Takata’s Story (Garrett Park, MD: Archedigm,
1990), 12; cited in Epperly and Epperly, Reiki Healing Touch, 97.
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APPENDIX 1
Healing Services: Three Representative Examples
Episcopal Church
In the Episcopal Church there is a form to follow for a Public Service of Healing
in The Book of Occasional Services. Various Episcopal churches hold this service either
weekly, bimonthly, or once a month.
The service begins as appointed for a celebration of the Holy Eucharist, or it may
begin with the Penitential Order, or with the following greeting,
Celebrant: “Grace and peace be with you, from God our Father and the Lord Jesus
Christ.”
This greeting is subsequently followed by a Collect, and then one or two Lessons
are read before the Gospel. Before the Gospel and between the lessons, a Psalm, hymn,
or anthem may be sung or said.
If the Proper of the Day is not used, the Lessons, Psalm, and Gospel are selected
from the Table in this book on page 171-173.
A sermon or mediation, or a period of silence, or both may follow the Gospel.
The service continues with the Creed, or with the Prayers of the People.
For the Prayers of the People, a Litany of Healing is found on page 167 of this
book. The Litany of Healing begins with the People audibly naming those for whom they
are interceding. This is followed by an appointed person reading the Litany as seen on
page 167.
156
The Celebrant concludes the Prayers with one of three listed Collects or
another appropriate Collect. For example:
Celebrant: Almighty God, giver of life and health: Send your blessing on all who are
sick, and upon those who minister to them, that all weakness may be
vanquished by the triumph of the risen Christ; who lives and reigns forever
and ever.
All: Amen.
A confession of sin follows unless it has been said at the beginning of the service.
The Celebrant now invites those who wish to receive the laying on of hands (and
anointing) to come forward. If oil for the anointing of the sick is to be blessed, the form
on page 455 of the Book of Common Prayer is used.
The anthem is sung or said.
Celebrant: Savior of the world, by your cross and precious blood you have
redeemed us;
All: Save us, and help us, we humbly beseech you, O Lord.
A blessing is then said over all who have come forward. Subsequently the
Celebrant lays hands on each person (and, having dipped a thumb in the oil of the sick,
makes the sign of the cross on their foreheads), and says one of the following.
Celebrant: N., I lay my hands upon you (and anoint you with oil) in the Name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy spirit, beseeching our Lord Jesus
Christ to sustain you with his presence, to drive away all sickness of body
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and spirit, and to give you that victory of life and peace which will enable
you to serve him both now and evermore.
All: Amen.
Or this
Celebrant: N., I lay my hands upon you (and anoint you with oil) in the Name of our
Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, beseeching him to uphold you and fill you with
grace, that you may know the healing power of his love.
All: Amen.
Or this
Celebrant: N., I lay my hands upon you (and anoint you with oil) in the Name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.
All: Amen.
Alternatively prayer may be offered for each person individually according to that
person’s need, with laying on of hands (and anointing). Lay persons with a gift of
healing may join the celebrant in the laying on of hands.
The service continues with the exchange of the Peace. If there is not
to be a Communion, the service concludes with the Lord’s Prayer and the
prayer and blessing given below. If the Eucharist is to be celebrated, the
Liturgy continues with the Offertory. In place of the usual postcommunion
prayer (or, if there has not been a Communion, after the Lord’s Prayer,) the
following prayer is said:
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Priest: Almighty and eternal God, so draw our hearts to you, so guide our minds, so fill
our imaginations, so control our wills, that we may be wholly yours, utterly
dedicated to you; and then use us, we pray, as you will, and always to your glory
and the welfare of your people; through our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.
All: Amen.
The Celebrant pronounces this blessing:
Priest: May God the Father bless you, God the Son heal you, God the Holy Spirit give
you strength. May God the holy and undivided Trinity guard your body, save
your soul, and bring you safely to his heavenly country; where he lives and
reigns forever and ever.
All: Amen.
Deacon or Celebrant: Dismissal of the people.313
A similar service titled “Ministrations to the Sick” is found in the Book of
Common Prayer. The detailed service is on pages 453-457.314
A Reiki Healing Service for Application in any Christian Church
This service involves the use of Reiki, a method used in the “laying on of hands.”
Reiki will be discussed in detail in chapter 3. The service begins with a meditation that
313
The Episcopal Church, The Book of Occasional Services: Conforming to
General Convention 2003 (New York: Church Publishing, 2003), 166-73.
314
The Episcopal Church, The Book of Common Prayer: and Administration of
the Sacraments, and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church (New York: The Church
Hymnal Corporation, 1979), 453-57.
159
emphasizes healing thoughts. Subsequently introductory remarks include guidelines for
congregants who desire to receive healing. Comments and suggestions are requested that
may be placed in a basket in the rear of the church along with any offerings one may wish
to make.
Chairs are arranged in front of the church or room with one chair for every two
healers. Music is played as the healers move to the front to stand beside their chairs. The
music is continued as those who request healing are guided by ushers to an available
chair. The person is quietly asked by the healers to state any particular request. Healers
place hands on each person until the healer and participant feel the healing is complete.
The maximum time is 5-7 minutes. The person is then requested to return to her/his seat,
and subsequently the ushers escort another person to the chair. This process continues
until all who request healing have received it. Now the healers do Reiki for one another.
Now all participants and healers and anyone in the congregation join in a circle holding
hands and give thanks to God for healing and then send healing to others in need and to
the world. A hymn is sung by all to conclude the service.315
In 2003, I organized similar services, arranged in conjunction with a Reiki
presentation, which were held in an Episcopal Church in Mandeville, Louisiana, and
others as part of Episcopal retreats in southern Louisiana. Initially I gave a presentation
315
Marvin Witbeck has participated in organizing several healing services in two
different churches with enthusiastic results followed by requests for more services and
people asking to learn more about Reiki. In his article his gives detailed steps taken in
order to organize the service described. Marvin Witbeck, “Creating a Healing Service in
Your Church,” Reiki for Christians, www.christianreiki.org/ (accessed 1/10/09).
160
to the group concerning my personal experiences with Reiki, the origin of Reiki and its
methodology, and discussed scripture involving healing and Jesus sending out his
disciples to heal as he did. Subsequently members of the group who had experienced
Reiki told their story, if they desired to do so, concerning their Reiki session(s)
experience and what how it had affected their lives. Many present had no former
acquaintance with Reiki. Any participant who wanted to experience a Reiki session was
invited into the church where chairs had been set up near the altar for an abbreviated
Reiki session. Each session took about 15 minutes, but I did not time a session since
different people require various amounts of time.
After the presentation and service, as with Marvin Witbeck, there were requests
for more healing services, and several people asked for training to become a Reiki
practitioner.
A Service of Healing and Blessing for any Application in any Christian Church
This service was initially written for the celebration of the initiation of 30
Christians who practiced Reiki. It can be modified for any healing context. There are
many approaches to worship, healing, or wholeness. Despite cultural, liturgical, and
theological expression, when healing occurs, God is its source and inspiration.316
316
Epperly and Epperly, Reiki Healing Touch, 108.
161
THE CALL TO AWARENESS
Touched by Water
Silent Opening to the Wholeness
Remembering Our Original Wholeness
Remembrance of Our First Touch
One: It is most unfortunate that none of us can consciously remember our
first moment…that time, when, through the touch of God’s love,
we individually came to be.
How instantaneous that moment…like water…running
between our fingers…fluid, fleeting, hard to grasp, impossible to
articulate, but in our own unique moment of creation, we each
personally experienced God’s first touch…replete with original
wholeness and love, and repeatedly echoed by all other touch
found in nurture and care throughout our lives. And so, we bathe
our hands this morning…not because we must – but because we
may…not because we need to in any way, but because we want to,
because we want to remember something beyond words, back in a
moment before we even had words, back to our very first gift, the
first touch of God…
Words of Prayer upon the Water
All: In the openness of our outstretched hands, there is always
162
vulnerability. In our responsive care extended to others, there is
always acceptance. In the gentle strength of your healing touch,
you will always reveal your love.
The Sacrament of Healing Touch: Consecrating Our Hands to God’s
Healing
Basin and towel are carried from participant to participant. Each person’s
hands are carefully bathed, and then dried.
THE CALL TO OPENNESS
Touched by God’s Word
The Scripture
John 10:10
Silent Reflection
Shared Reflection
Blessing our silence and words (giving thanks for the insights we have
found individually and as a group).
THE CALL TO GRACE
Touched by God through the Laying on of Hands & Anointing with Oil
The Scriptures
Psalm 133
Matthew 6:25-34
163
Prayers over the Oil
Anointing with oil
The laying on of hands
Prayers of the People; Petitions and Intercessions
THE CALL TO LOVE ONE ANOTHER
Touched by Communion
Invitation: Vine and branches (John 15: 1, 4-7)
Eucharistic Prayer317
Pastor: God be with you.
People: In wonder and awe, we claim God’s love and are made whole.
Pastor: Let us open our hearts to God.
People: In wonder and awe, we claim God’s love and are made whole.
Pastor: Let us give thanks to God.
People: For Holy Love is infinite and everlasting.
Pastor: We give you thanks, O God of infinite love and creativity, for
your constant presence in all things. You are the heart of all
creation, and in holy love we joyfully live, move, and have our
being. Your beauty and wisdom bring forth universe after
universe: both those worlds within us, and the multitude of
317
The consecration prayer that follows is from the original document. The
discipline of some denominations may require substitution of one of their own prayers at
this point in the service. Epperly and Epperly, Reiki Healing Touch, 110-00.
164
worlds infinitely beyond ourselves. Your artistry brings forth the
earth and colors all living things. All creation breathes your
spirit. All creatures embody your love. Your holy adventure is
heard in the cries of babes. It inspires the voices of prophets. It
whispers in the mundane words of women and men of every
tradition and place. In original wholeness, your beauty is
constantly revealed as our deepest identity. As your beloved
children, our most basic essence is holy love. We give you thanks,
for the wisdom incarnate in Jesus of Nazareth, the healer and
lover, our faithful friend for the heart’s journey to you. In
Christ, we celebrate your gift of open vision and gentle power
that reclaims the wholeness that is your intention for all things.
In Christ, all wounds are healed, all sin forgiven, all alienation
reconciled. In Christ, all suffering is cherished and transformed.
Let your Spirit, O Loving Companion, break forth in our voice,
as we and all creation give voice to the signs too deep for words.
All: Holy, holy, holy Love. Everything resonates with your touch. With
joy, we embrace your care that creates and responds. All things
proclaim your love. We join with you to celebrate healing and
goodness. In Christ, your tender strength is revealed. You have
brought love to life, and life to love.
165
Pastor: We remember your infinite love for all creation, revealed in
Christ’s love for us. In the midst of suffering, love is victorious.
In the midst of death, new life springs forth. In Christ’s suffering
and earth, in the body and blood, the bread and wine, our
suffering is transformed and our wounds are healed. In sharing
Christ’s bread and wine, all meals and all touch are made holy.
As our bodies and relationships are made whole, your loving
promise is fulfilled.
All: Let your Spirit transform our lives as we share in the bread and the
wine. May the bread and wine reveal to us your healing love so that
we might become co-creators in your holy adventure. Enable your
love to heal in word and touch, in silence and in prayer.
Pastor: These are the gifts of God, given to God’s people. Our sharing in
them unites us and all others with God in the adventure of
healing and wholeness.
Sharing the Bread and the Cup
THE CALL TO PARTNERSHIP
Touched by Presence
The Invitation
One: God is the circle whose center is everywhere and whose
circumference is nowhere. We are always in the divine circle; we are
166
always home; we are always loved, and our light and love radiates
across the Universe.
Forming the Healing Circle
One: As a sign of the healing circle that encompasses all things, let us be a
circle of love and healing, let us open ourselves to the flow of God’s
healing light, sharing healing with one another through the touch of
hands and tender words of prayer. (A time of embracing in light, love,
and peace.)
Sending Forth in the Circle of Love
One: Let us go forth always in the circle of love. Go in peace. Go in light.
Go in health. Amen.318
Although the first healing service is officially the one used in the
Episcopal Church, it, as well as the other two healing services, can be adapted
to use in any Christian church. One does not need to be seriously ill to greatly
benefit from the “laying on of hands” and to feel the closeness and comfort of
God as one is prayed for individually.
318
167
APPENDIX 2
Frequently Asked Questions
How Do We Know that Healing is Appropriate for Christians to Do?
Paul tells us in I Corinthians 14:1 enthusiastically to desire spiritual gifts. Healing
is one of the gifts (I Cor. 12:28). According to Paul, gifts are best expressed with love.
Unconditional love for a client is a requirement for a Reiki practitioner during a session.
In addition, Jesus is quoted in John 14:12 as stating, “I tell you the truth, anyone who has
faith in me will do what I have been doing. He will do even greater things than these,
because I go to the Father.” The Bible declares that Jesus practiced laying on of hands
type healing; therefore, there is a scriptural basis for Christians to practice healing by
laying on of hands.
What is the Best Way for a Christian to Practice Reiki?
Reiki provides training and gives one a way for utilizing God’s power. When
giving Reiki treatments, Christians who practice Reiki are told to call on God, Jesus
Christ, and the Holy Spirit to work directly though them and do the healing for them.
This is accomplished through prayer before Reiki sessions and attunements.
168
How Do We Know that Reiki Comes from God? I’ve Heard Some People Say Reiki
Comes from Satan. How Can I Know the Truth?
Typically our understanding and knowledge of Satan comes from the Bible.
Nowhere in the Bible can one find an occurrence of Satan healing someone. Satan is
depicted tempting people to sin, but Satan does not heal people. In Luke 6:44, Jesus says,
“Each tree is recognized by its own fruit.” This can be interpreted to mean that if
something is beneficial and helps people, and those results are long-lasting, such as the
healing people receive from Reiki, then it must be good and come from God.
Is Reiki a Religion?
Reiki is not a religion. It is used with the same success by people of many faiths
and religions, by free thinkers as well as by the followers of widely varying philosophies
and ideologies. Reiki is not dependent on belief and will work if one believes in it or not.
Reiki is spiritual in nature and has no dogma and no special related faith or belief is
required to learn to practice Reiki.319
Another article emphasizes that Reiki is not a religion or a system of belief. Reiki
is frequently called “spiritual healing,” because it is not guided by the practitioner. The
vibrating and pulsating energy of Reiki has its own innate wisdom to go where it is
needed and do what is necessary to achieve stabilization and healing. In addition, this
319
All Around Fitness, “Is Reiki a Religion?” http://allaround-
fitness.com/reiki_h.html. (accessed September 7, 2008).
169
article reemphasizes that Reiki is not “faith healing,” because belief is not necessary for
Reiki to be effective.320
Reiki is a simple healing technique, and it does not require one to give up one’s
religion or change one’s religious beliefs in any way to practice it. Most Christians who
practice Reiki remark that Reiki brings them into a closer relationship with God, to
Christ, and to the Holy Spirit. They also state that because it is a method of healing, it
assists them in fulfilling their Christian calling to help others. Reiki itself is religiously
neutral.
What is the Purpose of the Symbols Used in Reiki?
Symbols are part of Christianity, for example, the fish and the cross are Christian
symbols. Members of some religions, e.g. Roman Catholics and Episcopalians, make the
sign of the cross over their chests for protection and to become empowered with Christ.
Reiki symbols are used to connect with different kinds of Reiki energy and since Reiki
healing energies all come from God, the symbols are a way to connect with God. It is not
necessary to use symbols with Reiki; in Level I Reiki there are no symbols.
320
Spread Reiki, “Begin Within Reiki,”
http://www.spreadreiki.com/?page_id=33/ (accessed September 7, 2008).
170
I’ve Heard of Reiki Practitioners Speaking of Reiki Guides. What Is This About?
I’ve heard That Christians Should Avoid Contacting Spirits.
Reiki guides are not a part of the original Reiki teaching. This idea was added by
Western practitioners. It is not necessary to contact a spirit guide to use Reiki, because
Reiki energy comes directly from God. Christians may opt to use a similar concept when
practicing Reiki. In the Bible we read that Jesus, Mary, and other biblical figures
received assistance from spiritual beings in the form of angels. Angels are spiritual
beings that God has created to serve as his messengers, and some Reiki practitioners may
make use of their help. The angels of God are capable of facilitating healing and
providing guidance. You can also call on God directly especially Jesus Christ and the
Holy Spirit, to be with you and to provide healing energy directly.
Sister Maureen Conroy, R. S. M., a Reiki Master who teachings will be discussed
later, informs her students that Reiki Guides refer to the Communion of Saints. She
attests, and so do I, that “spiritual beings” are present and guide and protect Reiki
practitioners during sessions.321
How Does Reiki Heal?
Reiki heals by its energy opening the subtle energy channels of the body by
removing energy blockages in order for the natural healing capabilities of the body to be
321
Sister Maureen Conroy, R. S. M., D. Min., is a national renowned spiritual
director, author of numerous books, retreat master, and works in adult education.
Maureen Conroy, “Reiki,” speech delivered to Reiki I class, April 4, 2003, Jesuit
Spirituality Center, Grand Coteau, LA.
171
allowed to work without restraint. Reiki can often bring new awareness on the emotional
and spiritual levels that allows the receiver to leave life–limiting pain and beliefs
behind.322
As stated previously, the reason we are alive is that life force energy is flowing
through us. Life force energy flows within the physical body and it flows around us in a
field of energy called the aura. It nourishes the organs and cells of the body, sustaining
them in their essential functions. When the flow of life force energy is disrupted, blocked
or slowed down, it causes diminished function in one or more of the organs and tissues of
the physical body.
What are some of the causes of the slowing down or blockages of the flow of this
life force? Life force is responsive to thoughts and feelings, and it becomes disrupted
when we accept, either consciously or unconsciously, negative thought or feelings about
ourselves. These negative thoughts and feelings attach themselves to the energy field and
produce a disruption in the flow of life force energy, which subsequently results in the
diminishing of the vital function of the organs and the cells of the physical body.
Reiki results in healing by flowing through the affected parts of the energy field
and charging them with positive energy. Reiki energy raises the vibratory level of the
energy field to its normal and healthy rate in and around the physical body where the
negative thoughts and feelings are attached. This results in the negative or dysfunctional
322
Spread Reiki, “Begin Within Reiki,”
http://www.spreadreiki.com/?page_id=33/ (accessed September 7, 2008).
172
energy breaking up. Reiki clears, straightens, and heals the energy pathways which allow
the life force to flow in a healthy and natural manner.323
Is Reiki a Buddhist Practice?
Although Mikao Usui, who rediscovered the method of healing we call Reiki, was
a Buddhist, he had respect for all religions, including Christianity, which he had studied.
At one time he lived with a Christian family and had Christian friends. It was not his
wish that Reiki be a religious practice, but that it be a simple healing technique that
anyone could use. Due to his desires, there are no Buddhist practices in Reiki. Reiki is
religiously neutral, for Reiki energy comes from God, which is understood to be the one
or Universal God, also known as Universal Life Force Energy.324
Can Reiki Energy Ever Cause Harm?
Since Reiki energy is guided by the God consciousness and is the Universal Life
Force energy of the Holy Spirit, Reiki energy by its nature can never cause harm. The
divine energy always knows what a person needs and will adjust itself to create the effect
323
All Around Fitness, “Is Reiki a Religion?” http://allaround-
fitness.com/reiki_h.html. (accessed September 7, 2008).
324
Christian Reiki, “Reiki for Christians,” http://www.christianreiki.org (accessed
January 19, 2009).
173
that is best for them.325 Reiki is a complementary medicine and, therefore, is practiced in
conjunction with conventional medical practice.
Do All Healers Use Reiki?
Although all healers use life force or Ki, they do not all use Reiki. Reiki is a
unique way of expressing life force that can only be channeled by someone who has been
attuned to it. There is a possibility that some people are born with Reiki or have received
it in some other way. However, most healers who have not received the Reiki attunement
from a Reiki Master do not have as intense of a life force energy emanating from their
hands as a Reiki practitioner. People who were already doing healing work using some
other method consistently report an increase of at least fifty percent in the strength of
their healing energies after receiving the Reiki training and had experienced an
attunement. They stated that the Reiki energies were more powerful and of a much
higher frequency. These people who had previously practiced another method of healing
also stated that Reiki did not need to be guided like the other healing energies they were
using, and that the Reiki energies began flowing without having to enter an altered
state.326
325
Reiki, “How Does Reiki Work?” The International Center For Reiki Training,
1991, http://reiki.org/FAQ/HowDoesReikiWork.html. (accessed July 24, 2005).
326
Ibid.
174
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Pneumatology: The Spirit of Reiki

Ruth Mayeux Allen

Submitted to the Faculty of the

Ruth Mayeux Allen

Submitted to the Faculty of the

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... vii

ONE THE HOLY SPIRIT: WHO DO WE SAY YOU ARE?

TWO THE GIFTS OF THE HOLY SPIRIT

THREE REIKI: ONE MEANS OF EXPRESSING AND TRAINING

APPENDIX 1 HEALING SERVICES: THREE REPRESENTATIVE

Episcopal Church ............................................................................... 156

APPENDIX 2 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

How Do We Know That Healing is Appropriate for a

WORKS CITED.................................................................................................. 175

theology, specifically pneumatology, and Reiki, an Eastern approach to “hands-on-

my questions or quandaries made it possible for me to continue writing without any

You have been a true gift in my life.

The second person I wish to acknowledge is my husband, Gary. Gary has

consistently supported me during my time in seminary and especially in the writing of my

my husband and best friend.

phone concerning a short answer to a question. It is difficult to express adequately my

wind beneath my wings when I needed information, directions, and guidance.

PNEUMATOLOGY: THE SPIRIT OF REIKI

Reiki is a complementary medicine, a form of “hands on healing,” used in

Unlike glossolalia or prophecy, the gift of healing is mentioned by Paul as a fact

The Holy Spirit: Who Do We Say You Are?

Augustine’s depersonalized approach to the Spirit in his doctrine of the Trinity.

never to the Spirit’s own self.

understand the need to engage more fully in a discussion of pneumatology.4 Presently

Biblical Views of the Spirit

the material, animal, and personal worlds as illustrated below.

with God’s Spirit.

where water symbolizes the Spirit (4:10; 7:38-39).

The Spirit in the Old Testament

God.10 In the Old Testament pneumatology, ruach is present in animals as well as

6:3).11 Whenever ruach is connected with an outpouring, it is inevitably eschatological

identified with the Word/Logos or the Spirit (Prov. 8:22-31).16

The Spirit in the New Testament

into the new Adam at the Resurrection.18

In the Synoptic Gospels, we learn that Jesus’ success as an exorcist was

mission at Pentecost.21 In general, Jesus’ ministry was born of the Spirit.22 It is

facilitating successful testimony and teaching (5:32; 6:10; 18:25).24

According to Basil of Caesarea, everything that occurred since the Lord’s

Holy Spirit was present in every action Jesus Christ performed.25

Pauline Letters Concerning the Spirit

Paul expands our understanding of the Holy Spirit. According to Veli-Matti

In addition to Paul’s teaching concerning the soteriological facet of the Holy

extensively concerning the correct use of the charismata.32

Charisms are very important according to Paul. He believes they participate in a

Spirit (1 Thess. 5:19-20).33

Paul’s theology of the Spirit is summarized by Gordon Fee as follows:

understanding of the gospel.

2. Equally crucial to the Pauline perspective is the dynamically experienced nature

presence to dwell in and among God’s people.

4. Trinitarian presuppositions are absolutely fundamental to the Pauline theology of

5. Paul’s Trinitarian pneumatology is foundational to the heart of this theological

enterprise, namely, salvation in Christ.

the dead (Rom. 8:4).35

the crucified Christ.36 Pre-twentieth-century commentators on this verse have typically