Diffraction : the spreading of wave energy around the corners of an obstacle or

through an aperture/slit, if the size of the obstacle/slit is similar the wavelength of the
wave.

Light as a wave:
Diffraction Youngs double slit experiment can only happen through superposition of
waves. Constructive and destrctive interference gives a pattern of nodes and
antinodes. Polarisation by electromagnetic waves can only be explained by wave
theory
Light as a particle:
Photoelectric effect can only be explained considering light is a stream of particles
which are called photons. Einstein: light exists as quantized packets of energy.
Energy of a photon: E=hf *h=planks constant 6.63x10-34Js.

eV = 1.6 × 10-19
1 J = 1/(1.6 × 10-19) eV = 6.25 × 1018 eV
Wave speed = fλ

Electrons as waves:
If electrons are made to travel at very high speeds they can pass through gaps and
produce diffraction pattern. Interact with a double slit apparatus to produce the
same pattern.
Electrons as particles:
Ionisation. The fact that electrons hold a fixed amound of charge and mass
indicated localised particles.
Photoelectric effect: when light shines on a metal electrons can be ejected from
the surfaces of the metal in a phenomenon known as photoelectric effect. This
is also known as photoemission and the electrons that are ejected from the
metal are called photoelectrons.
Photon Energy = work function + kinetic energy of electron
hf = φ + 1/2mv2
Photoelectric emission (in detail)
• In order to explain the photoelectric effect, 19th-century physicists theorised
that the incoming
light wave was heating the electrons and causing them to vibrate, eventually
freeing them from the metal surface.
-> This hypothesis was based on the assumption that light traveled purely as
a wave through space.
-> Scientists also believed that the energy of the light wave was proportional
to its brightness, which is related to the wave's amplitude. In order to test
their hypotheses, they performed experiments to look at the effect of light
amplitude and frequency on the rate of electron ejection, as well as the
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.
• Based on the classical description of light as a wave, they made the
following predictions: -> The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons should
increase with the light amplitude.
-> The rate of electron emission, which is proportional to the measured
electric current, should increase as the light frequency is increased.

Frequency matters
• We can think of the incident light as a stream of photons with an energy
determined by the light frequency. When a photon hits the metal surface, the
photon's energy is absorbed by an electron in the metal.
The graphic below illustrates the relationship between light frequency and
the kinetic energy of ejected electrons.
• We can analyze the frequency relationship using the law of conservation of energy.
• The total energy of the incoming photon, 𝐸 must be equal to the kinetic energy of 𝑝h𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
the ejected electron, 𝐾𝐸 plus the energy required to eject the electron from the
metal.
• The energy required to free the electron from a particular metal is also called the metal's
work function, which is represented by the symbol 𝜑:
𝐸 =𝐾𝐸 +𝜑 𝑝h𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
• Like the threshold frequency 𝑓 , the value of 𝜑 changes depending on the metal. We can
0
now write the energy of the photon in terms of the light frequency using Planck's equation:
𝐸 = h𝑓 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝜑 𝑝h𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
• Rearranging this equation in terms of the electron's kinetic energy, we get:
𝐾𝐸 = h𝑓 − 𝜑 = 1 𝑚𝑣2

Based on the wave/classical model of light, physicists predicted that increasing

brightness/intensity would increase the kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons, while
increasing the frequency would increase measured current.
• Wave theory also predicts that any frequency can result in emission of photoelectrons as
energy builds up and thus photoelectrons can be emitted at any time.
• Experiments showed that increasing the light frequency increased the kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons, and increasing the brightness increased the current. They also
showed that photoelectrons are emitted instantaneously.
• Based on these findings, Einstein proposed that light behaved like a stream of photons
with an energy of E = h𝑓.
• When a photon encounters an electron (1 photon to 1 electron) it transfers all its energy to
the electron (the
photon is ceases to exist).
• The work function, 𝜑, is the minimum amount of energy required to induce
photoemission of electrons from a specific metal surface.
• The energy of the incident photon must be equal to the sum of the work function and the
kinetic energy of a photoelectron: 𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝜑
𝑝h𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
• Brighter illumination (greater brightness/light amplitude) means more photons/s =>
greater number of emitted photoelectrons/s.
If h𝑓 < 𝜑 no photoelectrons; energy just transferred to the metal as a whole.
 Frequency matters
• The scientists observed that if the incident light had a
frequency less than a minimum frequency 𝑓 , then
0 • This minimum frequency is also called the threshold

datien frequency, and the value of 𝑓 depends on the

no electrons were ejected regardless of the light
amplitude. metal.
• For frequencies greater than 𝑓 , electrons would be
ejected from the metal.
• Furthermore, the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
was proportional to the light frequency.
(H2)
lightfrequency u
The relationship between photoelectron kinetic energy
and light frequency is shown in graph
&

Wave amplitude/brightness
a) • In terms of photons, higher brightness/amplitude light means more
photons hitting the metal surface.
• This results in more electrons ejected over a given time period.
• As long as the light frequency is greater than 𝑓 , increasing the light
amplitude will cause the
electe B
electron current to increase proportionally as shown in graph (a).

if
Since increasing the light amplitude has no effect on the energy of
(A)
the incoming photon, the photoelectron kinetic energy remains

*
constant as the light amplitude is increased ⑳
Because the light amplitude was kept constant as the light frequency
increased, the number of photons being absorbed by the metal
remained constant.
• Thus, the rate at which electrons were ejected from the metal (or
lightevergency the electric current) remained constant as well.
The relationship between electron current and light frequency is
illustrated in graph

b)

decet

lightamplitude
The periodic structure of a crystalline solid acts as a diffraction grating, scattering the
electrons in a predictable manner. Working back from the observed diffraction
pattern, it may be possible to deduce the structure of the crystal producing the
diffraction pattern.
So, we can make use of the wave–particle duality of electrons to study matter!

The de Broglie wavelength is the wavelength, λ, associated with a particle and is

related to its
momentum, p, through the Planck constant, h:
𝜆=h= h 𝑝 𝑚∙𝑣 Wavelength (m)
Constanttoe
be
=

Electron microscopy
• The main advantage of the electron microscopy when compared to other imaging
techniques is that the wavelength of the electron beam can be controlled by altering
the voltage applied to accelerate the electrons!
• Remember: 𝜆 = h = h and h and m are constants, however v is controllable. 𝑝 𝑚∙𝑣
• In some instances this means that the wavelength of a beam of electrons can be
10−10𝑚 (size of the atoms).
• Approximately, the minimum-sized object that can be imaged by any wave is about
the same size as the wavelength.
• Visible light has a wavelength which in on the order of 10−7𝑚 so compared to
electron beams it has a much lower resolution as the wavelength of an electron
beam can be up to 105 times shorter
than that of visible light photons.
𝐸photon =h𝑓=ΔΕ=Ε2-E1

The simplest atom we can use as an example to understand atomic physics is

Hydrogen (1 proton, 1 electron).
• Under normal circumstances, an e- in H will be in its ground state i.e. the lowest
energy level with a quantum number (level) of 𝑛 = 1.
• The e- can move up energy level (get excited) if it takes in some energy. This
process is called excitation.
• Electrons can become excited either when the atom collides with another particle
or when it is heated up or when it absorbs a photon.
In order for photons to be absorbed by electrons, they need to have an energy
which matches exactly the difference in energy between the energy level the
electron is (e.g. n=1) and the energy level it will jump to (e.g. n=2).
So, for a H atom, only a photon which has exactly 1.635 × 10−18J energy is possible to
be absorbed by an electron residing in the ground level (n=1) and lift it up to the first
excited state (n=2).
• Ifthephotonisabsorbed,itceasestoexist.
• An incident photon with energy that is not exactly equivalent to a jump between
the current state of the electron and one of the higher levels will not interact at all
with it.
• If a cloud of gas atoms is illuminated by a range of frequencies (e.g. white light),
then those with the correct frequency values will be absorbed.
This will result in some colours missing from the light after it passes through the
gas.
De-excitation
• An electron which is at an excited state, after some time will de-excite (return
back to its original state).
• The electron can either drop straight down to its original state or first drop to an
intermediate level (if there is one).
Due to conservation of energy, the energy of the emitted photon is exactly equal to
the difference between the energy levels.

Ionisation
• When an electron absorbs enough energy then it can leave the atom – the atom will
become an ion.
• The energy required to ionise an atom is equal to the energy required to get an
electron from its “𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑡 ∞” energy state to the 𝑛 = ∞ state.
e.g. for a Hydrogen atom, to get an electron from 𝑛 = 1 to 𝑛 = ∞, the photon needs to
possess an energy equal to:
ΔΕ=Ε∞ −Ε1
 Emission/absorption spectra
• The E/M radiation emitted by neon atoms lies in the visible light spectrum.
• The emission and absorption spectra of neon are shown below.
• For every atom (or molecule), the emission and absorption spectra are different
as every atom has different energy levels.
• Emission/absorption spectra can be used as fingerprints to understand what kind
of elements you have in a specific container.

Line/emission spectra
• The line spectrum shows the different colours (wavelengths/frequencies)
emitted by atoms after their electrons return to lower energy states.
• The emission line spectrum basically consists of coloured lines.

Absorption spectra
• An absorption line spectrum consists of a spectrum from which certain lines (colours)
– the ones absorbed by the atoms – are missing.
The wavelengths that an atom absorbs are the same as the ones it emits.
Intensity of radiation
Intensity of radiation: the amount of energy it carries, per unit area and per unit time.
Since power is the rate of transfer of energy:= TowerIe