An introduction to electronics

Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Branches of electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Electronic devices and components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 History of electronic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Types of circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.5 Heat dissipation and thermal management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.6 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.7 Electronics theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.8 Electronics lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.9 Computer aided design (CAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.10 Construction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.13 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Volt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Hydraulic analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.5 Measuring instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.6 Typical voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.7 Galvani potential vs. electrochemical potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Electric current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3 Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.4 Alternating and direct current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

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1.3.5 Occurrences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.6 Current measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.7 Resistive heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.8 Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.9 Conduction mechanisms in various media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.10 Current density and Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.11 Drift speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.3 Period versus frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.4 Related types of frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.5 In wave propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.6 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.9 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5 Direct current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5.2 Various definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.3 Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6 Alternating current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.1 Transmission, distribution, and domestic power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.2 AC power supply frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6.3 Effects at high frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6.4 Mathematics of AC voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.6.5 Information transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6.6 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.6.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2 Electrical components 31
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2.1 Active and passive components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.1.1 Thermodynamic passivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1.2 Incremental passivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1.3 Other definitions of passivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.5 Passive filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2 Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.1 Electronic symbols and notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.2 Theory of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.3 Nonideal properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.4 Fixed resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.5 Variable resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.6 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.7 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.8 Resistor marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.9 Electrical and thermal noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.10 Failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.2 Theory of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3.3 Non-ideal behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3.4 Capacitor types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3.5 Capacitor markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.3.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.3.7 Hazards and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.10 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.4 Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.4.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.4.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.4.3 Inductor construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4.4 Types of inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4.5 Circuit theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
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2.4.6 Q factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.4.7 Inductance formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.4.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.4.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.4.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.4.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.5 Electrical impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.1 Complex impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.2 Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.3 Complex voltage and current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.5.4 Device examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.5.5 Generalised s-plane impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.5.6 Resistance vs reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.5.7 Combining impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.5.8 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.5.9 Variable impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.5.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.5.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.5.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.6 Voltage source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.6.1 Ideal voltage sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.6.2 Comparison between voltage and current sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.6.3 References and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.6.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.7 Current source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.7.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.7.2 Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.7.3 Current and voltage source comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.7.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.7.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.7.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.7.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3 Basic circuit laws 90

3.1 Kirchhoff’s circuit laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.1.1 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.1.2 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.1.3 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.1.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.1.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.1.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
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3.2 Norton’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

3.2.1 Example of a Norton equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.2 Conversion to a Thévenin equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.3 Queueing theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.2.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.3 Thévenin’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.3.1 Calculating the Thévenin equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.3.2 Conversion to a Norton equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.3.3 Practical limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.3.4 A proof of the theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

4 AC analysis 99
4.1 Phasor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.1.2 Phasor arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.1.3 Phasor diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.1.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.1.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.1.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.1.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.2 Electric power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.2.2 Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.2.3 Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2.4 Electric power industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2.5 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.2.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.3 RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.3.1 Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.3.2 Series RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
vi CONTENTS

4.3.3 Parallel RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

4.3.4 Other configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.3.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.3.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.3.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.4 Low-pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.4.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.4.2 Ideal and real filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.4.3 Continuous-time low-pass filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.4.4 Electronic low-pass filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.4.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.5 High-pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.5.1 First-order continuous-time implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.5.2 Discrete-time realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.5.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.5.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.5.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.5.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.6 Band-pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.6.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.6.2 Q factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.6.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.6.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.6.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.6.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

5 Basic devices 128

5.1 p–n junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.1.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.1.2 Governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.1.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.1.4 Non-rectifying junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.1.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.1.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.1.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.2 Bipolar junction transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.2.1 Note on current direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
CONTENTS vii

5.2.2 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

5.2.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2.4 Regions of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.2.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.2.6 Theory and modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.2.7 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.2.8 Vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.9 Complementary pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.3 Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.3.2 Figures of merit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3.3 Amplifier categorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3.4 Classification of amplifier stages and systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.3.5 Power amplifier classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.3.6 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.3.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.3.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.3.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.4 Operational amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.4.1 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.4.2 Op-amp characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.4.3 Internal circuitry of 741-type op-amp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.4.4 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.4.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.4.6 Historical timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.4.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.4.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.4.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.4.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.4.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

6 Digital circuits 178

6.1 Boolean algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.1.2 Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.1.3 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.1.4 Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.1.5 Diagrammatic representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
viii CONTENTS

6.1.6 Boolean algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

6.1.7 Axiomatizing Boolean algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.1.8 Propositional logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.1.9 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.1.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.2 Logic gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.2.1 Electronic gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.2.2 History and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.2.3 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.2.4 Universal logic gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.2.5 De Morgan equivalent symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.2.6 Data storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.2.7 Three-state logic gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.2.8 Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.2.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.2.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.3 Karnaugh map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.3.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.3.2 Race hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.3.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.3.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.3.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.4 Finite-state machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.4.1 Example: coin-operated turnstile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.4.2 Concepts and terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.4.3 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.4.4 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.4.5 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.4.6 Alternative semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.4.7 Mathematical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4.8 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4.9 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.4.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.4.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.4.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
CONTENTS ix

6.5 555 timer IC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

6.5.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.5.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.5.3 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.5.4 Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.5.5 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.5.6 Example applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.5.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.5.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.5.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.5.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.6 Schmitt trigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.6.1 Invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.6.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.6.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.6.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.6.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.6.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.6.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.7 Shift register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.7.1 Serial-in Serial-out (SISO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.7.2 Serial-in parallel-out (SIPO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.7.3 Parallel-in Serial-out (PISO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.7.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.7.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.7.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.7.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.8 Flip-flop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.8.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.8.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.8.3 Flip-flop types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.8.4 Timing considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
6.8.5 Generalizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
6.8.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6.8.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6.8.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 234

7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Electronics ality and transform the mixed components into a regular
working system.
This article is about the technical field of electronics. Electronics is distinct from electrical and electro-
For personal/home-use electronic devices, see consumer mechanical science and technology, which deal with the
electronics. For the scientific magazine, see Electronics generation, distribution, switching, storage, and conver-
(magazine). sion of electrical energy to and from other energy forms
Electronics is the science of controlling electrical en- using wires, motors, generators, batteries, switches,
relays, transformers, resistors, and other passive com-
ponents. This distinction started around 1906 with the
invention by Lee De Forest of the triode, which made
electrical amplification of weak radio signals and audio
signals possible with a non-mechanical device. Until
1950 this field was called “radio technology” because its
principal application was the design and theory of radio
transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes.
Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor com-
ponents to perform electron control. The study of semi-
conductor devices and related technology is considered a
branch of solid-state physics, whereas the design and con-
struction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems
come under electronics engineering. This article focuses
on engineering aspects of electronics.
Surface-mount electronic components

ergy electrically, in which the electrons have a fundamen- 1.1.1 Branches of electronics
tal role. Electronics deals with electrical circuits that in-
volve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, Electronics has branches as follows:
transistors, diodes, integrated circuits, associated passive
electrical components, and interconnection technologies.
Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consist- 1. Digital electronics
ing primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors sup-
plemented with passive elements; such a circuit is de- 2. Analogue electronics
scribed as an electronic circuit.
The science of electronics is also considered to be a 3. Microelectronics
[1][2]
branch of physics and electrical engineering.
4. Circuit design
The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their
ability to control electron flows makes amplification of
weak signals possible, and electronics is widely used in 5. Integrated circuits
information processing, telecommunication, and signal
processing. The ability of electronic devices to act as 6. Optoelectronics
switches makes digital information processing possible.
Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, elec- 7. Semiconductor devices
tronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of
communication infrastructure complete circuit function- 8. Embedded systems

1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

to use transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes and is

believed to be the world’s first all-transistorized calculator
to be manufactured for the commercial market.[4][5] The
608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors.
Thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to
use transistors in their design. From that time on transis-
tors were almost exclusively used for computer logic and
peripherals.

1.1.4 Types of circuits

Circuits and components can be divided into two groups:
analog and digital. A particular device may consist of cir-
Electronics Technician performing a voltage check on a power cuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types.
circuit card in the air navigation equipment room aboard the air-
craft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72).
Analog circuits

1.1.2 Electronic devices and components Main article: Analog electronics

Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio re-
Main article: Electronic component

An electronic component is any physical entity in an

electronic system used to affect the electrons or their as-
sociated fields in a manner consistent with the intended
function of the electronic system. Components are gen-
erally intended to be connected together, usually by be-
ing soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create
an electronic circuit with a particular function (for ex-
ample an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Com-
ponents may be packaged singly, or in more complex
groups as integrated circuits. Some common electronic
components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes,
transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as ac-
tive (e.g. transistors and thyristors) or passive (e.g. resis-
tors, diodes, inductors and capacitors).

1.1.3 History of electronic components

Further information: Timeline of electrical and elec-

tronic engineering
Hitachi J100 adjustable frequency drive chassis
Vacuum tubes (Thermionic valves) were among the ear-
liest electronic components. They were almost solely re- ceivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types
sponsible for the electronics revolution of the first half of of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range
the Twentieth Century. They took electronics from parlor of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in
tricks and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, digital circuits.
long distance telephony and much more. They played The number of different analog circuits so far devised
a leading role in the field of microwave and high power is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as
transmission as well as television receivers until the mid- anything from a single component, to systems containing
dle of the 1980s.[3] Since that time, solid state devices thousands of components.
have all but completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are still
Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits al-
used in some specialist applications such as high power
though many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits
RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equip-
such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of ana-
ment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. log circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers,
In April 1955 the IBM 608 was the first IBM product operational amplifiers and oscillators.
1.1. ELECTRONICS 3

One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. Highly integrated devices:
These days analog circuitry may use digital or even mi-
croprocessor techniques to improve performance. This • Microprocessors
type of circuit is usually called “mixed signal” rather than
• Microcontrollers
analog or digital.
Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between • Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)
analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both • Digital signal processor (DSP)
linear and non-linear operation. An example is the com-
parator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but • Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)
only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Sim-
ilarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the
1.1.5 Heat dissipation and thermal man-
characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially
two levels of output. In fact, many digital circuits are ac- agement
tually implemented as variations of analog circuits similar
to this example—after all, all aspects of the real physical Main article: Thermal management of electronic devices
world are essentially analog, so digital effects are only re- and systems
alized by constraining analog behavior.
Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated
to prevent immediate failure and improve long term re-
Digital circuits liability. Heat dissipation is mostly achieved by passive
conduction/convection. Means to achieve greater dissipa-
Main article: Digital electronics tion include heat sinks and fans for air cooling, and other
forms of computer cooling such as water cooling. These
Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of techniques use convection, conduction, and radiation of
discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most com- heat energy.
mon physical representation of Boolean algebra, and are
the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the
terms “digital circuit”, “digital system” and “logic” are in- 1.1.6 Noise
terchangeable in the context of digital circuits. Most dig-
ital circuits use a binary system with two voltage levels Main article: Electronic noise
labeled “0” and “1”. Often logic “0” will be a lower volt-
age and referred to as “Low” while logic “1” is referred to Electronic noise is defined[6] as unwanted disturbances
as “High”. However, some systems use the reverse def- superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its in-
inition (“0” is “High”) or are current based. Quite often formation content. Noise is not the same as signal dis-
the logic designer may reverse these definitions from one tortion caused by a circuit. Noise is associated with all
circuit to the next as he sees fit to facilitate his design. electronic circuits. Noise may be electromagnetically or
The definition of the levels as “0” or “1” is arbitrary. thermally generated, which can be decreased by lowering
Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied, and the operating temperature of the circuit. Other types of
some prototype computers made. noise, such as shot noise cannot be removed as they are
due to limitations in physical properties.
Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic
controllers (used to control industrial processes) are con-
structed of digital circuits. Digital signal processors are 1.1.7 Electronics theory
another example.
Main article: Mathematical methods in electronics
Building blocks:

• Logic gates Mathematical methods are integral to the study of elec-

tronics. To become proficient in electronics it is also nec-
• Adders essary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit
analysis.
• Flip-flops
Circuit analysis is the study of methods of solving gen-
• Counters erally linear systems for unknown variables such as the
voltage at a certain node or the current through a certain
• Registers branch of a network. A common analytical tool for this
is the SPICE circuit simulator.
• Multiplexers
Also important to electronics is the study and understand-
• Schmitt triggers ing of electromagnetic field theory.
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.8 Electronics lab • Atomtronics

Main article: Electronic circuit simulation • Audio engineering

• Broadcast engineering
Due to the complex nature of electronics theory, labora-
tory experimentation is an important part of the develop- • Computer engineering
ment of electronic devices. These experiments are used
• Electronic engineering
to test or verify the engineer’s design and detect errors.
Historically, electronics labs have consisted of electron- • Electronics engineering technology
ics devices and equipment located in a physical space, al-
though in more recent years the trend has been towards • Fuzzy electronics
electronics lab simulation software, such as CircuitLogix,
• Index of electronics articles
Multisim, and PSpice.
• List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equip-
ment manufacturing companies by revenue
1.1.9 Computer aided design (CAD)
• Marine electronics
Main article: Electronic design automation
• Power electronics
Today’s electronics engineers have the ability to design • Robotics
circuits using premanufactured building blocks such as
power supplies, semiconductors (i.e. semiconductor
devices, such as transistors), and integrated circuits. 1.1.12 References
Electronic design automation software programs include
schematic capture programs and printed circuit board de- [1] “Electronics, Encyclopædia Britannica”. Encyclopædia
sign programs. Popular names in the EDA software world Britannica. September 2016.
are NI Multisim, Cadence (ORCAD), EAGLE PCB and [2] “Electronics definition, Oxford Dictionary”. Oxford Uni-
Schematic, Mentor (PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic), versity Press. February 2017.
Altium (Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus), gEDA,
KiCad and many others. [3] Sōgo Okamura (1994). History of Electron Tubes. IOS
Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-5199-145-1. Retrieved 5 De-
cember 2012.
1.1.10 Construction methods
[4] Bashe, Charles J.; et al. (1986). IBM’s Early Computers.
MIT. p. 386.
Main article: Electronic packaging
[5] Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H.
(1991). IBM’s 360 and early 370 systems. MIT Press. p.
Many different methods of connecting components have
34. ISBN 0-262-16123-0.
been used over the years. For instance, early electron-
ics often used point to point wiring with components [6] IEEE Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms
attached to wooden breadboards to construct circuits. ISBN 978-0-471-42806-0
Cordwood construction and wire wrap were other meth-
ods used. Most modern day electronics now use printed
circuit boards made of materials such as FR4, or the 1.1.13 Further reading
cheaper (and less hard-wearing) Synthetic Resin Bonded
Paper (SRBP, also known as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade • The Art of Electronics ISBN 978-0-521-37095-0
marks) and FR2) - characterised by its brown colour.
Health and environmental concerns associated with elec-
tronics assembly have gained increased attention in re- 1.1.14 External links
cent years, especially for products destined to the Euro-
pean Union, with its Restriction of Hazardous Substances • Electronics at DMOZ
Directive (RoHS) and Waste Electrical and Electronic • Navy 1998 Navy Electricity and Electronics Train-
Equipment Directive (WEEE), which went into force in ing Series (NEETS)
July 2006.
• DOE 1998 Electrical Science, Fundamentals Hand-
book, 4 vols.
1.1.11 See also
• Vol. 1, Basic Electrical Theory, Basic DC
• Outline of electronics Theory
1.2. VOLTAGE 5

• Vol. 2, DC Circuits, Batteries, Generators,

Motors
• Vol. 3, Basic AC Theory, Basic AC Reac-
tive Components, Basic AC Power, Basic AC
Generators
• Vol. 4, AC Motors, Transformers, Test Instru-
ments & Measuring Devices, Electrical Distri-
bution Systems

1.2 Voltage
For other uses, see Voltage (disambiguation).
“Potential difference” redirects here. For other uses, see
Potential.

Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pres-

sure or electric tension (formally denoted ∆V or ∆U, The electric field around the rod exerts a force on the charged
but more often simply as V or U, for instance in the pith ball, in an electroscope
context of Ohm’s or Kirchhoff’s laws) is the difference
in electric potential energy between two points per unit
electric charge. The voltage between two points is equal
to the work done per unit of charge against a static electric
field to move the test charge between two points. This is
measured in units of volts (a joule per coulomb).
Voltage can be caused by static electric fields, by electric
current through a magnetic field, by time-varying mag-
netic fields, or some combination of these three.[1][2] A
voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage (or poten-
tial difference) between two points in a system; often a
common reference potential such as the ground of the B
system is used as one of the points. A voltage may rep-
resent either a source of energy (electromotive force) or
lost, used, or stored energy (potential drop).

A
1.2.1 Definition
Given two points in space, xA and xB , voltage is the In a static field, the work is independent of the path
difference in electric potential between those two points.
From the definition of electric potential it follows that:
so the difference in potential, i.e. the voltage, is the quan-
∫ xB tity which is physically meaningful. The voltage between
∆VBA = V (xB ) − V (xA ) = − r0 E · dl − ⃗ ⃗
( ∫ ) point A to point B is equal to the work which would have
x ⃗
− r0A E · d⃗l to be done, per unit charge, against or by the electric field
to move the charge from A to B. The voltage between the
two ends of a path is the total energy required to move a
∫ r0 ∫ xA ∫ xA
= E⃗ · d⃗l + ⃗ · d⃗l =
E ⃗ · d⃗l small electric charge along that path, divided by the mag-
E
xB r0 xB
nitude of the charge. Mathematically this is expressed
as the line integral of the electric field and the time rate
Electric potential is electric potential energy per unit of change of magnetic field along that path. In the gen-
charge, measured in joules per coulomb (volts). “Elec- eral case, both a static (unchanging) electric field and a
tric potential” must be distinguished from "electric po- dynamic (time-varying) electromagnetic field must be in-
tential energy" by noting that the “potential” is a “per- cluded in determining the voltage between two points.
unit-charge” quantity. Like mechanical potential energy, Historically this quantity has also been called “tension”
the zero of electric potential can be chosen at any point, and “pressure”. Pressure is now obsolete but tension
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

is still used, for example within the phrase "high ten- wise, if the automobile’s battery is very weak or “dead”
sion" (HT) which is commonly used in thermionic valve (or “flat”), then it will not turn the starter motor.
(vacuum tube) based electronics. The hydraulic analogy is a useful way of understanding
Voltage is defined so that negatively charged objects are many electrical concepts. In such a system, the work done
pulled towards higher voltages, while positively charged to move water is equal to the pressure multiplied by the
objects are pulled towards lower voltages. Therefore, the volume of water moved. Similarly, in an electrical circuit,
conventional current in a wire or resistor always flows the work done to move electrons or other charge-carriers
from higher voltage to lower voltage. Current can flow is equal to “electrical pressure” multiplied by the quan-
from lower voltage to higher voltage, but only when a tity of electrical charges moved. In relation to “flow”,
source of energy is present to “push” it against the op- the larger the “pressure difference” between two points
posing electric field. This is the case within any electric (potential difference or water pressure difference), the
power source. For example, inside a battery, chemical re- greater the flow between them (electric current or water
actions provide the energy needed for ion current to flow flow). (See "electric power".)
from the negative to the positive terminal.
The electric field is not the only factor determining
1.2.4 Applications
charge flow in a material, and different materials natu-
rally develop electric potential differences at equilibrium
(Galvani potentials). The electric potential of a mate-
rial is not even a well defined quantity, since it varies on
the subatomic scale. A more convenient definition of
'voltage' can be found instead in the concept of Fermi
level. In this case the voltage between two bodies is the
thermodynamic work required to move a unit of charge
between them. This definition is practical since a real
voltmeter actually measures this work, not a difference
in electric potential.

1.2.2 Volt

Main article: Volt

The volt (symbol: V) is the derived unit for electric

potential, electric potential difference (voltage), and
electromotive force. The volt is named in honour of the
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), who in-
vented the voltaic pile, possibly the first chemical battery.

1.2.3 Hydraulic analogy

Main article: Hydraulic analogy

A simple analogy for an electric circuit is water flowing

Working on high voltage power lines
in a closed circuit of pipework, driven by a mechanical
pump. This can be called a “water circuit”. Potential dif-
ference between two points corresponds to the pressure Specifying a voltage measurement requires explicit or im-
difference between two points. If the pump creates a plicit specification of the points across which the voltage
pressure difference between two points, then water flow- is measured. When using a voltmeter to measure poten-
ing from one point to the other will be able to do work, tial difference, one electrical lead of the voltmeter must
such as driving a turbine. Similarly, work can be done be connected to the first point, one to the second point.
by an electric current driven by the potential difference A common use of the term “voltage” is in describing the
provided by a battery. For example, the voltage provided voltage dropped across an electrical device (such as a re-
by a sufficiently-charged automobile battery can “push” sistor). The voltage drop across the device can be under-
a large current through the windings of an automobile’s stood as the difference between measurements at each
starter motor. If the pump isn't working, it produces no terminal of the device with respect to a common refer-
pressure difference, and the turbine will not rotate. Like- ence point (or ground). The voltage drop is the differ-
1.2. VOLTAGE 7

ence between the two readings. Two points in an electric A common voltage for flashlight batteries is 1.5 volts
circuit that are connected by an ideal conductor without (DC). A common voltage for automobile batteries is 12
resistance and not within a changing magnetic field have volts (DC).
a voltage of zero. Any two points with the same potential Common voltages supplied by power companies to con-
may be connected by a conductor and no current will flow sumers are 110 to 120 volts (AC) and 220 to 240 volts
between them. (AC). The voltage in electric power transmission lines
used to distribute electricity from power stations can be
several hundred times greater than consumer voltages,
Addition of voltages
typically 110 to 1200 kV (AC).
The voltage between A and C is the sum of the volt- The voltage used in overhead lines to power railway lo-
age between A and B and the voltage between B and C. comotives is between 12 kV and 50 kV (AC) or between
The various voltages in a circuit can be computed using 1.5 kV and 3 kV (DC).
Kirchhoff’s circuit laws.
When talking about alternating current (AC) there is 1.2.7 Galvani potential vs. electrochemical
a difference between instantaneous voltage and average
voltage. Instantaneous voltages can be added for direct
potential
current (DC) and AC, but average voltages can be mean-
Main articles: Galvani potential, Electrochemical poten-
ingfully added only when they apply to signals that all have
tial, and Fermi level
the same frequency and phase.

Inside a conductive material, the energy of an electron

1.2.5 Measuring instruments is affected not only by the average electric potential, but
also by the specific thermal and atomic environment that
it is in. When a voltmeter is connected between two dif-
ferent types of metal, it measures not the electrostatic po-
tential difference, but instead something else that is af-
fected by thermodynamics.[3] The quantity measured by a
voltmeter is the negative of difference of electrochemical
potential of electrons (Fermi level) divided by electron
charge, while the pure unadjusted electrostatic poten-
tial (not measurable with voltmeter) is sometimes called
Galvani potential. The terms “voltage” and “electric po-
tential” are ambiguous in that, in practice, they can refer
to either of these in different contexts.

1.2.8 See also

• Alternating current (AC)
Multimeter set to measure voltage • Direct current (DC)

Instruments for measuring voltages include the voltmeter, • Electric potential

the potentiometer, and the oscilloscope. The voltmeter • Electric shock
works by measuring the current through a fixed resistor,
which, according to Ohm’s Law, is proportional to the • Electrical measurements
voltage across the resistor. The potentiometer works by
balancing the unknown voltage against a known voltage in • Electrochemical potential
a bridge circuit. The cathode-ray oscilloscope works by • Fermi level
amplifying the voltage and using it to deflect an electron
beam from a straight path, so that the deflection of the • High voltage
beam is proportional to the voltage.
• Mains electricity (an article about domestic power
supply voltages)
1.2.6 Typical voltages • Mains electricity by country (list of countries with
mains voltage and frequency)
Main article: Mains electricity § Choice of voltage
• Ohm’s law
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

• Ohm The particles that carry the charge in an electric current

are called charge carriers. In metals, one or more elec-
• Open-circuit voltage trons from each atom are loosely bound to the atom, and
• Phantom voltage can move freely about within the metal. These conduction
electrons are the charge carriers in metal conductors.

1.2.9 References
1.3.1 Symbol
[1] Demetrius T. Paris and F. Kenneth Hurd, Basic Electro-
magnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York 1969, ISBN The conventional symbol for current is I, which originates
0-07-048470-8, pp. 512, 546 from the French phrase intensité de courant, meaning cur-
[3][4]
[2] P. Hammond, Electromagnetism for Engineers, p. 135, rent intensity. Current intensity is often referred to
[5]
Pergamon Press 1969 OCLC 854336. simply as current. The I symbol was used by André-
Marie Ampère, after whom the unit of electric current
[3] Bagotskii, Vladimir Sergeevich (2006). Fundamentals of is named, in formulating the eponymous Ampère’s force
electrochemistry. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-471-70058-6. law, which he discovered in 1820.[6] The notation trav-
elled from France to Great Britain, where it became stan-
dard, although at least one journal did not change from
1.2.10 External links using C to I until 1896.[7]
• Electrical voltage V, amperage I, resistivity R,
impedance Z, wattage P
1.3.2 Conventions
• Elementary explanation of voltage at NDT Resource
Center

Flow of positive charge

1.3 Electric current Flow of electrons

The electrons, the charge carriers in an electrical circuit, flow in

the opposite direction of the conventional electric current.

In a conductive material, the moving charged particles

A simple electric circuit, where current is represented by the letter
which constitute the electric current are called charge car-
i. The relationship between the voltage (V), resistance (R), and
riers. In metals, which make up the wires and other con-
current (I) is V=IR; this is known as Ohm’s Law.
ductors in most electrical circuits, the positively charged
atomic nuclei are held in a fixed position, and the nega-
An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric tively charged electrons are free to move, carrying their
circuits this charge is often carried by moving electrons charge from one place to another. In other materials, no-
in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, tably the semiconductors, the charge carriers can be pos-
or by both ions and electrons such as in an ionised gas itive or negative, depending on the dopant used. Positive
(plasma).[1] and negative charge carriers may even be present at the
The SI unit for measuring an electric current is the same time, as happens in an electrochemical cell.
ampere, which is the flow of electric charge across a sur- A flow of positive charges gives the same electric current,
face at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric cur- and has the same effect in a circuit, as an equal flow of
rent is measured using a device called an ammeter.[2] negative charges in the opposite direction. Since current
Electric currents cause Joule heating, which creates light can be the flow of either positive or negative charges, or
in incandescent light bulbs. They also create magnetic both, a convention is needed for the direction of current
fields, which are used in motors, inductors and generators. that is independent of the type of charge carriers. The
1.3. ELECTRIC CURRENT 9

in many circuits the power supply voltage is positive with

respect to ground.

1.3.3 Ohm’s law

Main article: Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law states that the current through a conduc-

tor between two points is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the two points. Introducing
the constant of proportionality, the resistance,[8] one ar-
rives at the usual mathematical equation that describes
this relationship:[9]

V
I=
R
where I is the current through the conductor in units of
amperes, V is the potential difference measured across
the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of
the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm’s
law states that the R in this relation is constant, indepen-
dent of the current.[10]

1.3.4 Alternating and direct current

The symbol for a battery in a circuit diagram. See also: War of Currents

In alternating current (AC) systems, the movement of

direction of conventional current is arbitrarily defined as electric charge periodically reverses direction. AC is the
the same direction as positive charges flow. form of electric power most commonly delivered to busi-
The consequence of this convention is that electrons, the nesses and residences. The usual waveform of an AC
charge carriers in metal wires and most other parts of power circuit is a sine wave. Certain applications use
electric circuits, flow in the opposite direction of conven- different waveforms, such as triangular or square waves.
tional current flow in an electrical circuit. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are
also examples of alternating current. An important goal
in these applications is recovery of information encoded
Reference direction (or modulated) onto the AC signal.

Since the current in a wire or component can flow in either In contrast, direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow
direction, when a variable I is defined to represent that of electric charge, or a system in which the movement
current, the direction representing positive current must of electric charge is in one direction only. Direct current
be specified, usually by an arrow on the circuit schematic is produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples,
solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines of the
diagram. This is called the reference direction of current I.
If the current flows in the opposite direction, the variable dynamo type. Direct current may flow in a conductor
I has a negative value. such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors,
insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion
When analyzing electrical circuits, the actual direction of beams. The electric charge flows in a constant direction,
current through a specific circuit element is usually un- distinguishing it from AC. A term formerly used for di-
known. Consequently, the reference directions of cur- rect current was galvanic current.[11]
rents are often assigned arbitrarily. When the circuit is
solved, a negative value for the variable means that the
actual direction of current through that circuit element is 1.3.5 Occurrences
opposite that of the chosen reference direction. In elec-
tronic circuits, the reference current directions are often Natural observable examples of electrical current include
chosen so that all currents are toward ground. This of- lightning, static electricity, and the solar wind, the source
ten corresponds to the actual current direction, because of the polar auroras.
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Man-made occurrences of electric current include the Electromagnet

flow of conduction electrons in metal wires such as the
overhead power lines that deliver electrical energy across Main article: Electromagnet
long distances and the smaller wires within electrical and
electronic equipment. Eddy currents are electric currents
In an electromagnet a coil, of a large number of circular
that occur in conductors exposed to changing magnetic
turns of insulated wire, wrapped on a cylindrical core, be-
fields. Similarly, electric currents occur, particularly in
haves like a magnet when an electric current flows through
the surface, of conductors exposed to electromagnetic
it. When the current is switched off, the coil loses its
waves. When oscillating electric currents flow at the cor-
magnetism immediately. We call such a device as an
rect voltages within radio antennas, radio waves are gen-
electromagnet.[14][15]
erated.
In electronics, other forms of electric current include the
flow of electrons through resistors or through the vacuum
in a vacuum tube, the flow of ions inside a battery or a
neuron, and the flow of holes within a semiconductor.

1.3.6 Current measurement

Current can be measured using an ammeter.
At the circuit level, there are various techniques that can
be used to measure current:

• Shunt resistors[12]

• Hall effect current sensor transducers

• Transformers (however DC cannot be measured)

• Magnetoresistive field sensors[13]

According to Ampère’s law, an electric current produces a

1.3.7 Resistive heating magnetic field.

Main article: Joule heating Electric current produces a magnetic field. The magnetic
field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines
Joule heating, also known as ohmic heating and resistive surrounding the wire that persists as long as there is cur-
heating, is the process by which the passage of an elec- rent.
tric current through a conductor releases heat. It was first Magnetism can also produce electric currents. When
studied by James Prescott Joule in 1841. Joule immersed a changing magnetic field is applied to a conductor, an
a length of wire in a fixed mass of water and measured Electromotive force (EMF) is produced, and when there
the temperature rise due to a known current through the is a suitable path, this causes current.
wire for a 30 minute period. By varying the current and
the length of the wire he deduced that the heat produced Electric current can be directly measured with a
was proportional to the square of the current multiplied galvanometer, but this method involves breaking the
by the electrical resistance of the wire. electrical circuit, which is sometimes inconvenient. Cur-
rent can also be measured without breaking the circuit by
detecting the magnetic field associated with the current.
Devices used for this include Hall effect sensors, current
Q ∝ I 2R clamps, current transformers, and Rogowski coils.
This relationship is known as Joule’s First Law. The
SI unit of energy was subsequently named the joule and Radio waves
given the symbol J. The commonly known unit of power,
the watt, is equivalent to one joule per second. Main article: Radio waves

1.3.8 Electromagnetism When an electric current flows in a suitably shaped con-

ductor at radio frequencies radio waves can be generated.
1.3. ELECTRIC CURRENT 11

These travel at the speed of light and can cause electric like a crowd of displaced persons. When a metal wire
currents in distant conductors. is subjected to electric force applied on its opposite ends,
these free electrons rush in the direction of the force, thus
forming what we call an electric current.”
1.3.9 Conduction mechanisms in various
When a metal wire is connected across the two termi-
media nals of a DC voltage source such as a battery, the source
places an electric field across the conductor. The moment
Main article: Electrical conductivity contact is made, the free electrons of the conductor are
forced to drift toward the positive terminal under the in-
In metallic solids, electric charge flows by means of fluence of this field. The free electrons are therefore the
electrons, from lower to higher electrical potential. In charge carrier in a typical solid conductor.
other media, any stream of charged objects (ions, for ex- For a steady flow of charge through a surface, the cur-
ample) may constitute an electric current. To provide a rent I (in amperes) can be calculated with the following
definition of current independent of the type of charge equation:
carriers, conventional current is defined as moving in the
same direction as the positive charge flow. So, in metals
where the charge carriers (electrons) are negative, con- Q
ventional current is in the opposite direction as the elec- I = t ,
trons. In conductors where the charge carriers are posi-
tive, conventional current is in the same direction as the where Q is the electric charge transferred through the sur-
charge carriers. face over a time t. If Q and t are measured in coulombs
and seconds respectively, I is in amperes.
In a vacuum, a beam of ions or electrons may be formed.
In other conductive materials, the electric current is due More generally, electric current can be represented as the
to the flow of both positively and negatively charged parti- rate at which charge flows through a given surface as:
cles at the same time. In still others, the current is entirely
due to positive charge flow. For example, the electric cur-
dQ
rents in electrolytes are flows of positively and negatively I = .
charged ions. In a common lead-acid electrochemical dt
cell, electric currents are composed of positive hydrogen
ions (protons) flowing in one direction, and negative sul- Electrolytes
fate ions flowing in the other. Electric currents in sparks
or plasma are flows of electrons as well as positive and Main article: Conductivity (electrolytic)
negative ions. In ice and in certain solid electrolytes, the
electric current is entirely composed of flowing ions. Electric currents in electrolytes are flows of electrically
charged particles (ions). For example, if an electric field
is placed across a solution of Na+ and Cl− (and conditions
Metals
are right) the sodium ions move towards the negative elec-
trode (cathode), while the chloride ions move towards the
In a metal, some of the outer electrons in each atom are
positive electrode (anode). Reactions take place at both
not bound to the individual atom as they are in insulat-
electrode surfaces, absorbing each ion.
ing materials, but are free to move within the metal lat-
tice. These conduction electrons can serve as charge car- Water-ice and certain solid electrolytes called proton con-
riers, carrying a current. Metals are particularly conduc- ductors contain positive hydrogen ions ("protons") that
tive because there are a large number of these free elec- are mobile. In these materials, electric currents are com-
trons, typically one per atom in the lattice. With no ex- posed of moving protons, as opposed to the moving elec-
ternal electric field applied, these electrons move about trons in metals.
randomly due to thermal energy but, on average, there is In certain electrolyte mixtures, brightly coloured ions are
zero net current within the metal. At room temperature, the moving electric charges. The slow progress of the
the average speed of these random motions is 106 me- colour makes the current visible.[17]
tres per second.[16] Given a surface through which a metal
wire passes, electrons move in both directions across the
surface at an equal rate. As George Gamow wrote in his Gases and plasmas
popular science book, One, Two, Three...Infinity (1947),
“The metallic substances differ from all other materials In air and other ordinary gases below the breakdown field,
by the fact that the outer shells of their atoms are bound the dominant source of electrical conduction is via rel-
rather loosely, and often let one of their electrons go free. atively few mobile ions produced by radioactive gases,
Thus the interior of a metal is filled up with a large num- ultraviolet light, or cosmic rays. Since the electrical
ber of unattached electrons that travel aimlessly around conductivity is low, gases are dielectrics or insulators.
12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

However, once the applied electric field approaches the teristic critical temperature. It was discovered by Heike
breakdown value, free electrons become sufficiently ac- Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8, 1911 in Leiden. Like
celerated by the electric field to create additional free ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconduc-
electrons by colliding, and ionizing, neutral gas atoms or tivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon. It is charac-
molecules in a process called avalanche breakdown. The terized by the Meissner effect, the complete ejection of
breakdown process forms a plasma that contains enough magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconduc-
mobile electrons and positive ions to make it an electri- tor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The
cal conductor. In the process, it forms a light emitting occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that super-
conductive path, such as a spark, arc or lightning. conductivity cannot be understood simply as the ideal-
Plasma is the state of matter where some of the electrons ization of perfect conductivity in classical physics.
in a gas are stripped or “ionized” from their molecules or
atoms. A plasma can be formed by high temperature, or
Semiconductor
by application of a high electric or alternating magnetic
field as noted above. Due to their lower mass, the elec-
Main article: Semiconductor
trons in a plasma accelerate more quickly in response to
an electric field than the heavier positive ions, and hence
carry the bulk of the current. The free ions recombine In a semiconductor it is sometimes useful to think of the
to create new chemical compounds (for example, break- current as due to the flow of positive "holes" (the mobile
ing atmospheric oxygen into single oxygen [O2 → 2O], positive charge carriers that are places where the semi-
which then recombine creating ozone [O3 ]).[18] conductor crystal is missing a valence electron). This is
the case in a p-type semiconductor. A semiconductor
has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude be-
Vacuum tween that of a conductor and an insulator. This means a
conductivity roughly in the range of 10−2 to 104 siemens
Since a "perfect vacuum" contains no charged particles, it per centimeter (S⋅cm−1 ).
normally behaves as a perfect insulator. However, metal
In the classic crystalline semiconductors, electrons can
electrode surfaces can cause a region of the vacuum to
have energies only within certain bands (i.e. ranges of
become conductive by injecting free electrons or ions
levels of energy). Energetically, these bands are located
through either field electron emission or thermionic emis-
between the energy of the ground state, the state in which
sion. Thermionic emission occurs when the thermal en-
electrons are tightly bound to the atomic nuclei of the ma-
ergy exceeds the metal’s work function, while field elec-
terial, and the free electron energy, the latter describing
tron emission occurs when the electric field at the surface
the energy required for an electron to escape entirely from
of the metal is high enough to cause tunneling, which
the material. The energy bands each correspond to a large
results in the ejection of free electrons from the metal
number of discrete quantum states of the electrons, and
into the vacuum. Externally heated electrodes are often
most of the states with low energy (closer to the nucleus)
used to generate an electron cloud as in the filament or
are occupied, up to a particular band called the valence
indirectly heated cathode of vacuum tubes. Cold elec-
band. Semiconductors and insulators are distinguished
trodes can also spontaneously produce electron clouds
from metals because the valence band in any given metal
via thermionic emission when small incandescent regions
is nearly filled with electrons under usual operating con-
(called cathode spots or anode spots) are formed. These
ditions, while very few (semiconductor) or virtually none
are incandescent regions of the electrode surface that are
(insulator) of them are available in the conduction band,
created by a localized high current. These regions may
the band immediately above the valence band.
be initiated by field electron emission, but are then sus-
tained by localized thermionic emission once a vacuum The ease of exciting electrons in the semiconductor from
arc forms. These small electron-emitting regions can the valence band to the conduction band depends on the
form quite rapidly, even explosively, on a metal surface band gap between the bands. The size of this energy band
subjected to a high electrical field. Vacuum tubes and gap serves as an arbitrary dividing line (roughly 4 eV)
sprytrons are some of the electronic switching and am- between semiconductors and insulators.
plifying devices based on vacuum conductivity. With covalent bonds, an electron moves by hopping to a
neighboring bond. The Pauli exclusion principle requires
that the electron be lifted into the higher anti-bonding
Superconductivity
state of that bond. For delocalized states, for example
in one dimension – that is in a nanowire, for every energy
Main article: Superconductivity there is a state with electrons flowing in one direction and
another state with the electrons flowing in the other. For
Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero a net current to flow, more states for one direction than
electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields oc- for the other direction must be occupied. For this to oc-
curring in certain materials when cooled below a charac- cur, energy is required, as in the semiconductor the next
1.3. ELECTRIC CURRENT 13

higher states lie above the band gap. Often this is stated for a positive density gradient. If the carriers are holes,
as: full bands do not contribute to the electrical conduc- replace electron density n by the negative of the hole den-
tivity. However, as a semiconductor’s temperature rises sity p .
above absolute zero, there is more energy in the semi- In linear anisotropic materials, σ, ρ and D are tensors.
conductor to spend on lattice vibration and on exciting
electrons into the conduction band. The current-carrying In linear materials such as metals, and under low frequen-
electrons in the conduction band are known as free elec- cies, the current density across the conductor surface is
trons, though they are often simply called electrons if that uniform. In such conditions, Ohm’s law states that the
is clear in context. current is directly proportional to the potential difference
between two ends (across) of that metal (ideal) resistor
(or other ohmic device):
1.3.10 Current density and Ohm’s law
Main article: Current density V
I= ,
R
Current density is a measure of the density of an electric where I is the current, measured in amperes; V is the
current. It is defined as a vector whose magnitude is the potential difference, measured in volts; and R is the
electric current per cross-sectional area. In SI units, the resistance, measured in ohms. For alternating currents,
current density is measured in amperes per square metre. especially at higher frequencies, skin effect causes the
current to spread unevenly across the conductor cross-
section, with higher density near the surface, thus increas-
∫
ing the apparent resistance.
I= J⃗ · dA
⃗

where I is current in the conductor, J⃗ is the current 1.3.11 Drift speed

density, and dA ⃗ is the differential cross-sectional area
vector. The mobile charged particles within a conductor move
constantly in random directions, like the particles of a
The current density (current per unit area) J⃗ in mate- gas. (More accurately, a Fermi gas.) To create a net flow
rials with finite resistance is directly proportional to the of charge, the particles must also move together with an
electric field E⃗ in the medium. The proportionality con-
average drift rate. Electrons are the charge carriers in
stant is called the conductivity σ of the material, whose metals and they follow an erratic path, bouncing from
value depends on the material concerned and, in general, atom to atom, but generally drifting in the opposite di-
is dependent on the temperature of the material: rection of the electric field. The speed they drift at can
be calculated from the equation:

J⃗ = σ E
⃗
I = nAvQ ,
The reciprocal of the conductivity σ of the material is
called the resistivity ρ of the material and the above where
equation, when written in terms of resistivity becomes:
I is the electric current
n is number of charged particles per unit vol-
⃗
E
J⃗ = ume (or charge carrier density)
ρ A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor
⃗ = ρJ⃗
E v is the drift velocity, and
Q is the charge on each particle.
Conduction in semiconductor devices may occur by a
combination of drift and diffusion, which is proportional
to diffusion constant D and charge density αq . The cur- Typically, electric charges in solids flow slowly. 2For ex-
rent density is then: ample, in a copper wire of cross-section 0.5 mm , carry-
ing a current of 5 A, the drift velocity of the electrons is
on the order of a millimetre per second. To take a dif-
ferent example, in the near-vacuum inside a cathode ray
J = σE + Dq∇n,
tube, the electrons travel in near-straight lines at about a
with q being the elementary charge and n the electron tenth of the speed of light.
density. The carriers move in the direction of decreasing Any accelerating electric charge, and therefore any
concentration, so for electrons a positive current results changing electric current, gives rise to an electromagnetic
14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

wave that propagates at very high speed outside the sur- [2] Lakatos, John; Oenoki, Keiji; Judez, Hector; Oenoki,
face of the conductor. This speed is usually a significant Kazushi; Hyun Kyu Cho (March 1998). “Learn Physics
fraction of the speed of light, as can be deduced from Today!". Lima, Peru: Colegio Dr. Franklin D. Roo-
Maxwell’s Equations, and is therefore many times faster sevelt. Archived from the original on 2009-02-27. Re-
than the drift velocity of the electrons. For example, trieved 2009-03-10.
in AC power lines, the waves of electromagnetic energy [3] T. L. Lowe, John Rounce, Calculations for A-level Physics,
propagate through the space between the wires, moving p. 2, Nelson Thornes, 2002 ISBN 0-7487-6748-7.
from a source to a distant load, even though the electrons
in the wires only move back and forth over a tiny distance. [4] Howard M. Berlin, Frank C. Getz, Principles of Electronic
Instrumentation and Measurement, p. 37, Merrill Pub.
The ratio of the speed of the electromagnetic wave to the Co., 1988 ISBN 0-675-20449-6.
speed of light in free space is called the velocity factor,
and depends on the electromagnetic properties of the con- [5] K. S. Suresh Kumar, Electric Circuit Analysis, Pearson
ductor and the insulating materials surrounding it, and on Education India, 2013, ISBN 9332514100, section 1.2.3
"'Current intensity' is usually referred to as 'current' it-
their shape and size.
self.”
The magnitudes (but, not the natures) of these three ve-
[6] A-M Ampère, Recuil d'Observations Électro-dynamiques,
locities can be illustrated by an analogy with the three
p. 56, Paris: Chez Crochard Libraire 1822 (in French).
similar velocities associated with gases.
[7] Electric Power, vol. 6, p. 411, 1894.
• The low drift velocity of charge carriers is analogous [8] Consoliver, Earl L.; Mitchell, Grover I. (1920).
to air motion; in other words, winds. Automotive ignition systems. McGraw-Hill. p. 4.

• The high speed of electromagnetic waves is roughly [9] Robert A. Millikan and E. S. Bishop (1917). Elements of
analogous to the speed of sound in a gas (these waves Electricity. American Technical Society. p. 54.
move through the medium much faster than any in-
[10] Oliver Heaviside (1894). Electrical papers. 1. Macmillan
dividual particles do) and Co. p. 283. ISBN 0-8218-2840-1.
• The random motion of charges is analogous to heat – [11] Andrew J. Robinson; Lynn Snyder-Mackler (2007).
the thermal velocity of randomly vibrating gas par- Clinical Electrophysiology: Electrotherapy and Electro-
ticles. physiologic Testing (3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-7817-4484-3.

[12] What is a Current Sensor and How is it Used?. Fo-

1.3.12 See also cus.ti.com. Retrieved on 2011-12-22.

• Current 3-vector [13] Andreas P. Friedrich, Helmuth Lemme The Universal

Current Sensor. Sensorsmag.com (2000-05-01). Re-
• Direct current trieved on 2011-12-22.

• Electric shock [14] We And Our World. D.A.V. College Managing Commit-
tee.
• Electrical measurements
[15] From the book/ We And Our World
• History of electrical engineering [16] “The Mechanism Of Conduction In Metals”, Think Quest.

• Hydraulic analogy [17] Rudolf Holze, Experimental Electrochemistry: A Labora-

tory Textbook, page 44, John Wiley & Sons, 2009 ISBN
• International System of Quantities 3527310983.

• SI electromagnetism units [18] “Lab Note #106 Environmental Impact of Arc Suppres-
sion". Arc Suppression Technologies. April 2011. Re-
• Single-phase electric power trieved March 15, 2012.

• Three-phase electric power

• Two-phase electric power

1.4 Frequency
This article is about the rates of waves, oscillations, and
1.3.13 References vibrations. For the rates of non-cyclic phenomena, see
Aperiodic frequency. For the general concept beyond the
[1] Anthony C. Fischer-Cripps (2004). The electronics com- temporal domain, see Frequency (statistics). For other
panion. CRC Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-7503-1012-3. uses, see Frequency (disambiguation).
1.4. FREQUENCY 15

For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Temporal

rate.
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating

As time elapses—here moving left to right on the horizontal

axis—the five sinusoidal waves vary, or cycle, regularly at dif-
ferent rates. The red wave (top) has the lowest frequency (i.e.,
cycles at the slowest rate) while the purple wave (bottom) has the
highest frequency (cycles at the fastest rate).

1.4.1 Definitions

For cyclical processes, such as rotation, oscillations, or

waves, frequency is defined as a number of cycles per
unit time. In physics and engineering disciplines, such as
optics, acoustics, and radio, frequency is usually denoted
by a Latin letter f or by the Greek letter ν or ν (nu) (see
e.g. Planck’s formula).
For a simple harmonic motion, the relation between the
frequency and the period T is given by

1
f= .
T

1.4.2 Units

The SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), named after

the German physicist Heinrich Hertz; one hertz means
that an event repeats once per second. A previous name
for this unit was cycles per second (cps). The SI unit for
period is the second.
These three dots are flashing, or cycling, periodically—from A traditional unit of measure used with rotating mechan-
lowest frequency (0.5 hertz) to highest frequency (2.0 hertz), ical devices is revolutions per minute, abbreviated r/min
top to bottom. For each flashing dot: “f” is the frequency in or rpm. 60 rpm equals one hertz.[3]
hertz, (Hz)—or the number of events per second (i.e., cycles per
second)—that the dot flashes; while “T” is the period, or time, in
seconds (s) of each cycle, (i.e., the number of seconds per cycle). 1.4.3 Period versus frequency
Note T and f are reciprocal values to each other.
As a matter of convenience, longer and slower waves,
such as ocean surface waves, tend to be described by wave
period rather than frequency. Short and fast waves, like
event per unit time.[1] It is also referred to as temporal audio and radio, are usually described by their frequency
frequency, which emphasizes the contrast to spatial fre- instead of period. These commonly used conversions are
quency and angular frequency. The period is the duration listed below:
of time of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period
is the reciprocal of the frequency.[2] For example, if a
newborn baby’s heart beats at a frequency of 120 times a 1.4.4 Related types of frequency
minute, its period—the time interval between beats—is
half a second (that is, 60 seconds divided by 120 beats). For other uses, see Frequency (disambiguation).
Frequency is an important parameter used in science and
engineering to specify the rate of oscillatory and vibratory
phenomena, such as mechanical vibrations, audio (sound) • Angular frequency, usually denoted by the Greek
signals, radio waves, and light. letter ω (omega), is defined as the rate of change
16 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Wavenumber, k, is the spatial frequency ana-

logue of angular temporal frequency and is
measured in radians per meter. In the case of
more than one spatial dimension, wavenumber
is a vector quantity.

1.4.5 In wave propagation

Further information: Wave propagation

For periodic waves in nondispersive media (that is, media

in which the wave speed is independent of frequency),
frequency has an inverse relationship to the wavelength,
λ (lambda). Even in dispersive media, the frequency f of
a sinusoidal wave is equal to the phase velocity v of the
wave divided by the wavelength λ of the wave:

v
f= .
λ
In the special case of electromagnetic waves moving
through a vacuum, then v = c, where c is the speed of
Diagram of the relationship between the different types of fre-
light in a vacuum, and this expression becomes:
quency and other wave properties.

c
of angular displacement, θ, (during rotation), or the f = .
λ
rate of change of the phase of a sinusoidal wave-
form (e.g. in oscillations and waves), or as the rate When waves from a monochrome source travel from one
of change of the argument to the sine function: medium to another, their frequency remains the same—
only their wavelength and speed change.

y(t) = sin (θ(t)) = sin(ωt) = sin(2πf t)

1.4.6 Measurement
See also: Frequency meter

dθ Measurement of frequency can done in the following

= ω = 2πf
dt ways,

Angular frequency is commonly measured in

radians per second (rad/s) but, for discrete- Counting
time signals, can also be expressed as radi-
ans per sample time, which is a dimensionless Calculating the frequency of a repeating event is accom-
quantity. plished by counting the number of times that event occurs
within a specific time period, then dividing the count by
the length of the time period. For example, if 71 events
• Spatial frequency is analogous to temporal fre- occur within 15 seconds the frequency is:
quency, but the time axis is replaced by one or more
spatial displacement axes. E.g.:
71
f= ≈ 4.7 Hz
15 s
If the number of counts is not very large, it is more ac-
y(t) = sin (θ(t, x)) = sin(ωt + kx)
curate to measure the time interval for a predetermined
number of occurrences, rather than the number of occur-
rences within a specified time.[4] The latter method in-
dθ troduces a random error into the count of between zero
=k and one count, so on average half a count. This is called
dx
1.4. FREQUENCY 17

gating error and causes an average error in the calculated

frequency of Δf = 1/(2 Tm), or a fractional error of Δf
/ f = 1/(2 f Tm) where Tm is the timing interval and f
is the measured frequency. This error decreases with fre-
quency, so it is a problem at low frequencies where the
number of counts N is small.

Modern frequency counter

cover the range up to about 100 GHz. This represents

the limit of direct counting methods; frequencies above
this must be measured by indirect methods.

Heterodyne methods A
resonant-reed frequency meter, an obsolete device used
from about 1900 to the 1940s for measuring the fre- Above the range of frequency counters, frequencies of
quency of alternating current. It consists of a strip of electromagnetic signals are often measured indirectly by
metal with reeds of graduated lengths, vibrated by an means of heterodyning (frequency conversion). A refer-
electromagnet. When the unknown frequency is applied ence signal of a known frequency near the unknown fre-
to the electromagnet, the reed which is resonant at that quency is mixed with the unknown frequency in a non-
frequency will vibrate with large amplitude, visible next linear mixing device such as a diode. This creates a
to the scale. heterodyne or “beat” signal at the difference between the
two frequencies. If the two signals are close together in
frequency the heterodyne is low enough to be measured
Stroboscope by a frequency counter. This process only measures the
difference between the unknown frequency and the refer-
An older method of measuring the frequency of rotating ence frequency, which must be determined by some other
or vibrating objects is to use a stroboscope. This is an method. To reach higher frequencies, several stages of
intense repetitively flashing light (strobe light) whose fre- heterodyning can be used. Current research is extend-
quency can be adjusted with a calibrated timing circuit. ing this method to infrared and light frequencies (optical
The strobe light is pointed at the rotating object and the heterodyne detection).
frequency adjusted up and down. When the frequency of
the strobe equals the frequency of the rotating or vibrating
1.4.7 Examples
object, the object completes one cycle of oscillation and
returns to its original position between the flashes of light,
Light
so when illuminated by the strobe the object appears sta-
tionary. Then the frequency can be read from the cali-
brated readout on the stroboscope. A downside of this
method is that an object rotating at an integral multiple
of the strobing frequency will also appear stationary.

Frequency counter

Main article: frequency counter

Higher frequencies are usually measured with a
frequency counter. This is an electronic instrument which
measures the frequency of an applied repetitive electronic
signal and displays the result in hertz on a digital display. Complete spectrum of electromagnetic radiation with the visible
It uses digital logic to count the number of cycles dur- portion highlighted
ing a time interval established by a precision quartz time
base. Cyclic processes that are not electrical in nature, Main articles: Light and Electromagnetic radiation
such as the rotation rate of a shaft, mechanical vibra-
tions, or sound waves, can be converted to a repetitive Visible light is an electromagnetic wave, consisting of
electronic signal by transducers and the signal applied to oscillating electric and magnetic fields traveling through
a frequency counter. Frequency counters can currently space. The frequency of the wave determines its color:
18 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

4×1014 Hz is red light, 8×1014 Hz is violet light, and the tone G), whereas in North America and Northern
between these (in the range 4-8×1014 Hz) are all the South America, the frequency of the alternating current
other colors of the visible spectrum. An electromagnetic in household electrical outlets is 60 Hz (between the tones
wave can have a frequency less than 4×1014 Hz, but it B♭ and B; that is, a minor third above the European fre-
will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called quency). The frequency of the 'hum' in an audio record-
infrared (IR) radiation. At even lower frequency, the ing can show where the recording was made, in countries
wave is called a microwave, and at still lower frequencies using a European, or an American, grid frequency.
it is called a radio wave. Likewise, an electromagnetic
wave can have a frequency higher than 8×1014 Hz, but it
will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called 1.4.8 See also
ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Even higher-frequency waves
are called X-rays, and higher still are gamma rays. See also: Frequency (disambiguation) and
Category:Units of frequency
All of these waves, from the lowest-frequency radio waves
to the highest-frequency gamma rays, are fundamentally
the same, and they are all called electromagnetic radia-
• Audio frequency
tion. They all travel through a vacuum at the same speed
(the speed of light), giving them wavelengths inversely • Bandwidth (signal processing)
proportional to their frequencies.
• Cutoff frequency

• Downsampling
c = fλ
• Electronic filter
where c is the speed of light (c in a vacuum, or less in
other media), f is the frequency and λ is the wavelength. • Frequency band
In dispersive media, such as glass, the speed depends
• Frequency converter
somewhat on frequency, so the wavelength is not quite
inversely proportional to frequency. • Frequency domain

• Frequency distribution
Sound
• Frequency extender
Main article: Audio frequency
• Frequency grid

Sound propagates as mechanical vibration waves of pres- • Frequency modulation

sure and displacement, in air or other substances.[5] Fre-
quency is the property of sound that most determines • Frequency spectrum
pitch.[6] • Interaction frequency
The frequencies an ear can hear are limited to a specific
range of frequencies. The audible frequency range for • Natural frequency
humans is typically given as being between about 20 Hz • Negative frequency
and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), though the high frequency limit
usually reduces with age. Other species have different • Periodicity (disambiguation)
hearing ranges. For example, some dog breeds can per-
ceive vibrations up to 60,000 Hz.[7] • Pink noise
In many media, such as air, the speed of sound is approx- • Preselector
imately independent of frequency, so the wavelength of
the sound waves (distance between repetitions) is approx- • Radar signal characteristics
imately inversely proportional to frequency.
• Signaling (telecommunications)

• Spread spectrum
Line current
• Spectral component
Main article: Utility frequency
• Transverter
In Europe, Africa, Australia, Southern South America, • Upsampling
most of Asia, and Russia, the frequency of the alternating
current in household electrical outlets is 50 Hz (close to • Quefrency
1.5. DIRECT CURRENT 19

1.4.9 Notes and references

i,v pulsating
[1] “Definition of FREQUENCY”. Retrieved 3 October
2016.
direct
variable
[2] “Definition of PERIOD”. Retrieved 3 October 2016.
t
[3] Davies, A. (1997). Handbook of Condition Monitoring: alternating
Techniques and Methodology. New York: Springer. ISBN
978-0-412-61320-3.

[4] Bakshi, K.A.; A.V. Bakshi; U.A. Bakshi (2008).

Electronic Measurement Systems. US: Technical Publica- Direct Current (red line). The vertical axis shows current or volt-
tions. pp. 4–14. ISBN 978-81-8431-206-5. age and the horizontal 't' axis measures time and shows the zero
value.
[5] “Definition of SOUND”. Retrieved 3 October 2016.

[6] Pilhofer, Michael (2007). Music Theory for Dummies. flow must never reverse. This contrasts with alternating
For Dummies. p. 97. ISBN 9780470167946. current which varies the direction of flow.[1]
[7] Elert, Glenn; Timothy Condon (2003). “Frequency Range
Sources of direct current include power supplies,
of Dog Hearing”. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 2008-
electrochemical cells and batteries, and photovoltaic cells
10-22. and panels. The intensity, or amplitude, of a direct cur-
rent might fluctuate with time, and this fluctuation might
be periodic. In some such cases the dc has an ac compo-
1.4.10 Further reading nent superimposed on it. An example of this is the output
of a photovoltaic cell that receives a modulated light com-
• Giancoli, D.C. (1988). Physics for Scientists and
munications signal. A source of dc is sometimes called a
Engineers (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-
dc generator. [2]
669201-X.
Batteries and various other sources of dc produce a
constant voltage. This is called pure dc and can be repre-
1.4.11 External links sented by a straight, horizontal line on a graph of voltage
versus time. The peak and effective values are the same.
• Conversion: frequency to wavelength and back The peak to peak value is zero because the instantaneous
amplitude never changes. In some instances the value of
• Conversion: period, cycle duration, periodic time to a dc voltage pulsates or oscillates rapidly with time, in a
frequency manner similar to the changes in an ac wave. The unfil-
• Keyboard frequencies = naming of notes - The En- tered output of a half wave [2]
or a full wave rectifier, for
glish and American system versus the German sys- example, is pulsating dc.
tem

• Teaching resource for 14-16yrs on sound including 1.5.1 History

frequency
In 1820, Hans Christian Orsted discovered that electri-
• A simple tutorial on how to build a frequency meter cal current creates a magnetic field. This discovery made
scientists relate magnetism to the electric phenomena.
• Frequency - diracdelta.co.uk – JavaScript calcula-
tion. In 1879, Thomas Edison invented the electric light bulb.
He improved a 50-year-old idea using lower current elec-
• A frequency generator with sound, useful for hearing tricity, an improved vacuum inside the globe and a small
tests carbonized filament, and produced a reliable and long-
lasting source of light. At that time, the idea of elec-
tric lightning was not new, but nothing had been devel-
1.5 Direct current oped that was practical enough for home use. Edison not
only invented an incandescent electric light, but an elec-
“LVDC” redirects here. For the computer, see Saturn tric lighting system that contained all the necessary ele-
Launch Vehicle Digital Computer. ments to make the incandescent light safe, economical,
Direct current (DC) is a flow of electrical charge car- and practical. Prior to 1879, direct current (DC) elec-
riers that always takes place in the same direction. The tricity had been used in lighting for the outdoors.
current need not always have the same magnitude, but if It was in the 1880’s when the modern electric utility in-
it is to be defined as dc, the direction of the charge carrier dustry began. It was an evolution from street lighting
20 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

systems and from gas and electric carbon-arc commer- 1.5.2 Various definitions
cial systems. On September 4th, 1882, Edison switched
on the world’s first electrical power distribution system,
providing 110 volts of direct current (DC) to fifty-nine Battery
customers, and the first commercial power station began ω

working. It was located in Lower Manhattan, on Pearl

Street. This station provided light and electricity to cus-
tomers in a one square mile range. The electric age had t
begun. The station was called “Thomas Edison’s Pearl Half-wave rectification
ω
Street Electricity Generating Station.” This station intro-
duced four elements of a modern electric utility system:
Efficient distribution, competitive price, reliable central
generation and successful end use.[3] t
Full-wave rectification
The War of the Currents- ω

Edison developed direct current. During the early years

of electricity, direct current was the standard in the U.S.
t
Tesla believed that alternating current (or AC) was the
solution to this problem. Alternating current reverses di-
rection a certain number of times per second -- 60 in the Types of direct current
U.S. -- and can be converted to different voltages rela-
tively easily using a transformer. The term DC is used to refer to power systems that use
The Chicago World’s Fair -- also known as the World’s only one polarity of voltage or current, and to refer to the
Columbian Exposition -- took place in 1893, at the height constant, zero-frequency, or slowly varying local mean
of the Current War. value of a voltage or current.[5] For example, the volt-
age across a DC voltage source is constant as is the cur-
General Electric bid to electrify the fair using Edison’s
rent through a DC current source. The DC solution of
direct current for $554,000, but lost to George Westing-
an electric circuit is the solution where all voltages and
house, who said he could power the fair for only $399,000
currents are constant. It can be shown that any stationary
using Tesla’s alternating current.
voltage or current waveform can be decomposed into a
That same year, the Niagara Falls Power Company de- sum of a DC component and a zero-mean time-varying
cided to award Westinghouse -- who had licensed Tesla’s component; the DC component is defined to be the ex-
polyphase AC induction motor patent -- the contract pected value, or the average value of the voltage or cur-
to generate power from Niagara Falls. Although some rent over all time.
doubted that the falls could power all of Buffalo, New
Although DC stands for “direct current”, DC often refers
York, Tesla was convinced it could power not only Buf-
to “constant polarity”. Under this definition, DC voltages
falo, but also the entire Eastern United States.
can vary in time, as seen in the raw output of a rectifier
On Nov. 16, 1896, Buffalo was lit up by the alternating or the fluctuating voice signal on a telephone line.
current from Niagara Falls. By this time General Electric
Some forms of DC (such as that produced by a voltage
had decided to jump on the alternating current train, too.
regulator) have almost no variations in voltage, but may
It would appear that alternating current had all but oblit- still have variations in output power and current.
erated direct current, but in recent years direct current
In regard to radio frequency applications, DC commonly
has seen a bit of a renaissance.
denotes a frequency of 0 Hz. An example of this is the
Today our electricity is still predominantly powered by phrase “DC to daylight”, meaning a radio system which
alternating current, but computers, LEDs, solar cells and can receive or transmit in a frequency range from 0 Hz to
electric vehicles all run on DC power. And methods are some higher frequency. Most radio systems do not pro-
now available for converting direct current to higher and vide DC coverage.
lower voltages. Since direct current is more stable, com-
panies are finding ways of using high voltage direct cur-
rent (HVDC) to transport electricity long distances with 1.5.3 Circuits
less electricity loss.
A direct current circuit is an electrical circuit that consists
So it appears the War of the Currents may not be over yet. of any combination of constant voltage sources, constant
But instead of continuing in a heated AC vs. DC battle, current sources, and resistors. In this case, the circuit
it looks like the two currents will end up working parallel voltages and currents are independent of time. A par-
to each other in a sort of hybrid armistice.[4] ticular circuit voltage or current does not depend on the
past value of any circuit voltage or current. This implies
1.5. DIRECT CURRENT 21

that the system of equations that represent a DC circuit do Telecommunication

not involve integrals or derivatives with respect to time.
If a capacitor or inductor is added to a DC circuit, the re- Through the use of a DC-DC converter, higher DC volt-
sulting circuit is not, strictly speaking, a DC circuit. How- ages such as 48 V to 72 V DC can be stepped down to 36
ever, most such circuits have a DC solution. This solution V, 24 V, 18 V, 12 V, or 5 V to supply different loads. In
gives the circuit voltages and currents when the circuit is a telecommunications system operating at 48 V DC, it is
in DC steady state. Such a circuit is represented by a sys- generally more efficient to step voltage down to 12 V to
tem of differential equations. The solution to these equa- 24 V DC with a DC-DC converter and power equipment
tions usually contain a time varying or transient part as loads directly at their native DC input voltages, versus op-
well as constant or steady state part. It is this steady state erating a 48 V DC to 120 V AC inverter to provide power
part that is the DC solution. There are some circuits that to equipment.
do not have a DC solution. Two simple examples are a Many telephones connect to a twisted pair of wires, and
constant current source connected to a capacitor and a use a bias tee to internally separate the AC component of
constant voltage source connected to an inductor. the voltage between the two wires (the audio signal) from
In electronics, it is common to refer to a circuit that is the DC component of the voltage between the two wires
powered by a DC voltage source such as a battery or the (used to power the phone).
output of a DC power supply as a DC circuit even though Telephone exchange communication equipment, such as
what is meant is that the circuit is DC powered. DSLAMs, uses standard −48 V DC power supply. The
negative polarity is achieved by grounding the positive
terminal of power supply system and the battery bank.
1.5.4 Applications This is done to prevent electrolysis depositions.
Domestic
High-voltage power transmission

Main article: High-voltage direct current

High-voltage direct current (HVDC) electric power trans-

mission systems use DC for the bulk transmission of elec-
trical power, in contrast with the more common alter-
nating current systems. For long-distance transmission,
This symbol which can be represented with Unicode character HVDC systems may be less expensive and suffer lower
U+2393 ( ) is found on many electronic devices that either re- electrical losses.
quire or produce direct current.

DC is commonly found in many extra-low voltage ap- Other

plications and some low-voltage applications, especially
where these are powered by batteries or solar power sys- Applications using fuel cells (mixing hydrogen and oxy-
tems (since both can produce only DC). gen together with a catalyst to produce electricity and wa-
Most electronic circuits require a DC power supply. ter as byproducts) also produce only DC.
Domestic DC installations usually have different types Light aircraft electrical systems are typically 12 V or 20
of sockets, connectors, switches, and fixtures from those V DC.
suitable for alternating current. This is mostly due to the
lower voltages used, resulting in higher currents to pro-
duce the same amount of power. 1.5.5 See also
It is usually important with a DC appliance to observe
polarity, unless the device has a diode bridge to correct • Electric current
for this.
• High-voltage direct current power transmission.
Automotive
• Alternating current
Most automotive applications use DC. The alternator is an
AC device which uses a rectifier to produce DC. Usually • DC offset
12 V DC are used, but a few have a 6 V (e.g. classic VW
Beetle) or a 42 V electrical system. • Neutral direct-current telegraph system
22 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.5.6 References
i,v pulsating
[1] Gibilisco, Stan (2001). Electronics Portable Handbook.
New York, United States: Mc-Graw Hill. pp. Page 1.
direct
ISBN 9780071378109 – via Gibilisco, S. (2000). Elec- variable
tronics Portable Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill t
Professional. Direct current (dc) is a flow of electrical
charge carriers that always takes place in the same direc- alternating
tion. This is what distinguishes direct current from alter-
nating current (ac). The current need not always have the
same magnitude, but if it is to be defined as dc, the direc-
tion of the charge carrier flow must never reverse. Alternating current (green curve). The horizontal axis measures
time; the vertical, current or voltage.
[2] Gibilisco, Stan (2000). Electronics Portable Manual.
New York : McGraw-Hill Professional. Ebook: New
York : McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. page 4. ISBN Alternating current (AC), is an electric current which
9780071378109 – via ebook. Typical sources of dc in-
periodically reverses direction, whereas direct current
clude power supplies, electrochemical cells and batteries,
(DC, also dc) flows only in one direction. Alternating
and photovoltaic cells and panels. The intensity, or am-
plitude, of a direct current might fluctuate with time, and current is the form in which electric power is delivered
this fluctuation might be periodic. In some such cases the to businesses and residences, and it is the form of elec-
dc has an ac component superimposed on it (as in Fig. tric energy that consumers typically use when they plug
1.1B). An example of this is the output of a photovoltaic kitchen appliances, televisions and electric lamps into a
cell that receives a modulated light communications sig- wall socket. A common source of DC power is a battery
nal. A source of dc is sometimes called a dc generator cell in a flashlight. The abbreviations AC and DC are of-
Batteries and various other sources of dc produce a con- ten used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when
stant voltage. This is called pure dc and can be represented they modify current or voltage.[1][2]
by a straight, horizontal line on a graph of voltage versus
time (as in Fig. 1.1A). The peak and effective values are The usual waveform of alternating current in most elec-
the same. The peak to peak value is zero because the in- tric power circuits is a sine wave. In certain applica-
stantaneous amplitude never changes. In some instances tions, different waveforms are used, such as triangular or
the value of a dc voltage pulsates or oscillates rapidly with square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electri-
time, in a manner similar to the changes in an ac wave. cal wires are also examples of alternating current. These
The unfiltered output of a half wave or a full wave rectifier, types of alternating current carry information encoded
for example, is pulsating dc. APA (American Psycholog- (or modulated) onto the AC signal, such as sound (au-
ical Assoc.) Gibilisco, S. (2000). Electronics Portable
dio) or images (video). These currents typically alternate
Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. MLA
at higher frequencies than those used in power transmis-
(Modern Language Assoc.) Gibilisco, Stan. Electronics
Portable Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill Profes- sion.
sional, 2000. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 21
Feb. 2017.
1.6.1 Transmission, distribution, and do-
[3] “Electricity”. mestic power supply
[4] “The War of the Currents”. U.S. Department of Energy.
Main articles: Electric power transmission and Electric
[5] Roger S. Amos, Geoffrey William Arnold Dummer power distribution
(1999). Newnes Dictionary of Electronic (4th ed.).
Newnes. p. 83. ISBN 0-7506-4331-5. Electrical energy is distributed as alternating current be-
cause AC voltage may be increased or decreased with
a transformer. This allows the power to be transmitted
1.5.7 External links through power lines efficiently at high voltage, which re-
duces the energy lost as heat due to resistance of the wire,
• "AC/DC: What’s the Difference?".
and transformed to a lower, safer, voltage for use. Use of
• “DC And AC Supplies” (PDF). ITACA. External a higher voltage leads to significantly more efficient trans-
link in |publisher= (help) mission of power. The power losses ( PL ) in a conduc-
tor are a product of the square of the current (I) and the
resistance (R) of the conductor, described by the formula
1.6 Alternating current
PL = I 2 R .
“Effective power” redirects here. For the iOS 8 bug, see
SpringBoard § “effective. Power” bug. This means that when transmitting a fixed power on a
1.6. ALTERNATING CURRENT 23

given wire, if the current is halved (i.e. the voltage is Three-phase electrical generation is very common. The
doubled), the power loss will be four times less. simplest way is to use three separate coils in the gener-
The power transmitted is equal to the product of the cur- ator stator, physically offset by an angle of 120° (one-
rent and the voltage (assuming no phase difference); that third of a complete 360° phase) to each other. Three
is, current waveforms are produced that are equal in mag-
nitude and 120° out of phase to each other. If coils are
added opposite to these (60° spacing), they generate the
same phases with reverse polarity and so can be simply
PT = IV . wired together. In practice, higher “pole orders” are com-
monly used. For example, a 12-pole machine would have
Consequently, power transmitted at a higher voltage re- 36 coils (10° spacing). The advantage is that lower rota-
quires less loss-producing current than for the same power tional speeds can be used to generate the same frequency.
at a lower voltage. Power is often transmitted at hundreds For example, a 2-pole machine running at 3600 rpm and
of kilovolts, and transformed to 100–240 volts for domes- a 12-pole machine running at 600 rpm produce the same
tic use. frequency; the lower speed is preferable for larger ma-
chines. If the load on a three-phase system is balanced
equally among the phases, no current flows through the
neutral point. Even in the worst-case unbalanced (lin-
ear) load, the neutral current will not exceed the highest
of the phase currents. Non-linear loads (e.g. the switch-
mode power supplies widely used) may require an over-
sized neutral bus and neutral conductor in the upstream
distribution panel to handle harmonics. Harmonics can
cause neutral conductor current levels to exceed that of
one or all phase conductors.
For three-phase at utilization voltages a four-wire sys-
tem is often used. When stepping down three-phase, a
transformer with a Delta (3-wire) primary and a Star (4-
wire, center-earthed) secondary is often used so there is
High voltage transmission lines deliver power from electric gener- no need for a neutral on the supply side. For smaller cus-
ation plants over long distances using alternating current. These tomers (just how small varies by country and age of the
lines are located in eastern Utah. installation) only a single phase and neutral, or two phases
and neutral, are taken to the property. For larger installa-
High voltages have disadvantages, such as the increased tions all three phases and neutral are taken to the main dis-
insulation required, and generally increased difficulty in tribution panel. From the three-phase main panel, both
their safe handling. In a power plant, energy is gener- single and three-phase circuits may lead off. Three-wire
ated at a convenient voltage for the design of a generator, single-phase systems, with a single center-tapped trans-
and then stepped up to a high voltage for transmission. former giving two live conductors, is a common distribu-
Near the loads, the transmission voltage is stepped down tion scheme for residential and small commercial build-
to the voltages used by equipment. Consumer voltages ings in North America. This arrangement is sometimes
vary somewhat depending on the country and size of load, incorrectly referred to as “two phase”. A similar method
but generally motors and lighting are built to use up to a is used for a different reason on construction sites in the
few hundred volts between phases. The voltage delivered UK. Small power tools and lighting are supposed to be
to equipment such as lighting and motor loads is stan- supplied by a local center-tapped transformer with a volt-
dardized, with an allowable range of voltage over which age of 55 V between each power conductor and earth.
equipment is expected to operate. Standard power uti- This significantly reduces the risk of electric shock in the
lization voltages and percentage tolerance vary in the dif- event that one of the live conductors becomes exposed
ferent mains power systems found in the world. High- through an equipment fault whilst still allowing a reason-
voltage direct-current (HVDC) electric power transmis- able voltage of 110 V between the two conductors for
sion systems have become more viable as technology has running the tools.
provided efficient means of changing the voltage of DC A third wire, called the bond (or earth) wire, is of-
power. HVDC systems, however, tend to be more expen- ten connected between non-current-carrying metal enclo-
sive and less efficient over shorter distances than trans- sures and earth ground. This conductor provides protec-
formers. Transmission with high voltage direct current tion from electric shock due to accidental contact of cir-
was not feasible in the early days of electric power trans- cuit conductors with the metal chassis of portable appli-
mission, as there was then no economically viable way ances and tools. Bonding all non-current-carrying metal
to step down the voltage of DC for end user applications parts into one complete system ensures there is always
such as lighting incandescent bulbs.
24 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

a low electrical impedance path to ground sufficient to

carry any fault current for as long as it takes for the sys-
tem to clear the fault. This low impedance path allows
the maximum amount of fault current, causing the over-
current protection device (breakers, fuses) to trip or burn
out as quickly as possible, bringing the electrical system
to a safe state. All bond wires are bonded to ground at the
main service panel, as is the Neutral/Identified conductor
if present.

1.6.2 AC power supply frequencies A Tesla coil producing high-frequency current that is harmless
to humans, but lights a fluorescent lamp when brought near it
(experiment performed by Prof. Oliver Zajkov at the Physics In-
Further information: Mains electricity by country
stitute at the Ss. Cyril and Methodius University of Skopje, Mace-
donia)
The frequency of the electrical system varies by country
and sometimes within a country; most electric power is
generated at either 50 or 60 hertz. Some countries have a of electricity toward the center of materials with high
mixture of 50 Hz and 60 Hz supplies, notably electricity conductivity. This phenomenon is called skin effect. At
power transmission in Japan. A low frequency eases very high frequencies the current no longer flows in the
the design of electric motors, particularly for hoisting, wire, but effectively flows on the surface of the wire,
crushing and rolling applications, and commutator-type within a thickness of a few skin depths. The skin depth is
traction motors for applications such as railways. How- the thickness at which the current density is reduced by
ever, low frequency also causes noticeable flicker in arc 63%. Even at relatively low frequencies used for power
lamps and incandescent light bulbs. The use of lower fre- transmission (50–60 Hz), non-uniform distribution of
quencies also provided the advantage of lower impedance current still occurs in sufficiently thick conductors. For
losses, which are proportional to frequency. The orig- example, the skin depth of a copper conductor is approx-
inal Niagara Falls generators were built to produce 25 imately 8.57 mm at 60 Hz, so high current conductors
Hz power, as a compromise between low frequency for are usually hollow to reduce their mass and cost. Since
traction and heavy induction motors, while still allowing the current tends to flow in the periphery of conductors,
incandescent lighting to operate (although with notice- the effective cross-section of the conductor is reduced.
able flicker). Most of the 25 Hz residential and commer- This increases the effective AC resistance of the conduc-
cial customers for Niagara Falls power were converted tor, since resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-
to 60 Hz by the late 1950s, although some 25 Hz indus- sectional area. The AC resistance often is many times
trial customers still existed as of the start of the 21st cen- higher than the DC resistance, causing a much higher en-
tury. 16.7 Hz power (formerly 16 2/3 Hz) is still used in ergy loss due to ohmic heating (also called I2 R loss).
some European rail systems, such as in Austria, Germany,
Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. Off-shore, military, Techniques for reducing AC resistance
textile industry, marine, aircraft, and spacecraft appli-
cations sometimes use 400 Hz, for benefits of reduced For low to medium frequencies, conductors can be di-
weight of apparatus or higher motor speeds. Computer vided into stranded wires, each insulated from one other,
mainframe systems were often powered by 400 or 415 Hz and the relative positions of individual strands specially
for benefits of ripple reduction while using smaller inter- arranged within the conductor bundle. Wire constructed
nal AC to DC conversion units.[3] In any case, the input to using this technique is called Litz wire. This measure
the M-G set is the local customary voltage and frequency, helps to partially mitigate skin effect by forcing more
variously 200 (Japan), 208, 240 (North America), 380, equal current throughout the total cross section of the
400 or 415 (Europe) volts, and variously 50 or 60 Hz. stranded conductors. Litz wire is used for making high-Q
inductors, reducing losses in flexible conductors carrying
very high currents at lower frequencies, and in the wind-
1.6.3 Effects at high frequencies ings of devices carrying higher radio frequency current
(up to hundreds of kilohertz), such as switch-mode power
Main article: Skin effect supplies and radio frequency transformers.
A direct current flows uniformly throughout the cross-
section of a uniform wire. An alternating current of any
frequency is forced away from the wire’s center, toward Techniques for reducing radiation loss
its outer surface. This is because the acceleration of an
electric charge in an alternating current produces waves As written above, an alternating current is made of
of electromagnetic radiation that cancel the propagation electric charge under periodic acceleration, which causes
1.6. ALTERNATING CURRENT 25

radiation of electromagnetic waves. Energy that is radi- the ohmic losses in the waveguide walls become large. In-
ated is lost. Depending on the frequency, different tech- stead, fiber optics, which are a form of dielectric waveg-
niques are used to minimize the loss due to radiation. uides, can be used. For such frequencies, the concepts of
voltages and currents are no longer used.
Twisted pairs At frequencies up to about 1 GHz, pairs
of wires are twisted together in a cable, forming a twisted 1.6.4 Mathematics of AC voltages
pair. This reduces losses from electromagnetic radiation
and inductive coupling. A twisted pair must be used with
a balanced signalling system, so that the two wires carry
equal but opposite currents. Each wire in a twisted pair
radiates a signal, but it is effectively cancelled by radiation
from the other wire, resulting in almost no radiation loss.

Coaxial cables Coaxial cables are commonly used at

audio frequencies and above for convenience. A coax-
ial cable has a conductive wire inside a conductive tube,
separated by a dielectric layer. The current flowing on
the inner conductor is equal and opposite to the current
flowing on the inner surface of the tube. The electromag-
netic field is thus completely contained within the tube,
and (ideally) no energy is lost to radiation or coupling
outside the tube. Coaxial cables have acceptably small
losses for frequencies up to about 5 GHz. For microwave
frequencies greater than 5 GHz, the losses (due mainly to
the electrical resistance of the central conductor) become
too large, making waveguides a more efficient medium
A sinusoidal alternating voltage.
for transmitting energy. Coaxial cables with an air rather 1 = peak, also amplitude,
than solid dielectric are preferred as they transmit power 2 = peak-to-peak,
with lower loss. 3 = effective value,
4 = Period
Waveguides Waveguides are similar to coax cables, as
both consist of tubes, with the biggest difference being 1

that the waveguide has no inner conductor. Waveguides

can have any arbitrary cross section, but rectangular cross 0.5
sections are the most common. Because waveguides do
not have an inner conductor to carry a return current,
0
waveguides cannot deliver energy by means of an electric
current, but rather by means of a guided electromagnetic
-0.5
field. Although surface currents do flow on the inner walls
of the waveguides, those surface currents do not carry
power. Power is carried by the guided electromagnetic -1
0 90 180 270 360
fields. The surface currents are set up by the guided elec-
tromagnetic fields and have the effect of keeping the fields
inside the waveguide and preventing leakage of the fields A sine wave, over one cycle (360°). The dashed line represents
to the space outside the waveguide. Waveguides have di- the root mean square (RMS) value at about 0.707
mensions comparable to the wavelength of the alternat-
ing current to be transmitted, so they are only feasible Alternating currents are accompanied (or caused) by al-
at microwave frequencies. In addition to this mechani- ternating voltages. An AC voltage v can be described
cal feasibility, electrical resistance of the non-ideal metals mathematically as a function of time by the following
forming the walls of the waveguide cause dissipation of equation:
power (surface currents flowing on lossy conductors dis-
sipate power). At higher frequencies, the power lost to
this dissipation becomes unacceptably large. v(t) = Vpeak · sin(ωt)

where
Fiber optics At frequencies greater than 200 GHz,
waveguide dimensions become impractically small, and • Vpeak is the peak voltage (unit: volt),
26 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

• ω is the angular frequency (unit: radians per second) • For a sinusoidal voltage:
• The angular frequency is related to the phys- √
∫
ical frequency, f (unit = hertz), which repre- 1 T
Vrms = [Vpk sin(ωt + ϕ)]2 dt
sents the number of cycles per second, by the T 0
√
equation ω = 2πf . ∫ T
1
= Vpk [1 − cos(2ωt + 2ϕ)]dt
• t is the time (unit: second). 2T 0
√
∫ T
1
The peak-to-peak value of an AC voltage is defined as the = Vpk dt
difference between its positive peak and its negative peak. 2T 0
Since the maximum value of sin(x) is +1 and the mini- Vpk
= √
mum value is −1, an AC voltage swings between +Vpeak 2
and −Vpeak . The peak-to-peak voltage, usually written
as Vpp or VP−P , is therefore Vpeak − (−Vpeak ) = 2Vpeak . where the trigonometric identity sin2 √ x =
1−cos 2x
2 has been used and the factor 2 is
called the crest factor, which varies for differ-
Power ent waveforms.

Main article: AC power • For a triangle waveform centered about zero

The relationship between voltage and the power delivered Vpeak

Vrms = √ .
is 3

p(t) = v 2 (t)
where R represents a load resis- • For a square waveform centered about zero
R
tance.
Vrms = Vpeak .

Rather than using instantaneous power, p(t) , it is more

practical to use a time averaged power (where the aver- Example
aging is performed over any integer number of cycles).
Therefore, AC voltage is often expressed as a root mean To illustrate these concepts, consider a 230 V AC mains
square (RMS) value, written as Vrms , because supply used in many countries around the world. It is so
called because its root mean square value is 230 V. This
means that the time-averaged power delivered is equiva-
V 2 rms lent to the power delivered by a DC voltage of 230 V. To
Ptime averaged = . determine the peak voltage (amplitude), we can rearrange
R
the above equation to:
Power oscillation v(t) = Vpeak sin(ωt)
v(t) Vpeak √
i(t) = R = R sin(ωt) Vpeak = 2 Vrms .
(Vpeak )2
P (t) = v(t) i(t) = R sin2 (ωt) √ 230 V AC, the peak voltage Vpeak is therefore 230V ×
For
2 , which is about 325 V. During the course of one cycle
the voltage rises from zero to 325 V, falls through zero to
Root mean square voltage −325 V, and returns to zero.
Further information: RMS amplitude
For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Root 1.6.5 Information transmission
mean square voltage.
Alternating current is used to transmit information, as in
Below it is assumed an AC waveform (with no DC com- the cases of telephone and cable television. Information
ponent). signals are carried over a wide range of AC frequencies.
POTS telephone signals have a frequency of about 3 kilo-
hertz, close to the baseband audio frequency. Cable tele-
• For an arbitrary periodic waveform v(t) of period T
vision and other cable-transmitted information currents
:
may alternate at frequencies of tens to thousands of mega-
√ hertz. These frequencies are similar to the electromag-
∫
1 T netic wave frequencies often used to transmit the same
Vrms = [v(t)]2 dt.
T 0 types of information over the air.
1.6. ALTERNATING CURRENT 27

1.6.6 History required generation to be close to customer loads, other-

wise losses made the system uneconomical to operate.
The first alternator to produce alternating current was a
dynamo electric generator based on Michael Faraday's
principles constructed by the French instrument maker Transformers
Hippolyte Pixii in 1832.[4] Pixii later added a commutator
to his device to produce the (then) more commonly used Alternating current systems can use transformers to
direct current. The earliest recorded practical application change voltage from low to high level and back, al-
of alternating current is by Guillaume Duchenne, inventor lowing generation and consumption at low voltages but
and developer of electrotherapy. In 1855, he announced transmission, possibly over great distances, at high volt-
that AC was superior to direct current for electrother- age, with savings in the cost of conductors and energy
apeutic triggering of muscle contractions.[5] Alternating losses. A bipolar open-core power transformer developed
current technology had first developed in Europe due to by Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs was demon-
the work of Guillaume Duchenne (1850s), the Hungar- strated in London in 1881, and attracted the interest of
ian Ganz Works company (1870s), and in the 1880s: Westinghouse. They also exhibited the invention in Turin
Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti, Lucien Gaulard, and Galileo in 1884. However these early induction coils with open
Ferraris. magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring power to
loads. Until about 1880, the paradigm for AC power
In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a transmission from a high voltage supply to a low voltage
lighting system based on a set of induction coils where load was a series circuit. Open-core transformers with a
the primary windings were connected to a source of ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in se-
AC. The secondary windings could be connected to sev- ries to allow use of a high voltage for transmission while
eral 'electric candles’ (arc lamps) of his own design.[6][7] presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The inherent flaw
The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially in this method was that turning off a single lamp (or other
as transformers.[6] In 1878, the Ganz factory, Budapest, electric device) affected the voltage supplied to all others
Hungary, began manufacturing equipment for electric on the same circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs
lighting and, by 1883, had installed over fifty systems were introduced to compensate for this problematic char-
in Austria-Hungary. Their AC systems used arc and in- acteristic of the series circuit, including those employing
candescent lamps, generators, and other equipment.[8] methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic
A power transformer developed by Lucien Gaulard and flux around part of a coil.[10] The direct current systems
John Dixon Gibbs was demonstrated in London in 1881, did not have these drawbacks, giving it significant advan-
and attracted the interest of Westinghouse. They also ex- tages over early AC systems.
hibited the invention in Turin in 1884.

Pioneers
DC distribution systems

During the initial years of electricity distribution, Thomas

Edison's direct current was the standard for the United
States, and Edison did not want to lose all his patent
royalties.[9] Direct current worked well with incandescent
lamps, which were the principal electric load of the day,
and with electric motors. Direct-current systems could
be directly used with storage batteries, providing valu-
able load-leveling and backup power during interruptions
of generator operation. Direct-current generators could
be easily paralleled, allowing economical operation by
using smaller machines during periods of light load and
improving reliability. At the introduction of Edison’s sys- The Hungarian “ZBD” Team (Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy,
tem, no practical AC motor was available. Edison had in- Miksa Déri), inventors of the first high efficiency, closed-core
vented a meter to allow customers to be billed for energy shunt connection transformer
proportional to consumption, but this meter worked only
with direct current. The principal drawback of direct- In the autumn of 1884, Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy
current distribution was that customer loads, distribution and Miksa Déri (ZBD), three engineers associated with
and generation were all at the same voltage. Generally, it the Ganz factory, determined that open-core devices were
was uneconomical to use a high voltage for transmission impractical, as they were incapable of reliably regulat-
and reduce it for customer uses. Even with the Edison 3- ing voltage.[11] In their joint 1885 patent applications
wire system (placing two 110-volt customer loads in se- for novel transformers (later called ZBD transformers),
ries on a 220-volt supply), the high cost of conductors they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits
28 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Westinghouse Early AC System 1887

The prototype of the ZBD transformer on display at the Széchenyi (US patent 373035)
István Memorial Exhibition, Nagycenk in Hungary

In the UK, Sebastian de Ferranti, who had been devel-

oping AC generators and transformers in London since
where copper windings were either a) wound around iron 1882, redesigned the AC system at the Grosvenor Gallery
wire ring core or b) surrounded by iron wire core.[10] In power station in 1886 for the London Electric Supply
both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and Corporation (LESCo) including alternators of his own
secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the design and transformer designs similar to Gaulard and
confines of the iron core, with no intentional path through Gibbs.[25] In 1890 he designed their power station at
air (see toroidal cores). The new transformers were 3.4 Deptford[26] and converted the Grosvenor Gallery station
times more efficient than the open-core bipolar devices of across the Thames into an electrical substation, showing
Gaulard and Gibbs.[12] The Ganz factory in 1884 shipped the way to integrate older plants into a universal AC sup-
the world’s first five high-efficiency AC transformers.[13] ply system.[27]
This first unit had been manufactured to the following In the US William Stanley, Jr. designed one of the first
specifications: 1,400 W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V, 11.6:19.4 A, practical devices to transfer AC power efficiently be-
ratio 1.67:1, one-phase, shell form.[13] tween isolated circuits. Using pairs of coils wound on a
The ZBD patents included two other major interrelated common iron core, his design, called an induction coil,
innovations: one concerning the use of parallel con- was an early (1885) transformer. Stanley also worked
nected, instead of series connected, utilization loads, the on engineering and adapting European designs such as
other concerning the ability to have high turns ratio trans- the Gaulard and Gibbs transformer for US entrepreneur
formers such that the supply network voltage could be George Westinghouse who started building AC systems
much higher (initially 1,400 to 2,000 V) than the volt- in 1886. The spread of Westinghouse and other AC sys-
age of utilization loads (100 V initially preferred).[14][15] tems triggered a push back in late 1887 by Edison (a pro-
When employed in parallel connected electric distribu- ponent of direct current) who attempted to discredit al-
tion systems, closed-core transformers finally made it ternating current as too dangerous in a public campaign
technically and economically feasible to provide elec- called the "War of Currents". In 1888 alternating cur-
tric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public rent systems gained further viability with introduction
spaces.[16][17] The other essential milestone was the in- of a functional AC motor, something these systems had
troduction of 'voltage source, voltage intensive' (VSVI) lacked up till then. The design, an induction motor, was
systems’[18] by the invention of constant voltage genera- independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola
tors in 1885.[19] Ottó Bláthy also invented the first AC Tesla (with Tesla’s design being licensed by Westinghouse
electricity meter.[20][21][22][23] in the US). This design was further developed into the
The AC power systems was developed and adopted modern practical three-phase form by Mikhail Dolivo- [28]
rapidly after 1886 due to its ability to distribute electric- Dobrovolsky and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown.
ity efficiently over long distances, overcoming the limi- The Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant (spring of
tations of the direct current system. In 1886, the ZBD 1891) and the original Niagara Falls Adams Power Plant
engineers designed the world’s first power station that (August 25, 1895) were among the first hydroelectric
used AC generators to power a parallel-connected com- AC-power plants. The first commercial power plant in
mon electrical network, the steam-powered Rome-Cerchi the United States using three-phase alternating current
power plant.[24] The reliability of the AC technology re- was the hydroelectric Mill Creek No. 1 Hydroelectric
ceived impetus after the Ganz Works electrified a large Plant near Redlands, California, in 1893 designed by
European metropolis: Rome in 1886.[24] Almirian Decker. Decker’s design incorporated 10,000
1.6. ALTERNATING CURRENT 29

V three-phase transmission and established the standards [7] De Fonveille, W. (Jan 22, 1880). “Gas and
for the complete system of generation, transmission and Electricity in Paris”. Nature. 21 (534): 283.
motors used today. The Jaruga Hydroelectric Power Bibcode:1880Natur..21..282D. doi:10.1038/021282b0.
Plant in Croatia was set in operation on 28 August 1895. Retrieved Jan 9, 2009.
The two generators (42 Hz, 550 kW each) and the trans- [8] Hughes, Thomas P. (1993). Networks of Power: Electri-
formers were produced and installed by the Hungarian fication in Western Society, 1880-1930. Baltimore: The
company Ganz. The transmission line from the power Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 96. ISBN 0-8018-
plant to the City of Šibenik was 11.5 kilometers (7.1 mi) 2873-2. Retrieved Sep 9, 2009.
long on wooden towers, and the municipal distribution
grid 3000 V/110 V included six transforming stations. [9] McNichol, Tom (2006). AC/DC: the savage tale of the
Alternating current circuit theory developed rapidly in the first standards war. John Wiley and Sons. p. 80. ISBN
latter part of the 19th and early 20th century. Notable 978-0-7879-8267-6.
contributors to the theoretical basis of alternating current [10] Uppenborn, F. J. (1889). History of the Transformer.
calculations include Charles Steinmetz, Oliver Heaviside, London: E. & F. N. Spon. pp. 35–41.
and many others.[29][30] Calculations in unbalanced three-
phase systems were simplified by the symmetrical com- [11] Hughes, p. 95
ponents methods discussed by Charles Legeyt Fortescue
[12] Jeszenszky, Sándor. “Electrostatics and Electrodynam-
in 1918.
ics at Pest University in the Mid-19th Century” (PDF).
University of Pavia. Retrieved Mar 3, 2012.
1.6.7 See also [13] Halacsy, A. A.; Von Fuchs, G. H. (April 1961).
“Transformer Invented 75 Years Ago”. IEEE Transactions
• AC power of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 80 (3):
121–125. doi:10.1109/AIEEPAS.1961.4500994. Re-
• Direct current
trieved Feb 29, 2012.
• Electric current
[14] “Hungarian Inventors and Their Inventions”. Institute for
• Electrical wiring Developing Alternative Energy in Latin America. Re-
trieved Mar 3, 2012.
• Heavy-duty power plugs
[15] “Bláthy, Ottó Titusz”. Budapest University of Technology
• Hertz and Economics, National Technical Information Centre
and Library. Retrieved Feb 29, 2012.
• Mains power systems
[16] “Bláthy, Ottó Titusz (1860 - 1939)". Hungarian Patent
• AC power plugs and sockets Office. Retrieved Jan 29, 2004.
• Utility frequency [17] Zipernowsky, K.; Déri, M.; Bláthy, O.T. “Induction Coil”
(PDF). U.S. Patent 352 105, issued Nov. 2, 1886. Re-
• War of Currents
trieved July 8, 2009.
• AC/DC receiver design
[18] American Society for Engineering Education. Confer-
ence - 1995: Annual Conference Proceedings, Volume 2,
(PAGE: 1848)
1.6.8 References
[19] Thomas Parke Hughes: Networks of Power: Electrifica-
[1] N. N. Bhargava & D. C. Kulshreshtha (1983). Basic Elec- tion in Western Society, 1880-1930 (PAGE: 96)
tronics & Linear Circuits. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
p. 90. ISBN 978-0-07-451965-3. [20] Eugenii Katz. “Blathy”. People.clarkson.edu. Archived
from the original on June 25, 2008. Retrieved 2009-08-
[2] National Electric Light Association (1915). Electrical me-
04.
terman’s handbook. Trow Press. p. 81.

[3] The Basics of 400-Hz Power Systems [21] Ricks, G.W.D. (March 1896). “Electricity Supply Me-
ters”. Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.
[4] Pixii Machine invented by Hippolyte Pixii, National High 25 (120): 57–77. doi:10.1049/jiee-1.1896.0005. Student
Magnetic Field Laboratory paper read on January 24, 1896 at the Students’ Meeting.

[5] Licht, Sidney Herman., “History of Electrotherapy”, in [22] The Electrician, Volume 50. 1923
Therapeutic Electricity and Ultraviolet Radiation, 2nd
ed., ed. Sidney Licht, New Haven: E. Licht, 1967, Pp. [23] Official gazette of the United States Patent Office: Volume
1-70. 50. (1890)

[6] “Stanley Transformer”. Los Alamos National Laboratory; [24] “Ottó Bláthy, Miksa Déri, Károly Zipernowsky”. IEC
University of Florida. Retrieved Jan 9, 2009. Techline. Retrieved Apr 16, 2010.
30 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

[25] Hughes, Thomas P. (1993). Networks of Power: Electri- • Williams, Trip “Kingpin”, "Understanding Alternat-
fication in Western Society, 1880-1930. Baltimore: The ing Current, Some more power concepts".
Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-8018-
2873-2 • "Table of Voltage, Frequency, TV Broadcasting sys-
tem, Radio Broadcasting, by Country".
[26] Ferranti Timeline – Museum of Science and Industry (Ac-
cessed 22-02-2012) • Professor Mark Csele’s tour of the 25 Hz Rankine
[27] Hughes, Thomas P. (1993). Networks of Power: Electri-
generating station
fication in Western Society, 1880-1930. Baltimore: The • 50/60 hertz information
Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 208. ISBN 0-8018-
2873-2 • AC circuits Animations and explanations of vector
[28] Arnold Heertje, Mark Perlman Evolving Technology and (phasor) representation of RLC circuits
Market Structure: Studies in Schumpeterian Economics,
• Blalock, Thomas J., "The Frequency Changer Era:
page 138
Interconnecting Systems of Varying Cycles". The
[29] I. Grattan-Guinness, History and Philosophy of the Math- history of various frequencies and interconversion
ematical Sciences - 2003, Page 1229 schemes in the US at the beginning of the 20th cen-
tury
[30] Jeff Suzuki, Mathematics in Historical Context - 2009,
page 329 • (Italian) Generating an AC voltage. Interactive.
• AC Power History and Timeline
1.6.9 Further reading
• Willam A. Meyers, History and Reflections on the
Way Things Were: Mill Creek Power Plant – Making
History with AC, IEEE Power Engineering Review,
February 1997, pages 22–24

1.6.10 External links

• "Alternating Current". Interactive Java tutorial ex-
plaining alternating current. (National High Mag-
netic Field Laboratory)
• "AC/DC: What’s the Difference?". Edison’s Miracle
of Light, American Experience. (PBS)
• "AC/DC: Inside the AC Generator". Edison’s Miracle
of Light, American Experience. (PBS)
• Kuphaldt, Tony R., "Lessons In Electric Circuits :
Volume II - AC". March 8, 2003. (Design Science
License)
• Nave, C. R., "Alternating Current Circuits Concepts".
HyperPhysics.
• "Alternating Current (AC)". Magnetic Particle In-
spection, Nondestructive Testing Encyclopedia.
• "Alternating current". Analog Process Control Ser-
vices.
• Hiob, Eric, "An Application of Trigonometry and
Vectors to Alternating Current". British Columbia
Institute of Technology, 2004.
• "Introduction to alternating current and transform-
ers". Integrated Publishing.
• Chan. Keelin, "Alternating current Tools". JC
Physics, 2002.
Chapter 2

Electrical components

2.1 Active and passive components energy EA as:

Passivity is a property of engineering systems, used in ∫ T

a variety of engineering disciplines, but most commonly EA (x) = sup −⟨v(t), i(t)⟩ dt
found in analog electronics and control systems. A pas- x→T ≥0 0
sive component, depending on field, may be either a
component that consumes (but does not produce) energy where the notation supx→T≥₀ indicates that the
(thermodynamic passivity), or a component that is inca- supremum is taken over all T ≥ 0 and all admissible
pable of power gain (incremental passivity). pairs {v(·), i(·)} with the fixed initial state x (e.g., all
voltage–current trajectories for a given initial condition
A component that is not passive is called an active com- of the system). A system is considered passive if EA
ponent. An electronic circuit consisting entirely of pas- is finite for all initial states x. Otherwise, the system is
sive components is called a passive circuit (and has the considered active. Roughly speaking, the inner product
same properties as a passive component). Used out-of- ⟨v(t), i(t)⟩ is the instantaneous power (e.g., the product
context and without a qualifier, the term passive is am- of voltage and current), and EA is the upper bound on
biguous. Typically, analog designers use this term to re- the integral of the instantaneous power (i.e., energy).
fer to incrementally passive components and systems, This upper bound (taken over all T ≥ 0) is the available
while control systems engineers will use this to refer to energy in the system for the particular initial condition x.
thermodynamically passive ones. If, for all possible initial states of the system, the energy
Systems for which the small signal model is not passive available is finite, then the system is called passive.
are sometimes called locally active (e.g. transistors and
tunnel diodes). Systems that can generate power about a
time-variant unperturbed state are often called parametri-
2.1.2 Incremental passivity
[1]
cally active (e.g. certain types of nonlinear capacitors).
In circuit design, informally, passive components refer
to ones that are not capable of power gain; this means
2.1.1 Thermodynamic passivity they cannot amplify signals. Under this definition, pas-
sive components include capacitors, inductors, resistors,
In control systems and circuit network theory, a pas- diodes, transformers, voltage sources, and current
sive component or circuit is one that consumes energy, sources. They exclude devices like transistors, vacuum
but does not produce energy. Under this methodology, tubes, relays, tunnel diodes, and glow tubes. Formally, for
voltage and current sources are considered active, while a memoryless two-terminal element, this means that the
resistors, capacitors, inductors, transistors, tunnel diodes, current–voltage characteristic is monotonically increas-
metamaterials and other dissipative and energy-neutral ing. For this reason, control systems and circuit net-
components are considered passive. Circuit designers work theorists refer to these devices as locally passive,
will sometimes refer to this class of components as dissi- incrementally passive, increasing, monotone increasing,
pative, or thermodynamically passive. or monotonic. It is not clear how this definition would be
formalized to multiport devices with memory – as a prac-
While many books give definitions for passivity, many of tical matter, circuit designers use this term informally, so
these contain subtle errors in how initial conditions are it may not be necessary to formalize it.[nb 1]
treated (and, occasionally, the definitions do not gener-
alize to all types of nonlinear time-varying systems with This term is used colloquially in a number of other con-
memory). Below is a correct, formal definition, taken texts:
from Wyatt et al.[2] (which also explains the problems
with many other definitions). Given an n-port R with a • A passive USB to PS/2 adapter consists of wires,
state representation S, and initial state x, define available and potentially resistors and similar passive (in both

31
32 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

the incremental and thermodynamic sense) compo- cases, passive filters are composed of just the four ba-
nents. An active USB to PS/2 adapter consists of sic linear elements – resistors, capacitors, inductors, and
logic to translate signals (active in the incremental transformers. More complex passive filters may involve
sense) nonlinear elements, or more complex linear elements,
such as transmission lines.
• A passive mixer consists of just resistors (incremen-
tally passive), whereas an active mixer includes com-
ponents capable of gain (active).

• In audio work one can also find both (incrementally)

passive and active converters between balanced and
unbalanced lines. A passive bal/unbal converter is
generally just a transformer along with, of course,
the requisite connectors, while an active one typi-
cally consists of a differential drive or an instrumen-
tation amplifier.

2.1.3 Other definitions of passivity Television signal splitter consisting of a passive high-pass filter
(left) and a passive low-pass filter (right). The antenna is con-
nected to the screw terminals to the left of center.
In some very informal settings, passivity may refer to the
simplicity of the device, although this definition is now al-
most universally considered incorrect. Here, devices like A passive filter has several advantages over an active filter:
diodes would be considered active,[3] and only very sim-
• Guaranteed stability
ple devices like capacitors, inductors, and resistors are
considered passive. In some cases, the term "linear ele- • Scale better to large signals (tens of amperes, hun-
ment" may be a more appropriate term than “passive de- dreds of volts), where active devices are often im-
vice.” In other cases, "solid state device" may be a more practical
appropriate term than “active device.”
• No power supply needed
• Often less expensive in discrete designs (unless large
2.1.4 Stability coils are required)
• For linear filters, potentially greater linearity de-
Passivity, in most cases, can be used to demonstrate that
pending on components required
passive circuits will be stable under specific criteria. Note
that this only works if only one of the above definitions of
They are commonly used in speaker crossover design (due
passivity is used – if components from the two are mixed,
to the moderately large voltages and currents, and the
the systems may be unstable under any criteria. In addi-
lack of easy access to a power supply), filters in power
tion, passive circuits will not necessarily be stable under
distribution networks (due to the large voltages and cur-
all stability criteria. For instance, a resonant series LC
rents), power supply bypassing (due to low cost, and in
circuit will have unbounded voltage output for a bounded
some cases, power requirements), as well as a variety of
voltage input, but will be stable in the sense of Lyapunov,
discrete and home brew circuits (for low-cost and sim-
and given bounded energy input will have bounded energy
plicity). Passive filters are uncommon in monolithic in-
output.
tegrated circuit design, where active devices are inexpen-
Passivity is frequently used in control systems to design sive compared to resistors and capacitors, and inductors
stable control systems or to show stability in control sys- are prohibitively expensive. Passive filters are still found,
tems. This is especially important in the design of large, however, in hybrid integrated circuits. Indeed, it may be
complex control systems (e.g. stability of airplanes). Pas- the desire to incorporate a passive filter that leads the de-
sivity is also used in some areas of circuit design, espe- signer to use the hybrid format.
cially filter design.

2.1.6 Notes
2.1.5 Passive filter [1] This is probably formalized in one of the extensions to
Duffin’s Theorem. One of the extensions may state that
A passive filter is a kind of electronic filter that is made if the small signal model is thermodynamically passive,
only from passive components – in contrast to an active under some conditions, the overall system will be incre-
filter, it does not require an external power source (be- mentally passive, and therefore, stable. This needs to be
yond the signal). Since most filters are linear, in most verified.
2.2. RESISTOR 33

2.1.7 References
[1] Tellegen’s Theorem and Electrical Networks. Penfield,
Spence, and Duinker. MIT Press, 1970. pg 24-25.

[2] Wyatt Jr., John L.; Chua, Leon O.; Gannett, Joel W.;
Göknar, Izzet C.; Green, Douglas N. (January 1981).
“Energy Concepts in the State-Space Theory of Non-
linear n-Ports: Part I—Passivity” (PDF). IEEE Trans-
actions on Circuits and Systems. CAS-28 (1): 48–61.
doi:10.1109/TCS.1981.1084907.

[3] Young EC, passive, The Penguin Dictionary of Electronics,

2nd ed, ISBN 0-14-051187-3
Axial-lead resistors on tape. The component is cut from the tape
during assembly and the part is inserted into the board.
2.1.8 Further reading
• Khalil, Hassan (2001). Nonlinear Systems (3rd Edi- active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among
tion). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-067389-7.—Very other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many
readable introductory discussion on passivity in con- watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of
trol systems. motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test
loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that
• Chua, Leon; Desoer, Charles; Kuh, Ernest (1987). only change slightly with temperature, time or operating
Linear and Nonlinear Circuits. McGraw–Hill Com- voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit
panies. ISBN 0-07-010898-6.—Good collection of elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer),
passive stability theorems, but restricted to memo- or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
ryless one-ports. Readable and formal. chemical activity.
• Desoer, Charles; Kuh, Ernest (1969). Basic Cir- Resistors are common elements of electrical networks
cuit Theory. McGraw–Hill Education. ISBN 0- and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic
07-085183-2.—Somewhat less readable than Chua, equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components
and more limited in scope and formality of theo- can be composed of various compounds and forms. Re-
rems. sistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

• Cruz, Jose; Van Valkenberg, M.E. (1974). Signals The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its
in Linear Circuits. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395- resistance: common commercial resistors are manufac-
16971-2.—Gives a definition of passivity for multi- tured over a range of more than nine orders of magni-
ports (in contrast to the above), but the overall dis- tude. The nominal value of the resistance falls within the
cussion of passivity is quite limited. manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.

• Wyatt, J.L.; Chua, L.O.; Gannett, J.; Göknar,

I.C.; Green, D. (1978). Foundations of Nonlinear 2.2.1 Electronic symbols and notation
Network Theory, Part I: Passivity. Memorandum
UCB/ERL M78/76, Electronics Research Labora- Main articles: Electronic symbol and Letter and digit
tory, University of California, Berkeley. code for resistance values
Wyatt, J.L.; Chua, L.O.; Gannett, J.; Göknar, I.C.;
Green, D. (1980). Foundations of Nonlinear Net- Two typical schematic diagram symbols are as follows:
work Theory, Part II: Losslessness. Memorandum
UCB/ERL M80/3, Electronics Research Labora-
tory, University of California, Berkeley.
— A pair of memos that have good discussions of • a b c (a) resistor, (b) rheostat
passivity. (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

2.2 Resistor
• IEC resistor symbol
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical compo-
nent that implements electrical resistance as a circuit el-
ement. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce The notation to state a resistor’s value in a circuit diagram
current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias varies.
34 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

One common scheme is the letter and digit code for re- The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resis-
sistance values following IEC 60062. It avoids using tance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equiv-
a decimal separator and replaces the decimal separator alent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified
with a letter loosely associated with SI prefixes corre- and manufactured over a very large range of values, the
sponding with the part’s resistance. For example, 8K2 derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1
as part marking code, in a circuit diagram or in a bill kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in
of materials (BOM) indicates a resistor value of 8.2 kΩ. common usage.
Additional zeros imply a tighter tolerance, for example
15M0 for three significant digits. When the value can be
expressed without the need for a prefix (that is, multipli- Series and parallel resistors
cator 1), an “R” is used instead of the decimal separator.
Main article: Series and parallel circuits
For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 Ω, and 18R indicates 18
Ω.
The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the
sum of their individual resistance values.
2.2.2 Theory of operation

Higher
pressure
Lower
pressure
R1 R2 Rn
Req = R1 + R2 + · · · + Rn .
Hair
in pipe
The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is
the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the indi-
Small R Same flow Large R vidual resistors.

The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through

circuits to water flowing through pipes. When a pipe (left) is
clogged with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve the
same flow of water. Pushing electric current through a large re-
sistance is like pushing water through a pipe clogged with hair:
It requires a larger push (voltage) to drive the same flow (electric
current).[1] R1 R2 Rn
Ohm’s law

Main article: Ohm’s law

1
Req = 1
R1 + 1
R2 + ··· + 1
Rn .

For example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with

The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the rela- a 5 ohm resistor and a 15 ohm resistor produces 1/1/10 +
tionship specified by Ohm’s law: 1/5 + 1/15 ohms of resistance, or 30/11 = 2.727 ohms.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and
V = I · R. series connections can be broken up into smaller parts
that are either one or the other. Some complex networks
Ohm’s law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring
proportional to the current (I), where the constant of pro- more sophisticated circuit analysis. Generally, the Y-Δ
portionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 transform, or matrix methods can be used to solve such
ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt problems.[2][3][4]
battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows
through that resistor.
Power dissipation
Practical resistors also have some inductance and
capacitance which affect the relation between voltage and At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resis-
current in alternating current circuits. tor of resistance R (ohms) is calculated as: P = I 2 R =
2.2. RESISTOR 35

2
IV = VR where V (volts) is the voltage across the re-
sistor and I (amps) is the current flowing through it. Us-
ing Ohm’s law, the two other forms can be derived. This
power is converted into heat which must be dissipated by
the resistor’s package before its temperature rises exces-
sively.
Resistors are rated according to their maximum power
dissipation. Discrete resistors in solid-state electronic
systems are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. They
usually absorb much less than a watt of electrical power
and require little attention to their power rating.

VZR power resistor 1.5kΩ 12W, manufactured in 1963 in the

Soviet Union

The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and tempera-

ture coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology
used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally
An aluminium-housed power resistor rated for 50 W when heat- specified individually for a particular family of resistors
sinked manufactured using a particular technology.[5] A family
of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its
Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position
power, particularly used in power supplies, power con- of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical
version circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally re- manufacturing of circuits using them.
ferred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely ap-
plied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum
Power resistors are physically larger and may not use the power rating which must exceed the anticipated power
preferred values, color codes, and external packages de- dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
scribed below. mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Re-
sistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and
If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention
its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, per- must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working
manently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the voltage of the resistor. While there is no minimum work-
reversible change in resistance due to its temperature co- ing voltage for a given resistor, failure to account for a
efficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may resistor’s maximum rating may cause the resistor to in-
raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can cinerate when current is run through it.
burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even
cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open
circuit) before they overheat dangerously.
Since poor air circulation, high altitude, or high operating 2.2.4 Fixed resistor
temperatures may occur, resistors may be specified with
higher rated dissipation than is experienced in service.
All resistors have a maximum voltage rating; this may
limit the power dissipation for higher resistance values.

2.2.3 Nonideal properties

Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small

parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important
in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8 individual, 47 ohm
or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be resistors. One end of each resistor is connected to a separate pin
an issue. and the other ends are all connected together to the remaining
The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be (common) pin – pin 1, at the end identified by the white dot.
of concern in some precision applications.
36 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

trations of carbon, which is a good conductor, result

in lower resistance. Carbon composition resistors were
commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not
popular for general use now as other types have better
specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence, and
stress. Carbon composition resistors change value when
stressed with over-voltages. Moreover, if internal mois-
ture content, from exposure for some length of time to
a humid environment, is significant, soldering heat cre-
ates a non-reversible change in resistance value. Car-
bon composition resistors have poor stability with time
and were consequently factory sorted to, at best, only 5%
tolerance.[6] These resistors are non-inductive that pro-
vide benefit when used in voltage pulse reduction and
Resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting surge protection applications.[7] These resistors, however,
if never subjected to overvoltage nor overheating were re-
markably reliable considering the component’s size.[8]
Lead arrangements
Carbon composition resistors are still available, but com-
Through-hole components typically have “leads” (pro- paratively quite costly. Values ranged from fractions of
nounced \ˈlēdz\) leaving the body “axially,” that is, on a an ohm to 22 megohms. Due to their high price, these re-
line parallel with the part’s longest axis. Others have leads sistors are no longer used in most applications. However,
coming off their body “radially” instead. Other compo- they are used in power supplies and welding controls.[8]
nents may be SMT (surface mount technology), while
high power resistors may have one of their leads designed
Carbon pile
into the heat sink.
A carbon pile resistor is made of a stack of carbon disks
Carbon composition compressed between two metal contact plates. Adjusting
the clamping pressure changes the resistance between the
plates. These resistors are used when an adjustable load
is required, for example in testing automotive batteries or
radio transmitters. A carbon pile resistor can also be used
as a speed control for small motors in household appli-
ances (sewing machines, hand-held mixers) with ratings
up to a few hundred watts.[9] A carbon pile resistor can
be incorporated in automatic voltage regulators for gen-
erators, where the carbon pile controls the field current
to maintain relatively constant voltage.[10] The principle
is also applied in the carbon microphone.

Carbon film
Three carbon composition resistors in a 1960s valve (vacuum
tube) radio

Carbon composition resistors (CCR) consist of a solid

cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire leads
or metal end caps to which the lead wires are attached.
The body of the resistor is protected with paint or plas-
tic. Early 20th-century carbon composition resistors had
uninsulated bodies; the lead wires were wrapped around
the ends of the resistance element rod and soldered. The
Carbon film resistor with exposed carbon spiral (Tesla TR-212 1
completed resistor was painted for color-coding of its kΩ)
value.
The resistive element is made from a mixture of finely A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate,
powdered carbon and an insulating material, usually ce- and a helix is cut in it to create a long, narrow resis-
ramic. A resin holds the mixture together. The re- tive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity
sistance is determined by the ratio of the fill material of amorphous carbon (ranging from 500 to 800 μΩ m),
(the powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher concen- can provide a wide range of resistance values. Compared
2.2. RESISTOR 37

to carbon composition they feature low noise, because Thin film resistors are made by sputtering (a method of
of the precise distribution of the pure graphite without vacuum deposition) the resistive material onto an insulat-
binding.[11] Carbon film resistors feature a power rating ing substrate. The film is then etched in a similar manner
range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 °C. Resistances available to the old (subtractive) process for making printed cir-
range from 1 ohm to 10 megohm. The carbon film resis- cuit boards; that is, the surface is coated with a photo-
tor has an operating temperature range of −55 °C to 155 sensitive material, then covered by a pattern film, irradi-
°C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working voltage ated with ultraviolet light, and then the exposed photo-
range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applica- sensitive coating is developed, and underlying thin film is
tions requiring high pulse stability.[8] etched away.
Thick film resistors are manufactured using screen and
Printed carbon resistor stencil printing processes.[8]
Because the time during which the sputtering is per-
formed can be controlled, the thickness of the thin film
can be accurately controlled. The type of material is
also usually different consisting of one or more ceramic
(cermet) conductors such as tantalum nitride (TaN),
ruthenium oxide (RuO
2), lead oxide (PbO), bismuth ruthenate (Bi
2Ru
2O
7), nickel chromium (NiCr), or bismuth iridate (Bi
2Ir
2O
A carbon resistor printed directly onto the SMD pads on a PCB. 7).
Inside a 1989 vintage Psion II Organiser
The resistance of both thin and thick film resistors af-
ter manufacture is not highly accurate; they are usually
Carbon composition resistors can be printed directly onto
trimmed to an accurate value by abrasive or laser trim-
printed circuit board (PCB) substrates as part of the PCB
ming. Thin film resistors are usually specified with toler-
manufacturing process. Although this technique is more
ances of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, or 1%, and with temperature co-
common on hybrid PCB modules, it can also be used on
efficients of 5 to 25 ppm/K. They also have much lower
standard fibreglass PCBs. Tolerances are typically quite
noise levels, on the level of 10–100 times less than thick
large, and can be in the order of 30%. A typical applica-
film resistors.
tion would be non-critical pull-up resistors.
Thick film resistors may use the same conductive ceram-
ics, but they are mixed with sintered (powdered) glass
Thick and thin film and a carrier liquid so that the composite can be screen-
printed. This composite of glass and conductive ceramic
(cermet) material is then fused (baked) in an oven at about
850 °C.
Thick film resistors, when first manufactured, had toler-
ances of 5%, but standard tolerances have improved to
2% or 1% in the last few decades. Temperature coef-
ficients of thick film resistors are high, typically ±200 or
±250 ppm/K; a 40 kelvin (70 °F) temperature change can
change the resistance by 1%.
Thin film resistors are usually far more expensive than
thick film resistors. For example, SMD thin film resis-
Laser Trimmed Precision Thin Film Resistor Network from tors, with 0.5% tolerances, and with 25 ppm/K tempera-
Fluke, used in the Keithley DMM7510 multimeter. Ceramic ture coefficients, when bought in full size reel quantities,
backed with glass hermetic seal cover. are about twice the cost of 1%, 250 ppm/K thick film
resistors.
Thick film resistors became popular during the 1970s,
and most SMD (surface mount device) resistors today are
of this type. The resistive element of thick films is 1000 Metal film
times thicker than thin films,[12] but the principal differ-
ence is how the film is applied to the cylinder (axial resis- A common type of axial-leaded resistor today is the
tors) or the surface (SMD resistors). metal-film resistor. Metal Electrode Leadless Face
38 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

(MELF) resistors often use the same technology, and

are also cylindrically shaped but are designed for surface
mounting. Note that other types of resistors (e.g., carbon
composition) are also available in MELF packages.
Metal film resistors are usually coated with nickel
chromium (NiCr), but might be coated with any of the
cermet materials listed above for thin film resistors. Un-
like thin film resistors, the material may be applied using
different techniques than sputtering (though this is one of
the techniques). Also, unlike thin-film resistors, the resis-
tance value is determined by cutting a helix through the
coating rather than by etching. (This is similar to the way Types of windings in wire resistors:
carbon resistors are made.) The result is a reasonable tol-
erance (0.5%, 1%, or 2%) and a temperature coefficient
1. common
that is generally between 50 and 100 ppm/K.[13] Metal
film resistors possess good noise characteristics and low 2. bifilar
non-linearity due to a low voltage coefficient. Also bene- 3. common on a thin former
ficial are their tight tolerance, low temperature coefficient 4. Ayrton-Perry
and long-term stability.[8]

Metal oxide film ramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top of
an insulating layer is used – if the outer case is ceramic,
Metal-oxide film resistors are made of metal oxides which such resistors are sometimes described as “cement” re-
results in a higher operating temperature and greater sta- sistors, though they do not actually contain any traditional
bility/reliability than Metal film. They are used in appli- cement. The aluminum-cased types are designed to be at-
cations with high endurance demands. tached to a heat sink to dissipate the heat; the rated power
is dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink, e.g.,
a 50 W power rated resistor overheats at a fraction of the
Wire wound power dissipation if not used with a heat sink. Large wire-
wound resistors may be rated for 1,000 watts or more.
Because wirewound resistors are coils they have more un-
desirable inductance than other types of resistor, although
winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed di-
rection can minimize inductance. Other techniques em-
ploy bifilar winding, or a flat thin former (to reduce cross-
section area of the coil). For the most demanding circuits,
resistors with Ayrton-Perry winding are used.
Applications of wirewound resistors are similar to those
of composition resistors with the exception of the high
frequency. The high frequency response of wirewound
resistors is substantially worse than that of a composition
resistor.[8]
High-power wire wound resistors used for dynamic braking on
an electric railway car. Such resistors may dissipate many kilo-
watts for an extended length of time. Foil resistor

Wirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a The primary resistance element of a foil resistor is a spe-
metal wire, usually nichrome, around a ceramic, plastic, cial alloy foil several micrometers thick. Since their in-
or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or troduction in the 1960s, foil resistors have had the best
welded to two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the precision and stability of any resistor available. One of
core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, the important parameters influencing stability is the tem-
molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high tem- perature coefficient of resistance (TCR). The TCR of foil
perature. These resistors are designed to withstand un- resistors is extremely low, and has been further improved
usually high temperatures of up to 450 °C.[8] Wire leads over the years. One range of ultra-precision foil resistors
in low power wirewound resistors are usually between 0.6 offers a TCR of 0.14 ppm/°C, tolerance ±0.005%, long-
and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of solder- term stability (1 year) 25 ppm, (3 years) 50 ppm (further
ing. For higher power wirewound resistors, either a ce- improved 5-fold by hermetic sealing), stability under load
2.2. RESISTOR 39

(2000 hours) 0.03%, thermal EMF 0.1 μV/°C, noise −42 Adjustable resistors
dB, voltage coefficient 0.1 ppm/V, inductance 0.08 μH,
capacitance 0.5 pF.[14] A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so
that the resistance can be changed by moving the connect-
ing wires to different terminals. Some wirewound power
Ammeter shunts resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the re-
sistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the
An ammeter shunt is a special type of current-sensing resistance to be used.
resistor, having four terminals and a value in milliohms
or even micro-ohms. Current-measuring instruments, by Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value dur-
themselves, can usually accept only limited currents. To ing operation of equipment is required, the sliding resis-
measure high currents, the current passes through the tance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an op-
shunt across which the voltage drop is measured and in- erator. Such a device is called a rheostat and has two
terpreted as current. A typical shunt consists of two solid terminals.
metal blocks, sometimes brass, mounted on an insulat-
ing base. Between the blocks, and soldered or brazed to
them, are one or more strips of low temperature coef- Potentiometers
ficient of resistance (TCR) manganin alloy. Large bolts
threaded into the blocks make the current connections,
while much smaller screws provide volt meter connec-
tions. Shunts are rated by full-scale current, and often
have a voltage drop of 50 mV at rated current. Such me-
ters are adapted to the shunt full current rating by using
an appropriately marked dial face; no change need to be
made to the other parts of the meter.

Grid resistor

In heavy-duty industrial high-current applications, a grid

resistor is a large convection-cooled lattice of stamped
metal alloy strips connected in rows between two elec-
trodes. Such industrial grade resistors can be as large
as a refrigerator; some designs can handle over 500 am- Typical panel mount potentiometer
peres of current, with a range of resistances extending
lower than 0.04 ohms. They are used in applications such
as dynamic braking and load banking for locomotives
and trams, neutral grounding for industrial AC distribu-
tion, control loads for cranes and heavy equipment, load
testing of generators and harmonic filtering for electric
substations.[15]
The term grid resistor is sometimes used to describe a
resistor of any type connected to the control grid of a
vacuum tube. This is not a resistor technology; it is an
electronic circuit topology.

Special varieties

• Cermet

• Phenolic Drawing of potentiometer with case cut away, showing parts: (A)
shaft, (B) stationary carbon composition resistance element, (C)
• Tantalum phosphor bronze wiper, (D) shaft attached to wiper, (E, G) ter-
minals connected to ends of resistance element, (F) terminal con-
• Water resistor nected to wiper.

2.2.5 Variable resistors Main article: Potentiometer

40 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

An assortment of small through-hole potentiometers designed for

mounting on printed circuit boards.
Resistance decade box “Kurbelwiderstand”, made in former East
Germany.
A potentiometer or pot is a three-terminal resistor with a
continuously adjustable tapping point controlled by ro-
tation of a shaft or knob or by a linear slider.[16] It is
called a potentiometer because it can be connected as an
adjustable voltage divider to provide a variable potential tance in laboratory, experimental and development work
at the terminal connected to the tapping point. A vol- without needing to attach resistors one by one, or even
ume control for an audio device is a common use of a stock each value. The range of resistance provided, the
potentiometer. A typical low power potentiometer (see maximum resolution, and the accuracy characterize the
drawing) is constructed of a flat resistance element (B) box. For example, one box offers resistances from 0 to
of carbon composition, metal film, or conductive plastic, 100 megohms, maximum resolution 0.1 ohm, accuracy
with a springy phosphor bronze wiper contact (C) which 0.1%.[17]
moves along the surface. An alternate construction is re-
sistance wire wound on a form, with the wiper sliding ax-
ially along the coil.[16] These have lower resolution, since
as the wiper moves the resistance changes in steps equal
to the resistance of a single turn.[16]
Special devices
High-resolution multiturn potentiometers are used in a
few precision applications. These have wirewound re-
sistance elements typically wound on a helical mandrel, There are various devices whose resistance changes with
with the wiper moving on a helical track as the control is various quantities. The resistance of NTC thermistors
turned, making continuous contact with the wire. Some exhibit a strong negative temperature coefficient, mak-
include a conductive-plastic resistance coating over the ing them useful for measuring temperatures. Since their
wire to improve resolution. These typically offer ten turns resistance can be large until they are allowed to heat up
of their shafts to cover their full range. They are usually due to the passage of current, they are also commonly
set with dials that include a simple turns counter and a used to prevent excessive current surges when equipment
graduated dial, and can typically achieve three digit res- is powered on. Similarly, the resistance of a humistor
olution. Electronic analog computers used them in quan- varies with humidity. One sort of photodetector, the
tity for setting coefficients, and delayed-sweep oscillo- photoresistor, has a resistance which varies with illumi-
scopes of recent decades included one on their panels. nation.
The strain gauge, invented by Edward E. Simmons and
Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, is a type of resistor that changes
Resistance decade boxes
value with applied strain. A single resistor may be used,
Main article: Decade box or a pair (half bridge), or four resistors connected in a
A resistance decade box or resistor substitution box is Wheatstone bridge configuration. The strain resistor is
a unit containing resistors of many values, with one or bonded with adhesive to an object that is subjected to
more mechanical switches which allow any one of vari- mechanical strain. With the strain gauge and a filter, am-
ous discrete resistances offered by the box to be dialed plifier, and analog/digital converter, the strain on an ob-
in. Usually the resistance is accurate to high precision, ject can be measured.
ranging from laboratory/calibration grade accuracy of 20 A related but more recent invention uses a Quantum Tun-
parts per million, to field grade at 1%. Inexpensive boxes nelling Composite to sense mechanical stress. It passes a
with lesser accuracy are also available. All types offer a current whose magnitude can vary by a factor of 1012 in
convenient way of selecting and quickly changing a resis- response to changes in applied pressure.
2.2. RESISTOR 41

2.2.6 Measurement • MIL-PRF-39007 (Fixed power, established reliabil-

ity)
The value of a resistor can be measured with an
ohmmeter, which may be one function of a multimeter. • MIL-PRF-55342 (Surface-mount thick and thin
Usually, probes on the ends of test leads connect to the film)
resistor. A simple ohmmeter may apply a voltage from • MIL-PRF-914
a battery across the unknown resistor (with an internal
resistor of a known value in series) producing a current • MIL-R-11 STANDARD CANCELED
which drives a meter movement. The current, in ac-
• MIL-R-39017 (Fixed, General Purpose, Estab-
cordance with Ohm’s law, is inversely proportional to
lished Reliability)
the sum of the internal resistance and the resistor being
tested, resulting in an analog meter scale which is very • MIL-PRF-32159 (zero ohm jumpers)
non-linear, calibrated from infinity to 0 ohms. A digital
multimeter, using active electronics, may instead pass a • UL 1412 (fusing and temperature limited
specified current through the test resistance. The voltage resistors)[19]
generated across the test resistance in that case is linearly
proportional to its resistance, which is measured and dis- There are other United States military procurement MIL-
played. In either case the low-resistance ranges of the R- standards.
meter pass much more current through the test leads than
do high-resistance ranges, in order for the voltages present
Resistance standards
to be at reasonable levels (generally below 10 volts) but
still measurable.
The primary standard for resistance, the “mercury ohm”
Measuring low-value resistors, such as fractional-ohm re- was initially defined in 1884 in as a column of mercury
sistors, with acceptable accuracy requires four-terminal 106.3 cm long and 1 square millimeter in cross-section,
connections. One pair of terminals applies a known, cal- at 0 degrees Celsius. Difficulties in precisely measuring
ibrated current to the resistor, while the other pair senses the physical constants to replicate this standard result in
the voltage drop across the resistor. Some laboratory variations of as much as 30 ppm. From 1900 the mer-
quality ohmmeters, especially milliohmmeters, and even cury ohm was replaced with a precision machined plate
some of the better digital multimeters sense using four of manganin.[20] Since 1990 the international resistance
input terminals for this purpose, which may be used with standard has been based on the quantized Hall effect dis-
special test leads. Each of the two so-called Kelvin clips covered by Klaus von Klitzing, for which he won the No-
has a pair of jaws insulated from each other. One side of bel Prize in Physics in 1985.[21]
each clip applies the measuring current, while the other
Resistors of extremely high precision are manufactured
connections are only to sense the voltage drop. The re-
for calibration and laboratory use. They may have four
sistance is again calculated using Ohm’s Law as the mea-
terminals, using one pair to carry an operating current and
sured voltage divided by the applied current.
the other pair to measure the voltage drop; this eliminates
errors caused by voltage drops across the lead resistances,
2.2.7 Standards because no charge flows through voltage sensing leads. It
is important in small value resistors (100–0.0001 ohm)
Production resistors where lead resistance is significant or even comparable
with respect to resistance standard value.[22]
Resistor characteristics are quantified and reported using
various national standards. In the US, MIL-STD-202[18]
contains the relevant test methods to which other stan- 2.2.8 Resistor marking
dards refer.
Main article: Electronic color code
There are various standards specifying properties of re-
sistors for use in equipment:
Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to in-
dicate resistance, which also indicate tolerance, and may
• IEC 60062 (IEC 62) / DIN 40825 / BS 1852 / IS
also be extended to show temperature coefficient and reli-
8186 / JIS C 5062 etc. (Resistor color code, letter
ability class. Cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green,
and digit code, date code)
though other colors are occasionally found such as dark
• EIA RS-279 / DIN 41429 (Resistor color code) red or dark gray. The power rating is not usually marked
and is deduced from the size.
• IEC 60063 (IEC 63) / JIS C 5063 (Standard E series
values) The color bands of the carbon resistors can be three, four,
five or, six bands. The first two bands represent first two
• MIL-PRF-26 digits to measure their value in ohms. The third band of
42 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

a three- or four-banded resistor represents multiplier; a ±5%; E48 for ±2%, E96 for ±1%; E192 for ±0.5% or bet-
fourth band denotes tolerance (which if absent, denotes ter. Resistors are manufactured in values from a few mil-
±20%). For five and six color-banded resistors, the third liohms to about a gigaohm in IEC60063 ranges appropri-
band is a third digit, fourth band multiplier and fifth is ate for their tolerance. Manufacturers may sort resistors
tolerance. The sixth band represents temperature co- into tolerance-classes based on measurement. Accord-
efficient in a six-banded resistor. ingly, a selection of 100 ohms resistors with a tolerance
Surface-mount resistors are marked numerically, if they of ±10%, might not lie just around 100 ohm (but no more
are big enough to permit marking; more-recent small than 10% off) as one would expect (a bell-curve), but
rather be in two groups – either between 5 and 10% too
sizes are impractical to mark.
high or 5 to 10% too low (but not closer to 100 ohm than
Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were that) because any resistors the factory had measured as
dipped in paint to cover their entire body for color- being less than 5% off would have been marked and sold
coding. A second color of paint was applied to one end as resistors with only ±5% tolerance or better. When de-
of the element, and a color dot (or band) in the middle signing a circuit, this may become a consideration. This
provided the third digit. The rule was “body, tip, dot”, process of sorting parts based on post-production mea-
providing two significant digits for value and the deci- surement is known as “binning”, and can be applied to
mal multiplier, in that sequence. Default tolerance was other components than resistors (such as speed grades for
±20%. Closer-tolerance resistors had silver (±10%) or CPUs).
gold-colored (±5%) paint on the other end.
Earlier power wirewound resistors, such as brown
vitreous-enameled types, however, were made with a dif-
ferent system of preferred values, such as some of those
Preferred values mentioned in the first sentence of this section.

See also: Preferred number § E series

SMT resistors
Early resistors were made in more or less arbitrary round
numbers; a series might have 100, 125, 150, 200, 300,
etc. Resistors as manufactured are subject to a certain
percentage tolerance, and it makes sense to manufacture
values that correlate with the tolerance, so that the ac-
tual value of a resistor overlaps slightly with its neigh-
bors. Wider spacing leaves gaps; narrower spacing in-
creases manufacturing and inventory costs to provide re-
sistors that are more or less interchangeable.
A logical scheme is to produce resistors in a range of
values which increase in a geometric progression, so that
each value is greater than its predecessor by a fixed multi-
plier or percentage, chosen to match the tolerance of the
range. For example, for a tolerance of ±20% it makes
sense to have each resistor about 1.5 times its predeces-
sor, covering a decade in 6 values. In practice the factor
used is 1.4678, giving values of 1.47, 2.15, 3.16, 4.64, This image shows four surface-mount resistors (the component
6.81, 10 for the 1–10-decade (a decade is a range in- at the upper left is a capacitor) including two zero-ohm resistors.
creasing by a factor of 10; 0.1–1 and 10–100 are other Zero-ohm links are often used instead of wire links, so that they
examples); these are rounded in practice to 1.5, 2.2, 3.3, can be inserted by a resistor-inserting machine. Their resistance
4.7, 6.8, 10; followed, by 15, 22, 33, … and preceded is non-zero but negligible.
by … 0.47, 0.68, 1. This scheme has been adopted as
the E6 series of the IEC 60063 preferred number values.Surface mounted resistors of larger sizes (metric 1608
There are also E12, E24, E48, E96 and E192 series for and above) are printed with numerical values in a code
components of progressively finer resolution, with 12, 24,
related to that used on axial resistors. Standard-tolerance
96, and 192 different values within each decade. The ac-surface-mount technology (SMT) resistors are marked
tual values used are in the IEC 60063 lists of preferred
with a three-digit code, in which the first two digits are
numbers. the first two significant digits of the value and the third
A resistor of 100 ohms ±20% would be expected to have digit is the power of ten (the number of zeroes). For ex-
a value between 80 and 120 ohms; its E6 neighbors are ample:
68 (54–82) and 150 (120–180) ohms. A sensible spacing, Resistances less than 100 ohms are written: 100, 220,
E6 is used for ±20% components; E12 for ±10%; E24 for 470. The final zero represents ten to the power zero,
2.2. RESISTOR 43

which is 1. For example: whereas a smaller value of resistance generates more cur-
Sometimes these values are marked as 10 or 22 to prevent rent noise, at a given temperature.
a mistake. The thermal noise of a practical resistor may also be
Resistances less than 10 ohms have 'R' to indicate the po- larger than the theoretical prediction and that increase is
typically frequency-dependent. Excess noise of a practi-
sition of the decimal point (radix point). For example:
cal resistor is observed only when current flows through it.
Precision resistors are marked with a four-digit code, in This is specified in unit of μV/V/decade – μV of noise per
which the first three digits are the significant figures and volt applied across the resistor per decade of frequency.
the fourth is the power of ten. For example: The μV/V/decade value is frequently given in dB so that
000 and 0000 sometimes appear as values on surface- a resistor with a noise index of 0 dB exhibits 1 μV (rms)
mount zero-ohm links, since these have (approximately) of excess noise for each volt across the resistor in each
zero resistance. frequency decade. Excess noise is thus an example of
1/f noise. Thick-film and carbon composition resistors
More recent surface-mount resistors are too small, phys- generate more excess noise than other types at low fre-
ically, to permit practical markings to be applied. quencies. Wire-wound and thin-film resistors are often
used for their better noise characteristics. Carbon com-
Industrial type designation position resistors can exhibit a noise index of 0 dB while
bulk metal foil resistors may have a noise index of −40
Format: [two letters]<space>[resistance value (three dB, usually making [24]
the excess noise of metal foil resistors
digit)]<nospace>[tolerance code(numerical – one digit)] insignificant. Thin film surface mount resistors typi-
[23] cally have lower noise and better thermal stability than
thick film surface mount resistors. Excess noise is also
size-dependent: in general excess noise is reduced as the
Steps to find out the resistance or capacitance values: physical size of a resistor is increased (or multiple resis-
tors are used in parallel), as the independently fluctuating
1. First two letters gives the power dissipation capacity. resistances of smaller components tend to average out.

2. Next three digits gives the resistance value. While not an example of “noise” per se, a resistor may act
as a thermocouple, producing a small DC voltage differ-
(a) First two digits are the significant values ential across it due to the thermoelectric effect if its ends
are at different temperatures. This induced DC voltage
(b) Third digit is the multiplier.
can degrade the precision of instrumentation amplifiers
3. Final digit gives the tolerance. in particular. Such voltages appear in the junctions of the
resistor leads with the circuit board and with the resistor
body. Common metal film resistors show such an effect
If a resistor is coded:
at a magnitude of about 20 µV/°C. Some carbon compo-
sition resistors can exhibit thermoelectric offsets as high
• EB1041: power dissipation capacity = 1/2 watts, re- as 400 µV/°C, whereas specially constructed resistors can
sistance value = 10×10^4±10% = between 9×10^4 reduce this number to 0.05 µV/°C. In applications where
ohms and 11×10^4 ohms. the thermoelectric effect may become important, care has
to be taken to mount the resistors horizontally to avoid
• CB3932: power dissipation capacity = 1/4 watts,
temperature gradients and to mind the air flow over the
resistance value = 39×10^3±20% = between
board.[25]
46.8×10^3 ohms and 31.2×10^3 ohms.

2.2.10 Failure modes

2.2.9 Electrical and thermal noise
The failure rate of resistors in a properly designed circuit
Main article: Noise (electronics) is low compared to other electronic components such as
semiconductors and electrolytic capacitors. Damage to
In amplifying faint signals, it is often necessary to mini- resistors most often occurs due to overheating when the
mize electronic noise, particularly in the first stage of am- average power delivered to it greatly exceeds its ability
plification. As a dissipative element, even an ideal resis- to dissipate heat (specified by the resistor’s power rating).
tor naturally produces a randomly fluctuating voltage, or This may be due to a fault external to the circuit, but is fre-
noise, across its terminals. This Johnson–Nyquist noise quently caused by the failure of another component (such
is a fundamental noise source which depends only upon as a transistor that shorts out) in the circuit connected to
the temperature and resistance of the resistor, and is pre- the resistor. Operating a resistor too close to its power rat-
dicted by the fluctuation–dissipation theorem. Using a ing can limit the resistor’s lifespan or cause a significant
larger value of resistance produces a larger voltage noise, change in its resistance. A safe design generally uses over-
44 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

rated resistors in power applications to avoid this danger. 2.2.11 See also
Low-power thin-film resistors can be damaged by long-
• Circuit design
term high-voltage stress, even below maximum specified
voltage and below maximum power rating. This is often • Dummy load
the case for the startup resistors feeding the SMPS inte-
grated circuit. • Electrical impedance
When overheated, carbon-film resistors may decrease or • Iron-hydrogen resistor
increase in resistance.[26] Carbon film and composition
resistors can fail (open circuit) if running close to their • Piezoresistive effect
maximum dissipation. This is also possible but less likely
with metal film and wirewound resistors. • Shot noise
There can also be failure of resistors due to mechanical • Thermistor
stress and adverse environmental factors including hu-
midity. If not enclosed, wirewound resistors can corrode. • Trimmer (electronics)
Surface mount resistors have been known to fail due to
the ingress of sulfur into the internal makeup of the re- 2.2.12 References
sistor. This sulfur chemically reacts with the silver layer
to produce non-conductive silver sulfide. The resistor’s [1] Harder, Douglas Wilhelm. “Resistors: A Motor with a
impedance goes to infinity. Sulfur resistant and anti- Constant Force (Force Source)". Department of Electri-
corrosive resistors are sold into automotive, industrial, cal and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo.
and military applications. ASTM B809 is an industry Retrieved 9 November 2014.
standard that tests a part’s susceptibility to sulfur.
[2] Farago, PS, An Introduction to Linear Network Analysis,
An alternative failure mode can be encountered where pp. 18–21, The English Universities Press Ltd, 1961.
large value resistors are used (hundreds of kilohms and
higher). Resistors are not only specified with a maxi- [3] Wu, F. Y. (2004). “Theory of resistor networks: The
mum power dissipation, but also for a maximum voltage two-point resistance”. Journal of Physics A: Mathemat-
ical and General. 37 (26): 6653. doi:10.1088/0305-
drop. Exceeding this voltage causes the resistor to de-
4470/37/26/004.
grade slowly reducing in resistance. The voltage dropped
across large value resistors can be exceeded before the [4] Wu, Fa Yueh; Yang, Chen Ning (2009). Exactly Solved
power dissipation reaches its limiting value. Since the Models: A Journey in Statistical Mechanics : Selected Pa-
maximum voltage specified for commonly encountered pers with Commentaries (1963–2008). World Scientific.
resistors is a few hundred volts, this is a problem only in pp. 489–. ISBN 978-981-281-388-6.
applications where these voltages are encountered.
[5] A family of resistors may also be characterized accord-
Variable resistors can also degrade in a different man- ing to its critical resistance. Applying a constant voltage
ner, typically involving poor contact between the wiper across resistors in that family below the critical resistance
and the body of the resistance. This may be due to dirt will exceed the maximum power rating first; resistances
or corrosion and is typically perceived as “crackling” as larger than the critical resistance fail first from exceeding
the contact resistance fluctuates; this is especially noticed the maximum voltage rating. See Middleton, Wendy; Van
Valkenburg, Mac E. (2002). Reference data for engineers:
as the device is adjusted. This is similar to crackling
radio, electronics, computer, and communications (9 ed.).
caused by poor contact in switches, and like switches,
Newnes. pp. 5–10. ISBN 0-7506-7291-9.
potentiometers are to some extent self-cleaning: running
the wiper across the resistance may improve the contact. [6] Harter, James H. and Lin, Paul Y. (1982) Essentials of
Potentiometers which are seldom adjusted, especially in electric circuits. Reston Publishing Company. pp. 96–97.
dirty or harsh environments, are most likely to develop ISBN 0-8359-1767-3.
this problem. When self-cleaning of the contact is in-
[7] HVR International (ed.): “SR Series: Surge Resistors for
sufficient, improvement can usually be obtained through
PCB Mounting.” (PDF; 252 kB), 26. May 2005, retrieved
the use of contact cleaner (also known as “tuner cleaner”)
24. January 2017.
spray. The crackling noise associated with turning the
shaft of a dirty potentiometer in an audio circuit (such as [8] Beyschlag, Vishay (2008). Basics of Linear Fixed Resis-
the volume control) is greatly accentuated when an unde- tors Application Note, Document Number 28771.
sired DC voltage is present, often indicating the failure of
a DC blocking capacitor in the circuit. [9] Morris, C. G. (ed) (1992) Academic Press Dictionary of
Science and Technology. Gulf Professional Publishing. p.
360. ISBN 0122004000.

[10] Principles of automotive vehicles United States. Dept. of

the Army (1985). p. 13-13
2.3. CAPACITOR 45

[11] “Carbon Film Resistor”. The Resistorguide. Retrieved 10 • Standard Resistors & Capacitor Values That Indus-
March 2013. try Manufactures
[12] “Thick Film and Thin Film” (PDF). Digi-Key (SEI). Re-
• Ask The Applications Engineer – Difference be-
trieved 23 July 2011.
tween types of resistors
[13] Kuhn, Kenneth A. “Measuring the Temperature Coeffi-
cient of a Resistor” (PDF). Retrieved 2010-03-18. • Resistors and their uses

[14] “Alpha Electronics Corp. Metal Foil Resistors”. Alpha-

elec.co.jp. Retrieved 2008-09-22.
2.3 Capacitor
[15] Milwaukee Resistor Corporation. ''Grid Resistors: High
Power/High Current''. Milwaukeeresistor.com. Retrieved
on 2012-05-14. This article is about the electrical component. For the
physical phenomenon, see capacitance. For an overview
[16] Mazda, F. F. (1981). Discrete Electronic Components. of various kinds of capacitors, see types of capacitor.
CUP Archive. pp. 57–61. ISBN 0521234700. “Capacitive” redirects here. For the term used when
[17] “Decade Box – Resistance Decade Boxes”. Ietlabs.com. referring to touchscreens, see capacitive sensing.
Retrieved 2008-09-22.
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical compo-
[18] “Test method standard: electronic and electrical compo-
nent parts” (PDF). Department of Defense. nent that stores electrical energy in an electric field.[1] The
effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While ca-
[19] Fusing Resistors and Temperature-Limited Resistors for pacitance exists between any two electrical conductors
Radio- and Television- Type Appliances UL 1412. ulstan- of a circuit in sufficiently close proximity, a capacitor is
dardsinfonet.ul.com specifically designed to provide and enhance this effect
for a variety of practical applications by consideration
[20] Stability of Double-Walled Manganin Resistors.
NIST.gov
of size, shape, and positioning of closely spaced conduc-
tors, and the intervening dielectric material. A capacitor
[21] Klaus von Klitzing The Quantized Hall Effect. Nobel lec- was therefore historically first known as an electric con-
ture, December 9, 1985. nobelprize.org denser.[2]
[22] “Standard Resistance Unit Type 4737B”. Tinsley.co.uk. The physical form and construction of practical capaci-
Retrieved 2008-09-22. tors vary widely and many capacitor types are in common
use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical con-
[23] A. K. Maini Electronics and Communications Simplified, ductors often in the form of metallic plates or surfaces
9th ed., Khanna Publications (India)
separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be
[24] Audio Noise Reduction Through the Use of Bulk Metal Foil a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte.
Resistors – “Hear the Difference” (PDF)., Application note The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capac-
AN0003, Vishay Intertechnology Inc, 12 July 2005. itor’s charge capacity. Materials commonly used as di-
electrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica,
[25] Jung, Walt. “Chapter 7 – Hardware and Housekeeping and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts
Techniques” (PDF). Op Amp Applications Handbook. p.
of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
7.11. ISBN 0-7506-7844-5.
Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate en-
[26] “Electronic components – resistors”. Inspector’s Techni- ergy.
cal Guide. US Food and Drug Administration. 1978-01-
When two conductors experience a potential difference,
16. Archived from the original on 2008-04-03. Retrieved
for example, when a capacitor is attached across a bat-
2008-06-11.
tery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, caus-
ing a net positive charge to collect on one plate and net
2.2.13 External links negative charge to collect on the other plate. No cur-
rent actually flows through the dielectric, instead, the ef-
• 4-terminal resistors – How ultra-precise resistors fect is a displacement of charges through the source cir-
work cuit. If the condition is maintained sufficiently long, this
displacement current through the battery ceases. How-
• Beginner’s guide to potentiometers, including de- ever, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads
scription of different tapers of the capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing cur-
rent due to the charging and discharging cycles of the ca-
• Color Coded Resistance Calculator – archived with pacitor.
WayBack Machine
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge
• Resistor Types – Does It Matter? on each conductor to the potential difference between
46 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

them. The unit of capacitance in the International Sys- rectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touch-
tem of Units (SI) is the farad (F), defined as one coulomb ing the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more
per volt (1 C/V). Capacitance values of typical capaci- painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine.
tors for use in general electronics range from about 1 pF The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Muss-
(10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F). chenbroek invented a similar capacitor, which was named
The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the sur- the Leyden [6]
jar, after the University of Leiden where he
face area of the plates (conductors) and inversely related worked. He also was impressed by the power of the
to the gap between them. In practice, the dielectric be- shock he received, writing, “I would not take a second
shock for the kingdom of France.”[7]
tween the plates passes a small amount of leakage cur-
rent. It has an electric field strength limit, known as the Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in
breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce parallel into a “battery” to increase the charge storage ca-
an undesired inductance and resistance. pacity. Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for and came to the conclusion that the charge was stored on
blocking direct current while allowing alternating current the glass, not in the water as[8][9]
others had assumed. He also
to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output adopted the term “battery”, (denoting the increasing
of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios of power with a row of similar units as in a battery of can-
to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission non), subsequently applied to clusters of electrochemical
[10]
systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The [3] cells. Leyden jars were later made by coating the in-
property of energy storage in capacitors was exploited as side and outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at
dynamic memory in early digital computers. [4] the mouth to prevent arcing between the foils. The ear-
liest unit of capacitance was the jar, equivalent to about
1.11 nanofarads.[11]
2.3.1 History Leyden jars or more powerful devices employing flat glass
plates alternating with foil conductors were used exclu-
sively up until about 1900, when the invention of wireless
(radio) created a demand for standard capacitors, and
the steady move to higher frequencies required capacitors
with lower inductance. More compact construction meth-
ods began to be used, such as a flexible dielectric sheet
(like oiled paper) sandwiched between sheets of metal
foil, rolled or folded into a small package.
Early capacitors were known as condensers, a term that
is still occasionally used today, particularly in high power
applications, such as automotive systems. The term was
first used for this purpose by Alessandro Volta in 1782,
with reference to the device’s ability to store a higher den-
sity of electric charge than was possible with an isolated
conductor.[12][2] The term became deprecated because of
the ambiguous meaning of steam condenser, with capac-
itor becoming the recommended term from 1926.[13]
Since the beginning of the study of electricity non con-
ductive materials like glass, porcelain, paper and mica
have been used as insulators. These materials some
decades later were also well-suited for further use as the
dielectric for the first capacitors. Paper capacitors made
by sandwiching a strip of impregnated paper between
strips of metal, and rolling the result into a cylinder were
commonly used in the late 19th century; their manufac-
Battery of four Leyden jars in Museum Boerhaave, Leiden, the ture started in 1876,[14] and they were used from the early
Netherlands 20th century as decoupling capacitors in telecommunica-
tions (telephony).
In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania,
Porcelain was used in the first ceramic capacitors. In the
Germany, found that charge could be stored by connect-
early years of Marconi`s wireless transmitting apparatus
ing a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a
porcelain capacitors were used for high voltage and high
volume of water in a hand-held glass jar.[5] Von Kleist’s
frequency application in the transmitters. On the receiver
hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a
side smaller mica capacitors were used for resonant cir-
dielectric (although details of the mechanism were incor-
2.3. CAPACITOR 47

cuits. Mica dielectric capacitors were invented in 1909

by William Dubilier. Prior to World War II, mica was Charge -+
-+
-+
-+
the most common dielectric for capacitors in the United -+ -+
States.[14] +Q -+
-+
-+
-+
-Q
Charles Pollak (born Karol Pollak), the inventor of the -+ -+
first electrolytic capacitors, found out that the oxide layer -+ -+
on an aluminum anode remained stable in a neutral or -+
-+
-+
-+
dielectric
alkaline electrolyte, even when the power was switched -+ -+
off. In 1896 he was granted U.S. Patent No. 672,913 for -+ -+
an “Electric liquid capacitor with aluminum electrodes.” -+ -+
Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors were invented by -+ -+
Bell Laboratories in the early 1950s as a miniaturized and
more reliable low-voltage support capacitor to comple-
Electric -+
-+
-+
-+ Plate
-+ -+
ment their newly invented transistor. field E -+
-+
-+
-+
area A
With the development of plastic materials by organic -+ -+
chemists during the Second World War, the capacitor in-
dustry began to replace paper with thinner polymer films.
One very early development in film capacitors was de-
scribed in British Patent 587,953 in 1944.[14]
Plate separation d
Last but not least the electric double-layer capacitor (now Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal
Supercapacitors) were invented. In 1957 H. Becker de- electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases
veloped a “Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous the capacitance.
carbon electrodes”.[14][15][16] He believed that the energy
was stored as a charge in the carbon pores used in his ca-
pacitor as in the pores of the etched foils of electrolytic
capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not
known by him at the time, he wrote in the patent: “It is
not known exactly what is taking place in the component
if it is used for energy storage, but it leads to an extremely
high capacity.”

2.3.2 Theory of operation

Main article: Capacitance

Overview
A simple demonstration capacitor made of two parallel metal
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a plates, using an air gap as the dielectric.
non-conductive region.[17] The non-conductive region can
either be a vacuum or an electrical insulator material
known as a dielectric. Examples of dielectric media are
glass, air, paper, and even a semiconductor depletion re-
gion chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor Q
C=
is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net V
electric charge and no influence from any external elec-
tric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the
charges on their facing surfaces,[18] and the dielectric de- opposite charges on the conductors attract one another
velops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store
farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conduc- more charge for a given voltage than when the conductors
tor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[19] are separated, yielding a larger capacitance.
An ideal capacitor is sufficiently characterized by a con- In practical devices, charge build-up sometimes affects
stant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of a positive or the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
negative charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V be- vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of in-
tween them:[17] cremental changes:
48 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

Energy of electric field

dQ Work must be done by an external influence to “move”
C=
dV charge between the conductors in a capacitor. When the
external influence is removed, the charge separation per-
Hydraulic analogy sists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released
when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium
position. The work done in establishing the electric field,
and hence the amount of energy stored, is[20]

∫ Q ∫ Q
q 1 Q2 1 1
W = V (q)dq = dq = = CV 2 = V Q
0 0 C 2 C 2 2
In the hydraulic analogy, a capacitor is analogous to a rub-
ber membrane sealed inside a pipe. This animation illustrates Here Q is the charge stored in the capacitor, V is the volt-
a membrane being repeatedly stretched and un-stretched by the age across the capacitor, and C is the capacitance.
flow of water, which is analogous to a capacitor being repeatedly
In the case of a fluctuating voltage V(t), the stored energy
charged and discharged by the flow of charge.
also fluctuates and hence power must flow into or out of
the capacitor. This power can be found by taking the time
In the hydraulic analogy, charge carriers flowing through derivative of the stored energy:
a wire are analogous to water flowing through a pipe. A
capacitor is like a rubber membrane sealed inside a pipe.
Water molecules cannot pass through the membrane, but ( )
dW d 1 2 dV (t)
some water can move by stretching the membrane. The P = = CV = CV (t)
dt dt 2 dt
analogy clarifies a few aspects of capacitors:
A real capacitor with loss may be modeled as an ideal
capacitor that has an Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR)
• The current alters the charge on a capacitor, just as
which dissipates power as the capacitor is charged or dis-
the flow of water changes the position of the mem-
charged. For an sinusoidal input voltage the power dissi-
brane. More specifically, the effect of an electric
pated due to the ESR is given as:
current is to increase the charge of one plate of the
capacitor, and decrease the charge of the other plate
by an equal amount. This is just as when water 2
Vrms Resr
flow moves the rubber membrane, it increases the P drms = ( )2
1
amount of water on one side of the membrane, and 2 +
Resr 2πf C
decreases the amount of water on the other side.

• The more a capacitor is charged, the larger its voltage Current–voltage relation
drop; i.e., the more it “pushes back” against the
charging current. This is analogous to the fact The current I(t) through any component in an electric cir-
that the more a membrane is stretched, the more it cuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge Q(t) passing
pushes back on the water. through it, but actual charges—electrons—cannot pass
through the dielectric layer of a capacitor. Rather, one
• Charge can flow “through” a capacitor even though electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one
no individual electron can get from one side to the that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron de-
other. This is analogous to water flowing through pletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode
the pipe even though no water molecule can pass that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative
through the rubber membrane. The flow cannot con- charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes
tinue in the same direction forever; the capacitor ex- is equal to the integral of the current as well as propor-
periences dielectric breakdown, and analogously the tional to the voltage, as discussed above. As with any
membrane will eventually break. antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to repre-
sent the initial voltage V(t 0 ). This is the integral form of
• The capacitance describes how much charge can the capacitor equation:[21]
be stored on one plate of a capacitor for a given
“push” (voltage drop). A very stretchy, flexible
∫
membrane corresponds to a higher capacitance than Q(t) 1 t
a stiff membrane. V (t) = = I(τ )dτ + V (t0 )
C C t0
• A charged-up capacitor is storing potential energy, Taking the derivative of this and multiplying by C yields
analogously to a stretched membrane. the derivative form:[22]
2.3. CAPACITOR 49

voltages across the resistor and the current through the

entire circuit decay exponentially. In the case of a dis-
dQ(t) dV (t)
I(t) = =C charging capacitor, the capacitor’s initial voltage (VCᵢ)
dt dt replaces V 0 . The equations become
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores en-
ergy in a magnetic field rather than an electric field. Its
current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current VCi −t
I(t) = · e τ0
and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C R
−t
with the inductance L. V (t) = VCi · e τ0
−t
Q(t) = C · VCi · e τ0
DC circuits

See also: RC circuit AC circuits

A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a
See also: reactance (electronics) and electrical impedance
§ Deriving the device-specific impedances

R Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and resistance,

describes the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes

V0 C VC between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally

varying current at a given frequency. Fourier analysis
allows any signal to be constructed from a spectrum of
frequencies, whence the circuit’s reaction to the various
frequencies may be found. The reactance and impedance
of a capacitor are respectively
A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a ca-
pacitor.
1 1
X=− =−
switch and a constant DC source of voltage V 0 is known ωC 2πf C
as a charging circuit.[23] If the capacitor is initially un- 1 j j
Z= =− =−
charged while the switch is open, and the switch is closed jωC ωC 2πf C
at t0 , it follows from Kirchhoff’s voltage law that
where j is the imaginary unit and ω is the angular fre-
quency of the sinusoidal signal. The −j phase indicates
∫ t that the AC voltage V = ZI lags the AC current by 90°:
1
V0 = vresistor (t) + vcapacitor (t) = i(t)R + i(τ )dτ the positive current phase corresponds to increasing volt-
C t0
age as the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to
Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first- instantaneous constant voltage, etc.
order differential equation: Impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and in-
creasing frequency. This implies that a higher-frequency
signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage am-
di(t) plitude per current amplitude—an AC “short circuit” or
RC + i(t) = 0
dt AC coupling. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the
At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the reactance is high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open
voltage across the resistor is V0 . The initial current is then circuit in AC analysis—those frequencies have been “fil-
I(0) =V /R. With this assumption, solving the differential tered out”.
0
equation yields Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors in
that the impedance is inversely proportional to the defin-
ing characteristic; i.e., capacitance.
V0 −t
I(t) = · e τ0 A capacitor connected to a sinusoidal voltage source
R( )
−t causes a displacement current to flow through it. In the
V (t) = V0 1 − e τ0 case that the voltage source is V0 cos(ωt), the displace-
( −t
) ment current can be expressed as:
Q(t) = C · V0 1 − e τ0

where τ0 = RC, the time constant of the system. As the ca- dV

pacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the I = C dt = −ωCV0 sin(ωt)
50 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

At sin(ωt) = −1, the capacitor has a maximum (or peak)

current whereby I0 = ωCV0 . The ratio of peak voltage to
Conductive plates
peak current is due to capacitive reactance (denoted XC).
XC = V0
I0 = V0
ωCV0 = 1
ωC A
XC approaches zero as ω approaches infinity. If XC d
approaches 0, the capacitor resembles a short wire that
strongly passes current at high frequencies. XC ap-
proaches infinity as ω approaches zero. If XC approaches
infinity, the capacitor resembles an open circuit that
poorly passes low frequencies.
The current of the capacitor may be expressed in the Dielectric
form of cosines to better compare with the voltage of the
source:

Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of area

◦ A and with a separation of d
I = −I0 sin(ωt) = I0 cos(ωt + 90 )
In this situation, the current is out of phase with the volt-
age by +π/2 radians or +90 degrees, i.e. the current leads
the voltage by 90°. εA
C=
d

Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain) The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices made
from materials with a high permittivity, large plate area,
When using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis, the and small distance between plates.
impedance of an ideal capacitor with no initial charge is A parallel plate capacitor can only store a finite amount
represented in the s domain by: of energy before dielectric breakdown occurs. The ca-
pacitor’s dielectric material has a dielectric strength U
which sets the capacitor’s breakdown voltage at V = V
1 = U d. The maximum energy that the capacitor can store
Z(s) =
sC is therefore
where

• C is the capacitance, and 1 1 εA 1

E= CV 2 = (Ud d)2 = εAdUd2
2 2 d 2
• s is the complex frequency.
The maximum energy is a function of dielectric volume,
permittivity, and dielectric strength. Changing the plate
Parallel-plate model area and the separation between the plates while main-
taining the same volume causes no change of the max-
The simplest model capacitor consists of two thin par- imum amount of energy that the capacitor can store, so
allel conductive plates separated by a dielectric with long as the distance between plates remains much smaller
permittivity ε . This model may also be used to make than both the length and width of the plates. In addition,
qualitative predictions for other device geometries. The these equations assume that the electric field is entirely
plates are considered to extend uniformly over an area A concentrated in the dielectric between the plates. In real-
and a charge density ±ρ = ±Q/A exists on their surface. ity there are fringing fields outside the dielectric, for ex-
Assuming that the length and width of the plates are much ample between the sides of the capacitor plates, which in-
greater than their separation d, the electric field near the crease the effective capacitance of the capacitor. This is
centre of the device is uniform with the magnitude E = sometimes called parasitic capacitance. For some simple
ρ/ε. The voltage is defined as the line integral of the elec- capacitor geometries this additional capacitance term can
tric field between the plates be calculated analytically.[24] It becomes negligibly small
when the ratios of plate width to separation and length to
∫ ∫ separation are large.
d d
ρ ρd Qd
V = E dz = dz = =
0 0 ε ε εA
Networks
Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that capacitance in-
creases with area of the plates, and decreases as separa- See also: Series and parallel circuits
tion between plates increases.
2.3. CAPACITOR 51

Connected in series, the schematic diagram re-

veals that the separation distance, not the plate
area, adds up. The capacitors each store instan-
taneous charge build-up equal to that of every
other capacitor in the series. The total voltage
difference from end to end is apportioned to
C1 C2 Cn each capacitor according to the inverse of its
capacitance. The entire series acts as a capac-
itor smaller than any of its components.

Several capacitors in parallel 1 ∑ 1 1 1 1

= = + + ··· +
Ceq i
Ci C1 C2 C n
For capacitors in parallel
Capacitors are combined in series to achieve
a higher working voltage, for example for
smoothing a high voltage power supply. The
voltage ratings, which are based on plate sep-
aration, add up, if capacitance and leakage
currents for each capacitor are identical. In
such an application, on occasion, series strings
are connected in parallel, forming a matrix.
Illustration of the parallel connection of two capacitors. The goal is to maximize the energy storage of
the network without overloading any capaci-
tor. For high-energy storage with capacitors in
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have
series, some safety considerations must be ap-
the same applied voltage. Their capacitances
plied to ensure one capacitor failing and leak-
add up. Charge is apportioned among them by
ing current does not apply too much voltage to
size. Using the schematic diagram to visualize
the other series capacitors.
parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor
contributes to the total surface area.
Series connection is also sometimes used
to adapt polarized electrolytic capacitors for
bipolar AC use. See electrolytic capaci-
∑
Ceq = Ci = C1 + C2 + · · · + Cn tor#Designing for reverse bias.
i
Voltage distribution in parallel-to-series networks.
For capacitors in series To model the distribution of voltages from a single
charged capacitor (A) connected in parallel to a
chain of capacitors in series (Bn ) :

C1 C2 Cn (
(volts)Aeq = A 1 −
1
)

n+1
( )
A 1
Several capacitors in series (volts)B1..n = 1−
n n+1
A−B =0

Note: This is only correct if all capacitance

values are equal.

The power transferred in this arrangement is:

Illustration of the serial connection of two capacitors. 1 1

P = · Avolts (Afarads + Bfarads )
R n+1
52 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

2.3.3 Non-ideal behavior explosive as the short in the capacitor draws current from
the surrounding circuitry and dissipates the energy.[28]
Capacitors deviate from the ideal capacitor equation in
The usual breakdown route is that the field strength be-
a number of ways. Some of these, such as leakage cur-
comes large enough to pull electrons in the dielectric from
rent and parasitic effects are linear, or can be analyzed
their atoms thus causing conduction. Other scenarios are
as nearly linear, and can be dealt with by adding virtual
possible, such as impurities in the dielectric, and, if the
components to the equivalent circuit of an ideal capaci-
dielectric is of a crystalline nature, imperfections in the
tor. The usual methods of network analysis can then be
crystal structure can result in an avalanche breakdown as
applied. In other cases, such as with breakdown voltage,
seen in semi-conductor devices. Breakdown voltage is
the effect is non-linear and ordinary (normal, e.g., linear)
also affected by pressure, humidity and temperature.[29]
network analysis cannot be used, the effect must be dealt
with separately. There is yet another group, which may
be linear but invalidate the assumption in the analysis that Equivalent circuit
capacitance is a constant. Such an example is tempera-
ture dependence. Finally, combined parasitic effects such
as inherent inductance, resistance, or dielectric losses can
exhibit non-uniform behavior at variable frequencies of
operation.

Breakdown voltage

Main article: Breakdown voltage

Above a particular electric field, known as the dielectric

strength Eds, the dielectric in a capacitor becomes con-
ductive. The voltage at which this occurs is called the
breakdown voltage of the device, and is given by the prod-
uct of the dielectric strength and the separation between
the conductors,[25]

Vbd = Eds d
Two different circuit models of a real capacitor
The maximum energy that can be stored safely in a capac-
itor is limited by the breakdown voltage. Due to the scal-
An ideal capacitor only stores and releases electrical en-
ing of capacitance and breakdown voltage with dielectric
ergy, without dissipating any. In reality, all capacitors
thickness, all capacitors made with a particular dielectric
have imperfections within the capacitor’s material that
have approximately equal maximum energy density, to
create resistance. This is specified as the equivalent se-
the extent that the dielectric dominates their volume.[26]
ries resistance or ESR of a component. This adds a real
For air dielectric capacitors the breakdown field strength component to the impedance:
is of the order 2 to 5 MV/m; for mica the breakdown is
100 to 300 MV/m; for oil, 15 to 25 MV/m; it can be much
less when other materials are used for the dielectric.[27] 1
ZC = Z + RESR = + RESR
The dielectric is used in very thin layers and so abso- jωC
lute breakdown voltage of capacitors is limited. Typical
ratings for capacitors used for general electronics appli- As frequency approaches infinity, the capacitive
cations range from a few volts to 1 kV. As the voltage impedance (or reactance) approaches zero and the ESR
increases, the dielectric must be thicker, making high- becomes significant. As the reactance becomes negli-
voltage capacitors larger per capacitance than those rated gible, power dissipation approaches PRMS = VRMS²
for lower voltages. The breakdown voltage is critically /RESR.
affected by factors such as the geometry of the capaci- Similarly to ESR, the capacitor’s leads add equivalent se-
tor conductive parts; sharp edges or points increase the ries inductance or ESL to the component. This is usually
electric field strength at that point and can lead to a local significant only at relatively high frequencies. As induc-
breakdown. Once this starts to happen, the breakdown tive reactance is positive and increases with frequency,
quickly tracks through the dielectric until it reaches the above a certain frequency capacitance is canceled by in-
opposite plate, leaving carbon behind and causing a short ductance. High-frequency engineering involves account-
(or relatively low resistance) circuit. The results can be ing for the inductance of all connections and components.
2.3. CAPACITOR 53

If the conductors are separated by a material with a small Capacitance instability

conductivity rather than a perfect dielectric, then a small
leakage current flows directly between them. The capaci- The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the
tor therefore has a finite parallel resistance,[19] and slowly component ages. In ceramic capacitors, this is caused
discharges over time (time may vary greatly depending on by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric,
the capacitor material and quality). ambient operating and storage temperatures are the most
significant aging factors, while the operating voltage has
a smaller effect. The aging process may be reversed by
Q factor
heating the component above the Curie point. Aging is
fastest near the beginning of life of the component, and
The quality factor (or Q) of a capacitor is the ratio of
the device stabilizes over time.[30] Electrolytic capacitors
its reactance to its resistance at a given frequency, and is
age as the electrolyte evaporates. In contrast with ceramic
a measure of its efficiency. The higher the Q factor of
capacitors, this occurs towards the end of life of the com-
the capacitor, the closer it approaches the behavior of an
ponent.
ideal, lossless, capacitor.
Temperature dependence of capacitance is usually ex-
The Q factor of a capacitor can be found through the fol-
pressed in parts per million (ppm) per °C. It can usually
lowing formula:
be taken as a broadly linear function but can be noticeably
non-linear at the temperature extremes. The temperature
XC 1 coefficient can be either positive or negative, sometimes
Q= = , even amongst different samples of the same type. In other
RC ωCRC
words, the spread in the range of temperature coefficients
where ω is angular frequency, C is the capacitance, XC
can encompass zero.
is the capacitive reactance, and RC is the series resistance
of the capacitor. Capacitors, especially ceramic capacitors, and older de-
signs such as paper capacitors, can absorb sound waves
resulting in a microphonic effect. Vibration moves
Ripple current the plates, causing the capacitance to vary, in turn in-
ducing AC current. Some dielectrics also generate
Ripple current is the AC component of an applied source piezoelectricity. The resulting interference is especially
(often a switched-mode power supply) whose frequency problematic in audio applications, potentially causing
may be constant or varying. Ripple current causes heat feedback or unintended recording. In the reverse micro-
to be generated within the capacitor due to the dielectric phonic effect, the varying electric field between the ca-
losses caused by the changing field strength together with pacitor plates exerts a physical force, moving them as a
the current flow across the slightly resistive supply lines or speaker. This can generate audible sound, but drains en-
the electrolyte in the capacitor. The equivalent series re- ergy and stresses the dielectric and the electrolyte, if any.
sistance (ESR) is the amount of internal series resistance
one would add to a perfect capacitor to model this.
Some types of capacitors, primarily tantalum and Current and voltage reversal
aluminum electrolytic capacitors, as well as some film ca-
pacitors have a specified rating value for maximum ripple Current reversal occurs when the current changes direc-
current. tion. Voltage reversal is the change of polarity in a circuit.
Reversal is generally described as the percentage of the
• Tantalum electrolytic capacitors with solid man- maximum rated voltage that reverses polarity. In DC cir-
ganese dioxide electrolyte are limited by ripple cur- cuits, this is usually less than 100%, often in the range of
rent and generally have the highest ESR ratings in 0 to 90%, whereas AC circuits experience 100% reversal.
the capacitor family. Exceeding their ripple limits
can lead to shorts and burning parts. In DC circuits and pulsed circuits, current and voltage re-
versal are affected by the damping of the system. Voltage
• Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, the most com- reversal is encountered in RLC circuits that are under-
mon type of electrolytic, suffer a shortening of life damped. The current and voltage reverse direction, form-
expectancy at higher ripple currents. If ripple cur- ing a harmonic oscillator between the inductance and ca-
rent exceeds the rated value of the capacitor, it tends pacitance. The current and voltage tends to oscillate and
to result in explosive failure. may reverse direction several times, with each peak being
lower than the previous, until the system reaches an equi-
• Ceramic capacitors generally have no ripple current
librium. This is often referred to as ringing. In compar-
limitation and have some of the lowest ESR ratings.
ison, critically damped or over-damped systems usually
• Film capacitors have very low ESR ratings but ex- do not experience a voltage reversal. Reversal is also en-
ceeding rated ripple current may cause degradation countered in AC circuits, where the peak current is equal
failures. in each direction.
54 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

For maximum life, capacitors usually need to be able to Electrolytic failure from disuse
handle the maximum amount of reversal that a system
may experience. An AC circuit experiences 100% volt- Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are conditioned when
age reversal, while under-damped DC circuits experience manufactured by applying a voltage sufficient to initiate
less than 100%. Reversal creates excess electric fields in the proper internal chemical state. This state is main-
the dielectric, causes excess heating of both the dielectric tained by regular use of the equipment. If a system using
and the conductors, and can dramatically shorten the life electrolytic capacitors is unused for a long period of time
expectancy of the capacitor. Reversal ratings often af- it can lose its conditioning. Sometimes they fail with a
fect the design considerations for the capacitor, from the short circuit when next operated.
choice of dielectric materials and voltage ratings to the
types of internal connections used.[31]
2.3.4 Capacitor types
Dielectric absorption Main article: Types of capacitor

Capacitors made with any type of dielectric material Practical capacitors are available commercially in many
show some level of "dielectric absorption" or “soakage”. different forms. The type of internal dielectric, the struc-
On discharging a capacitor and disconnecting it, after a ture of the plates and the device packaging all strongly
short time it may develop a voltage due to hysteresis in affect the characteristics of the capacitor, and its appli-
the dielectric. This effect is objectionable in applications cations.
such as precision sample and hold circuits or timing cir-
cuits. The level of absorption depends on many factors, Values available range from very low (picofarad range;
from design considerations to charging time, since the ab- while arbitrarily low values are in principle possible, stray
sorption is a time-dependent process. However, the pri- (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the limiting factor)
mary factor is the type of dielectric material. Capacitors to about 5 kF supercapacitors.
such as tantalum electrolytic or polysulfone film exhibit Above approximately 1 microfarad electrolytic capacitors
relatively high absorption, while polystyrene or Teflon al- are usually used because of their small size and low cost
low very small levels of absorption.[32] In some capacitors compared with other types, unless their relatively poor
where dangerous voltages and energies exist, such as in stability, life and polarised nature make them unsuitable.
flashtubes, television sets, and defibrillators, the dielec- Very high capacity supercapacitors use a porous carbon-
tric absorption can recharge the capacitor to hazardous based electrode material.
voltages after it has been shorted or discharged. Any ca-
pacitor containing over 10 joules of energy is generally
considered hazardous, while 50 joules or higher is po- Dielectric materials
tentially lethal. A capacitor may regain anywhere from
0.01 to 20% of its original charge over a period of several
minutes, allowing a seemingly safe capacitor to become
surprisingly dangerous.[33][34][35][36][37]

Leakage

Leakage is equivalent to a resistor in parallel with the ca-

pacitor. Constant exposure to heat can cause dielectric Capacitor materials. From left: multilayer ceramic, ceramic disc,
breakdown and excessive leakage, a problem often seen multilayer polyester film, tubular ceramic, polystyrene, metalized
in older vacuum tube circuits, particularly where oiled polyester film, aluminum electrolytic. Major scale divisions are
in centimetres.
paper and foil capacitors were used. In many vacuum
tube circuits, interstage coupling capacitors are used to
conduct a varying signal from the plate of one tube to Most capacitors have a dielectric spacer, which increases
the grid circuit of the next stage. A leaky capacitor can their capacitance compared to air or a vacuum. In order
cause the grid circuit voltage to be raised from its nor- to maximise the charge that a capacitor can hold, the di-
mal bias setting, causing excessive current or signal dis- electric material needs to have as high a permittivity as
tortion in the downstream tube. In power amplifiers this possible, while also having as high a breakdown voltage
can cause the plates to glow red, or current limiting resis- as possible. The dielectric also needs to have as low a loss
tors to overheat, even fail. Similar considerations apply to with frequency as possible.
component fabricated solid-state (transistor) amplifiers, However, low value capacitors are available with a vac-
but owing to lower heat production and the use of mod- uum between their plates to allow extremely high voltage
ern polyester dielectric barriers this once-common prob- operation and low losses. Variable capacitors with their
lem has become relatively rare. plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in
2.3. CAPACITOR 55

radio tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil di- tubes. They can be restored before use by gradually ap-
electric between the moving and stationary plates, with plying the operating voltage, often performed on antique
no significant air space between the plates. vacuum tube equipment over a period of thirty minutes
Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, by using a variable transformer to supply AC power. The
plastic, glass, mica and ceramic. use of this technique may be less satisfactory for some
solid state equipment, which may be damaged by oper-
Paper was used extensively in older capacitors and offers ation below its normal power range, requiring that the
relatively high voltage performance. However, paper ab- power supply first be isolated from the consuming cir-
sorbs moisture, and has been largely replaced by plastic cuits. Such remedies may not be applicable to modern
film capacitors. high-frequency power supplies as these produce full out-
Most of the plastic films now used offer better stability put voltage even with reduced input.
and ageing performance than such older dielectrics such Tantalum capacitors offer better frequency and tempera-
as oiled paper, which makes them useful in timer circuits, ture characteristics than aluminum, but higher dielectric
although they may be limited to relatively low operating absorption and leakage.[38]
temperatures and frequencies, because of the limitations
of the plastic film being used. Large plastic film capac-
itors are used extensively in suppression circuits, motor
start circuits, and power factor correction circuits.
Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and use-
ful for high frequency applications, although their capac-
itance varies strongly with voltage and temperature and
they age poorly. They can also suffer from the piezoelec-
tric effect. Ceramic capacitors are broadly categorized
as class 1 dielectrics, which have predictable variation of
capacitance with temperature or class 2 dielectrics, which
can operate at higher voltage. Modern multilayer ceram-
ics are usually quite small, but some types have inherently
wide value tolerances, microphonic issues, and are usu-
Solid electrolyte, resin-dipped 10 μF 35 V tantalum capacitors.
ally physically brittle. The + sign indicates the positive lead.
Glass and mica capacitors are extremely reliable, stable
and tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are Polymer capacitors (OS-CON, OC-CON, KO, AO) use
too expensive for most mainstream applications. solid conductive polymer (or polymerized organic semi-
conductor) as electrolyte and offer longer life and lower
Electrolytic capacitors and supercapacitors are used to
ESR at higher cost than standard electrolytic capacitors.
store small and larger amounts of energy, respectively,
ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators, and A feedthrough capacitor is a component that, while not
parasitic capacitance occurs in circuits wherever the sim- serving as its main use, has capacitance and is used to
ple conductor-insulator-conductor structure is formed un- conduct signals through a conductive sheet.
intentionally by the configuration of the circuit layout. Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist
Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminum or tantalum plate applications. Supercapacitors store large amounts of en-
with an oxide dielectric layer. The second electrode is ergy. Supercapacitors made from carbon aerogel, carbon
a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials, offer ex-
foil plate. Electrolytic capacitors offer very high capac- tremely high capacitance (up to 5 kF as of 2010) and can
itance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, be used in some applications instead of rechargeable bat-
gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to teries. Alternating current capacitors are specifically de-
heat, and high leakage current. Poor quality capacitors signed to work on line (mains) voltage AC power circuits.
may leak electrolyte, which is harmful to printed cir- They are commonly used in electric motor circuits and are
cuit boards. The conductivity of the electrolyte drops at often designed to handle large currents, so they tend to be
low temperatures, which increases equivalent series resis- physically large. They are usually ruggedly packaged, of-
tance. While widely used for power-supply conditioning, ten in metal cases that can be easily grounded/earthed.
poor high-frequency characteristics make them unsuit- They also are designed with direct current breakdown
able for many applications. Electrolytic capacitors suf- voltages of at least five times the maximum AC voltage.
fer from self-degradation if unused for a period (around
a year), and when full power is applied may short circuit,
permanently damaging the capacitor and usually blowing Voltage-dependent capacitors
a fuse or causing failure of rectifier diodes. For exam-
ple, in older equipment, this may cause arcing in rectifier The dielectric constant for a number of very useful di-
electrics changes as a function of the applied electrical
56 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

field, for example ferroelectric materials, so the capaci- ample of the origin of this mechanism, the internal micro-
tance for these devices is more complex. For example, scopic dipoles contributing to the dielectric constant can-
in charging such a capacitor the differential increase in not move instantly, and so as frequency of an applied al-
voltage with charge is governed by: ternating voltage increases, the dipole response is limited
and the dielectric constant diminishes. A changing di-
electric constant with frequency is referred to as dielectric
dQ = C(V ) dV dispersion, and is governed by dielectric relaxation pro-
cesses, such as Debye relaxation. Under transient con-
where the voltage dependence of capacitance, C(V), sug- ditions, the displacement field can be expressed as (see
gests that the capacitance is a function of the electric field electric susceptibility):
strength, which in a large area parallel plate device is
given by ε = V/d. This field polarizes the dielectric, which ∫ t
polarization, in the case of a ferroelectric, is a nonlinear
D(t) = ε0 εr (t − t′ )E(t′ ) dt′ ,
S-shaped function of the electric field, which, in the case −∞
of a large area parallel plate device, translates into a ca-
pacitance that is a nonlinear function of the voltage.[39][40] indicating the lag in response by the time dependence
of εr, calculated in principle from an underlying micro-
Corresponding to the voltage-dependent capacitance, to scopic analysis, for example, of the dipole behavior in
charge the capacitor to voltage V an integral relation is the dielectric. See, for example, linear response func-
found: tion.[43][44] The integral extends over the entire past his-
tory up to the present time. A Fourier transform in time
∫ V then results in:
Q= C(V ) dV
0

which agrees with Q = CV only when C does not depend D(ω) = ε0 εr (ω)E(ω) ,
on voltage V.
where εᵣ(ω) is now a complex function, with an imaginary
By the same token, the energy stored in the capacitor now part related to absorption of energy from the field by the
is given by medium. See permittivity. The capacitance, being pro-
portional to the dielectric constant, also exhibits this fre-
[∫ ] quency behavior. Fourier transforming Gauss’s law with
V this form for displacement field:
dW = Q dV = dV ′ C(V ′ ) dV .
0 H
I(ω) = jωQ(ω) = jω Σ D(r, ω) · dΣ
Integrating:

V (ω)
∫ V ∫ V ∫ V ∫ V ∫ V = [G(ω) + jωC(ω)] V (ω) = ,
Z(ω)
W = dV dV ′ C(V ′ ) = dV ′ dV C(V ′ ) = dV ′ (V − V ′ ) C(V ′ ) ,
0 0 0 V′ 0
where j is the imaginary unit, V(ω) is the voltage com-
where interchange of the order of integration is used. ponent at angular frequency ω, G(ω) is the real part of
The nonlinear capacitance of a microscope probe scanned the current, called the conductance, and C(ω) determines
along a ferroelectric surface is used to study the domain the imaginary part of the current and is the capacitance.
structure of ferroelectric materials.[41] Z(ω) is the complex impedance.
Another example of voltage dependent capacitance oc- When a parallel-plate capacitor is filled with a dielectric,
curs in semiconductor devices such as semiconductor the measurement of dielectric properties of the medium
diodes, where the voltage dependence stems not from a is based upon the relation:
change in dielectric constant but in a voltage dependence
of the spacing between the charges on the two sides of
the capacitor.[42] This effect is intentionally exploited in εr (ω) = ε′r (ω) − jε′′r (ω) =
1
=
Ccmplx (ω)
,
diode-like devices known as varicaps. jωZ(ω)C0 C0
where a single prime denotes the real part and a double
Frequency-dependent capacitors prime the imaginary part, Z(ω) is the complex impedance
with the dielectric present, C ₓ(ω) is the so-called com-
If a capacitor is driven with a time-varying voltage that plex capacitance with the dielectric present, and C 0 is the
changes rapidly enough, at some frequency the polariza- capacitance without the dielectric.[45][46] (Measurement
tion of the dielectric cannot follow the voltage. As an ex- “without the dielectric” in principle means measurement
2.3. CAPACITOR 57

in free space, an unattainable goal inasmuch as even the usually use a metal foil or metal film layer deposited on
quantum vacuum is predicted to exhibit nonideal behav- the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a
ior, such as dichroism. For practical purposes, when mea- dielectric film of impregnated paper or plastic – these are
surement errors are taken into account, often a measure- rolled up to save space. To reduce the series resistance
ment in terrestrial vacuum, or simply a calculation of C 0 ,
and inductance for long plates, the plates and dielectric
is sufficiently accurate.[47] ) are staggered so that connection is made at the common
Using this measurement method, the dielectric constant edge of the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of the foil or
may exhibit a resonance at certain frequencies corre- metalized film strips that comprise the plates.
sponding to characteristic response frequencies (excita- The assembly is encased to prevent moisture entering the
tion energies) of contributors to the dielectric constant. dielectric – early radio equipment used a cardboard tube
These resonances are the basis for a number of ex- sealed with wax. Modern paper or film dielectric capaci-
perimental techniques for detecting defects. The con- tors are dipped in a hard thermoplastic. Large capacitors
ductance method measures absorption as a function of for high-voltage use may have the roll form compressed
frequency.[48] Alternatively, the time response of the ca- to fit into a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals
pacitance can be used directly, as in deep-level transient and bushings for connections. The dielectric in larger ca-
spectroscopy.[49] pacitors is often impregnated with a liquid to improve its
Another example of frequency dependent capacitance properties.
occurs with MOS capacitors, where the slow genera-
tion of minority carriers means that at high frequencies
the capacitance measures only the majority carrier re-
sponse, while at low frequencies both types of carrier
respond.[50][51]
At optical frequencies, in semiconductors the dielectric
constant exhibits structure related to the band structure
of the solid. Sophisticated modulation spectroscopy mea-
surement methods based upon modulating the crystal
structure by pressure or by other stresses and observing
the related changes in absorption or reflection of light
have advanced our knowledge of these materials.[52]

Several axial-lead electrolytic capacitors

Structure

Capacitors may have their connecting leads arranged

in many configurations, for example axially or radially.
“Axial” means that the leads are on a common axis, typ-
ically the axis of the capacitor’s cylindrical body – the
leads extend from opposite ends. Radial leads might more
accurately be referred to as tandem; they are rarely actu-
ally aligned along radii of the body’s circle, so the term
is inexact, although universal. The leads (until bent) are
usually in planes parallel to that of the flat body of the ca-
pacitor, and extend in the same direction; they are often
parallel as manufactured.
Small, cheap discoidal ceramic capacitors have existed
since the 1930s, and remain in widespread use. Since the
1980s, surface mount packages for capacitors have been
Capacitor packages: SMD ceramic at top left; SMD tantalum at
widely used. These packages are extremely small and lack
bottom left; through-hole tantalum at top right; through-hole elec- connecting leads, allowing them to be soldered directly
trolytic at bottom right. Major scale divisions are cm. onto the surface of printed circuit boards. Surface mount
components avoid undesirable high-frequency effects due
The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many vari- to the leads and simplify automated assembly, although
ations depending on the desired ratings of the capaci- manual handling is made difficult due to their small size.
tor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the
less), ceramic disks use metallic coatings, with wire leads plate spacing to be adjusted, for example by rotating
bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by mul- or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with
tiple stacks of plates and disks. Larger value capacitors a set of stationary plates. Low cost variable capac-
58 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

itors squeeze together alternating layers of aluminum 2.3.6 Applications

and plastic with a screw. Electrical control of capaci-
tance is achievable with varactors (or varicaps), which are Main article: Applications of capacitors
reverse-biased semiconductor diodes whose depletion re-
gion width varies with applied voltage. They are used in
phase-locked loops, amongst other applications.

2.3.5 Capacitor markings

See also: Preferred number § E series

Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to

indicate their electrical characteristics. Larger capacitors
like electrolytics usually display the actual capacitance to-
gether with the unit, for example, 220 μF. Smaller ca-
pacitors like ceramics, however, use a shorthand-notation
consisting of three digits and a letter, where the digits
indicate the capacitance in pF, calculated as XY × 10Z
for digits XYZ, and the letter indicates the tolerance.
Common tolerance indications are J, K, and M for ±5%,
±10%, and ±20%, respectively.
Additionally, the capacitor may be labeled with its
working voltage, temperature and other relevant charac-
teristics.
For typographical reasons, some manufacturers print MF
on capacitors to indicate microfarads (μF).[53]

Example
This mylar-film, oil-filled capacitor has very low inductance and
low resistance, to provide the high-power (70 megawatt) and high
A capacitor labeled or designated as 473K 330V has a speed (1.2 microsecond) discharge needed to operate a dye laser.
capacitance of 47 × 103 pF = 47 nF (±10%) with a max-
imum working voltage of 330 V. The working voltage of
a capacitor is nominally the highest voltage that may be
applied across it without undue risk of breaking down the
dielectric layer.
Energy storage

Letter and digit code A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected
from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a tem-
The notation to state a capacitor’s value in a circuit di- porary battery, or like other types of rechargeable energy
agram varies. The letter and digit code for capacitance storage system.[56] Capacitors are commonly used in elec-
values following IEC 60062 and BS 1852 avoids using tronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries
a decimal separator and replaces the decimal separator are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in
with the SI prefix symbol for the particular value (and the volatile memory.)
letter F for weight 1). Example: 4n7 for 4.7 nF or 2F2
for 2.2 F. Conventional capacitors provide less than 360 joules
per kilogram of specific energy, whereas a conventional
alkaline battery has a density of 590 kJ/kg. There is an
Historical intermediate solution: Supercapacitors, which can accept
and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and tolerate
See also: Farad § Informal and deprecated terminology many more charge and discharge cycles than rechargeable
batteries. They are however 10 times larger than conven-
In the past, alternate capacitance subunits were used in tional batteries for a given charge.
historical electronic books; “mfd” and “mf” for micro- In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for the
farad (µF); “mmfd”, “mmf”, "µµF” for picofarad (pF); amplifier to use on demand. Also for a flash tube a ca-
but are rarely used any more.[54][55] pacitor is used to hold the high voltage.
2.3. CAPACITOR 59

Digital memory stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and

resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery.
In the 1930s, John Atanasoff applied the principle of en-
ergy storage in capacitors to construct dynamic digital
memories for the first binary computers that used elec-
tron tubes for logic.[4]

Pulsed power and weapons

Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance

high-voltage capacitors (capacitor banks) are used to sup-
ply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power appli-
cations. These include electromagnetic forming, Marx
generators, pulsed lasers (especially TEA lasers), pulse
forming networks, radar, fusion research, and particle ac-
celerators.
Large capacitor banks (reservoir) are used as en-
ergy sources for the exploding-bridgewire detonators or
slapper detonators in nuclear weapons and other specialty
weapons. Experimental work is under way using banks of
capacitors as power sources for electromagnetic armour
and electromagnetic railguns and coilguns.

Power conditioning

A high-voltage capacitor bank used for power factor correction

on a power transmission system

Power factor correction In electric power distribu-

tion, capacitors are used for power factor correction.
Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected
as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these capac-
itors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power
in volt-amperes reactive (var). The purpose is to coun-
teract inductive loading from devices like electric mo-
A 10,000 microfarad capacitor in an amplifier power supply tors and transmission lines to make the load appear to
be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may
Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets
they smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier. of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices)
They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the en- may be installed at a load center within a building or in a
ergy storage element in the generation of higher voltages large utility substation.
than the input voltage.
Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power cir- Suppression and coupling
cuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such
as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctua- Signal coupling Main article: capacitive coupling
tions from the primary power source to provide a “clean” Because capacitors pass AC but block DC signals (when
power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equip- charged up to the applied dc voltage), they are often used
ment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This
shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal method is known as AC coupling or “capacitive coupling”.
circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not
power source, and bypass AC currents from the power be accurately controlled, but whose reactance is small at
supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a the signal frequency, is employed.
60 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually

employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate
energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor com-
binations are available in a single package.
Capacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a
high-voltage circuit breaker in order to equally distribute
the voltage between these units. In this case they are
called grading capacitors.
In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC
charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit dia-
grams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an
Polyester film capacitors are frequently used as coupling capac- arc. The straight plate indicates the positive terminal of
itors. the device, if it is polarized (see electrolytic capacitor).

Decoupling Main article: decoupling capacitor Motor starters

A decoupling capacitor is a capacitor used to protect one Main article: motor capacitor
part of a circuit from the effect of another, for instance to
suppress noise or transients. Noise caused by other cir-
In single phase squirrel cage motors, the primary wind-
cuit elements is shunted through the capacitor, reducing
ing within the motor housing is not capable of starting a
the effect they have on the rest of the circuit. It is most
rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustain-
commonly used between the power supply and ground.
ing one. To start the motor, a secondary “start” wind-
An alternative name is bypass capacitor as it is used to
ing has a series non-polarized starting capacitor to in-
bypass the power supply or other high impedance com-
troduce a lead in the sinusoidal current. When the sec-
ponent of a circuit.
ondary (start) winding is placed at an angle with respect
Decoupling capacitors need not always be discrete com- to the primary (run) winding, a rotating electric field is
ponents. Capacitors used in these applications may created. The force of the rotational field is not constant,
be built into a printed circuit board, between the var- but is sufficient to start the rotor spinning. When the ro-
ious layers. These are often referred to as embedded tor comes close to operating speed, a centrifugal switch
capacitors.[57] The layers in the board contributing to the (or current-sensitive relay in series with the main wind-
capacitive properties also function as power and ground ing) disconnects the capacitor. The start capacitor is typ-
planes, and have a dielectric in between them, enabling ically mounted to the side of the motor housing. These
them to operate as a parallel plate capacitor. are called capacitor-start motors, that have relatively high
starting torque. Typically they can have up-to four times
as much starting torque than a split-phase motor and are
High-pass and low-pass filters Further information: used on applications such as compressors, pressure wash-
High-pass filter and Low-pass filter ers and any small device requiring high starting torques.
Capacitor-run induction motors have a permanently con-
nected phase-shifting capacitor in series with a second
Noise suppression, spikes, and snubbers Further winding. The motor is much like a two-phase induction
information: High-pass filter and Low-pass filter motor.
Motor-starting capacitors are typically non-polarized
When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through electrolytic types, while running capacitors are conven-
the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large volt- tional paper or plastic film dielectric types.
age across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the
inductance is large enough, the energy may generate a
spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, Signal processing
or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state
switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly opened The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent
circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the con- information, either in binary form, as in DRAMs, or in
tact points, thereby preserving their life; these were com- analogue form, as in analog sampled filters and CCDs.
monly found in contact breaker ignition systems, for in- Capacitors can be used in analog circuits as components
stance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may of integrators or more complex filters and in negative
not be enough to damage the switch but may still radiate feedback loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits
undesirable radio frequency interference (RFI), which a also use capacitors to integrate a current signal.
2.3. CAPACITOR 61

Tuned circuits Capacitors and inductors are applied plate. Some accelerometers use MEMS capac-
together in tuned circuits to select information in particu- itors etched on a chip to measure the magni-
lar frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on tude and direction of the acceleration vector.
variable capacitors to tune the station frequency. Speak- They are used to detect changes in accelera-
ers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers tion, in tilt sensors, or to detect free fall, as sen-
use capacitors to select different audio bands. sors triggering airbag deployment, and in many
The resonant frequency f of a tuned circuit is a function other applications. Some fingerprint sensors
of the inductance (L) and capacitance (C) in series, and use capacitors. Additionally, a user can adjust
the pitch of a theremin musical instrument by
is given by:
moving their hand since this changes the effec-
tive capacitance between the user’s hand and
1 the antenna.
f= √
2π LC
Changing the effective area of the plates:
where L is in henries and C is in farads.

Capacitive touch switches are now used on

Sensing many consumer electronic products.
Main article: capacitive sensing
Oscillators
Main article: Capacitive displacement sensor
Further information: Hartley oscillator
A capacitor can possess spring-like qualities in an oscil-
Most capacitors are designed to maintain a fixed physi-
cal structure. However, various factors can change the
structure of the capacitor, and the resulting change in ca-
pacitance can be used to sense those factors.
Changing the dielectric:

The effects of varying the characteristics of the

dielectric can be used for sensing purposes.
Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielec-
tric can be used to measure humidity in air. Ca-
pacitors are used to accurately measure the fuel
level in airplanes; as the fuel covers more of a
pair of plates, the circuit capacitance increases.
Squeezing the dielectric can change a capacitor
at a few tens of bar pressure sufficiently that it
can be used as a pressure sensor.[58] A selected,
but otherwise standard, polymer dielectric ca-
pacitor, when immersed in a compatible gas Example of a simple oscillator incorporating a capacitor
or liquid, can work usefully as a very low cost
lator circuit. In the image example, a capacitor acts to
pressure sensor up to many hundreds of bar.
influence the biasing voltage at the npn transistor’s base.
The resistance values of the voltage-divider resistors and
Changing the distance between the plates: the capacitance value of the capacitor together control the
oscillatory frequency.

Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used

to measure strain or pressure. Industrial pres- Producing light
sure transmitters used for process control use
pressure-sensing diaphragms, which form a ca- Main article: light emitting capacitor
pacitor plate of an oscillator circuit. Capaci-
tors are used as the sensor in condenser micro- A light-emitting capacitor is made from a dielectric that
phones, where one plate is moved by air pres- uses phosphorescence to produce light. If one of the con-
sure, relative to the fixed position of the other ductive plates is made with a transparent material, the
62 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

light is visible. Light-emitting capacitors are used in the rect current (HVDC) circuits. This extends the life of the
construction of electroluminescent panels, for applica- component and may mitigate high-voltage hazards.
tions such as backlighting for laptop computers. In this
case, the entire panel is a capacitor used for the purpose
of generating light.

2.3.7 Hazards and safety

The hazards posed by a capacitor are usually determined,
foremost, by the amount of energy stored, which is the • Swollen electrolytic
cause of things like electrical burns or heart fibrillation. capacitors – the special design of the capacitor
Factors such as voltage and chassis material are of sec- tops allows them to vent instead of bursting violently
ondary consideration, which are more related to how eas-
ily a shock can be initiated rather than how much damage
can occur.[37]
Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is re-
moved from a circuit; this charge can cause dangerous or
even potentially fatal shocks or damage connected equip-
ment. For example, even a seemingly innocuous device
such as a disposable-camera flash unit, powered by a 1.5
volt AA battery, has a capacitor which may contain over • This high-energy capacitor from
15 joules of energy and be charged to over 300 volts. This a defibrillator has a resistor connected between the
is easily capable of delivering a shock. Service proce- terminals for safety, to dissipate stored energy.
dures for electronic devices usually include instructions
to discharge large or high-voltage capacitors, for instance
using a Brinkley stick. Capacitors may also have built-
in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe
level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-
voltage capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted,
as protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to
dielectric absorption or from transient voltages the capac-
itor may pick up from static charges or passing weather
events.[37] • Catastrophic failure of a capac-
itor has scattered fragments of paper and metallic
Some old, large oil-filled paper or plastic film capac- foil
itors contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). It is
known that waste PCBs can leak into groundwater un-
der landfills. Capacitors containing PCB were labelled
as containing “Askarel” and several other trade names. 2.3.8 See also
PCB-filled paper capacitors are found in very old (pre-
1975) fluorescent lamp ballasts, and other applications. • Capacitance meter
Capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to
voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach • Capacitor plague
their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal intercon- • Circuit design
nection failures may create arcing that vaporizes the di-
electric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even • Electric displacement field
an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-
current applications can overheat, especially in the center • Electroluminescence
of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy
capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one • Electronic oscillator
capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the
rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum • Gimmick capacitor
capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal
operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive
maintenance can help to minimize these hazards. 2.3.9 References
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[4] Floyd, Thomas (1984–2005). Electronic Devices (7 ed.). [22] Dorf, p.260
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. p. 10. ISBN
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[5] Williams, Henry Smith. “A History of Science Volume
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Batteries & Energy Storage Technology 9380386745.

[17] Ulaby, p.168 [37] Winburn (1990) Practical Laser Safety Second Edition.
Marcel-Dekker Inc. p. 189. ISBN 0824782402.
[18] Ulaby, p.157
[38] Guinta, Steve. “Ask The Applications Engineer – 21”.
[19] Ulaby, p.169 Analog Devices. Retrieved 2013-03-17.
64 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

[39] Carlos Paz de Araujo, Ramamoorthy Ramesh, George W [55] Fundamentals of Electronics – Volume 1b – Basic Elec-
Taylor (Editors) (2001). Science and Technology of In- tricity – Alternating Current; Bureau of Naval Personnel;
tegrated Ferroelectrics: Selected Papers from Eleven Years 1965; page 197.
of the Proceedings of the International Symposium on Inte-
grated Ferroelectrics. CRC Press. Figure 2, p. 504. ISBN [56] Miller, Charles. Illustrated Guide to the National Electrical
90-5699-704-1. Code, p. 445 (Cengage Learning 2011).
[40] Solomon Musikant (1991). What Every Engineer Should
Know about Ceramics. CRC Press. Figure 3.9, p. 43. [57] Alam, Mohammed; Michael H. Azarian; Michael Oster-
ISBN 0-8247-8498-7. man; Michael Pecht (2010). “Effectiveness of embedded
capacitors in reducing the number of surface mount ca-
[41] Yasuo Cho (2005). Scanning Nonlinear Dielectric Micro- pacitors for decoupling applications”. Circuit World. 36
scope (in Polar Oxides; R Waser, U Böttger & S Tiedke, (1): 22. doi:10.1108/03056121011015068.
editors ed.). Wiley-VCH. Chapter 16. ISBN 3-527-
40532-1. [58] Downie, Neil A and Mathilde Pradier, 'Method and appa-
ratus for monitoring fluid pressure”, US Patent 7526961
[42] Simon M. Sze; Kwok K. Ng (2006). Physics of Semicon-
(2009)
ductor Devices (3rd ed.). Wiley. Figure 25, p. 121. ISBN
0-470-06830-2.

[43] Gabriele Giuliani; Giovanni Vignale (2005). Quantum

2.3.10 Bibliography
Theory of the Electron Liquid. Cambridge University
Press. p. 111. ISBN 0-521-82112-6.
• Dorf, Richard C.; Svoboda, James A. (2001).
[44] Jørgen Rammer (2007). Quantum Field Theory of Non- Introduction to Electric Circuits (5th ed.). New York:
equilibrium States. Cambridge University Press. p. 158. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780471386896.
ISBN 0-521-87499-8.

[45] Horst Czichos; Tetsuya Saito; Leslie Smith (2006). • Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
Springer Handbook of Materials Measurement Methods. LXXII, Appendix 8, 1782 (Volta coins the word
Springer. p. 475. ISBN 3-540-20785-6. condenser)
[46] William Coffey; Yu. P. Kalmykov (2006). Fractals, dif-
fusion and relaxation in disordered complex systems..Part • Ulaby, Fawwaz Tayssir (1999). Fundamentals of
A. Wiley. p. 17. ISBN 0-470-04607-4. Applied Electromagnetics. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780130115546.
[47] J. Obrzut, A. Anopchenko and R. Nozaki, “Broadband
Permittivity Measurements of High Dielectric Constant
• Zorpette, Glenn (2005). “Super Charged: A Tiny
Films”, Proceedings of the IEEE: Instrumentation and
Measurement Technology Conference, 2005, pp. 1350–
South Korean Company is Out to Make Capac-
1353, 16–19 May 2005, Ottawa ISBN 0-7803-8879-8 itors Powerful enough to Propel the Next Gen-
doi:10.1109/IMTC.2005.1604368 eration of Hybrid-Electric Cars”. IEEE Spec-
trum (North American ed.). 42 (1): 32.
[48] Dieter K Schroder (2006). Semiconductor Material and doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2005.1377872.
Device Characterization (3rd ed.). Wiley. p. 347 ff. ISBN
0-471-73906-5.
• Deshpande, R.P. (2014). Capacitors. McGraw-Hill.
[49] Dieter K Schroder (2006). Semiconductor Material and ISBN 9780071848565.
Device Characterization (3rd ed.). Wiley. p. 270 ff. ISBN
0-471-73906-5.

[50] Simon M. Sze; Kwok K. Ng (2006). Physics of Semicon- 2.3.11 External links
ductor Devices (3rd ed.). Wiley. p. 217. ISBN 0-470-
06830-2. • What exactly is a capacitor?
[51] Safa O. Kasap; Peter Capper (2006). Springer Handbook
of Electronic and Photonic Materials. Springer. Figure • The First Condenser – A Beer Glass – SparkMu-
20.22, p. 425. seum

[52] PY Yu; Manuel Cardona (2001). Fundamentals of Semi-

• How Capacitors Work – Howstuffworks
conductors (3rd ed.). Springer. p. §6.6 Modulation Spec-
troscopy. ISBN 3-540-25470-6.
• Introduction to Capacitors – CapSite
[53] Kaplan, Daniel M.; White, Christopher G. Hands-On
Electronics: A Practical Introduction to Analog and Dig- • Capacitor Tutorial
ital Circuits. p. 19.

[54] Capacitor MF-MMFD Conversion Chart; Just Radios. • Low ESR Capacitor Manufacturers
2.4. INDUCTOR 65

dΦ
L=
di
The inductance of a circuit depends on the geometry of
the current path as well as the magnetic permeability of
nearby materials. An inductor is a component consist-
ing of a wire or other conductor shaped to increase the
magnetic flux through the circuit, usually in the shape of
Axial lead inductors (100 µH) a coil or helix. Winding the wire into a coil increases the
number of times the magnetic flux lines link the circuit,
increasing the field and thus the inductance. The more
2.4 Inductor turns, the higher the inductance. The inductance also de-
pends on the shape of the coil, separation of the turns, and
many other factors. By adding a "magnetic core" made
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive of a ferromagnetic material like iron inside the coil, the
two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical magnetizing field from the coil will induce magnetization
energy in a magnetic field when electric current is flowing in the material, increasing the magnetic flux. The high
through it.[1] An inductor typically consists of an electric permeability of a ferromagnetic core can increase the in-
conductor, such as a wire, that is wound into a coil. ductance of a coil by a factor of several thousand over
When the current flowing through an inductor changes, what it would be without it.
the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in
the conductor, described by Faraday’s law of induc-
tion. According to Lenz’s law, the direction of induced Constitutive equation
electromotive force (e.m.f.) opposes the change in cur-
Any change in the current through an inductor creates a
rent that created it. As a result, inductors oppose any
changing flux, inducing a voltage across the inductor. By
changes in current through them.
Faraday’s law of induction, the voltage induced by any
An inductor is characterized by its inductance, which is change in magnetic flux through the circuit is[5]
the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of current.
In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of in-
ductance is the henry (H). Inductors have values that typ- dΦ
v=
ically range from 1 µH (10−6 H) to 1 H. Many induc- dt
tors have a magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside [5]
the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic field and From (1) above
thus the inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors,
d di
inductors are one of the three passive linear circuit el- v = dt (Li) = L dt (2)
ements that make up electronic circuits. Inductors are
widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic equip- So inductance is also a measure of the amount of
ment, particularly in radio equipment. They are used electromotive force (voltage) generated for a given rate
to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors de- of change of current. For example, an inductor with an
signed for this purpose are called chokes. They are also inductance of 1 henry produces an EMF of 1 volt when
used in electronic filters to separate signals of different the current through the inductor changes at the rate of
frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make 1 ampere per second. This is usually taken to be the
tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV receivers. constitutive relation (defining equation) of the inductor.
The dual of the inductor is the capacitor, which stores
energy in an electric field rather than a magnetic field. Its
2.4.1 Description current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current
and voltage in the inductor equations and replacing L with
the capacitance C.
An electric current flowing through a conductor gener-
ates a magnetic field surrounding it. Any changes of cur-
rent and therefore in the magnetic flux through the cross- Lenz’s law
section of the inductor creates an opposing electromotive
force in the conductor. The inductance (L) characterizes The polarity (direction) of the induced voltage is given by
this behavior of an inductor and is defined in terms of Lenz’s law, which states that it will be such as to oppose
that opposing electromotive force or its generated mag- the change in current. For example, if the current through
netic flux ( Φ ) and the corresponding electric current an inductor is increasing, the induced voltage will be pos-
(i):[2][3][4][5] itive at the terminal through which the current enters and
66 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

negative at the terminal through which it leaves, tending

to oppose the additional current. The energy from the ex-
ternal circuit necessary to overcome this potential “hill”
is being stored in the magnetic field of the inductor; the
inductor is said to be "charging" or “energizing”. If the
current is decreasing, the induced voltage will be nega-
tive at the terminal through which the current enters and
positive at the terminal through which it leaves, tending
to maintain the current. Energy from the magnetic field
is being returned to the circuit; the inductor is said to be
“discharging”.

Ideal and real inductors

In circuit theory, inductors are idealized as obeying the Example of signal filtering. In this configuration, the inductor
mathematical relation (2) above precisely. An “ideal in- decouples DC current, while allowing AC current to pass.
ductor” has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance,
and does not dissipate or radiate energy. However real
inductors have side effects which cause their behavior to
depart from this simple model. They have resistance (due
to the resistance of the wire and energy losses in core
material), and parasitic capacitance (due to the electric
field between the turns of wire which are at slightly differ-
ent potentials). At high frequencies the capacitance be-
gins to affect the inductor’s behavior; at some frequency,
real inductors behave as resonant circuits, becoming self-
resonant. Above the resonant frequency the capacitive
reactance becomes the dominant part of the impedance.
At higher frequencies, resistive losses in the windings in-
crease due to skin effect and proximity effect.
Inductors with ferromagnetic cores have additional en-
ergy losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents in the core, Large 50 MVAR three-phase iron-core loading inductor at an
which increase with frequency. At high currents, iron Austrian utility substation
core inductors also show gradual departure from ideal be-
havior due to nonlinearity caused by magnetic saturation
of the core. An inductor may radiate electromagnetic
energy into surrounding space and circuits, and may ab-
sorb electromagnetic emissions from other circuits, caus-
ing electromagnetic interference (EMI). For real-world
inductor applications, these parasitic parameters may be
as important as the inductance.

2.4.2 Applications

A ferrite “bead” choke, consisting of an encircling ferrite cylinder,

removes electronic noise from a computer power cord.

inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with fil-

ter capacitors remove residual hums known as the mains
Example of signal filtering. In this configuration, the inductor
blocks AC current, while allowing DC current to pass. hum or other fluctuations from the direct current output,
to the small inductance of the ferrite bead or torus in-
Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and sig- stalled around a cable to prevent radio frequency inter-
nal processing. Applications range from the use of large ference from being transmitted down the wire. Inductors
2.4. INDUCTOR 67

are used as the energy storage device in many switched-

mode power supplies to produce DC current. The induc-
tor supplies energy to the circuit to keep current flowing
during the “off” switching periods.
An inductor connected to a capacitor forms a tuned cir-
cuit, which acts as a resonator for oscillating current.
Tuned circuits are widely used in radio frequency equip-
ment such as radio transmitters and receivers, as narrow
bandpass filters to select a single frequency from a com-
posite signal, and in electronic oscillators to generate si-
nusoidal signals.
Two (or more) inductors in proximity that have coupled
magnetic flux (mutual inductance) form a transformer,
which is a fundamental component of every electric
utility power grid. The efficiency of a transformer may
decrease as the frequency increases due to eddy currents
in the core material and skin effect on the windings. The
size of the core can be decreased at higher frequencies.
For this reason, aircraft use 400 hertz alternating current
rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great sav-
ing in weight from the use of smaller transformers.[6]
A ferrite core inductor with two 20 mH windings.
Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission
systems, where they are used to limit switching currents
and fault currents. In this field, they are more commonly
referred to as reactors. Inductors used to block very high frequencies are some-
times made by stringing a ferrite bead on a wire.
Because inductors have complicated side effects (detailed
below) which cause them to depart from ideal behav- Small inductors can be etched directly onto a printed cir-
ior, because they can radiate electromagnetic interfer- cuit board by laying out the trace in a spiral pattern. Some
ence (EMI), and most of all because of their bulk which such planar inductors use a planar core.
prevents them from being integrated on semiconduc- Small value inductors can also be built on integrated cir-
tor chips, the use of inductors is declining in modern cuits using the same processes that are used to make
electronic devices, particularly compact portable devices. transistors. Aluminium interconnect is typically used,
Real inductors are increasingly being replaced by active laid out in a spiral coil pattern. However, the small di-
circuits such as the gyrator which can synthesize induc- mensions limit the inductance, and it is far more common
tance using capacitors. to use a circuit called a "gyrator" that uses a capacitor and
active components to behave similarly to an inductor.

2.4.3 Inductor construction

An inductor usually consists of a coil of conduct-
2.4.4 Types of inductor
ing material, typically insulated copper wire, wrapped
around a core either of plastic or of a ferromagnetic (or
ferrimagnetic) material; the latter is called an “iron core” Air core inductor
inductor. The high permeability of the ferromagnetic
core increases the magnetic field and confines it closely The term air core coil describes an inductor that does
to the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance. Low not use a magnetic core made of a ferromagnetic mate-
frequency inductors are constructed like transformers, rial. The term refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic,
with cores of electrical steel laminated to prevent eddy or other nonmagnetic forms, as well as those that have
currents. 'Soft' ferrites are widely used for cores above only air inside the windings. Air core coils have lower
audio frequencies, since they do not cause the large en- inductance than ferromagnetic core coils, but are often
ergy losses at high frequencies that ordinary iron alloys used at high frequencies because they are free from en-
do. Inductors come in many shapes. Most are con- ergy losses called core losses that occur in ferromagnetic
structed as enamel coated wire (magnet wire) wrapped cores, which increase with frequency. A side effect that
around a ferrite bobbin with wire exposed on the outside, can occur in air core coils in which the winding is not
while some enclose the wire completely in ferrite and are rigidly supported on a form is 'microphony': mechanical
referred to as “shielded”. Some inductors have an ad- vibration of the windings can cause variations in the in-
justable core, which enables changing of the inductance. ductance.
68 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

solid wire, most of the cross sectional area of the

wire is not used to conduct the current, which is
in a narrow annulus on the surface. This effect in-
creases the resistance of the wire in the coil, which
may already have a relatively high resistance due to
its length and small diameter.
• Proximity effect: Another similar effect that also
increases the resistance of the wire at high frequen-
cies is proximity effect, which occurs in parallel
wires that lie close to each other. The individual
magnetic field of adjacent turns induces eddy cur-
rents in the wire of the coil, which causes the current
in the conductor to be concentrated in a thin strip on
the side near the adjacent wire. Like skin effect, this
reduces the effective cross-sectional area of the wire
conducting current, increasing its resistance.

Resonant oscillation transformer from a spark gap transmitter.

Coupling can be adjusted by moving the top coil on the support
rod. Shows high Q construction with spaced turns of large diam-
eter tubing.

High Q tank coil in a shortwave transmitter

Collection of RF inductors, showing techniques to reduce

losses. The three top left and the ferrite loopstick or rod
antenna,[7][8][9][10] bottom, have basket windings.

Radio frequency inductor At high frequencies, par-

ticularly radio frequencies (RF), inductors have higher
resistance and other losses. In addition to causing power
loss, in resonant circuits this can reduce the Q factor of (left)
the circuit, broadening the bandwidth. In RF inductors, Spiderweb coil (right) Adjustable ferrite slug-tuned RF
which are mostly air core types, specialized construction coil with basketweave winding and litz wire
techniques are used to minimize these losses. The losses
are due to these effects:
• Dielectric losses: The high frequency electric field
near the conductors in a tank coil can cause the mo-
• Skin effect: The resistance of a wire to high fre- tion of polar molecules in nearby insulating mate-
quency current is higher than its resistance to direct rials, dissipating energy as heat. So coils used for
current because of skin effect. Radio frequency al- tuned circuits are often not wound on coil forms but
ternating current does not penetrate far into the body are suspended in air, supported by narrow plastic or
of a conductor but travels along its surface. For ex- ceramic strips.
ample, at 6 MHz the skin depth of copper wire is
about 0.001 inches (25 µm), most of the current is • Parasitic capacitance: The capacitance between
within this length of the surface. Therefore, in a individual wire turns of the coil, called parasitic
2.4. INDUCTOR 69

capacitance, does not cause energy losses but can

change the behavior of the coil. Each turn of the
coil is at a slightly different potential, so the electric
field between neighboring turns stores charge on the
wire, so the coil acts as if it has a capacitor in par-
allel with it. At a high enough frequency this capac-
itance can resonate with the inductance of the coil
forming a tuned circuit, causing the coil to become
self-resonant.

To reduce parasitic capacitance and proximity effect,

high Q RF coils are constructed to avoid having many
turns lying close together, parallel to one another. The
windings of RF coils are often limited to a single layer,
and the turns are spaced apart. To reduce resistance due
to skin effect, in high-power inductors such as those used
in transmitters the windings are sometimes made of a
metal strip or tubing which has a larger surface area, and
the surface is silver-plated.
A variety of types of ferrite core inductors and transformers
• Basket-weave coils: To reduce proximity effect and
parasitic capacitance, multilayer RF coils are wound of several thousand, by increasing the magnetic field due
in patterns in which successive turns are not parallel to its higher magnetic permeability. However the mag-
but crisscrossed at an angle; these are often called netic properties of the core material cause several side
honeycomb or basket-weave coils. These are occa- effects which alter the behavior of the inductor and re-
sionally wound on a vertical insulating supports with quire special construction:
dowels or slots, with the wire weaving in and out
through the slots.
• Core losses: A time-varying current in a ferromag-
• Spiderweb coils: Another construction technique netic inductor, which causes a time-varying mag-
with similar advantages is flat spiral coils.These are netic field in its core, causes energy losses in the core
often wound on a flat insulating support with radial material that are dissipated as heat, due to two pro-
spokes or slots, with the wire weaving in and out cesses:
through the slots; these are called spiderweb coils.
• Eddy currents: From Faraday’s law of induc-
The form has an odd number of slots, so successive
tion, the changing magnetic field can induce
turns of the spiral lie on opposite sides of the form,
circulating loops of electric current in the con-
increasing separation.
ductive metal core. The energy in these cur-
• Litz wire: To reduce skin effect losses, some coils rents is dissipated as heat in the resistance of
are wound with a special type of radio frequency the core material. The amount of energy lost
wire called litz wire. Instead of a single solid con- increases with the area inside the loop of cur-
ductor, litz wire consists of a number of smaller rent.
wire strands that carry the current. Unlike ordi- • Hysteresis: Changing or reversing the mag-
nary stranded wire, the strands are insulated from netic field in the core also causes losses due to
each other, to prevent skin effect from forcing the the motion of the tiny magnetic domains it is
current to the surface, and are twisted or braided composed of. The energy loss is proportional
together. The twist pattern ensures that each wire to the area of the hysteresis loop in the BH
strand spends the same amount of its length on the graph of the core material. Materials with low
outside of the wire bundle, so skin effect distributes coercivity have narrow hysteresis loops and so
the current equally between the strands, resulting low hysteresis losses.
in a larger cross-sectional conduction area than an
equivalent single wire.
For both of these processes, the energy loss per
cycle of alternating current is constant, so core
Ferromagnetic core inductor losses increase linearly with frequency. Online
core loss calculators[11] are available to calcu-
Ferromagnetic-core or iron-core inductors use a magnetic late the energy loss. Using inputs such as in-
core made of a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material put voltage, output voltage, output current, fre-
such as iron or ferrite to increase the inductance. A mag- quency, ambient temperature, and inductance
netic core can increase the inductance of a coil by a factor these calculators can predict the losses of the
70 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

inductors core and AC/DC based on the oper- xxFe2 O4 where xx represents various metals. For induc-
ating condition of the circuit being used.[12] tor cores soft ferrites are used, which have low coercivity
and thus low hysteresis losses. Another similar material
• Nonlinearity: If the current through a ferromag- is powdered iron cemented with a binder.
netic core coil is high enough that the magnetic core
saturates, the inductance will not remain constant
but will change with the current through the de- Toroidal core inductor Main article: Toroidal induc-
vice. This is called nonlinearity and results in dis- tors and transformers
tortion of the signal. For example, audio signals can In an inductor wound on a straight rod-shaped core, the
suffer intermodulation distortion in saturated induc-
tors. To prevent this, in linear circuits the current
through iron core inductors must be limited below
the saturation level. Some laminated cores have a
narrow air gap in them for this purpose, and pow-
dered iron cores have a distributed air gap. This al-
lows higher levels of magnetic flux and thus higher
currents through the inductor before it saturates.[13]

Toroidal inductor in the power supply of a wireless router

magnetic field lines emerging from one end of the core

must pass through the air to re-enter the core at the other
end. This reduces the field, because much of the magnetic
field path is in air rather than the higher permeability core
material. A higher magnetic field and inductance can be
achieved by forming the core in a closed magnetic cir-
cuit. The magnetic field lines form closed loops within
the core without leaving the core material. The shape of-
ten used is a toroidal or doughnut-shaped ferrite core. Be-
cause of their symmetry, toroidal cores allow a minimum
of the magnetic flux to escape outside the core (called
leakage flux), so they radiate less electromagnetic inter-
ference than other shapes. Toroidal core coils are manu-
factured of various materials, primarily ferrite, powdered
Laminated iron core ballast inductor for a metal halide lamp iron and laminated cores.[14]

Laminated core inductor Low-frequency inductors

are often made with laminated cores to prevent eddy cur-
rents, using construction similar to transformers. The Choke Main article: Choke (electronics)
core is made of stacks of thin steel sheets or laminations A choke is designed specifically for blocking higher-
oriented parallel to the field, with an insulating coating frequency alternating current (AC) in an electrical cir-
on the surface. The insulation prevents eddy currents cuit, while allowing lower frequency or DC current to
between the sheets, so any remaining currents must be pass. It usually consists of a coil of insulated wire often
within the cross sectional area of the individual lamina- wound on a magnetic core, although some consist of a
tions, reducing the area of the loop and thus reducing the donut-shaped “bead” of ferrite material strung on a wire.
energy losses greatly. The laminations are made of low- Like other inductors, chokes resist changes to the cur-
coercivity silicon steel, to further reduce hysteresis losses. rent passing through them, and so alternating currents of
higher frequency, which reverse direction rapidly, are re-
sisted more than currents of lower frequency; the choke’s
Ferrite-core inductor For higher frequencies, induc- impedance increases with frequency. Its low electrical re-
tors are made with cores of ferrite. Ferrite is a ceramic sistance allows both AC and DC to pass with little power
ferrimagnetic material that is nonconductive, so eddy cur- loss, but it can limit the amount of AC passing through it
rents cannot flow within it. The formulation of ferrite is due to its reactance.
2.4. INDUCTOR 71

the core farther into the coil increases the permeability,

increasing the magnetic field and the inductance. Many
inductors used in radio applications (usually less than
100 MHz) use adjustable cores in order to tune such
inductors to their desired value, since manufacturing pro-
cesses have certain tolerances (inaccuracy). Sometimes
such cores for frequencies above 100 MHz are made
from highly conductive non-magnetic material such as
aluminum.[15] They decrease the inductance because the
magnetic field must bypass them.
Air core inductors can use sliding contacts or multiple
taps to increase or decrease the number of turns included
in the circuit, to change the inductance. A type much used
in the past but mostly obsolete today has a spring contact
An MF or HF radio choke for tenths of an ampere, and a ferrite that can slide along the bare surface of the windings. The
bead VHF choke for several amperes.
disadvantage of this type is that the contact usually short-
circuits one or more turns. These turns act like a single-
Variable inductor turn short-circuited transformer secondary winding; the
large currents induced in them cause power losses.
A type of continuously variable air core inductor is the
variometer. This consists of two coils with the same num-
ber of turns connected in series, one inside the other. The
inner coil is mounted on a shaft so its axis can be turned
with respect to the outer coil. When the two coils’ axes
are collinear, with the magnetic fields pointing in the same
direction, the fields add and the inductance is maximum.
When the inner coil is turned so its axis is at an angle
with the outer, the mutual inductance between them is
smaller so the total inductance is less. When the inner
coil is turned 180° so the coils are collinear with their
(left) magnetic fields opposing, the two fields cancel each other
Inductor with a threaded ferrite slug (visible at top) that and the inductance is very small. This type has the advan-
can be turned to move it into or out of the coil. 4.2 cm tage that it is continuously variable over a wide range. It
high. (right) A variometer used in radio receivers in the is used in antenna tuners and matching circuits to match
1920s low frequency transmitters to their antennas.
Probably the most common type of variable inductor Another method to control the inductance without any
moving parts requires an additional DC current bias
winding which controls the permeability of an easily sat-
urable core material. See Magnetic amplifier.

2.4.5 Circuit theory

The effect of an inductor in a circuit is to oppose changes

in current through it by developing a voltage across it pro-
portional to the rate of change of the current. An ideal in-
ductor would offer no resistance to a constant direct cur-
rent; however, only superconducting inductors have truly
zero electrical resistance.
A “roller coil”, an adjustable air-core RF inductor used in the
tuned circuits of radio transmitters. One of the contacts to the The relationship between the time-varying voltage v(t)
coil is made by the small grooved wheel, which rides on the wire. across an inductor with inductance L and the time-
Turning the shaft rotates the coil, moving the contact wheel up or varying current i(t) passing through it is described by the
down the coil, allowing more or fewer turns of the coil into the differential equation:
circuit, to change the inductance.

today is one with a moveable ferrite magnetic core, which di(t)

can be slid or screwed in or out of the coil. Moving v(t) = L dt
72 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

When there is a sinusoidal alternating current (AC) Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain)
through an inductor, a sinusoidal voltage is induced. The
amplitude of the voltage is proportional to the product of When using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis, the
the amplitude (IP) of the current and the frequency (f) impedance of an ideal inductor with no initial current is
of the current. represented in the s domain by:

i(t) = IP sin(ωt) Z(s) = Ls

di(t) where
= IP ω cos(ωt)
dt
v(t) = LIP ω cos(ωt)
L is the inductance, and
In this situation, the phase of the current lags that of the s is the complex frequency.
voltage by π/2 (90°). For sinusoids, as the voltage across
the inductor goes to its maximum value, the current goes If the inductor does have initial current, it can be repre-
to zero, and as the voltage across the inductor goes to zero, sented by:
the current through it goes to its maximum value.
If an inductor is connected to a direct current source with • adding a voltage source in series with the inductor,
value I via a resistance R, and then the current source is having the value:
short-circuited, the differential relationship above shows
that the current through the inductor will discharge with LI0
an exponential decay: where

L is the inductance, and

i(t) = Ie− L t
R

I0 is the initial current in the inductor.

(Note that the source should have a polarity that is aligned

Reactance with the initial current)

The ratio of the peak voltage to the peak current in an

• or by adding a current source in parallel with the
inductor energised from a sinusoidal source is called the
inductor, having the value:
reactance and is denoted XL. The subscript is to distin-
guish inductive reactance from capacitive reactance due
I0
to capacitance.
s
where
VP ωLIP
XL = = I0 is the initial current in the inductor.
IP IP
s is the complex frequency.
Thus,

Inductor networks

XL = ωL Main article: Series and parallel circuits

Reactance is measured in the same units as resistance

(ohms) but is not actually a resistance. A resistor will Inductors in a parallel configuration each have the same
dissipate energy as heat when a current passes. This does potential difference (voltage). To find their total equiva-
not happen with an inductor; rather, energy is stored in lent inductance (Lₑ ):
the magnetic field as the current builds and later returned
to the circuit as the current falls. Inductive reactance is
strongly frequency dependent. At low frequency the re-
actance falls, and for a steady current (zero frequency)
the inductor behaves as a short-circuit. At increasing fre-
quency, on the other hand, the reactance increases and at 1 L 2L n L
a sufficiently high frequency the inductor approaches an
open circuit.
2.4. INDUCTOR 73

1 1 1 1 of an ideal, lossless, inductor. High Q inductors are used

= + + ··· +
Leq L1 L2 Ln with capacitors to make resonant circuits in radio trans-
The current through inductors in series stays the same, mitters and receivers. The higher the Q is, the narrower
but the voltage across each inductor can be different. The the bandwidth of the resonant circuit.
sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the The Q factor of an inductor can be found through the fol-
total voltage. To find their total inductance: lowing formula, where L is the inductance, R is the induc-
tor’s effective series resistance, ω is the radian operating
frequency, and the product ωL is the inductive reactance:

L1 L2 Ln
ωL
Q=
R
Notice that Q increases linearly with frequency if L and
R are constant. Although they are constant at low fre-
quencies, the parameters vary with frequency. For exam-
Leq = L1 + L2 + · · · + Ln ple, skin effect, proximity effect, and core losses increase
R with frequency; winding capacitance and variations in
These simple relationships hold true only when there is permeability with frequency affect L.
no mutual coupling of magnetic fields between individual
inductors. Qualitatively, at low frequencies and within limits, in-
creasing the number of turns N improves Q because L
varies as N 2 while R varies linearly with N. Similarly, in-
Stored energy creasing the radius r of an inductor improves Q because
L varies as r2 while R varies linearly with r. So high Q air
Neglecting losses, the energy (measured in joules, in SI) core inductors often have large diameters and many turns.
stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work re- Both of those examples assume the diameter of the wire
quired to establish the current through the inductor, and stays the same, so both examples use proportionally more
therefore the magnetic field. This is given by: wire (copper). If the total mass of wire is held constant,
then there would be no advantage to increasing the num-
ber of turns or the radius of the turns because the wire
1 2 would have to be proportionally thinner.
Estored = LI
2
Using a high permeability ferromagnetic core can greatly
where L is inductance and I is the current through the increase the inductance for the same amount of copper,
inductor. so the core can also increase the Q. Cores however also
This relationship is only valid for linear (non-saturated) introduce losses that increase with frequency. The core
regions of the magnetic flux linkage and current relation- material is chosen for best results for the frequency band.
ship. In general if one decides to find the energy stored At VHF or higher frequencies an air core is likely to be
in a LTI inductor that has initial current in a specific time used.
between t0 and t1 can use this: Inductors wound around a ferromagnetic core may
saturate at high currents, causing a dramatic decrease in
∫ inductance (and Q). This phenomenon can be avoided by
t1
1 1 using a (physically larger) air core inductor. A well de-
E= P (t) dt = LI(t1 )2 − LI(t0 )2
t0 2 2 signed air core inductor may have a Q of several hundred.

2.4.6 Q factor 2.4.7 Inductance formulas

An ideal inductor would have no resistance or energy See also: Inductance § Self-inductance of simple electri-
losses. However, real inductors have winding resistance cal circuits in air
from the metal wire forming the coils. Since the wind-
ing resistance appears as a resistance in series with the The table below lists some common simplified formulas
inductor, it is often called the series resistance. The in- for calculating the approximate inductance of several in-
ductor’s series resistance converts electric current through ductor constructions.
the coils into heat, thus causing a loss of inductive quality.
The quality factor (or Q) of an inductor is the ratio of its
inductive reactance to its resistance at a given frequency, 2.4.8 See also
and is a measure of its efficiency. The higher the Q fac-
tor of the inductor, the closer it approaches the behavior • Gyrator – a network element that can simulate an
74 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

inductor [15] http://www.coilcraft.com/pdfs/uni5.pdf Coilcraft catalog

page with aluminum cores. Accessed 10 July 2015.
• Induction coil
[16] Nagaoka, Hantaro (1909-05-06). “The Inductance Coef-
• Induction cooking ficients of Solenoids” (PDF). 27. Journal of the College
of Science, Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan: 18. Re-
• Induction loop trieved 2011-11-10.
• RL circuit [17] Kenneth L. Kaiser, Electromagnetic Compatibility Hand-
book, p. 30.64, CRC Press, 2004 ISBN 0849320879.
• RLC circuit
[18] Rosa, Edward B. (1908). “The Self and Mu-
• Magnetomotive force tual Inductances of Linear Conductors” (PDF). Bul-
letin of the Bureau of Standards. 4 (2): 301–344.
• Reactance (electronics) – opposition to a change of doi:10.6028/bulletin.088
electric current or voltage
[19] Rosa 1908, equation (11a), subst. radius ρ = d/2 and cgs
• Saturable reactor – a type of adjustable inductor units

• Solenoid [20] Terman 1943, pp. 48–49, convert to natural logarithms

and inches to mm.

[21] Terman (1943, p. 48) states for l < 100 d, include d/2l
2.4.9 References within the parentheses.
[1] Alexander, Charles; Sadiku, Matthew. Fundamentals of [22] ARRL Handbook, 66th Ed. American Radio Relay
Electric Circuits (3 ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 211. League (1989).

[2] Singh, Yaduvir (2011). Electro Magnetic Field Theory. [23] Wheeler, H.A. (October 1928). “Simple Inductance For-
Pearson Education India. p. 65. ISBN 8131760618. mulas for Radio Coils”. Proceedings of the Institute of Ra-
dio Engineers. 16 (10): 1398. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
[3] Wadhwa, C. L. (2005). Electrical Power Systems. New
Age International. p. 18. ISBN 8122417221. [24] For the second formula, Terman 1943, p. 58 which cites
to Wheeler 1928.
[4] Pelcovits, Robert A.; Josh Farkas (2007). Barron’s AP
Physics C. Barron’s Educational Series. p. 646. ISBN [25] Terman 1943, p. 58
0764137107.
[26] Terman 1943, p. 57
[5] Purcell, Edward M.; David J. Morin (2013). Electricity
and Magnetism. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 364. ISBN
1107014026. 2.4.10 Further reading
[6] “Aircraft electrical systems”. Wonderquest.com. Re- • Terman, Frederick (1943). “Radio Engineers’
trieved 2010-09-24. Handbook”. McGraw-Hill
[7] “An Unassuming Antenna - The Ferrite Loopstick”. Ra- • Wheeler, H. A. (October 1928). “Simple Induc-
dio Time Traveller. January 23, 2011. Retrieved March tance Formulae for Radio Coils”. Proc. I. R. E. 16
5, 2014. (10): 1398. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1928.221309
[8] Frost, Phil (December 23, 2013). “What’s an appropriate
core material for a loopstick antenna?". Amateur Radio
beta. Stack Exchange, Inc. Retrieved March 5, 2014. 2.4.11 External links
[9] Poisel, Richard (2011). Antenna Systems and Electronic General
Warfare Applications. Artech House. p. 280. ISBN
1608074846. • Capacitance and Inductance – A chapter from an on-
[10] Yadava, R. L. (2011). Antenna and Wave Propagation.
line textbook
PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 261. ISBN 8120342917. • Understanding coils and transforms - MikroElek-
[11] Vishay. “Products - Inductors - IHLP inductor loss calcu- tronika
lator tool landing page”. Vishay. Retrieved 2010-09-24.
• Bowley, Roger (2009). “Inductor”. Sixty Symbols.
[12] View: Everyone Only Notes. “IHLP inductor loss calcu- Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
lator tool”. element14. Retrieved 2010-09-24.
• Online coil inductance calculator - Online calcula-
[13] “Inductors 101” (PDF). vishay. Retrieved 2010-09-24. tor calculates the inductance of conventional and
toroidal coils
[14] “Inductor and Magnetic Product Terminology” (PDF).
Vishay Dale. Retrieved 2012-09-24. • Inductors 101 Instructional Guide - Vishay
2.5. ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE 75

2.5 Electrical impedance

Im
Electrical impedance is the measure of the opposition
that a circuit presents to a current when a voltage is ap-
plied. ~
Z
In quantitative terms, it is the complex ratio of the volt-
age to the current in an alternating current (AC) circuit. X
Impedance extends the concept of resistance to AC cir-
~
cuits, and possesses both magnitude and phase, unlike
resistance, which has only magnitude. When a circuit is |Z|
driven with direct current (DC), there is no distinction be-
tween impedance and resistance; the latter can be thought
of as impedance with zero phase angle.
It is necessary to introduce the concept of impedance in θ Re
AC circuits because there are two additional impeding
mechanisms to be taken into account besides the nor-
mal resistance of DC circuits: the induction of voltages
R
in conductors self-induced by the magnetic fields of cur- A graphical representation of the complex impedance plane
rents (inductance), and the electrostatic storage of charge
induced by voltages between conductors (capacitance).
The impedance caused by these two effects is collec- The polar form conveniently captures both magnitude and
tively referred to as reactance and forms the imaginary phase characteristics as
part of complex impedance whereas resistance forms the
real part.
Z = |Z|ej arg(Z)
The symbol for impedance is usually Z and it may be rep-
resented by writing its magnitude and phase in the form where the magnitude |Z| represents the ratio of the voltage
|Z|∠θ. However, cartesian complex number representa- difference amplitude to the current amplitude, while the
tion is often more powerful for circuit analysis purposes. argument arg(Z) (commonly given the symbol θ ) gives the
phase difference between voltage and current. j is the
The term impedance was coined by Oliver Heaviside in imaginary unit, and is used instead of i in this context to
July 1886.[1][2] Arthur Kennelly was the first to represent avoid confusion with the symbol for electric current.
impedance with complex numbers in 1893.[3]
In Cartesian form, impedance is defined as
Impedance is defined as the frequency domain ratio of the
voltage to the current.[4] In other words, it is the voltage–
current ratio for a single complex exponential at a particu- Z = R + jX
lar frequency ω. In general, impedance will be a complex
number, with the same units as resistance, for which the where the real part of impedance is the resistance R and
SI unit is the ohm (Ω). For a sinusoidal current or voltage the imaginary part is the reactance X .
input, the polar form of the complex impedance relates Where it is needed to add or subtract impedances, the
the amplitude and phase of the voltage and current. In cartesian form is more convenient; but when quantities
particular: are multiplied or divided, the calculation becomes sim-
pler if the polar form is used. A circuit calculation, such
• The magnitude of the complex impedance is the ra- as finding the total impedance of two impedances in par-
tio of the voltage amplitude to the current ampli- allel, may require conversion between forms several times
tude. during the calculation. Conversion between the forms fol-
• The phase of the complex impedance is the phase lows the normal conversion rules of complex numbers.
shift by which the current lags the voltage.
2.5.2 Ohm’s law
The reciprocal of impedance is admittance (i.e., admit-
tance is the current-to-voltage ratio, and it conventionally Main article: Ohm’s law
carries units of siemens, formerly called mhos).

The meaning of electrical impedance can be understood

2.5.1 Complex impedance by substituting it into Ohm’s law.[5][6]

Impedance is represented as a complex quantity Z and the

term complex impedance may be used interchangeably. V = IZ = I|Z|ej arg(Z)
76 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

V ZS
ZL
Z

ZS
ZL
An AC supply applying a voltage V , across a load Z , driving a
current I .

The magnitude of the impedance |Z| acts just like re-

sistance, giving the drop in voltage amplitude across an
impedance Z for a given current I . The phase factor tells
us that the current lags the voltage by a phase of θ = arg(Z)
(i.e., in the time domain, the current signal is shifted 2π
θ
T
ZS
later with respect to the voltage signal).
Just as impedance extends Ohm’s law to cover AC cir-
cuits, other results from DC circuit analysis, such as ZL
voltage division, current division, Thévenin’s theorem
and Norton’s theorem, can also be extended to AC cir-
cuits by replacing resistance with impedance.

2.5.3 Complex voltage and current Generalized impedances in a circuit can be drawn with the same
symbol as a resistor (US ANSI or DIN Euro) or with a labeled
box.
In order to simplify calculations, sinusoidal voltage and
current waves are commonly represented as complex-
valued functions of time denoted as V and I .[7][8] Noting that this must hold for all t , we may equate the
magnitudes and phases to obtain

V = |V |ej(ωt+ϕV )
I = |I|ej(ωt+ϕI ) |V | = |I||Z|
ϕV = ϕI + θ
Impedance is defined as the ratio of these quantities.
The magnitude equation is the familiar Ohm’s law applied
V to the voltage and current amplitudes, while the second
Z= equation defines the phase relationship.
I
Substituting these into Ohm’s law, we have
Validity of complex representation

|V |ej(ωt+ϕV ) = |I|ej(ωt+ϕI ) |Z|ejθ This representation using complex exponentials may be

= |I||Z|ej(ωt+ϕI +θ) justified by noting that (by Euler’s formula):
2.5. ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE 77

1 [ j(ωt+ϕ) ]
cos(ωt + ϕ) = e + e−j(ωt+ϕ)
2
The real-valued sinusoidal function representing either
voltage or current may be broken into two complex-
valued functions. By the principle of superposition, we
may analyse the behaviour of the sinusoid on the left-
hand side by analysing the behaviour of the two complex
terms on the right-hand side. Given the symmetry, we
only need to perform the analysis for one right-hand term;
the results will be identical for the other. At the end of
any calculation, we may return to real-valued sinusoids by
further noting that
The phase angles in the equations for the impedance of capacitors
{ } and inductors indicate that the voltage across a capacitor lags the
cos(ωt + ϕ) = ℜ ej(ωt+ϕ) current through it by a phase of π/2 , while the voltage across
an inductor leads the current through it by π/2 . The identical
voltage and current amplitudes indicate that the magnitude of the
Phasors impedance is equal to one.

Main article: Phasor (electronics)

A phasor is represented by a constant complex number, 1

ZC =
usually expressed in exponential form, representing the jωC
complex amplitude (magnitude and phase) of a sinusoidal
function of time. Phasors are used by electrical engineers In both cases, for an applied sinusoidal voltage, the result-
to simplify computations involving sinusoids, where they ing current is also sinusoidal, but in quadrature, 90 de-
can often reduce a differential equation problem to an al- grees out of phase with the voltage. However, the phases
gebraic one. have opposite signs: in an inductor, the current is lagging;
in a capacitor the current is leading.
The impedance of a circuit element can be defined as the
ratio of the phasor voltage across the element to the pha- Note the following identities for the imaginary unit and
sor current through the element, as determined by the rel- its reciprocal:
ative amplitudes and phases of the voltage and current.
This is identical to the definition from Ohm’s law given (π) (π ) π
above, recognising that the factors of ejωt cancel. j ≡ cos + j sin ≡ ej 2
2 2
1 ( π) ( π) π
≡ −j ≡ cos − + j sin − ≡ ej(− 2 )
2.5.4 Device examples j 2 2

The impedance of an ideal resistor is purely real and is Thus the inductor and capacitor impedance equations can
called resistive impedance: be rewritten in polar form:

ZR = R ZL = ωLej 2
1 j (− π2 )
In this case, the voltage and current waveforms are pro- ZC = e
ωC
portional and in phase.
The magnitude gives the change in voltage amplitude for
Ideal inductors and capacitors have a purely imaginary a given current amplitude through the impedance, while
reactive impedance: the exponential factors give the phase relationship.
the impedance of inductors increases as frequency in-
creases;
Deriving the device-specific impedances

ZL = jωL What follows below is a derivation of impedance for each

of the three basic circuit elements: the resistor, the ca-
the impedance of capacitors decreases as frequency in- pacitor, and the inductor. Although the idea can be ex-
creases; tended to define the relationship between the voltage and
78 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

current of any arbitrary signal, these derivations will as- degrees (or the AC current leads the AC voltage across a
sume sinusoidal signals, since any arbitrary signal can be capacitor by 90 degrees).
approximated as a sum of sinusoids through Fourier anal- This result is commonly expressed in polar form as
ysis.

Resistor For a resistor, there is the relation 1 −j π

Zcapacitor = e 2
ωC
or, by applying Euler’s formula, as
vR (t) = iR (t)R

which is Ohm’s law. 1 1

Zcapacitor = −j =
Considering the voltage signal to be ωC jωC

Inductor For the inductor, we have the relation (from

vR (t) = Vp sin(ωt) Faraday’s law):

it follows that
d iL (t)
vL (t) = L
dt
vR (t) Vp sin(ωt)
= =R This time, considering the current signal to be:
iR (t) Ip sin (ωt)

This says that the ratio of AC voltage amplitude to

alternating current (AC) amplitude across a resistor is R , iL (t) = Ip sin(ωt)
and that the AC voltage leads the current across a resistor
by 0 degrees. it follows that:

This result is commonly expressed as

d iL (t)
= ωIp cos (ωt)
dt
Zresistor = R
and thus:

Capacitor For a capacitor, there is the relation: ( )

vL (t) ωIp L cos(ωt) ωL sin ωt + π2
= =
iL (t) Ip sin (ωt) sin(ωt)
d vC (t)
iC (t) = C This says that the ratio of AC voltage amplitude to AC
dt
current amplitude across an inductor is ωL , and that the
Considering the voltage signal to be AC voltage leads the AC current across an inductor by 90
degrees.
This result is commonly expressed in polar form as
vC (t) = Vp sin(ωt)

it follows that π
Zinductor = ωLej 2

or, using Euler’s formula, as

d vC (t)
= ωVp cos (ωt)
dt
and thus Zinductor = jωL

vC (t) Vp sin(ωt) sin(ωt) 2.5.5 Generalised s-plane impedance

= = ( )
iC (t) ωVp C cos (ωt) ωC sin ωt + π2
Impedance defined in terms of jω can strictly be applied
This says that the ratio of AC voltage amplitude to AC only to circuits that are driven with a steady-state AC sig-
current amplitude across a capacitor is ωC
1
, and that the nal. The concept of impedance can be extended to a cir-
AC voltage lags the AC current across a capacitor by 90 cuit energised with any arbitrary signal by using complex
2.5. ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE 79

frequency instead of jω. Complex frequency is given the Capacitive reactance Main article: Capacitance
symbol s and is, in general, a complex number. Signals
are expressed in terms of complex frequency by taking A capacitor has a purely reactive impedance which is
the Laplace transform of the time domain expression of inversely proportional to the signal frequency. A capaci-
the signal. The impedance of the basic circuit elements tor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator,
in this more general notation is as follows: also known as a dielectric.
For a DC circuit, this simplifies to s = 0. For a steady-state
sinusoidal AC signal s = jω.
XC = −(ωC)−1 = −(2πf C)−1

2.5.6 Resistance vs reactance The minus sign indicates that the imaginary part of the
impedance is negative.
Resistance and reactance together determine the magni- At low frequencies, a capacitor is an open circuit so no
tude and phase of the impedance through the following charge flows in the dielectric.
relations:
A DC voltage applied across a capacitor causes charge
to accumulate on one side; the electric field due to the
√ √ accumulated charge is the source of the opposition to the
|Z| = ZZ ∗ = R2 + X 2 current. When the potential associated with the charge
( ) exactly balances the applied voltage, the current goes to
X
θ = arctan zero.
R
Driven by an AC supply, a capacitor will only accumulate
In many applications, the relative phase of the voltage a limited amount of charge before the potential difference
and current is not critical so only the magnitude of the changes sign and the charge dissipates. The higher the
impedance is significant. frequency, the less charge will accumulate and the smaller
the opposition to the current.

Resistance
Inductive reactance Main article: Inductance
Main article: Electrical resistance
Inductive reactance XL is proportional to the signal
Resistance R is the real part of impedance; a device with frequency f and the inductance L .
a purely resistive impedance exhibits no phase shift be-
tween the voltage and current.
XL = ωL = 2πf L

An inductor consists of a coiled conductor. Faraday’s

R = |Z| cos θ law of electromagnetic induction gives the back emf E
(voltage opposing current) due to a rate-of-change of
magnetic flux density B through a current loop.
Reactance

Main article: Electrical reactance dΦB

E =−
dt
Reactance X is the imaginary part of the impedance; a For an inductor consisting of a coil with N loops this
component with a finite reactance induces a phase shift θ gives.
between the voltage across it and the current through it.

dΦB
E = −N
X = |Z| sin θ dt
The back-emf is the source of the opposition to current
A purely reactive component is distinguished by the si- flow. A constant direct current has a zero rate-of-change,
nusoidal voltage across the component being in quadra- and sees an inductor as a short-circuit (it is typically made
ture with the sinusoidal current through the component. from a material with a low resistivity). An alternating cur-
This implies that the component alternately absorbs en- rent has a time-averaged rate-of-change that is propor-
ergy from the circuit and then returns energy to the cir- tional to frequency, this causes the increase in inductive
cuit. A pure reactance will not dissipate any power. reactance with frequency.
80 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

Total reactance The total reactance is given by Hence the inverse total impedance is the sum of the in-
verses of the component impedances:
X = XL + XC (note that XC is negative)

so that the total impedance is 1 1 1 1

= + + ··· +
Zeq Z1 Z2 Zn
or, when n = 2:
Z = R + jX

1 1 1 Z1 + Z2
2.5.7 Combining impedances = + =
Zeq Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2
Main article: Series and parallel circuits Z1 Z2
Zeq =
Z1 + Z2
The total impedance of many simple networks of com- The equivalent impedance Zeq can be calculated in terms
ponents can be calculated using the rules for combining of the equivalent series resistance Req and reactance Xeq
impedances in series and parallel. The rules are identi- .[9]
cal to those used for combining resistances, except that
the numbers in general will be complex numbers. In the
general case, however, equivalent impedance transforms Zeq = Req + jXeq
in addition to series and parallel will be required.
(X1 R2 + X2 R1 )(X1 + X2 ) + (R1 R2 − X1 X2 )(R1 + R2 )
Req =
(R1 + R2 )2 + (X1 + X2 )2
Series combination (X1 R2 + X2 R1 )(R1 + R2 ) − (R1 R2 − X1 X2 )(X1 + X2 )
Xeq =
(R1 + R2 )2 + (X1 + X2 )2
For components connected in series, the current through
each circuit element is the same; the total impedance is
the sum of the component impedances. 2.5.8 Measurement
The measurement of the impedance of devices and trans-
mission lines is a practical problem in radio technology
and other fields. Measurements of impedance may be
Z1 Z2 Zncarried out at one frequency, or the variation of device
impedance over a range of frequencies may be of interest.
The impedance may be measured or displayed directly in
ohms, or other values related to impedance may be dis-
played; for example, in a radio antenna, the standing wave
ratio or reflection coefficient may be more useful than
Zeq = Z1 + Z2 + · · · + Zn
the impedance alone. The measurement of impedance
Or explicitly in real and imaginary terms: requires the measurement of the magnitude of voltage
and current, and the phase difference between them.
Impedance is often measured by “bridge” methods, sim-
Zeq = R+jX = (R1 +R2 +· · ·+Rn )+j(X1 +X2 +· · ·+X ilar
n ) to the direct-current Wheatstone bridge; a calibrated
reference impedance is adjusted to balance off the effect
of the impedance of the device under test. Impedance
Parallel combination measurement in power electronic devices may require si-
multaneous measurement and provision of power to the
For components connected in parallel, the voltage across operating device.
each circuit element is the same; the ratio of currents
through any two elements is the inverse ratio of their The impedance of a device can be calculated by com-
impedances. plex division of the voltage and current. The impedance
of the device can be calculated by applying a sinusoidal
voltage to the device in series with a resistor, and measur-
ing the voltage across the resistor and across the device.
Performing this measurement by sweeping the frequen-
cies of the applied signal provides the impedance phase
Z1 Z2 Zn and magnitude.[10]
The use of an impulse response may be used in combi-
nation with the fast Fourier transform (FFT) to rapidly
2.6. VOLTAGE SOURCE 81

measure the electrical impedance of various electrical [4] Alexander, Charles; Sadiku, Matthew (2006). Funda-
devices.[10] mentals of Electric Circuits (3, revised ed.). McGraw-Hill.
pp. 387–389. ISBN 978-0-07-330115-0
The LCR meter (Inductance (L), Capacitance (C), and
Resistance (R)) is a device commonly used to measure the [5] AC Ohm’s law, Hyperphysics
inductance, resistance and capacitance of a component;
[6] Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989). “1”. The Art of
from these values, the impedance at any frequency can
Electronics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–33.
be calculated. ISBN 0-521-37095-7.

[7] Complex impedance, Hyperphysics

2.5.9 Variable impedance
[8] Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989). “1”. The Art of
Electronics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–32.
In general, neither impedance nor admittance can be time
ISBN 0-521-37095-7.
varying as they are defined for complex exponentials for
–∞ < t < +∞. If the complex exponential voltage–current [9] Parallel Impedance Expressions, Hyperphysics
ratio changes over time or amplitude, the circuit element
cannot be described using the frequency domain. How- [10] George Lewis Jr., George K. Lewis Sr. and William
Olbricht (August 2008). “Cost-effective broad-band
ever, many systems (e.g., varicaps that are used in radio
electrical impedance spectroscopy measurement circuit
tuners) may exhibit non-linear or time-varying voltage–
and signal analysis for piezo-materials and ultrasound
current ratios that appear to be linear time-invariant (LTI) transducers”. Measurement Science and Technology.
for small signals over small observation windows; hence, 19 (10): 105102. Bibcode:2008MeScT..19j5102L.
they can be roughly described as having a time-varying doi:10.1088/0957-0233/19/10/105102. PMC
impedance. That is, this description is an approxima- 2600501 . PMID 19081773. Retrieved 2008-09-
tion; over large signal swings or observation windows, the 15.
voltage–current relationship is non-LTI and cannot be de-
scribed by impedance.
2.5.12 External links

2.5.10 See also • Explaining Impedance

• Bioelectrical impedance analysis • Antenna Impedance

• ECE 209: Review of Circuits as LTI Systems –
• Characteristic impedance
Brief explanation of Laplace-domain circuit analy-
• Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers sis; includes a definition of impedance.

• High impedance

• Immittance 2.6 Voltage source

• Impedance bridging A voltage source is a two terminal device which can
maintain a fixed voltage.[1] An ideal voltage source can
• Impedance cardiography
maintain the fixed voltage independent of the load resis-
• Impedance matching tance or the output current. However, a real-world volt-
age source cannot supply unlimited current. A voltage
• Impedance microbiology source is the dual of a current source. Real-world sources
of electrical energy, such as batteries, generators, and
• Negative impedance converter power systems, can be modeled for analysis purposes as
• Resistance distance a combination of an ideal voltage source and additional
combinations of impedance elements.
• Impedance control

2.6.1 Ideal voltage sources

2.5.11 References
An ideal voltage source is a two-terminal device that
[1] Science, p. 18, 1888 maintains a fixed voltage drop across its terminals. It is
often used as a mathematical abstraction that simplifies
[2] Oliver Heaviside, The Electrician, p. 212, 23 July 1886,
the analysis of real electric circuits. If the voltage across
reprinted as Electrical Papers, p 64, AMS Bookstore,
ISBN 0-8218-3465-7
an ideal voltage source can be specified independently of
any other variable in a circuit, it is called an indepen-
[3] Kennelly, Arthur. Impedance (AIEE, 1893) dent voltage source. Conversely, if the voltage across an
82 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

internal resistance & output impedance: often much less

than 1 ohm.
Conversely, a current source provides a constant cur-
rent, as long as the load connected to the source termi-
nals has sufficiently low impedance. An ideal current
source would provide no energy to a short circuit and ap-
proach infinite energy and voltage as the load resistance
approaches infinity (an open circuit). An ideal current
source has an infinite output impedance in parallel with
the source. A real-world current source has a very high,
but finite output impedance. In the case of transistor cur-
rent sources, impedance of a few megohms (at low fre-
quencies) is typical.
Since no ideal sources of either variety exist (all
A schematic diagram of a real voltage source, V, driving a resis-
tor, R, and creating a current I real-world examples have finite and non-zero source
impedance), any current source can be considered as a
voltage source with the same source impedance and vice
ideal voltage source is determined by some other volt-
versa. Voltage sources and current sources are sometimes
age or current in a circuit, it is called a dependent or
said to be duals of each other and any non ideal source can
controlled voltage source. A mathematical model of an
be converted from one to the other by applying Norton’s
amplifier will include dependent voltage sources whose
or Thévenin’s theorems.
magnitude is governed by some fixed relation to an input
signal, for example.[2] In the analysis of faults on electri-
cal power systems, the whole network of interconnected
sources and transmission lines can be usefully replaced 2.6.3 References and notes
by an ideal (AC) voltage source and a single equivalent
impedance. [1] An introduction to electronics

Symbols used for voltage sources [2] K. C. A. Smith, R. E. Alley , Electrical circuits: an intro-
duction, Cambridge University Press, 1992 ISBN 0-521-
The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero; 37769-2, pp. 11-13
it is able to supply or absorb any amount of current. The
current through an ideal voltage source is completely de-
termined by the external circuit. When connected to an 2.6.4 See also
open circuit, there is zero current and thus zero power.
When connected to a load resistance, the current through • Bandgap voltage reference
the source approaches infinity as the load resistance ap-
proaches zero (a short circuit). Thus, an ideal voltage • Voltage divider
source can supply unlimited power.
• Voltage reference
No real voltage source is ideal; all have a non-zero ef-
fective internal resistance, and none can supply unlimited
• Voltage regulator
current. However, the internal resistance of a real voltage
source is effectively modeled in linear circuit analysis by
combining a non-zero resistance in series with an ideal
voltage source (a Thévenin equivalent circuit). 2.7 Current source

2.6.2 Comparison between voltage and A current source is an electronic circuit that delivers or
absorbs an electric current which is independent of the
current sources
voltage across it.
Most sources of electrical energy (the mains, a battery) A current source is the dual of a voltage source. The
are modeled as voltage sources. An ideal voltage source term, constant-current sink, is sometimes used for sources
provides no energy when it is loaded by an open circuit fed from a negative voltage supply. Figure 1 shows the
(i.e. an infinite impedance), but approaches infinite en- schematic symbol for an ideal current source, driving a
ergy and current when the load resistance approaches zero resistor load. There are two types. An independent cur-
(a short circuit). Such a theoretical device would have a rent source (or sink) delivers a constant current. A de-
zero ohm output impedance in series with the source. A pendent current source delivers a current which is pro-
real-world voltage source has a very low, but non-zero portional to some other voltage or current in the circuit.
2.7. CURRENT SOURCE 83

infinite internal resistance. However, when the current

source reaches its compliance voltage, it abruptly stops
being a current source.
In circuit analysis, a current source having finite internal
+ resistance is modeled by placing the value of that resis-
tance across an ideal current source (the Norton equiva-
lent circuit). However, this model is only useful when a
current source is operating within its compliance voltage.
I R V
2.7.2 Implementations
− Passive current source

The simplest non-ideal current source consists of a

voltage source in series with a resistor. The amount of
current available from such a source is given by the ratio
Figure 1: An ideal current source, I, driving a resistor, R, and of the voltage across the voltage source to the resistance
creating a voltage V of the resistor (Ohm’s law; I = V/R). This value of cur-
rent will only be delivered to a load with zero voltage drop
across its terminals (a short circuit, an uncharged capaci-
2.7.1 Background tor, a charged inductor, a virtual ground circuit, etc.) The
current delivered to a load with nonzero voltage (drop)
Figure 2: Source symbols across its terminals (a linear or nonlinear resistor with a
finite resistance, a charged capacitor, an uncharged in-
An ideal current source generates a current that is inde- ductor, a voltage source, etc.) will always be different. It
pendent of the voltage changes across it. An ideal current is given by the ratio of the voltage drop across the resis-
source is a mathematical model, which real devices can tor (the difference between the exciting voltage and the
approach very closely. If the current through an ideal cur- voltage across the load) to its resistance. For a nearly
rent source can be specified independently of any other ideal current source, the value of the resistor should be
variable in a circuit, it is called an independent current very large but this implies that, for a specified current, the
source. Conversely, if the current through an ideal cur- voltage source must be very large (in the limit as the resis-
rent source is determined by some other voltage or cur- tance and the voltage go to infinity, the current source will
rent in a circuit, it is called a dependent or controlled become ideal and the current will not depend at all on the
current source. Symbols for these sources are shown in voltage across the load). Thus, efficiency is low (due to
Figure 2. power loss in the resistor) and it is usually impractical to
construct a 'good' current source this way. Nonetheless, it
The internal resistance of an ideal current source is in- is often the case that such a circuit will provide adequate
finite. An independent current source with zero current performance when the specified current and load resis-
is identical to an ideal open circuit. The voltage across tance are small. For example, a 5 V voltage source in
an ideal current source is completely determined by the series with a 4.7 kilohm resistor will provide an approxi-
circuit it is connected to. When connected to a short cir- mately constant current of 1 mA ± 5% to a load resistance
cuit, there is zero voltage and thus zero power delivered. in the range of 50 to 450 ohm.
When connected to a load resistance, the voltage across
the source approaches infinity as the load resistance ap- A Van de Graaff generator is an example of such a high
proaches infinity (an open circuit). Thus, an ideal current voltage current source. It behaves as an almost constant
source, if such a thing existed in reality, could supply un- current source because of its very high output voltage cou-
limited power and so would represent an unlimited source pled with its very high output resistance and so it supplies
of energy. the same few microamperes at any output voltage up to
hundreds of thousands of volts (or even tens of megavolts)
No physical current source is ideal. For example, no for large laboratory versions.
physical current source can operate when applied to an
open circuit. There are two characteristics that define a
current source in real life. One is its internal resistance
and the other is its compliance voltage. The compliance Active current sources without negative feedback
voltage is the maximum voltage that the current source
can supply to a load. Over a given load range, it is possi- In these circuits the output current is not monitored and
ble for some types of real current sources to exhibit nearly controlled by means of negative feedback.
84 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

Current-stable nonlinear implementation They are improve the source. Operational amplifiers with feed-
implemented by active electronic components (transis- back effectively work to minimise the voltage across
tors) having current-stable nonlinear output characteristic their inputs. This results in making the inverting input a
when driven by steady input quantity (current or voltage). virtual ground, with the current running through the feed-
These circuits behave as dynamic resistors changing their back, or load, and the passive current source. The input
present resistance to compensate current variations. For voltage source, the resistor, and the op-amp constitutes
example, if the load increases its resistance, the transistor
an “ideal” current source with value, IOUT = VIN/R.
decreases its present output resistance (and vice versa) to The op-amp voltage-to-current converter in Figure 3, a
keep up a constant total resistance in the circuit. transimpedance amplifier and an op-amp inverting am-
Active current sources have many important applica- plifier are typical implementations of this idea.
tions in electronic circuits. They are often used in place The floating load is a serious disadvantage of this circuit
of ohmic resistors in analog integrated circuits (e.g., a solution.
differential amplifier) to generate a current that depends
slightly on the voltage across the load.
Current compensation implementation A typical
The common emitter configuration driven by a constant
example are Howland current source[2] and its deriva-
input current or voltage and common source (common
tive Deboo integrator.[3] In the last example (Fig. 1),
cathode) driven by a constant voltage naturally behave as
the Howland current source consists of an input voltage
current sources (or sinks) because the output impedance
source, VIN, a positive resistor, R, a load (the capacitor,
of these devices is naturally high. The output part of the
C, acting as impedance Z) and a negative impedance con-
simple current mirror is an example of such a current
verter INIC (R1 = R2 = R3 = R and the op-amp). The in-
source widely used in integrated circuits. The common
put voltage source and the resistor R constitute an imper-
base, common gate and common grid configurations can
fect current source passing current, IR through the load
serve as constant current sources as well.
(Fig. 3 in the source). The INIC acts as a second cur-
A JFET can be made to act as a current source by tying its rent source passing “helping” current, I₋R, through the
gate to its source. The current then flowing is the IDSS of load. As a result, the total current flowing through the
the FET. These can be purchased with this connection al- load is constant and the circuit impedance seen by the in-
ready made and in this case the devices are called current put source is increased. However the Howland current
regulator diodes or constant current diodes or current lim- source isn't widely used because it requires the four resis-
iting diodes (CLD). An enhancement mode N channel tors to be perfectly matched, and its impedance drops at
MOSFET can be used in the circuits listed below. high frequencies.[4]
The grounded load is an advantage of this circuit solution.
Following voltage implementation An example:
bootstrapped current source.[1]
Current sources with negative feedback

They are implemented as a voltage follower with se-

ries negative feedback driven by a constant input voltage
source (i.e., a negative feedback voltage stabilizer). The
voltage follower is loaded by a constant (current sensing)
resistor acting as a simple current-to-voltage converter
connected in the feedback loop. The external load of this
current source is connected somewhere in the path of the
current supplying the current sensing resistor but out of
the feedback loop.
The voltage follower adjusts its output current IOUT
flowing through the load so that to make the voltage drop
VR = IOUTR across the current sensing resistor R equal
to the constant input voltage VIN. Thus the voltage sta-
bilizer keeps up a constant voltage drop across a constant
Figure 3: In an op-amp voltage-controlled current source the
resistor; so, a constant current IOUT = VR/R = VIN/R
op-amp compensates the voltage drop across the load by adding
the same voltage to the exciting input voltage.
flows through the resistor and respectively through the
load.
Voltage compensation implementation The simple If the input voltage varies, this arrangement will act
resistor passive current source is ideal only when the volt- as a voltage-to-current converter (voltage-controlled cur-
age across it is 0; so voltage compensation by apply- rent source, VCCS); it can be thought as a reversed
ing parallel negative feedback might be considered to (by means of negative feedback) current-to-voltage con-
2.7. CURRENT SOURCE 85

verter. The resistance R determines the transfer ratio

(transconductance). Vs (+)
Current sources implemented as circuits with series nega-
tive feedback have the disadvantage that the voltage drop
across the current sensing resistor decreases the maximal
voltage across the load (the compliance voltage).

Simple transistor current sources

R1 Load

Q1
G
RS DZ1
R2
D S

The internal structure of a current limiting diode

Constant current diode The simplest constant-current GND (0V)

source or sink is formed from one component: a JFET
with its gate attached to its source. Once the drain-source
voltage reaches a certain minimum value, the JFET enters Figure 4: Typical BJT constant current source with negative feed-
saturation where current is approximately constant. This back
configuration is known as a constant-current diode, as it
behaves much like a dual to the constant voltage diode the base current (IB) of NPN transistor (Q1). The con-
(Zener diode) used in simple voltage sources. stant Zener voltage is applied across the base of Q1 and
Due to the large variability in saturation current of JFETs, emitter resistor, R2.
it is common to also include a source resistor (shown in Voltage across R2 (VR₂) is given by VZ − VBE, where
the adjacent image) which allows the current to be tuned VBE is the base-emitter drop of Q1. The emitter current
down to a desired value. of Q1 which is also the current through R2 is given by

Zener diode current source In this bipolar junction VR2 VZ − VBE

transistor (BJT) implementation (Figure 4) of the gen- IR2 (= IE = IC ) = = .
RR2 RR2
eral idea above, a Zener voltage stabilizer (R1 and DZ1)
drives an emitter follower (Q1) loaded by a constant emit- Since VZ is constant and VBE is also (approximately)
ter resistor (R2) sensing the load current. The external constant for a given temperature, it follows that VR₂ is
(floating) load of this current source is connected to the constant and hence IE is also constant. Due to transistor
collector so that almost the same current flows through it action, emitter current, IE, is very nearly equal to the col-
and the emitter resistor (they can be thought of as con- lector current, IC, of the transistor (which in turn, is the
nected in series). The transistor, Q1, adjusts the output current through the load). Thus, the load current is con-
(collector) current so as to keep the voltage drop across stant (neglecting the output resistance of the transistor
the constant emitter resistor, R2, almost equal to the rela- due to the Early effect) and the circuit operates as a con-
tively constant voltage drop across the Zener diode, DZ1. stant current source. As long as the temperature remains
As a result, the output current is almost constant even if constant (or doesn't vary much), the load current will be
the load resistance and/or voltage vary. The operation of independent of the supply voltage, R1 and the transistor’s
the circuit is considered in details below. gain. R2 allows the load current to be set at any desirable
value and is calculated by
A Zener diode, when reverse biased (as shown in the cir-
cuit) has a constant voltage drop across it irrespective of
the current flowing through it. Thus, as long as the Zener VZ − VBE
current (IZ) is above a certain level (called holding cur- RR2 = IR2
rent), the voltage across the Zener diode (VZ) will be
constant. Resistor, R1, supplies the Zener current and where VBE is typically 0.65 V for a silicon device.[5]
86 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

VS −VD
(IR₂ is also the emitter current and is assumed to be the RR1 = ID +K·IB , where ID is the LED current.
same as the collector or required load current, provided
hFE is sufficiently large). Resistance, RR₁, at resistor, R1,
is calculated as
Vs (+)
VS − VZ
RR1 =
IZ + K · IB
where K = 1.2 to 2 (so that RR₁ is low enough to ensure
adequate IB),

IC
R1 Load
IB =
hF E,min
and hFE, ᵢ is the lowest acceptable current gain for the
particular transistor type being used. Q1
D
Vs (+) DZ1 R2

R1 Load GND (0V)

Figure 6: Typical constant current source (CCS) with diode com-
Q1 pensation

Transistor current source with diode compensation

LED1 Temperature changes will change the output current de-
livered by the circuit of Figure 4 because VBE is sen-
R2 sitive to temperature. Temperature dependence can be
compensated using the circuit of Figure 6 that includes a
standard diode, D, (of the same semiconductor material
as the transistor) in series with the Zener diode as shown
in the image on the left. The diode drop (VD) tracks the
VBE changes due to temperature and thus significantly
GND (0V) counteracts temperature dependence of the CCS.
Resistance R2 is now calculated as

Figure 5: Typical constant current source (CCS) using LED in-

stead of Zener diode VZ + VD − VBE
R2 =
IR2
LED current source The Zener diode can be replaced
by any other diode; e.g., a light-emitting diode LED1 Since VD = VBE = 0.65 V,[6]
as shown in Figure 5. The LED voltage drop (VD) is
now used to derive the constant voltage and also has the
additional advantage of tracking (compensating) VBE VZ
changes due to temperature. RR₂ is calculated as R2 =
IR2
(In practice, VD is never exactly equal to VBE and hence
VD − VBE it only suppresses the change in VBE rather than nulling
RR2 =
IR2 it out.)
and R1 as R1 is calculated as
2.7. CURRENT SOURCE 87

VS − VZ − VD
R1 =
IZ + K · IB
(the compensating diode’s forward voltage drop, VD, ap-
pears in the equation and is typically 0.65 V for silicon
devices.[6] )
This method is most effective for Zener diodes rated at 5.6
V or more. For breakdown diodes of less than 5.6 V, the
compensating diode is usually not required because the
breakdown mechanism is not as temperature dependent
as it is in breakdown diodes above this voltage.

Current mirror with emitter degeneration Series

negative feedback is also used in the two-transistor cur-
rent mirror with emitter degeneration. Negative feedback
is a basic feature in some current mirrors using multi-
ple transistors, such as the Widlar current source and the
Wilson current source. Current limiter with NPN transistors

Constant current source with thermal compensation

One limitation with the circuits in Figures 5 and 6 is that cause a voltage drop that is equal to the V ₑ drop of Q2,
the thermal compensation is imperfect. In bipolar tran- Q2 begins to turn on. As Q2 turns on it pulls more current
sistors, as the junction temperature increases the V ₑ drop through its collector resistor, R1, which diverts some of
(voltage drop from base to emitter) decreases. In the two the injected current in the base of Q1, causing Q1 to con-
previous circuits, a decrease in V ₑ will cause an increase duct less current through the load. This creates a negative
in voltage across the emitter resistor, which in turn will feedback loop within the circuit, which keeps the voltage
cause an increase in collector current drawn through the at Q1’s emitter almost exactly equal to the V ₑ drop of Q2.
load. The end result is that the amount of 'constant' cur- Since Q2 is dissipating very little power compared to Q1
rent supplied is at least somewhat dependent on temper- (since all the load current goes through Q1, not Q2), Q2
ature. This effect is mitigated to a large extent, but not will not heat up any significant amount and the reference
completely, by corresponding voltage drops for the diode, (current setting) voltage across R ₑ ₑ will remain steady
D1, in Figure 6, and the LED, LED1, in Figure 5. If the at ~0.6 V, or one diode drop above ground, regardless of
power dissipation in the active device of the CCS is not the thermal changes in the V ₑ drop of Q1. The circuit
small and/or insufficient emitter degeneration is used, this is still sensitive to changes in the ambient temperature in
can become a non-trivial issue. which the device operates as the BE voltage drop in Q2
varies slightly with temperature.
Imagine in Figure 5, at power up, that the LED has 1 V
across it driving the base of the transistor. At room tem-
perature there is about 0.6 V drop across the V ₑ junction
and hence 0.4 V across the emitter resistor, giving an ap- Op-amp current sources The simple transistor cur-
proximate collector (load) current of 0.4/Rₑ amps. Now rent source from Figure 4 can be improved by inserting
imagine that the power dissipation in the transistor causes the base-emitter junction of the transistor in the feed-
it to heat up. This causes the V ₑ drop (which was 0.6 V back loop of an op-amp (Figure 7). Now the op-amp
at room temperature) to drop to, say, 0.2 V. Now the volt- increases its output voltage to compensate for the VBE
age across the emitter resistor is 0.8 V, twice what it was drop. The circuit is actually a buffered non-inverting am-
before the warmup. This means that the collector (load) plifier driven by a constant input voltage. It keeps up this
current is now twice the design value! This is an extreme constant voltage across the constant sense resistor. As a
example of course, but serves to illustrate the issue. result, the current flowing through the load is constant as
The circuit to the left overcomes the thermal problem (see well; it is exactly the Zener voltage divided by the sense
also, current limiting). To see how the circuit works, as- resistor. The load can be connected either in the emitter
sume the voltage has just been applied at V+. Current (Figure 7) or in the collector (Figure 4) but in both the
runs through R1 to the base of Q1, turning it on and caus- cases it is floating as in all the circuits above. The tran-
ing current to begin to flow through the load into the col- sistor is not needed if the required current doesn't exceed
lector of Q1. This same load current then flows out of the sourcing ability of the op-amp. The article on current
Q1’s emitter and consequently through R ₑ ₑ to ground. mirror discusses another example of these so-called gain-
When this current through R ₑ ₑ to ground is sufficient to boosted current mirrors.
88 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

2.7.3 Current and voltage source compar-

ison

Most sources of electrical energy (mains electricity, a

battery, etc.) are best modeled as voltage sources. Such
sources provide constant voltage, which means that as
long as the current drawn from the source is within the
source’s capabilities, its output voltage stays constant. An
Load ideal voltage source provides no energy when it is loaded
by an open circuit (i.e., an infinite impedance), but ap-
proaches infinite power and current when the load resis-
Sense tance approaches zero (a short circuit). Such a theoret-
ical device would have a zero ohm output impedance in
series with the source. A real-world voltage source has
a very low, but non-zero output impedance: often much
less than 1 ohm.
Conversely, a current source provides a constant cur-
rent, as long as the load connected to the source termi-
Figure 7: Typical op-amp current source. nals has sufficiently low impedance. An ideal current
source would provide no energy to a short circuit and ap-
proach infinite energy and voltage as the load resistance
approaches infinity (an open circuit). An ideal current
LM317 source has an infinite output impedance in parallel with
IN OUT
1.25 ohm the source. A real-world current source has a very high,
ADJ
1.5 W Green
1A
but finite output impedance. In the case of transistor cur-
current source
5V 0 ... 1.8V rent sources, impedances of a few megohms (at DC) are
>1A (open circuit
100 approx. 3.5V) typical.
An ideal current source cannot be connected to an ideal
open circuit because this would create the paradox of
running a constant, non-zero current (from the current
Figure 8: Constant current source using the LM317 voltage reg- source) through an element with a defined zero current
ulator (the open circuit). Also, a current source should not be
connected to another current source if their currents dif-
fer but this arrangement is frequently used (e.g., in am-
plifying stages with dynamic load, CMOS circuits, etc.)
Voltage regulator current sources The general neg-
ative feedback arrangement can be implemented by an Similarly, an ideal voltage source cannot be connected to
IC voltage regulator (LM317 voltage regulator on Figure an ideal short circuit (R = 0), since this would result a
8). As with the bare emitter follower and the precise op- similar paradox of finite non-zero voltage across an ele-
amp follower above, it keeps up a constant voltage drop ment with defined zero voltage (the short circuit). Also, a
(1.25 V) across a constant resistor (1.25 Ω); so, a con- voltage source should not be connected to another voltage
stant current (1 A) flows through the resistor and the load. source if their voltages differ but again this arrangement
The LED is on when the voltage across the load exceeds is frequently used (e.g., in common base and differential
1.8 V (the indicator circuit introduces some error). The amplifying stages).
grounded load is an important advantage of this solution. Contrary, current and voltage sources can be connected
to each other without any problems, and this technique
is widely used in circuitry (e.g., in cascode circuits,
differential amplifier stages with common emitter current
source, etc.)
Curpistor tubes Nitrogen-filled glass tubes with two Because no ideal sources of either variety exist (all
electrodes and a calibrated Becquerel (fissions per sec- real-world examples have finite and non-zero source
ond) amount of 226 Ra offer a constant number of charge impedance), any current source can be considered as a
carriers per second for conduction, which determines the voltage source with the same source impedance and vice
maximum current the tube can pass over a voltage range versa. These concepts are dealt with by Norton’s and
from 25 to 500 V.[7] Thévenin’s theorems.
2.7. CURRENT SOURCE 89

2.7.4 See also

• Constant current
• Current limiting
• Current loop
• Current mirror
• Current sources and sinks
• Fontana bridge, a compensated current source
• Iron-hydrogen resistor
• Voltage-to-current converter
• Welding power supply, a device used for arc weld-
ing, many of which are designed as constant current
devices.
• Widlar current source

2.7.5 References
[1] Widlar bilateral current source

[2] “AN-1515 A Comprehensive Study of the Howland Cur-

rent Pump” (PDF) (PDF). Texas Instruments, Inc. 2013.

[3] Consider the “Deboo” Single-Supply Integrator

[4] Horowitz, Paul; Winfield Hill (1989). The Art of Electron-

ics, 2nd Ed. UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 182.
ISBN 0521370957.

[5] The value for VBE varies logarithmically with current

level: for more detail see diode modelling.

[6] See above note on logarithmic current dependence.

[7] “Tung-Sol: Curpistor, minute current regulator data sheet”

(PDF). Retrieved 26 May 2013.

2.7.6 Further reading

• “Current Sources & Voltage References” Linden T.
Harrison; Publ. Elsevier-Newnes 2005; 608-pages;
ISBN 0-7506-7752-X

2.7.7 External links

• Current Sources and Current Mirrors
• FET Constant-Current Source/Limiter - Vishay
• JFET Current Source and pSpice Simulation
• Using Current Sources / Sinks / Mirrors In Audio
• Differential Amplifiers and Current Sources
• Passive Voltage-to-Current Converters
Chapter 3

Basic circuit laws

3.1 Kirchhoff’s circuit laws The principle of conservation of electric charge implies
that:
See also Kirchhoff’s laws (disambiguation) for
other laws named after Gustav Kirchhoff. At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit,
the sum of currents flowing into that node is
Kirchhoff’s circuit laws are two equalities that deal with equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that
the current and potential difference (commonly known node
as voltage) in the lumped element model of electrical cir-
cuits. They were first described in 1845 by German physi-
or equivalently
cist Gustav Kirchhoff.[1] This generalized the work of
Georg Ohm and preceded the work of Maxwell. Widely
used in electrical engineering, they are also called Kirch- The algebraic sum of currents in a network of
hoff’s rules or simply Kirchhoff’s laws. conductors meeting at a point is zero.
Both of Kirchhoff’s laws can be understood as corollar-
ies of the Maxwell equations in the low-frequency limit. Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative)
They are accurate for DC circuits, and for AC circuits quantity reflecting direction towards or away from a node,
at frequencies where the wavelengths of electromagnetic this principle can be stated as:
radiation are very large compared to the circuits.
∑
n

3.1.1 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) Ik = 0

k=1

i1
n is the total number of branches with currents flowing
towards or away from the node.
This formula is valid for complex currents:

R1 i2 ∑
n
I˜k = 0
k=1

i4 The law is based on the conservation of charge whereby

the charge (measured in coulombs) is the product of the
current (in amperes) and the time (in seconds).
vg
i3 Uses

A matrix version of Kirchhoff’s current law is the basis of

most circuit simulation software, such as SPICE. Kirch-
hoff’s current law combined with Ohm’s Law is used in
The current entering any junction is equal to the current leaving
nodal analysis.
that junction. i2 + i3 = i1 + i4
KCL is applicable to any lumped network irrespective of
This law is also called Kirchhoff’s first law, Kirchhoff’s the nature of the network; whether unilateral or bilateral,
point rule, or Kirchhoff’s junction rule (or nodal rule). active or passive, linear or non-linear.

90
3.1. KIRCHHOFF’S CIRCUIT LAWS 91

amount of energy gained per unit charge must be equal to

the amount of energy lost per unit charge, as energy and
a R1 b charge are both conserved.

v1
+ Generalization
v4 R2 v2
–
In the low-frequency limit, the voltage drop around any
d R3 c loop is zero. This includes imaginary loops arranged ar-
bitrarily in space – not limited to the loops delineated by
v3 R5 the circuit elements and conductors. In the low-frequency
limit, this is a corollary of Faraday’s law of induction
(which is one of the Maxwell equations).
v5 This has practical application in situations involving
"static electricity".
The sum of all the voltages around a loop is equal to zero.
v1 + v2 + v3 - v4 = 0

3.1.3 Limitations
3.1.2 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
KCL and KVL both depend on the lumped element
This law is also called Kirchhoff’s second law, Kirch- model being applicable to the circuit in question. When
hoff’s loop (or mesh) rule, and Kirchhoff’s second the model is not applicable, the laws do not apply.
rule.
KCL, in its usual form, is dependent on the assumption
The principle of conservation of energy implies that that current flows only in conductors, and that whenever
current flows into one end of a conductor it immediately
The directed sum of the electrical potential dif- flows out the other end. This is not a safe assumption for
ferences (voltage) around any closed network is high-frequency AC circuits, where the lumped element
zero, or: model is no longer applicable.[2] It is often possible to im-
prove the applicability of KCL by considering “parasitic
More simply, the sum of the emfs in capacitances” distributed along the conductors.[2] Signif-
any closed loop is equivalent to the icant violations of KCL can occur[3] even at 60 Hz, which
sum of the potential drops in that is not a very high frequency.
loop, or:
In other words, KCL is valid only if the total electric
The algebraic sum of
charge, Q , remains constant in the region being consid-
the products of the resis-
ered. In practical cases this is always so when KCL is
tances of the conductors
applied at a geometric point. When investigating a fi-
and the currents in them
nite region, however, it is possible that the charge density
in a closed loop is equal
within the region may change. Since charge is conserved,
to the total emf available
this can only come about by a flow of charge across the
in that loop.
region boundary. This flow represents a net current, and
KCL is violated.
Similarly to KCL, it can be stated as:
KVL is based on the assumption that there is no fluctu-
ating magnetic field linking the closed loop. This is not
∑n a safe assumption for high-frequency (short-wavelength)
Vk = 0 AC circuits.[2] In the presence of a changing magnetic
k=1 field the electric field is not a conservative vector field.
Here, n is the total number of voltages measured. The Therefore, the electric field cannot be the gradient of any
voltages may also be complex: potential. That is to say, the line integral of the electric
field around the loop is not zero, directly contradicting
KVL.
∑n
It is often possible to improve the applicability of KVL by
Ṽk = 0
considering “parasitic inductances” (including mutual in-
k=1
ductances) distributed along the conductors.[2] These are
This law is based on the conservation of energy whereby treated as imaginary circuit elements that produce a volt-
voltage is defined as the energy per unit charge. The total age drop equal to the rate-of-change of the flux.
92 CHAPTER 3. BASIC CIRCUIT LAWS

3.1.4 Example

 1
i1 = 1100
R1 

4
i2 = 275




s1 i3 = − 220
3

ε1 i1 i3 has a negative sign, which means that the direction of i3

R2 i2 is opposite to the assumed direction (the direction defined
in the picture).

s2
i3
3.1.5 See also
ε2
R3 • Faraday’s law of induction

• Lumped matter discipline

Assume an electric network consisting of two voltage 3.1.6 References

sources and three resistors.
According to the first law we have [1] Oldham, Kalil T. Swain (2008). The doctrine of descrip-
tion: Gustav Kirchhoff, classical physics, and the “purpose
of all science” in 19th-century Germany (Ph. D.). Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley. p. 52. Docket 3331743.
i1 − i2 − i3 = 0

The second law applied to the closed circuit s1 gives [2] Ralph Morrison, Grounding and Shielding Techniques
in Instrumentation Wiley-Interscience (1986) ISBN
0471838055

−R2 i2 + E1 − R1 i1 = 0 [3] simonjz05,. “High Voltage Cable Inspection” (video).

The second law applied to the closed circuit s2 gives
• Paul, Clayton R. (2001). Fundamentals of Electric
Circuit Analysis. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-
−R3 i3 − E2 − E1 + R2 i2 = 0 37195-5.

Thus we get a linear system of equations in i1 , i2 , i3 : • Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004).
Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.).
 Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7.

i1 − i2 − i3 =0
−R2 i2 + E1 − R1 i1 =0 • Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engi-

 neers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary
−R3 i3 − E2 − E1 + R2 i2 =0
Modern Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN
Which is equivalent to 0-7167-0810-8.

 • Graham, Howard Johnson, Martin (2002). High-


i1 + −i2 + −i3 =0 speed signal propagation : advanced black magic
R1 i1 + R2 i2 + 0i3 = E1 (10. printing. ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pren-

 tice Hall PTR. ISBN 0-13-084408-X.
0i1 + R2 i2 − R3 i3 = E1 + E2

Assuming
3.1.7 External links

• Divider Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws chapter from

R1 = 100, R2 = 200, R3 = 300(ohms) ; E1 = 3, E2 = 4(volts)
Lessons In Electric Circuits Vol 1 DC free ebook and
the solution is Lessons In Electric Circuits series.
3.2. NORTON’S THEOREM 93

at terminals A-B of the network with terminals A-B

short circuited.

• This equivalent resistance R ₒ is the resistance ob-

tained at terminals A-B of the network with all its
voltage sources short circuited and all its current
sources open circuited.

For AC systems the theorem can be applied to reactive

Any black box containing resistances only and voltage and cur-
impedances as well as resistances.
rent sources can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting The Norton equivalent circuit is used to represent any
of an equivalent current source in parallel connection with an network of linear sources and impedances at a given
equivalent resistance. frequency.
Norton’s theorem and its dual, Thévenin’s theorem, are
widely used for circuit analysis simplification and to study
circuit’s initial-condition and steady-state response.
Norton’s theorem was independently derived in 1926
by Siemens & Halske researcher Hans Ferdinand Mayer
(1895–1980) and Bell Labs engineer Edward Lawry Nor-
ton (1898–1983).[1][2][3][4][5]
To find the equivalent,

1. Find the Norton current I ₒ. Calculate the output

current, IAB, with a short circuit as the load (mean-
ing 0 resistance between A and B). This is I ₒ.

2. Find the Norton resistance R ₒ. When there are no

dependent sources (all current and voltage sources
are independent), there are two methods of deter-
mining the Norton impedance R ₒ.

• Calculate the output voltage,

VAB, when in open circuit
condition (i.e., no load resis-
tor – meaning infinite load re-
sistance). R ₒ equals this VAB
divided by I ₒ.
Edward Lawry Norton or
• Replace independent voltage
3.2 Norton’s theorem sources with short circuits and
independent current sources
with open circuits. The to-
This article is about the theorem in electrical circuits.
tal resistance across the output
For Norton’s theorem for queueing networks, see flow-
port is the Norton impedance
equivalent server method.
R ₒ.
Known in Europe as the Mayer–Norton theorem, Nor-
ton’s theorem holds, to illustrate in DC circuit theory
terms, that (see image): This is equivalent to calculating the Thevenin resistance.

• Any linear electrical network with voltage and However, when there are dependent sources,
current sources and only resistances can be replaced the more general method must be used. This
at terminals A-B by an equivalent current source I ₒ method is not shown below in the diagrams.
in parallel connection with an equivalent resistance
R ₒ. • Connect a constant current
source at the output terminals
• This equivalent current I ₒ is the current obtained of the circuit with a value of 1
94 CHAPTER 3. BASIC CIRCUIT LAWS

Ampere and calculate the volt-

age at its terminals. This volt-
age divided by the 1 A current
is the Norton impedance R ₒ.
This method must be used if
the circuit contains dependent
sources, but it can be used in
all cases even when there are
no dependent sources.

3.2.1 Example of a Norton equivalent cir-

cuit To a Thévenin equivalent

3.2.3 Queueing theory

The passive circuit equivalent of “Norton’s theorem” in

queuing theory is called the Chandy Herzog Woo theo-
rem.[6][7] In a reversible queueing system, it is often possi-
1. The original circuit ble to replace an uninteresting subset of queues by a single
2. Calculating the equivalent output current (FCFS or PS) queue with an appropriately chosen service
3. Calculating the equivalent resistance rate.[8]
4. Design the equivalent circuit

3.2.4 See also

In the example, the total current I ₒ ₐ is given by:
• Ohm’s Law
15V
Itotal = = 5.625mA. • Millman’s theorem
2 kΩ + 1kΩ∥(1 kΩ + 1 kΩ)
The current through the load is then, using the current • Source transformation
divider rule:
• Superposition theorem
1 kΩ + 1 kΩ • Thévenin’s theorem
Ino = · Itotal
(1 kΩ + 1 kΩ + 1 kΩ)
= 2/3 · 5.625mA = 3.75mA. • Maximum power transfer theorem
And the equivalent resistance looking back into the circuit • Extra element theorem
is:

Rno = 1 kΩ + (2 kΩ∥(1 kΩ + 1 kΩ)) = 2 kΩ.

3.2.5 References

So the equivalent circuit is a 3.75 mA current source in [1] Mayer

parallel with a 2 kΩ resistor.
[2] Norton

3.2.2 Conversion to a Thévenin equivalent [3] Johnson (2003b)

A Norton equivalent circuit is related to the Thévenin [4] Brittain

equivalent by the equations:
[5] Dorf

Rth = Rno [6] Johnson (2003a)

Vth = Ino Rno [7] Gunther

Vth
= Ino [8] Chandy et al.
Rth
3.3. THÉVENIN’S THEOREM 95

3.2.6 Bibliography
• Brittain, J.E. (March 1990). “Thevenin’s theorem”.
IEEE Spectrum. 27 (3): 42. doi:10.1109/6.48845.
Retrieved 1 February 2013.

• Chandy, K. M.; Herzog, U.; Woo, L. (Jan 1975).

“Parametric Analysis of Queuing Networks”. IBM
Journal of Research and Development. 19 (1): 36–
42. doi:10.1147/rd.191.0036.
Any black box containing resistances only and voltage and cur-
• Dorf, Richard C.; Svoboda, James A. (2010). rent sources can be replaced by a Thévenin equivalent circuit con-
“Chapter 5 – Circuit Theorems”. Introduction to sisting of an equivalent voltage source in series connection with
Electric Circuits (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley an equivalent resistance.
& Sons. pp. 162–207. ISBN 978-0-470-52157-1.
• The equivalent resistance R is the resis-
• Gunther, N.J. (2004). Analyzing computer systems
tance that the circuit between terminals
performance : with PERL::PDQ (Online-Ausg. ed.).
A and B would have if all ideal voltage
Berlin: Springer. p. 281. ISBN 3-540-20865-8.
sources in the circuit were replaced by a
• Johnson, D.H. (2003). “Origins of the equiva- short circuit and all ideal current sources
lent circuit concept: the voltage-source equivalent” were replaced by an open circuit.
(PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 91 (4): 636–640. • If terminals A and B are connected to one
doi:10.1109/JPROC.2003.811716. another, the current flowing from A to
B will be V /R . This means that R
• Johnson, D.H. (2003). “Origins of the equiva- could alternatively be calculated as V
lent circuit concept: the current-source equivalent” divided by the short-circuit current be-
(PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 91 (5): 817–821. tween A and B when they are connected
doi:10.1109/JPROC.2003.811795. together.
• Mayer, H. F. (1926). “Ueber das Ersatzschema
In circuit theory terms, the theorem allows any one-port
der Verstärkerröhre (On equivalent circuits for elec-
network to be reduced to a single voltage source and a
tronic amplifiers]". Telegraphen- und Fernsprech-
single impedance.
Technik. 15: 335–337.
The theorem also applies to frequency domain AC cir-
• Norton, E. L. (1926). “Technical Report TM26–0– cuits consisting of reactive and resistive impedances. It
1860 – Design of finite networks for uniform fre- means the theorem applies for AC in an exactly same
quency characteristic”. Bell Laboratories. way to DC except that resistances are generalized to
impedances.

3.2.7 External links The theorem was independently derived in 1853 by the
German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz and in 1883
• Norton’s theorem at allaboutcircuits.com by Léon Charles Thévenin (1857–1926), an electrical
engineer with France’s national Postes et Télégraphes
telecommunications organization.[1][2][3][4][5][6]
3.3 Thévenin’s theorem Thévenin’s theorem and its dual, Norton’s theorem, are
widely used to make circuit analysis simpler and to study
a circuit’s initial-condition and steady-state response.[7][8]
As originally stated in terms of DC resistive circuits only,
Thévenin’s theorem can be used to convert any circuit’s
Thévenin’s theorem holds that:
sources and impedances to a Thévenin equivalent; use
of the theorem may in some cases be more convenient
• Any linear electrical network with than use of Kirchhoff’s circuit laws.[6][9]
voltage and current sources and only
resistances can be replaced at terminals
A-B by an equivalent voltage source V 3.3.1 Calculating the Thévenin equivalent
in series connection with an equivalent
resistance R . The equivalent circuit is a voltage source with voltage VT
• The equivalent voltage V is the voltage in series with a resistance RT .
obtained at terminals A-B of the network The Thévenin-equivalent voltage VT is the voltage at the
with terminals A-B open circuited. output terminals of the original circuit.It is the open cir-
96 CHAPTER 3. BASIC CIRCUIT LAWS

cuited voltage at the output terminals of the original cir- Calculating equivalent resistance:
cuit.When calculating a Thévenin-equivalent voltage, the
voltage divider principle is often useful, by declaring one
RTh = R1 + [(R2 + R3 ) ∥R4 ]
terminal to be Vₒᵤ and the other terminal to be at the
ground point.
= 1 kΩ + [(1 kΩ + 1 kΩ) ∥2 kΩ]
The Thévenin-equivalent resistance RT is the resistance
measured across points A and B “looking back” into ( )−1
the circuit. It is important to first replace all voltage- 1 1
= 1 kΩ + + = 2 kΩ.
and current-sources with their internal resistances. For (1 kΩ + 1 kΩ) (2 kΩ)
an ideal voltage source, this means replace the voltage
source with a short circuit. For an ideal current source,
this means replace the current source with an open cir- 3.3.2 Conversion to a Norton equivalent
cuit. Resistance can then be calculated across the ter-
minals using the formulae for series and parallel circuits.
This method is valid only for circuits with independent
sources. If there are dependent sources in the circuit,
another method must be used such as connecting a test
source across A and B and calculating the voltage across
or current through the test source.
Note that the replacement of voltage and current sources
do the opposite of what the sources themselves are meant
to do. A voltage source creates a difference of elec-
tric potential between its terminals; its replacement in
Thévenin’s theorem resistance calculations, a short cir-
cuit, equalizes potential. Likewise, a current source’s aim
is to generate a certain amount of current, whereas an
open circuit stops electric flow altogether. Norton-Thevenin conversion

Main article: Norton’s theorem

Example
A Norton equivalent circuit is related to the Thévenin
equivalent by

RTh = RNo

1. Original circuit VTh = INo RNo

2. The equivalent voltage
INo = VTh /RTh .
3. The equivalent resistance
4. The equivalent circuit
3.3.3 Practical limitations
In the example, calculating the equivalent voltage:
• Many circuits are only linear over a certain range
VTh = R2 +R3
(R2 +R3 )+R4 · V1 of values, thus the Thévenin equivalent is valid only
within this linear range.
1 kΩ + 1 kΩ
= · 15 V
(1 kΩ + 1 kΩ) + 2 kΩ • The Thévenin equivalent has an equivalent I–V char-
1 acteristic only from the point of view of the load.
= · 15 V = 7.5 V
2
• The power dissipation of the Thévenin equivalent is
(notice that R1 is not taken into consideration, as above not necessarily identical to the power dissipation of
calculations are done in an open circuit condition between the real system. However, the power dissipated by
A and B, therefore no current flows through this part, an external resistor between the two output terminals
which means there is no current through R1 and there- is the same regardless of how the internal circuit is
fore no voltage drop along this part) implemented.
3.3. THÉVENIN’S THEOREM 97

3.3.4 A proof of the theorem 3.3.7 Bibliography

The proof involves two steps. First use superposition the- • Brenner, Egon; Javid, Mansour (1959). “Chapter 12
orem to construct a solution. Then, use uniqueness the- - Network Functions”. Analysis of Electric Circuits.
orem to show the solution is unique. The second step is McGraw-Hill. pp. 268–269.
usually implied. First, using the superposition theorem,
in general for any linear “black box” circuit which con- • Brittain, J.E. (March 1990). “Thevenin’s theorem”.
tains voltage sources and resistors, one can always write IEEE Spectrum. 27 (3): 42. doi:10.1109/6.48845.
down its voltage as a linear function of the corresponding Retrieved 1 February 2013.
current as follows
• Dorf, Richard C.; Svoboda, James A. (2010).
“Chapter 5 - Circuit Theorems”. Introduction to
V = VEq − ZEq I Electric Circuits (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley
& Sons. pp. 162–207. ISBN 978-0-470-52157-1.
where the first term reflects the linear summation of con-
tributions from each voltage source, while the second • Dwight, Herbert B. (1949). “Sec. 2 - Electric
term measures the contribution from all the resistors. The and Magnetic Circuits”. In Knowlton, A.E. Stan-
above argument is due to the fact that the voltage of the dard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (8th ed.).
black box for a given current I is identical to the linear McGraw-Hill. p. 26.
superposition of the solutions of the following problems:
(1) to leave the black box open circuited but activate indi- • Elgerd, Olle I. (2007). “Chapter 10, Energy Sys-
vidual voltage source one at a time and, (2) to short circuit tem Transients - Surge Phenomena and Symmetri-
all the voltage sources but feed the circuit with a certain cal Fault Analysis”. Electric Energy Systems Theory:
ideal voltage source so that the resulting current exactly An Introduction. Tata McGraw-Hill. pp. 402–429.
reads I (or an ideal current source of current I ). Once ISBN 978-0070192300.
the above expression is established, it is straightforward
to show that VEq and ZEq are the single voltage source and • Helmholtz, H. (1853). "Über einige Gesetze
the single series resistor in question. der Vertheilung elektrischer Ströme in körper-
lichen Leitern mit Anwendung auf die thierisch-
elektrischen Versuche (Some laws concerning the
3.3.5 See also distribution of electrical currents in conductors with
applications to experiments on animal electricity)".
• Millman’s theorem Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 89 (6): 211–233.
• Source transformation • Johnson, D.H. (2003a). “Origins of the equiva-
• Superposition theorem lent circuit concept: the voltage-source equivalent”
(PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 91 (4): 636–640.
• Norton’s theorem doi:10.1109/JPROC.2003.811716.

• Maximum power transfer theorem • Johnson, D.H. (2003b). “Origins of the equiva-
lent circuit concept: the current-source equivalent”
• Extra element theorem
(PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 91 (5): 817–821.
doi:10.1109/JPROC.2003.811795.
3.3.6 References
• Thévenin, L. (1883a). “Extension de la loi d'Ohm
[1] Helmholtz aux circuits électromoteurs complexes (Extension of
Ohm’s law to complex electromotive circuits)". An-
[2] Thévenin (1883a) nales Télégraphiques. 3e series. 10: 222–224.
[3] Thévenin (1883b)
• Thévenin, L. (1883b). “Sur un nouveau théorème
[4] Johnson (2003a) d'électricité dynamique (On a new theorem of dy-
namic electricity)". Comptes rendus hebdomadaires
[5] Brittain
des séances de l'Académie des Sciences. 97: 159–
[6] Dorf 161.

[7] Brenner • Wenner, F. (1926). “Sci. Paper S531, A principle

[8] Elgerd
governing the distribution of current in systems of
linear conductors”. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of
[9] Dwight Standards.
98 CHAPTER 3. BASIC CIRCUIT LAWS

3.3.8 External links

• First-Order Filters: Shortcut via Thévenin Equiva-
lent Source — showing on p. 4 complex circuit’s
Thévenin’s theorem simplication to first-order low-
pass filter and associated voltage divider, time con-
stant and gain.
Chapter 4

AC analysis

4.1 Phasor ence in their analytic representations is the complex am-

plitude (phasor). A linear combination of such func-
For other uses, see Phasor (disambiguation). tions can be factored into the product of a linear com-
Not to be confused with phaser. bination of phasors (known as phasor arithmetic) and
“Complex amplitude” redirects here. For the quantum- the time/frequency dependent factor that they all have in
mechanical concept, see Complex probability amplitude. common.
In physics and engineering, a phasor (a portmanteau The origin of the term phasor rightfully suggests that a
(diagrammatic) calculus somewhat similar to that possi-
ble for vectors is possible for phasors as well.[6] An im-

U C
portant additional feature of the phasor transform is that
differentiation and integration of sinusoidal signals (hav-
ing constant amplitude, period and phase) corresponds
to simple algebraic operations on the phasors; the phasor
U RLC
transform thus allows the analysis (calculation) of the AC

UL
steady state of RLC circuits by solving simple algebraic
equations (albeit with complex coefficients) in the pha-

U R I
sor domain instead of solving differential equations (with
real coefficients) in the time domain.[7][8] The originator
of the phasor transform was Charles Proteus Steinmetz
working at General Electric in the late 19th century.[9][10]

UR UC UL Glossing over some mathematical details, the phasor

transform can also be seen as a particular case of the
I Laplace transform, which additionally can be used to (si-
multaneously) derive the transient response of an RLC
circuit.[8][10] However, the Laplace transform is mathe-
URLC matically more difficult to apply and the effort may be
unjustified if only steady state analysis is required.[10]

An example of series RLC circuit and respective phasor diagram

for a specific ω 4.1.1 Definition

of phase vector[1][2] ), is a complex number representing Euler’s formula indicates that sinusoids can be repre-
a sinusoidal function whose amplitude (A), angular fre- sented mathematically as the sum of two complex-valued
quency (ω), and initial phase (θ) are time-invariant. It is functions:
related to a more general concept called analytic repre- ei(ωt+θ) +e−i(ωt+θ)
sentation,[3] which decomposes a sinusoid into the prod- A · cos(ωt + θ) = A · 2 ,
[lower-alpha 1]
uct of a complex constant and a factor that encapsulates
the frequency and time dependence. The complex con-
stant, which encapsulates amplitude and phase depen- or as the real part of one of the functions:
dence, is known as phasor, complex amplitude,[4][5]
and (in older texts) sinor[6] or even complexor.[6]
A · cos(ωt + θ) = Re{A · ei(ωt+θ) } = Re{Aeiθ · eiωt }.
A common situation in electrical networks is the exis-
tence of multiple sinusoids all with the same frequency, The function A · ei(ωt+θ) is the analytic representation of
but different amplitudes and phases. The only differ- A·cos(ωt+θ). Figure 2 depicts it as a rotating vector in a

99
100 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

Re{(Aeiθ · Beiϕ ) · eiωt } = Re{(ABei(θ+ϕ) ) · eiωt }

= AB cos(ωt + (θ + ϕ))

In electronics, Beiϕ would represent an impedance,

which is independent of time. In particular it is not the
shorthand notation for another phasor. Multiplying a pha-
sor current by an impedance produces a phasor voltage.
But the product of two phasors (or squaring a phasor)
would represent the product of two sinusoids, which is
a non-linear operation that produces new frequency com-
ponents. Phasor notation can only represent systems with
one frequency, such as a linear system stimulated by a si-
nusoid.

Differentiation and integration

The time derivative or integral of a phasor produces an-

other phasor.[lower-alpha 2] For example:

{ }
d
Re (Aeiθ · eiωt ) = Re{Aeiθ · iωeiωt } = Re{Aeiθ · eiπ/2 ωeiωt } =
dt

Therefore, in phasor representation, the time derivative

of a sinusoid becomes just multiplication by the constant,
iω = (eiπ/2 · ω).
Similarly, integrating a phasor corresponds to multiplica-
−iπ/2
1
tion by iω = e ω . The time-dependent factor, eiωt ,
is unaffected.
When we solve a linear differential equation with phasor
arithmetic, we are merely factoring eiωt out of all terms
of the equation, and reinserting it into the answer. For
Fig 2. When function A·ei(ωt+θ) is depicted in the complex plane, example, consider the following differential equation for
the vector formed by its imaginary and real parts rotates around the voltage across the capacitor in an RC circuit:
the origin. Its magnitude is A, and it completes one cycle every
2π/ω seconds. θ is the angle it forms with the real axis at t =
n•2π/ω, for integer values of n. d vC (t) 1 1
+ vC (t) = vS (t)
dt RC RC
complex plane. It is sometimes convenient to refer to the When the voltage source in this circuit is sinusoidal:
entire function as a phasor,[11] as we do in the next sec-
tion. But the term phasor usually implies just the static
vector , Aeiθ . An even more compact representation of a v (t) = V · cos(ωt + θ),
S P
phasor is the angle notation: A∠θ. See also vector nota-
tion. we may substitute:

4.1.2 Phasor arithmetic vS (t) = Re{Vs · eiωt }

Multiplication by a constant (scalar) vC (t) = Re{Vc · eiωt },

Multiplication of the phasor Aeiθ eiωt by a complex con- where phasor Vs = VP eiθ , and phasor Vc is the un-
stant, Beiϕ , produces another phasor. That means its known quantity to be determined.
only effect is to change the amplitude and phase of the In the phasor shorthand notation, the differential equation
underlying sinusoid: reduces to[lower-alpha 3] :
4.1. PHASOR 101

1 1
iωVc + Vc = Vs
RC RC
Solving for the phasor capacitor voltage gives:

1 1 − iωRC
Vc = · (Vs ) = · (VP eiθ )
1 + iωRC 1 + (ωRC)2
As we have seen, the factor multiplying Vs represents dif-
ferences of the amplitude and phase of vC (t) relative to
VP and θ.
In polar coordinate form, it is:

1
√ ·e−iϕ(ω) , where ϕ(ω) = arctan(ωRC).
1 + (ωRC)2

Therefore:

1
vC (t) = √ · VP cos(ωt + θ − ϕ(ω))
1 + (ωRC)2

Addition

The sum of multiple phasors produces another phasor.

That is because the sum of sinusoids with the same fre-
quency is also a sinusoid with that frequency:

A1 cos(ωt + θ1 ) + A2 cos(ωt + θ2 ) = Re{A1 eiθ1 eiωt } + Re{A2 eiθ2 eiωt }

= Re{A1 eiθ1 eiωt + A2 eiθ2 eiωt }

The sum of phasors as addition of rotating vectors
= Re{(A1 eiθ1 + A2 eiθ2 )eiωt }

= Re{(A3 eiθ3 )eiωt }be suppressed and re-inserted into the outcome as long as
the only operations used in between are ones that produce
= A3 cos(ωt + θ3 ), another phasor. In angle notation, the operation shown
above is written:
where:

A1 ∠θ1 + A2 ∠θ2 = A3 ∠θ3 .

A23 = (A1 cos θ1 +A2 cos θ2 )2 +(A1 sin θ1 +A2 sin θ2 )2 ,
( ) Another way to view addition is that two vectors with
A1 sin θ1 + A2 sin θ2 coordinates [A1 cos(ωt + θ1 ), A1 sin(ωt + θ1 )] and [A2
θ3 = arctan
A1 cos θ1 + A2 cos θ2 cos(ωt + θ2 ), A2 sin(ωt + θ2 )] are added vectorially to
produce a resultant vector with coordinates [A3 cos(ωt +
or, via the law of cosines on the complex plane (or the
θ3 ), A3 sin(ωt + θ3 )]. (see animation)
trigonometric identity for angle differences):
In physics, this sort of addition occurs when sinusoids
interfere with each other, constructively or destructively.
◦
A3 = A1 +A2 −2A1 A2 cos(180 −∆θ), = A1 +A2 +2A1 AThe
2 2 2 2 2 static vector concept provides useful insight into
2 cos(∆θ),
questions like this: “What phase difference would be re-
where ∆θ = θ1 − θ2 . A key point is that A3 and θ3 quired between three identical sinusoids for perfect can-
do not depend on ω or t, which is what makes phasor no- cellation?" In this case, simply imagine taking three vec-
tation possible. The time and frequency dependence can tors of equal length and placing them head to tail such
102 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

Circuit laws

With phasors, the techniques for solving DC circuits can

be applied to solve AC circuits. A list of the basic laws is
given below.

• Ohm’s law for resistors: a resistor has no time de-

lays and therefore doesn't change the phase of a sig-
nal therefore V=IR remains valid.

• Ohm’s law for resistors, inductors, and capaci-

tors: V = IZ where Z is the complex impedance.

• In an AC circuit we have real power (P) which is

a representation of the average power into the cir-
cuit and reactive power (Q) which indicates power
flowing back and forward. We can also define the
Phasor diagram of three waves in perfect destructive interference
complex power S = P + jQ and the apparent power
which is the magnitude of S. The power law for
that the last head matches up with the first tail. Clearly, an AC circuit expressed in phasors is then S = VI *
the shape which satisfies these conditions is an equilat- (where I * is the complex conjugate of I, and I and V
eral triangle, so the angle between each phasor to the next are the RMS values of the voltage and current).
is 120° (2π/3 radians), or one third of a wavelength λ /3 .
So the phase difference between each wave must also be • Kirchhoff’s circuit laws work with phasors in com-
120°, as is the case in three-phase power plex form
In other words, what this shows is:
Given this we can apply the techniques of analysis of re-
sistive circuits with phasors to analyze single frequency
cos(ωt) + cos(ωt + 2π/3) + cos(ωt − 2π/3) = 0. AC circuits containing resistors, capacitors, and induc-
tors. Multiple frequency linear AC circuits and AC cir-
In the example of three waves, the phase difference be- cuits with different waveforms can be analyzed to find
tween the first and the last wave was 240 degrees, while voltages and currents by transforming all waveforms to
for two waves destructive interference happens at 180 de- sine wave components with magnitude and phase then
grees. In the limit of many waves, the phasors must form analyzing each frequency separately, as allowed by the
a circle for destructive interference, so that the first pha- superposition theorem.
sor is nearly parallel with the last. This means that for
many sources, destructive interference happens when the
first and last wave differ by 360 degrees, a full wavelength Power engineering
λ . This is why in single slit diffraction, the minima oc-
curs when light from the far edge travels a full wavelength In analysis of three phase AC power systems, usually a set
further than the light from the near edge. of phasors is defined as the three complex cube roots of
unity, graphically represented as unit magnitudes at an-
gles of 0, 120 and 240 degrees. By treating polyphase
4.1.3 Phasor diagrams AC circuit quantities as phasors, balanced circuits can be
simplified and unbalanced circuits can be treated as an
Electrical engineers, electronics engineers, electronic en- algebraic combination of symmetrical circuits. This ap-
gineering technicians and aircraft engineers all use pha- proach greatly simplifies the work required in electrical
sor diagrams to visualize complex constants and variables calculations of voltage drop, power flow, and short-circuit
(phasors). Like vectors, arrows drawn on graph paper or currents. In the context of power systems analysis, the
computer displays represent phasors. Cartesian and polar phase angle is often given in degrees, and the magnitude
representations each have advantages, with the Cartesian in rms value rather than the peak amplitude of the sinu-
coordinates showing the real and imaginary parts of the soid.
phasor and the polar coordinates showing its magnitude
The technique of synchrophasors uses digital instruments
and phase.
to measure the phasors representing transmission system
voltages at widespread points in a transmission network.
4.1.4 Applications Differences among the phasors indicate power flow and
system stability.
4.2. ELECTRIC POWER 103

4.1.5 See also [5] Kequian Zhang; Dejie Li (2007). Electromagnetic Theory
for Microwaves and Optoelectronics (2nd ed.). Springer
• In-phase and quadrature components Science & Business Media. p. 13. ISBN 978-3-540-
74296-8.
• Analytic signal
[6] J. Hindmarsh (1984). Electrical Machines & their Appli-
• Complex envelope cations (4th ed.). Elsevier. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-4832-
9492-6.
• Phase factor, a phasor of unit magnitude
[7] William J. Eccles (2011). Pragmatic Electrical Engineer-
ing: Fundamentals. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. p.
4.1.6 Footnotes 51. ISBN 978-1-60845-668-0.

[1] • i is the Imaginary unit ( i2 = −1 ). [8] Richard C. Dorf; James A. Svoboda (2010). Introduction
to Electric Circuits (8th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 661.
• In electrical engineering texts, the imaginary unit is ISBN 978-0-470-52157-1.
often symbolized by j.
• The frequency of the wave, in Hz, is given by ω/2π [9] Allan H. Robbins; Wilhelm Miller (2012). Circuit Analy-
. sis: Theory and Practice (5th ed.). Cengage Learning. p.
536. ISBN 1-285-40192-1.
[2] This results from: dt d
(eiωt ) = iωeiωt which means
that the complex exponential is the eigenfunction of the [10] Won Y. Yang; Seung C. Lee (2008). Circuit Systems with
derivative operation. MATLAB and PSpice. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 256–261.
ISBN 978-0-470-82240-1.
[3] Proof:
[11] Singh, Ravish R (2009). “Section 4.5: Phasor Rep-
resentation of Alternating Quantities”. Electrical Net-
works. Mcgraw Hill Higher Education. p. 4.13. ISBN
Since this must hold for all t , specifically: t − π
2ω
, it 0070260966.
follows that:

4.1.8 Further reading

It is also readily seen that:
{ ( )} • Douglas C. Giancoli (1989). Physics for Scientists
d Re{Vc · eiωt } d Vc · eiωt { }
and Engineers. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-666322-
= Re = Re iωVc · eiωt
dt dt 2.
{ ( )}
d Im{Vc · eiωt } d Vc · eiωt { } • Dorf, Richard C.; Tallarida, Ronald J. (1993-07-
= Im = Im iωVc · eiωt 15). Pocket Book of Electrical Engineering Formulas
dt dt
(1 ed.). Boca Raton,FL: CRC Press. pp. 152–155.
Substituting these into Eq.1 and Eq.2, multiplying Eq.2 ISBN 0849344735.
by i, and adding both equations gives:
1 1
iωVc · eiωt + Vc · eiωt = Vs · eiωt 4.1.9 External links
RC RC
( ) ( )
1 1 • Phasor Phactory
iωVc + Vc · eiωt = Vs · eiωt
RC RC
1 1 • Visual Representation of Phasors
iωVc + Vc = Vs (QED)
RC RC
• Polar and Rectangular Notation

4.1.7 References
[1] Huw Fox; William Bolton (2002). Mathematics for Engi-
4.2 Electric power
neers and Technologists. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 30.
ISBN 978-0-08-051119-1. Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which
electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The
[2] Clay Rawlins (2000). Basic AC Circuits (2nd ed.).
SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second.
Newnes. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-08-049398-5.
Electric power is usually produced by electric generators,
[3] Bracewell, Ron. The Fourier Transform and Its Applica-but can also be supplied by sources such as electric bat-
tions. McGraw-Hill, 1965. p269
teries. It is usually supplied to businesses and homes by
[4] K. S. Suresh Kumar (2008). Electric Circuits and Net- the electric power industry through an electric power grid.
works. Pearson Education India. p. 272. ISBN 978-81- Electric power is usually sold by the kilowatt hour (3.6
317-1390-7. MJ) which is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied
104 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

I is electric current in amperes

V is electric potential or voltage in volts

4.2.2 Explanation

Electric power is transmitted on overhead lines like these, and

also on underground high-voltage cables. Animation showing electric load

Electric power is transformed to other forms of energy

by running time in hours. Electric utilities measure power when electric charges move through an electric potential
using an electricity meter, which keeps a running total of (voltage) difference, which occurs in electrical compo-
the electric energy delivered to a customer. nents in electric circuits. From the standpoint of electric
Electrical power provides a low entropy form of energy power, components in an electric circuit can be divided
and can be carried long distances and converted into other into two categories:
forms of energy such as motion, light or heat with high
energy efficiency.[1] • Passive devices or loads: When electric charges
move through a potential difference from a higher
to a lower voltage, that is when conventional current
4.2.1 Definition (positive charge) moves from the positive (+) termi-
nal to the negative (−) terminal, work is done by the
Electric power, like mechanical power, is the rate of do- charges on the device. The potential energy of the
ing work, measured in watts, and represented by the letter charges due to the voltage between the terminals is
P. The term wattage is used colloquially to mean “elec- converted to kinetic energy in the device. These de-
tric power in watts.” The electric power in watts pro- vices are called passive components or loads; they
duced by an electric current I consisting of a charge of 'consume' electric power from the circuit, convert-
Q coulombs every t seconds passing through an electric ing it to other forms of energy such as mechanical
potential (voltage) difference of V is work, heat, light, etc. Examples are electrical ap-
pliances, such as light bulbs, electric motors, and
electric heaters. In alternating current (AC) circuits
VQ the direction of the voltage periodically reverses, but
P = time unit per done work = =VI
t the current always flows from the higher potential to
the lower potential side.
where

Q is electric charge in coulombs • Active devices or power sources: If the charges

t is time in seconds are moved by an 'exterior force' through the device
4.2. ELECTRIC POWER 105

Resistive circuits

In the case of resistive (Ohmic, or linear) loads, Joule’s

law can be combined with Ohm’s law (V = I·R) to produce
alternative expressions for the amount of power that is
dissipated:

V2
P = IV = I 2 R = ,
R
where R is the electrical resistance.

Alternating current

Main article: AC power

In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements

such as inductance and capacitance may result in peri-
odic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The por-
tion of power flow that, averaged over a complete cycle
Animation showing power source of the AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in
one direction is known as real power (also referred to as
active power). That portion of power flow due to stored
in the direction from the lower electric potential to energy, that returns to the source in each cycle, is known
the higher, (so positive charge moves from the neg- as reactive power. The real power P in watts consumed
ative to the positive terminal), work will be done on by a device is given by
the charges, and energy is being converted to elec-
tric potential energy from some other type of en- 1
ergy, such as mechanical energy or chemical energy. P = Vp Ip cos θ = Vrms Irms cos θ
2
Devices in which this occurs are called active de-
vices or power sources; such as electric generators where
and batteries.
V is the peak voltage in volts
I is the peak current in amperes
Some devices can be either a source or a load, depending Vᵣ is the root-mean-square voltage in volts
on the voltage and current through them. For example,
Iᵣ is the root-mean-square current in amperes
a rechargeable battery acts as a source when it provides
power to a circuit, but as a load when it is connected to a θ is the phase angle between the current and
battery charger and is being recharged. voltage sine waves

Passive sign convention

Main article: Passive sign convention

Since electric power can flow either into or out of a com-

ponent, a convention is needed for which direction repre-
sents positive power flow. Electric power flowing out of Power triangle: The components of AC power
a circuit into a component is arbitrarily defined to have
a positive sign, while power flowing into a circuit from a The relationship between real power, reactive power and
component is defined to have a negative sign. Thus pas- apparent power can be expressed by representing the
sive components have positive power consumption, while quantities as vectors. Real power is represented as a hori-
power sources have negative power consumption. This is zontal vector and reactive power is represented as a verti-
called the passive sign convention. cal vector. The apparent power vector is the hypotenuse
106 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

of a right triangle formed by connecting the real and re- Electricity is mostly generated at a power station by elec-
active power vectors. This representation is often called tromechanical generators, driven by heat engines heated
the power triangle. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the by combustion, geothermal power or nuclear fission.
relationship among real, reactive and apparent power is: Other generators are driven by the kinetic energy of flow-
ing water and wind. There are many other technologies
that are used to generate electricity such as photovoltaic
(apparent power)2 = (real power)2 + (reactive power)2 solar panels.
A battery is a device consisting of one or more
Real and reactive powers can also be calculated directly electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy
from the apparent power, when the current and voltage into electrical energy.[2] Since the invention of the first
are both sinusoids with a known phase angle θ between battery (or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta
them: and especially since the technically improved Daniell cell
in 1836, batteries have become a common power source
for many household and industrial applications. Accord-
(real power) = (apparent power) cos θ ing to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery indus-
try generates US$48 billion in sales each year,[3] with
(reactive power) = (apparent power) sin θ 6% annual growth. There are two types of batteries:
primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are de-
The ratio of real power to apparent power is called power signed to be used once and discarded, and secondary bat-
factor and is a number always between 0 and 1. Where the teries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be
currents and voltages have non-sinusoidal forms, power recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in
factor is generalized to include the effects of distortion many sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing
aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms
that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and
Electromagnetic fields
computer data centers.
Electrical energy flows wherever electric and magnetic
fields exist together and fluctuate in the same place. The 4.2.4 Electric power industry
simplest example of this is in electrical circuits, as the
preceding section showed. In the general case, however, Main article: electric power industry
the simple equation P = IV must be replaced by a more
complex calculation, the integral of the cross-product of
the electrical and magnetic field vectors over a specified The electric power industry provides the production and
area, thus: delivery of power, in sufficient quantities to areas that
need electricity, through a grid connection. The grid dis-
tributes electrical energy to customers. Electric power is
∫ generated by central power stations or by distributed gen-
P = (E × H) · dA. eration.
S

The result is a scalar since it is the surface integral of the

Poynting vector. 4.2.5 Use
Many households and businesses need access to electric
4.2.3 Generation power, especially in developed nations, the demand being
scarcer in developing nations. Demand for electricity is
Main article: electricity generation derived from the requirement for electricity in order to
operate domestic appliances, office equipment, industrial
machinery and provide sufficient energy for both domes-
The fundamental principles of much electricity genera- tic and commercial lighting, heating, cooking and indus-
tion were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by trial processes. Because of this aspect the industry is
the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is viewed as part of the public utility infrastructure.
still used today: electricity is generated by the movement
of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of
a magnet. 4.2.6 See also
For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery
of electricity to consumers. The other processes, electric- • Electric power system
ity transmission, distribution, and electrical power stor- • Power engineering
age and recovery using pumped-storage methods are nor-
mally carried out by the electric power industry. • EGRID
4.3. RLC CIRCUIT 107

• Electric energy consumption The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for current, and
resonates in a similar way as an LC circuit. Introduc-
• High voltage cable ing the resistor increases the decay of these oscillations,
which is also known as damping. The resistor also re-
• Rural electrification duces the peak resonant frequency. Some resistance is
unavoidable in real circuits even if a resistor is not specif-
ically included as a component. An ideal, pure LC circuit
4.2.7 Notes exists only in the domain of superconductivity.
[1] Smith, Clare (2001). Environmental physics. London, RLC circuits have many applications as oscillator circuits.
United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-20191-8. Radio receivers and television sets use them for tuning
to select a narrow frequency range from ambient radio
[2] “battery” (def. 4b), Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary waves. In this role the circuit is often referred to as a
(2009). Retrieved 25 May 2009. tuned circuit. An RLC circuit can be used as a band-
[3] Power Shift: DFJ on the lookout for more power source
pass filter, band-stop filter, low-pass filter or high-pass
investments. Draper Fisher Jurvetson. Retrieved 20 filter. The tuning application, for instance, is an exam-
November 2005. ple of band-pass filtering. The RLC filter is described as
a second-order circuit, meaning that any voltage or cur-
rent in the circuit can be described by a second-order
4.2.8 References differential equation in circuit analysis.
The three circuit elements, R, L and C, can be combined
• Reports on August 2003 Blackout, North American in a number of different topologies. All three elements in
Electric Reliability Council website series or all three elements in parallel are the simplest in
concept and the most straightforward to analyse. There
• Croft, Terrell; Summers, Wilford I. (1987). Amer- are, however, other arrangements, some with practical
ican Electricians’ Handbook (Eleventh ed.). New importance in real circuits. One issue often encountered
York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-013932-6. is the need to take into account inductor resistance. In-
• Fink, Donald G.; Beaty, H. Wayne (1978). Standard ductors are typically constructed from coils of wire, the
Handbook for Electrical Engineers (Eleventh ed.). resistance of which is not usually desirable, but it often
New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-020974-X. has a significant effect on the circuit.

4.2.9 External links

• U.S. Department of Energy: Electric Power

• GlobTek, Inc. Glossary of Electric power Power

Supply Terms

4.3 RLC circuit

Animation illustrating the operation of an LC circuit, an RLC

circuit with no resistance. Charge flows back and forth between
A series RLC circuit: a resistor, inductor, and a capacitor the capacitor plates through the inductance. The energy oscillates
back and forth between the capacitor’s electric field (E) and the
An RLC circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a inductor’s magnetic field (B). RLC circuits operate similarly, ex-
resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor (C), con- cept that the oscillating currents decay with time to zero due to the
nected in series or in parallel. The name of the circuit is resistance in the circuit.
derived from the letters that are used to denote the con-
stituent components of this circuit, where the sequence
of the components may vary from RLC.
108 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

4.3.1 Basic concepts will usually be quite close to each other. Various terms
are used by different authors to distinguish the two, but
Resonance resonance frequency unqualified usually means the driven
resonance frequency. The driven frequency may be called
An important property of this circuit is its ability to res- the undamped resonance frequency or undamped natu-
onate at a specific frequency, the resonance frequency, ral frequency and the peak frequency may be called the
f 0 . Frequencies are measured in units of hertz. In this damped resonance frequency or the damped natural fre-
article, however, angular frequency, ω0 , is used which quency. The reason for this terminology is that the driven
is more mathematically convenient. This is measured in resonance frequency in a series or parallel resonant circuit
radians per second. They are related to each other by a has the value[1]
simple proportion,

1
ω0 = √ .
ω0 = 2πf0 . LC
This is exactly the same as the resonance frequency of an
Resonance occurs because energy is stored in two differ- LC circuit, that is, one with no resistor present. The reso-
ent ways: in an electric field as the capacitor is charged nant frequency for an RLC circuit is the same as a circuit
and in a magnetic field as current flows through the in- in which there is no damping, hence undamped resonance
ductor. Energy can be transferred from one to the other frequency. The peak resonance frequency, on the other
within the circuit and this can be oscillatory. A mechan- hand, depends on the value of the resistor and is described
ical analogy is a weight suspended on a spring which will as the damped resonant frequency. A highly damped cir-
oscillate up and down when released. This is no passing cuit will fail to resonate at all when not driven. A circuit
metaphor; a weight on a spring is described by exactly with a value of resistor that causes it to be just on the
the same second order differential equation as an RLC edge of ringing is called critically damped. Either side of
circuit and for all the properties of the one system there critically damped are described as underdamped (ringing
will be found an analogous property of the other. The happens) and overdamped (ringing is suppressed).
mechanical property answering to the resistor in the cir-
cuit is friction in the spring–weight system. Friction will Circuits with topologies more complex than straightfor-
slowly bring any oscillation to a halt if there is no external ward series or parallel (some examples described later in
force driving it. Likewise, the resistance in an RLC cir- the article) have a driven resonance frequency that de-
cuit will “damp” the oscillation, diminishing it with time viates from ω0 = 1/√LC, and for those the undamped
if there is no driving AC power source in the circuit. resonance frequency, damped resonance frequency and
driven resonance frequency can all be different.
The resonance frequency is defined as the frequency at
which the impedance of the circuit is at a minimum.
Equivalently, it can be defined as the frequency at which Damping
the impedance is purely real (that is, purely resistive).
This occurs because the impedances of the inductor and Damping is caused by the resistance in the circuit. It de-
capacitor at resonance are equal but of opposite sign and termines whether or not the circuit will resonate naturally
cancel out. Circuits where L and C are in parallel rather (that is, without a driving source). Circuits which will
than series actually have a maximum impedance rather resonate in this way are described as underdamped and
than a minimum impedance. For this reason they are of- those that will not are overdamped. Damping attenua-
ten described as antiresonators, it is still usual, however, tion (symbol α) is measured in nepers per second. How-
to name the frequency at which this occurs as the reso- ever, the unitless damping factor (symbol ζ, zeta) is often
nance frequency. a more useful measure, which is related to α by

Natural frequency α
ζ= .
ω0
The resonance frequency is defined in terms of the The special case of ζ = 1 is called critical damping and
impedance presented to a driving source. It is still pos- represents the case of a circuit that is just on the border
sible for the circuit to carry on oscillating (for a time) of oscillation. It is the minimum damping that can be
after the driving source has been removed or it is sub- applied without causing oscillation.
jected to a step in voltage (including a step down to zero).
This is similar to the way that a tuning fork will carry on
ringing after it has been struck, and the effect is often Bandwidth
called ringing. This effect is the peak natural resonance
frequency of the circuit and in general is not exactly the The resonance effect can be used for filtering, the rapid
same as the driven resonance frequency, although the two change in impedance near resonance can be used to pass
4.3. RLC CIRCUIT 109

or block signals close to the resonance frequency. Both Scaled parameters

band-pass and band-stop filters can be constructed and
some filter circuits are shown later in the article. A key The parameters ζ, F , and Q are all scaled to ω0 . This
parameter in filter design is bandwidth. The bandwidth is means that circuits which have similar parameters share
measured between the 3 dB points, that is, the frequencies similar characteristics regardless of whether or not they
at which the power passed through the circuit has fallen are operating in the same frequency band.
to half the value passed at resonance. There are two of The article next gives the analysis for the series RLC cir-
these half-power frequencies, one above, and one below cuit in detail. Other configurations are not described in
the resonance frequency such detail, but the key differences from the series case
are given. The general form of the differential equations
given in the series circuit section are applicable to all sec-
∆ω = ω2 − ω1 , ond order circuits and can be used to describe the voltage
or current in any element of each circuit.
where Δω is the bandwidth, ω1 is the lower half-power
frequency and ω2 is the upper half-power frequency. The
bandwidth is related to attenuation by 4.3.2 Series RLC circuit

∆ω = 2α ,

where the units are radians per second and nepers per
second respectively. Other units may require a conver-
sion factor. A more general measure of bandwidth is the
fractional bandwidth, which expresses the bandwidth as
a fraction of the resonance frequency and is given by

∆ω
Fb = .
ω0
The fractional bandwidth is also often stated as a percent-
age. The damping of filter circuits is adjusted to result in
the required bandwidth. A narrow band filter, such as
a notch filter, requires low damping. A wide band filter
requires high damping.

Q factor

The Q factor is a widespread measure used to charac-

terise resonators. It is defined as the peak energy stored
in the circuit divided by the average energy dissipated in
it per radian at resonance. Low-Q circuits are therefore
damped and lossy and high-Q circuits are underdamped.
Q is related to bandwidth; low-Q circuits are wide-band Figure 1: RLC series circuit
and high-Q circuits are narrow-band. In fact, it happens
that Q is the inverse of fractional bandwidth • V, the voltage source powering the circuit
• I, the current admitted through the circuit
1 ω0 • R, the effective resistance of the combined load, source, and
Q= = . components
Fb ∆ω
• L, the inductance of the inductor component
Q factor is directly proportional to selectivity, as the Q
factor depends inversely on bandwidth. • C, the capacitance of the capacitor component

For a series resonant circuit, the Q factor can be calcu-

lated as follows:[2] In this circuit, the three components are all in series with
the voltage source. The governing differential equation
√ can be found by substituting into Kirchhoff’s voltage law
1 ω0 L 1 L (KVL) the constitutive equation for each of the three el-
Q= = = . ements. From the KVL,
ω0 RC R R C
110 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

600

VR + VL + VC = V (t) ,
400
where VR, VL and VC are the voltages across R, L and
C respectively and V(t) is the time varying voltage from
the source. Substituting in the constitutive equations, 200

∫ t 0
dI 1
RI(t) + L + I(τ ) dτ = V (t) .
dt C −∞
-200
For the case where the source is an unchanging voltage, 0 4 8 12 16
differentiating and dividing by L leads to the second order time (seconds)
differential equation:
Plot showing underdamped and overdamped responses of a se-
ries RLC circuit. The critical damping plot is the bold red curve.
d2 R d 1 The plots are normalised for L = 1, C = 1 and ω0 = 1.
I(t) + I(t) + I(t) = 0 .
dt2 L dt LC
This can usefully be expressed in a more generally appli- Transient response
cable form:
The differential equation for the circuit solves in three
different ways depending on the value of ζ. These are
d2 d 2 underdamped (ζ < 1), overdamped (ζ > 1) and criti-
I(t) + 2α I(t) + ω0 I(t) = 0 .
dt2 dt cally damped (ζ = 1). The differential equation has the
characteristic equation,[7]
α and ω0 are both in units of angular frequency. α is
called the neper frequency, or attenuation, and is a mea-
sure of how fast the transient response of the circuit will 2 2
die away after the stimulus has been removed. Neper oc- s + 2αs + ω0 = 0 .
curs in the name because the units can also be considered
The roots of the equation in s are,[7]
to be nepers per second, neper being a unit of attenuation.
ω0 is the angular resonance frequency.[3]
√
For the case of the series RLC circuit these two parame-
s 1 = −α + α2 − ω02
ters are given by:[4] √
s2 = −α − α2 − ω02 .
R The general solution of the differential equation is an ex-
α=
2L ponential in either root or a linear superposition of both,
1
ω0 = √ .
LC
s1 t s2 t
A useful parameter is the damping factor, ζ, which is de- I(t) = A1 e + A2 e .
fined as the ratio of these two; although, sometimes α is
The coefficients A1 and A2 are determined by the
referred to as the damping factor and ζ is not used.[5]
boundary conditions of the specific problem being anal-
ysed. That is, they are set by the values of the currents
α and voltages in the circuit at the onset of the transient and
ζ= . the presumed value they will settle to after infinite time.[8]
ω0
In the case of the series RLC circuit, the damping factor
is given by Overdamped response The overdamped response (ζ
> 1) is[9]

√
R C ( √ ) ( √ )
ζ= . −ω0 ζ+ ζ 2 −1 t −ω0 ζ− ζ 2 −1 t
2 L I(t) = A1 e + A2 e .

The value of the damping factor determines the type of The overdamped response is a decay of the transient cur-
transient that the circuit will exhibit.[6] rent without oscillation.[10]
4.3. RLC CIRCUIT 111

Underdamped response The underdamped response where I(s) is the Laplace-transformed current through all
(ζ < 1) is[11] components. Solving for I(s):

1
I(t) = B1 e−αt cos(ωd t) + B2 e−αt sin(ωd t) . I(s) = 1 V (s) .
R + Ls + Cs
By applying standard trigonometric identities the two And rearranging, we have
trigonometric functions may be expressed as a single si-
nusoid with phase shift,[12]
s
I(s) = ( 2 R 1
) V (s) .
L s + L s + LC
I(t) = B3 e−αt sin(ωd t + φ) .
Laplace admittance Solving for the Laplace
The underdamped response is a decaying oscillation at
admittance Y(s):
frequency ω . The oscillation decays at a rate determined
by the attenuation α. The exponential in α describes the
envelope of the oscillation. B1 and B2 (or B3 and the I(s) s
Y (s) = = ( 2 R ).
phase shift φ in the second form) are arbitrary constants V (s) L s + L s + LC 1
determined by boundary conditions. The frequency ω is
given by[11] Simplifying using parameters α and ω0 defined in the pre-
vious section, we have
√ √
ωd = ω02 − α2 = ω0 1 − ζ2 . I(s) s
Y (s) = = .
V (s) L (s + 2αs + ω02 )
2
This is called the damped resonance frequency or the
damped natural frequency. It is the frequency the cir-
cuit will naturally oscillate at if not driven by an external Poles and zeros The zeros of Y(s) are those values of
source. The resonance frequency, ω0 , which is the fre- s such that Y(s) = 0:
quency at which the circuit will resonate when driven by
an external oscillation, may often be referred to as the
s = 0 and |s| → ∞ .
undamped resonance frequency to distinguish it.[13]
The poles of Y(s) are those values of s such that Y(s) →
∞. By the quadratic formula, we find
Critically damped response The critically damped
response (ζ = 1) is[14] √
s = −α ± α2 − ω02 .

I(t) = D1 te−αt + D2 e−αt . The poles of Y(s) are identical to the roots s1 and s2 of
the characteristic polynomial of the differential equation
The critically damped response represents the circuit re- in the section above.
sponse that decays in the fastest possible time without
going into oscillation. This consideration is important
in control systems where it is required to reach the de- General solution For an arbitrary V(t), the solution
sired state as quickly as possible without overshooting. obtained by inverse transform of I(s) is:
D1 and D2 are arbitrary constants determined by bound-
ary conditions.[15] • In the underdamped case, ω0 > α:
∫ ( )
1 t −ατ α
I(t) = V (t−τ )e cos ωd τ − sin ωd τ dτ ,
L 0 ωd
Laplace domain
• In the critically damped case, ω0 = α:
The series RLC can be analyzed for both transient and ∫
steady AC state behavior using the Laplace transform.[16] 1 t
I(t) = V (t − τ )e−ατ (1 − ατ ) dτ ,
If the voltage source above produces a waveform with L 0
Laplace-transformed V(s) (where s is the complex fre- • In the overdamped case, ω0 < α:
quency s = σ + jω), the KVL can be applied in the Laplace ∫ ( )
domain: 1 t −ατ α
I(t) = V (t−τ )e cosh ωr τ − sinh ωr τ dτ ,
L 0 ωr
( )
1 where ωᵣ = √α2 − ω0 2 , and cosh and sinh are the usual
V (s) = I(s) R + Ls + , hyperbolic functions.
Cs
112 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

Sinusoidal steady state Sinusoidal steady state is rep- Likewise, the other scaled parameters, fractional band-
resented by letting s = jω, where j is the imaginary unit. width and Q are also reciprocals of each other. This
Taking the magnitude of the above equation with this sub- means that a wide-band, low-Q circuit in one topology
stitution: will become a narrow-band, high-Q circuit in the other
topology when constructed from components with identi-
cal values. The fractional bandwidth and Q of the parallel
  1
Y (jω) = √ . circuit are given by
( )
1 2
R2 + ωL − ωC

and the current as a function of ω can be found from √

1 L
Fb =
R C
      √
I(jω) = Y (jω) · V (jω) . C
Q=R .
L
There is a peak value of | I(jω) |. The value of ω at this
peak is, in this particular case, equal to the undamped Notice that the formulas here are the reciprocals of the
natural resonance frequency:[17] formulas for the series circuit, given above.

1
ω0 = √ .
LC Frequency domain

4.3.3 Parallel RLC circuit

20
amps

10

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
rad/s

Figure 3. Sinusoidal steady-state analysis. Normalised to R = 1

Figure 2. RLC parallel circuit
Ω, C = 1 F, L = 1 H, and V = 1 V.
V – the voltage source powering the circuit
I – the current admitted through the circuit
R – the equivalent resistance of the combined source, load, and The complex admittance of this circuit is given by adding
components up the admittances of the components:
L – the inductance of the inductor component
C – the capacitance of the capacitor component

1 1 1 1
The properties of the parallel RLC circuit can be obtained = + +
from the duality relationship of electrical circuits and Z Z L Z C Z R

considering that the parallel RLC is the dual impedance 1 1

= + jωC + .
of a series RLC. Considering this, it becomes clear that jωL R
the differential equations describing this circuit are iden-
tical to the general form of those describing a series RLC. The change from a series arrangement to a parallel
arrangement results in the circuit having a peak in
For the parallel circuit, the attenuation α is given by[18] impedance at resonance rather than a minimum, so the
circuit is an antiresonator.
1 The graph opposite shows that there is a minimum in the
α=
2RC frequency response of the current at the resonance fre-
and the damping factor is consequently quency ω0 = 1/√LC when the circuit is driven by a con-
stant voltage. On the other hand, if driven by a constant
current, there would be a maximum in the voltage which
√
1 L would follow the same curve as the current in the series
ζ= . circuit.
2R C
4.3. RLC CIRCUIT 113

This is the resonant frequency of the circuit defined as

the frequency at which the admittance has zero imaginary
part. The frequency that appears in the generalised form
of the characteristic equation (which is the same for this
circuit as previously)

s2 + 2αs + ω0′ = 0
2

is not the same frequency. In this case it is the natural

undamped resonant frequency:[20]

√
1
ω0′ = .
LC
The frequency ω at which the impedance magnitude is
maximum is given by[21]

v √
u
u 1 2
′t
Figure 4. RLC parallel circuit with resistance in series with the ωm = ω0 − 2 + 1 + 2 ,
inductor
QL QL

where QL = ω′ 0 L/R is the quality factor of the coil. This

can be well approximated by[21]

√
1
ωm ≈ ω0′ 1− .
2Q4L
Furthermore, the exact maximum impedance magnitude
is given by[21]

√
1
|Z|max = RQ2L √ .
2QL QL + 2 − 2Q2L − 1
2

For values of QL greater than unity, this can be well ap-

proximated by[21]

|Z|max ≈ RQ2L .
In the same vein, a resistor in parallel with the capacitor
Figure 5. RLC series circuit with resistance in parallel with the
in a series LC circuit can be used to represent a capaci-
capacitor tor with a lossy dielectric. This configuration is shown in
Figure 5. The resonant frequency (frequency at which the
impedance has zero imaginary part) in this case is given
4.3.4 Other configurations by[22]

A series resistor with the inductor in a parallel LC circuit √

as shown in Figure 4 is a topology commonly encountered ω = 1 1
0 − ,
where there is a need to take into account the resistance LC (RC)2
of the coil winding. Parallel LC circuits are frequently
while the frequency ω at which the impedance magni-
used for bandpass filtering and the Q is largely governed
tude is maximum is given by
by this resistance. The resonant frequency of this circuit
[19]
is
v √
u
u 1 2
′t
√ ωm = ω0 − 2 + 1 + 2 ,
( )2 QC QC
1 R
ω0 = − .
LC L where QC = ω′ 0 RC.
114 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

4.3.5 History 4.3.6 Applications

The first evidence that a capacitor could produce elec- Variable tuned circuits
trical oscillations was discovered in 1826 by French sci-
entist Felix Savary.[23][24] He found that when a Leyden A very frequent use of these circuits is in the tuning cir-
jar was discharged through a wire wound around an iron cuits of analogue radios. Adjustable tuning is commonly
needle, sometimes the needle was left magnetized in one achieved with a parallel plate variable capacitor which al-
direction and sometimes in the opposite direction. He lows the value of C to be changed and tune to stations on
correctly deduced that this was caused by a damped os- different frequencies. For the IF stage in the radio where
cillating discharge current in the wire, which reversed thethe tuning is preset in the factory the more usual solu-
magnetization of the needle back and forth until it was tootion is an adjustable core in the inductor to adjust L. In
small to have an effect, leaving the needle magnetized in this design the core (made of a high permeability material
a random direction. that has the effect of increasing inductance) is threaded
so that it can be screwed further in, or screwed further out
American physicist Joseph Henry repeated Savary’s ex- of the inductor winding as required.
periment in 1842 and came to the same conclusion, ap-
parently independently.[25][26] British scientist William
Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1853 showed mathemati-
Filters
cally that the discharge of a Leyden jar through an in-
ductance should be oscillatory, and derived its resonant
In the filtering application, the resistor becomes the load
frequency.[23][25][26]
that the filter is working into. The value of the damping
British radio researcher Oliver Lodge, by discharging factor is chosen based on the desired bandwidth of the fil-
a large battery of Leyden jars through a long wire, ter. For a wider bandwidth, a larger value of the damping
created a tuned circuit with its resonant frequency in factor is required (and vice versa). The three components
the audio range, which produced a musical tone from give the designer three degrees of freedom. Two of these
the spark when it was discharged.[25] In 1857 Ger- are required to set the bandwidth and resonant frequency.
man physicist Berend Wilhelm Feddersen photographed The designer is still left with one which can be used to
the spark produced by a resonant Leyden jar circuit scale R, L and C to convenient practical values. Alterna-
in a rotating mirror, providing visible evidence of the tively, R may be predetermined by the external circuitry
oscillations.[23][25][26] In 1868 Scottish physicist James which will use the last degree of freedom.
Clerk Maxwell calculated the effect of applying an al-
ternating current to a circuit with inductance and capaci-
tance, showing that the response is maximum at the res- Low-pass filter An RLC circuit can be used as a low-
onant frequency.[23] pass filter. The circuit configuration is shown in Figure 6.
The first example of an electrical resonance curve was The corner frequency, that is, the frequency of the 3 dB
published in 1887 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz point, is given by
in his pioneering paper on the discovery of radio waves,
showing the length of spark obtainable from his spark-gap
LC resonator detectors as a function of frequency.[23] 1
ωc = √ .
One of the first demonstrations of resonance between LC
tuned circuits was Lodge’s “syntonic jars” experiment
around 1889[23][25] He placed two resonant circuits next This is also the[27]
bandwidth of the filter. The damping fac-
to each other, each consisting of a Leyden jar con- tor is given by
nected to an adjustable one-turn coil with a spark gap.
When a high voltage from an induction coil was applied √
to one tuned circuit, creating sparks and thus oscillat- 1 L
ing currents, sparks were excited in the other tuned cir- ζ = 2RL C .
cuit only when the inductors were adjusted to resonance.
Lodge and some English scientists preferred the term
"syntony" for this effect, but the term "resonance" even- High-pass filter A high-pass filter is shown in Figure
tually stuck.[23] 7. The corner frequency is the same as the low-pass filter:
The first practical use for RLC circuits was in the 1890s
in spark-gap radio transmitters to allow the receiver to
be tuned to the transmitter. The first patent for a radio ω = √ 1 .
c
system that allowed tuning was filed by Lodge in 1897, LC
although the first practical systems were invented in 1900
by Anglo Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi.[23] The filter has a stop-band of this width.[28]
4.3. RLC CIRCUIT 115

Band-pass filter A band-pass filter can be formed with Voltage multiplier

an RLC circuit by either placing a series LC circuit in se-
ries with the load resistor or else by placing a parallel LC In a series RLC circuit at resonance, the current is limited
circuit in parallel with the load resistor. These arrange- only by the resistance of the circuit
ments are shown in Figures 8 and 9 respectively. The
centre frequency is given by
V
I= .
R
1
ωc = √ ,
LC If R is small, consisting only of the inductor winding re-
[29] sistance say, then this current will be large. It will drop a
and the bandwidth for the series circuit is
voltage across the inductor of

RL
∆ω = . V
L VL = ω0 L .
The shunt version of the circuit is intended to be driven R
by a high impedance source, that is, a constant current An equal magnitude voltage will also be seen across the
source. Under those conditions the bandwidth is[29] capacitor but in antiphase to the inductor. If R can be
made sufficiently small, these voltages can be several
1 times the input voltage. The voltage ratio is, in fact, the
∆ω = . Q of the circuit,
CRL

Band-stop filter Figure 10 shows a band-stop filter VL

formed by a series LC circuit in shunt across the load. = Q.
V
Figure 11 is a band-stop filter formed by a parallel LC cir-
cuit in series with the load. The first case requires a high A similar effect is observed with currents in the par-
impedance source so that the current is diverted into the allel circuit. Even though the circuit appears as high
resonator when it becomes low impedance at resonance. impedance to the external source, there is a large current
The second case requires a low impedance source so that circulating in the internal loop of the parallel inductor and
the voltage is dropped across the antiresonator when it capacitor.
becomes high impedance at resonance.[30]
Pulse discharge circuit
Oscillators
An overdamped series RLC circuit can be used as a pulse
For applications in oscillator circuits, it is generally desir- discharge circuit. Often it is useful to know the values
able to make the attenuation (or equivalently, the damp- of components that could be used to produce a waveform
ing factor) as small as possible. In practice, this objec- this is described by the form
tive requires making the circuit’s resistance R as small as
physically possible for a series circuit, or alternatively in-
( )
creasing R to as much as possible for a parallel circuit. I(t) = I0 e−αt − e−βt .
In either case, the RLC circuit becomes a good approx-
imation to an ideal LC circuit. However, for very low- Such a circuit could consist of an energy storage capaci-
attenuation circuits (high Q-factor), issues such as dielec- tor, a load in the form of a resistance, some circuit induc-
tric losses of coils and capacitors can become important. tance and a switch – all in series. The initial conditions
In an oscillator circuit are that the capacitor is at voltage, V 0 , and there is no
current flowing in the inductor. If the inductance L is
known, then the remaining parameters are given by the
α ≪ ω0 , following – capacitance:

or equivalently
1
C= ,
Lαβ
ζ ≪ 1.
As a result, resistance (total of circuit and load):

ωd ≈ ω0 . R = L(α + β) ,
116 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

initial terminal voltage of capacitor: [14] Nilsson and Riedel, p. 303.

[15] Irwin, p. 220.

( )
1 1 [16] This section is based on Example 4.2.13 from Debnath,
V0 = −I0 Lαβ − .
β α Lokenath; Bhatta, Dambaru (2007). Integral Transforms
and Their Applications (2nd ed.). Chapman & Hall/CRC.
Rearranging for the case where R is known – capacitance: p. 198–202. ISBN 1-58488-575-0. (Some notations have
been changed to fit the rest of this article.)

[17] Kumar and Kumar, Electric Circuits & Networks, p. 464.

α+β
C= ,
Rαβ [18] Nilsson and Riedel, p. 286.

inductance (total of circuit and load): [19] Kaiser, pp. 5.26–5.27.

[20] Agarwal and Lang, p. 805.

R [21] Cartwright, K. V.; Joseph, E.; Kaminsky, E. J. (2010).

L= , “Finding the exact maximum impedance resonant fre-
α+β
quency of a practical parallel resonant circuit without
initial terminal voltage of capacitor: calculus” (PDF). The Technology Interface International
Journal. 11 (1): 26–34.

( ) [22] Kaiser, pp. 5.25–5.26.

−I0 Rαβ 1 1
V0 = − . [23] Blanchard, Julian (October 1941). “The History of
α+β β α
Electrical Resonance”. Bell System Technical Jour-
nal. USA: AT&T. 20 (4): 415. doi:10.1002/j.1538-
4.3.7 See also 7305.1941.tb03608.x. Retrieved 2013-02-25.

[24] Savary, Felix (1827). “Memoirs sur l'Aimentation”. An-

• RC circuit
nales de Chimie et de Physique. Paris: Masson. 34: 5–37.
• LC circuit [25] Kimball, Arthur Lalanne (1917). A College Text-book of
Physics (2nd ed.). New York: Henry Hold. pp. 516–517.
• RL circuit
[26] Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). The Worldwide History of
• Electronic oscillator Telecommunications. USA: Wiley-IEEE. pp. 199–200.
ISBN 0-471-20505-2.
• Linear circuit
[27] Kaiser, pp. 7.14–7.16.

4.3.8 References [28] Kaiser, p. 7.21.

[29] Kaiser, pp. 7.21–7.27.

[1] Kaiser, pp. 7.71–7.72.
[30] Kaiser, pp. 7.30–7.34.
[2] “Resonant Circuits” (PDF). Ece.ucsb.edu. Retrieved
2016-10-21.

[3] Nilsson and Riedel, p. 308. 4.3.9 Bibliography

[4] Agarwal and Lang, p. 641. • Agarwal, Anant; Lang, Jeffrey H. (2005). Founda-
tions of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits. Mor-
[5] Agarwal and Lang, p. 646. gan Kaufmann. ISBN 1-55860-735-8.
[6] Irwin, pp. 217–220. • Humar, J. L. (2002). Dynamics of Structures. Taylor
[7] Agarwal and Lang, p. 656. & Francis. ISBN 90-5809-245-3.

[8] Nilsson and Riedel, pp. 287–288. • Irwin, J. David (2006). Basic Engineering Circuit
Analysis. Wiley. ISBN 7-302-13021-3.
[9] Irwin, p. 532.
• Kaiser, Kenneth L. (2004). Electromagnetic Com-
[10] Agarwal and Lang, p. 648. patibility Handbook. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-
[11] Nilsson and Riedel, p. 295.
2087-9.

[12] Humar, pp. 223–224.

• Nilsson, James William; Riedel, Susan A. (2008).
Electric Circuits. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-198925-
[13] Agarwal and Lang, p. 692. 1.
4.4. LOW-PASS FILTER 117

4.4 Low-pass filter Electronic low-pass filters are used on inputs to

subwoofers and other types of loudspeakers, to block high
A low-pass filter is a filter that passes signals with pitches that they can't efficiently reproduce. Radio trans-
a frequency lower than a certain cutoff frequency and mitters use low-pass filters to block harmonic emissions
attenuates signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff that might interfere with other communications. The tone
frequency. The exact frequency response of the filter de- knob on many electric guitars is a low-pass filter used to
pends on the filter design. The filter is sometimes called a reduce the amount of treble in the sound. An integrator
high-cut filter, or treble cut filter in audio applications. is another time constant low-pass filter.[1]
A low-pass filter is the complement of a high-pass filter. Telephone lines fitted with DSL splitters use low-pass and
Low-pass filters exist in many different forms, including high-pass filters to separate DSL and POTS signals shar-
[2][3]
electronic circuits such as a hiss filter used in audio, anti- ing the same pair of wires.
aliasing filters for conditioning signals prior to analog- Low-pass filters also play a significant role in the sculpt-
to-digital conversion, digital filters for smoothing sets of ing of sound created by analogue and virtual analogue
data, acoustic barriers, blurring of images, and so on. The synthesisers. See subtractive synthesis.
moving average operation used in fields such as finance
is a particular kind of low-pass filter, and can be ana-
lyzed with the same signal processing techniques as are 4.4.2 Ideal and real filters
used for other low-pass filters. Low-pass filters provide a
smoother form of a signal, removing the short-term fluc- sin(πx)
πx
tuations, and leaving the longer-term trend.
1.0
Filter designers will often use the low-pass form as a
0.8
prototype filter. That is, a filter with unity bandwidth and
impedance. The desired filter is obtained from the proto- 0.6
type by scaling for the desired bandwidth and impedance
0.4
and transforming into the desired bandform (that is low-
pass, high-pass, band-pass or band-stop). 0.2

x
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
4.4.1 Examples -0.2

Examples of low-pass filters occur in acoustics, optics and

electronics. The sinc function, the impulse response of an ideal low-pass fil-
ter.

Acoustics An ideal low-pass filter completely eliminates all frequen-

cies above the cutoff frequency while passing those be-
A stiff physical barrier tends to reflect higher sound fre- low unchanged; its frequency response is a rectangular
quencies, and so acts as a low-pass filter for transmitting function and is a brick-wall filter. The transition region
sound. When music is playing in another room, the low present in practical filters does not exist in an ideal fil-
notes are easily heard, while the high notes are attenuated. ter. An ideal low-pass filter can be realized mathemati-
cally (theoretically) by multiplying a signal by the rectan-
Optics gular function in the frequency domain or, equivalently,
convolution with its impulse response, a sinc function, in
An optical filter with the same function can correctly be the time domain.
called a low-pass filter, but conventionally is called a long- However, the ideal filter is impossible to realize without
pass filter (low frequency is long wavelength), to avoid also having signals of infinite extent in time, and so gen-
confusion. erally needs to be approximated for real ongoing signals,
because the sinc function’s support region extends to all
past and future times. The filter would therefore need to
Electronics
have infinite delay, or knowledge of the infinite future and
In an electronic low-pass RC filter for voltage signals, past, in order to perform the convolution. It is effectively
high frequencies in the input signal are attenuated, but realizable for pre-recorded digital signals by assuming ex-
the filter has little attenuation below the cutoff frequency tensions of zero into the past and future, or more typically
determined by its RC time constant. For current signals, by making the signal repetitive and using Fourier analysis.
a similar circuit, using a resistor and capacitor in parallel, Real filters for real-time applications approximate the
works in a similar manner. (See current divider discussed ideal filter by truncating and windowing the infinite im-
in more detail below.) pulse response to make a finite impulse response; apply-
118 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

ing that filter requires delaying the signal for a moderate filter looks like a horizontal line below the cutoff
period of time, allowing the computation to “see” a little frequency, and a diagonal line above the cutoff fre-
bit into the future. This delay is manifested as phase shift. quency. There is also a “knee curve” at the bound-
Greater accuracy in approximation requires a longer de- ary between the two, which smoothly transitions be-
lay. tween the two straight line regions. If the transfer
An ideal low-pass filter results in ringing artifacts via the function of a first-order low-pass filter has a zero
Gibbs phenomenon. These can be reduced or worsened as well as a pole, the Bode plot flattens out again,
by choice of windowing function, and the design and at some maximum attenuation of high frequencies;
such an effect is caused for example by a little bit of
choice of real filters involves understanding and mini-
mizing these artifacts. For example, “simple truncation the input leaking around the one-pole filter; this one-
pole–one-zero filter is still a first-order low-pass. See
[of sinc] causes severe ringing artifacts,” in signal recon-
struction, and to reduce these artifacts one uses window Pole–zero plot and RC circuit.
functions “which drop off more smoothly at the edges.”[4]
The Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula describes • A second-order filter attenuates high frequencies
how to use a perfect low-pass filter to reconstruct a more steeply. The Bode plot for this type of filter
continuous signal from a sampled digital signal. Real resembles that of a first-order filter, except that it
digital-to-analog converters use real filter approxima- falls off more quickly. For example, a second-order
tions. Butterworth filter reduces the signal amplitude to
one fourth its original level every time the frequency
doubles (so power decreases by 12 dB per octave,
4.4.3 Continuous-time low-pass filters or 40 dB per decade). Other all-pole second-order
filters may roll off at different rates initially depend-
10 ing on their Q factor, but approach the same final
Cutoff frequency rate of 12 dB per octave; as with the first-order fil-
0
ters, zeroes in the transfer function can change the
−3.01 dB high-frequency asymptote. See RLC circuit.
−10

Slope: −20 dB/decade

−20
• Third- and higher-order filters are defined similarly.
Gain (dB)

−30
In general, the final rate of power rolloff for an
order- n all-pole filter is 6n dB per octave (i.e., 20n
−40
dB per decade).
−50
Passband Stopband

−60
On any Butterworth filter, if one extends the horizontal
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Angular frequency (rad/s)
line to the right and the diagonal line to the upper-left
(the asymptotes of the function), they intersect at exactly
The gain-magnitude frequency response of a first-order (one- the cutoff frequency. The frequency response at the cutoff
pole) low-pass filter. Power gain is shown in decibels (i.e., a 3 dB frequency in a first-order filter is 3 dB below the horizon-
decline reflects an additional half-power attenuation). Angular tal line. The various types of filters (Butterworth filter,
frequency is shown on a logarithmic scale in units of radians per Chebyshev filter, Bessel filter, etc.) all have different-
second. looking knee curves. Many second-order filters have
There are many different types of filter circuits, with dif- “peaking” or resonance that puts their frequency response
ferent responses to changing frequency. The frequency at the cutoff frequency above the horizontal line. Further-
response of a filter is generally represented using a Bode more, the actual frequency where this peaking occurs can
plot, and the filter is characterized by its cutoff frequency be predicted without calculus, as shown by Cartwright[5]
and rate of frequency rolloff. In all cases, at the cutoff et al. For third-order filters, the peaking and its frequency
frequency, the filter attenuates the input power by half or of occurrence can too be predicted without calculus as re-
3 dB. So the order of the filter determines the amount cently shown by Cartwright[6] et al. See electronic filter for
of additional attenuation for frequencies higher than the other types.
cutoff frequency. The meanings of 'low' and 'high'—that is, the cutoff fre-
quency—depend on the characteristics of the filter. The
• A first-order filter, for example, reduces the signal term “low-pass filter” merely refers to the shape of the fil-
amplitude by half (so power reduces by a factor of ter’s response; a high-pass filter could be built that cuts off
4, or 6 dB), every time the frequency doubles (goes at a lower frequency than any low-pass filter—it is their
up one octave); more precisely, the power rolloff ap- responses that set them apart. Electronic circuits can be
proaches 20 dB per decade in the limit of high fre- devised for any desired frequency range, right up through
quency. The magnitude Bode plot for a first-order microwave frequencies (above 1 GHz) and higher.
4.4. LOW-PASS FILTER 119

Laplace notation or equivalently (in radians per second):

Continuous-time filters can also be described in terms

of the Laplace transform of their impulse response, in a 1 1
ωc = =
way that lets all characteristics of the filter be easily an- τ RC
alyzed by considering the pattern of poles and zeros of This circuit may be understood by considering the time
the Laplace transform in the complex plane. (In discrete the capacitor needs to charge or discharge through the
time, one can similarly consider the Z-transform of the resistor:
impulse response.)
For example, a first-order low-pass filter can be described • At low frequencies, there is plenty of time for the
in Laplace notation as: capacitor to charge up to practically the same voltage
as the input voltage.
Output 1 • At high frequencies, the capacitor only has time to
=K
Input τs + 1 charge up a small amount before the input switches
direction. The output goes up and down only a small
where s is the Laplace transform variable, τ is the fil-
fraction of the amount the input goes up and down.
ter time constant, and K is the gain of the filter in the
At double the frequency, there’s only time for it to
passband.
charge up half the amount.

4.4.4 Electronic low-pass filters Another way to understand this circuit is through the con-
cept of reactance at a particular frequency:
First order
• Since direct current (DC) cannot flow through the

Vin capacitor, DC input must flow out the path marked

Vout (analogous to removing the capacitor).

• Since alternating current (AC) flows very well

R through the capacitor, almost as well as it flows

through solid wire, AC input flows out through
the capacitor, effectively short circuiting to ground
(analogous to replacing the capacitor with just a

Vout wire).

The capacitor is not an “on/off” object (like the block or

C
pass fluidic explanation above). The capacitor variably
acts between these two extremes. It is the Bode plot and
frequency response that show this variability.

RL filter Main article: RL filter

Passive, first order low-pass RC filter

A resistor–inductor circuit or RL filter is an electric cir-
cuit composed of resistors and inductors driven by a
RC filter One simple low-pass filter circuit consists of voltage or current source. A first order RL circuit is com-
a resistor in series with a load, and a capacitor in paral- posed of one resistor and one inductor and is the simplest
lel with the load. The capacitor exhibits reactance, and type of RL circuit.
blocks low-frequency signals, forcing them through the
load instead. At higher frequencies the reactance drops, A first order RL circuit is one of the simplest analogue
and the capacitor effectively functions as a short circuit. infinite impulse response electronic filters. It consists of
The combination of resistance and capacitance gives the a resistor and an inductor, either in series driven by a
time constant of the filter τ = RC (represented by the voltage source or in parallel driven by a current source.
Greek letter tau). The break frequency, also called the
turnover frequency or cutoff frequency (in hertz), is de- Second order
termined by the time constant:
RLC filter Main article: RLC circuit
1 1 An RLC circuit (the letters R, L and C can be in other
fc = = orders) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor, an
2πτ 2πRC
120 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

L1 L3
Vin Vout

C2 R4

in out

A third-order low-pass filter (Cauer topology). The filter be-

comes a Butterworth filter with cutoff frequency ωc=1 when (for
example) C2 =4/3 farad, R4 =1 ohm, L1 =3/2 henry and L3 =1/2
henry.

RLC circuit as a low-pass filter

C

inductor, and a capacitor, connected in series or in paral- R2

lel. The RLC part of the name is due to those letters being
the usual electrical symbols for resistance, inductance and
capacitance respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic vin R1
vout
oscillator for current and will resonate in a similar way as
an LC circuit will. The main difference that the presence
of the resistor makes is that any oscillation induced in the
circuit will die away over time if it is not kept going by a
source. This effect of the resistor is called damping. The
presence of the resistance also reduces the peak resonant
An active low-pass filter
frequency somewhat. Some resistance is unavoidable in
real circuits, even if a resistor is not specifically included
as a component. An ideal, pure LC circuit is an abstrac-
tion for the purpose of theory.
1
There are many applications for this circuit. They are fc = 2πR C
2
used in many different types of oscillator circuits. An-
other important application is for tuning, such as in radio or equivalently (in radians per second):
receivers or television sets, where they are used to select
a narrow range of frequencies from the ambient radio
waves. In this role the circuit is often referred to as a 1
ωc =
tuned circuit. An RLC circuit can be used as a band- R2 C
pass filter, band-stop filter, low-pass filter or high-pass
filter. The RLC filter is described as a second-order cir- The gain in the passband is −R2 /R1 , and the stopband
cuit, meaning that any voltage or current in the circuit drops off at −6 dB per octave (that is −20 dB per decade)
can be described by a second-order differential equation as it is a first-order filter.
in circuit analysis.
Discrete-time realization

Higher order passive filters For another method of conversion from continuous- to
discrete-time, see Bilinear transform.
Higher order passive filters, can also be constructed (see
diagram for a third order example). Many digital filters are designed to give low-pass char-
acteristics. Both infinite impulse response and finite im-
pulse response low pass filters as well as filters using
Active electronic realization Fourier transforms are widely used.

Another type of electrical circuit is an active low-pass fil- Simple infinite impulse response filter The effect of
ter. an infinite impulse response low-pass filter can be simu-
In the operational amplifier circuit shown in the figure, lated on a computer by analyzing an RC filter’s behavior
the cutoff frequency (in hertz) is defined as: in the time domain, and then discretizing the model.
4.4. LOW-PASS FILTER 121

R terms of the sampling period ∆T and smoothing factor α

:

( )
1−α
RC = ∆T
vin C vout α
Recalling that

1 1
fc = 2πRC so RC = 2πfc

A simple low-pass RC filter then α and fc are related by:

From the circuit diagram to the right, according to α = 2π∆T fc

Kirchhoff’s Laws and the definition of capacitance: 2π∆T fc + 1
and

α
fc =
(1 − α)2π∆T
If α = 0.5 , then the RC time constant is equal to the sam-
pling period. If α ≪ 0.5 , then RC is significantly larger
where Qc (t) is the charge stored in the capacitor at time t . than the sampling interval, and ∆T ≈ αRC .
Substituting equation Q into equation I gives i(t) = C d vd out
t The filter recurrence relation provides a way to determine
, which can be substituted into equation V so that: the output samples in terms of the input samples and the
preceding output. The following pseudocode algorithm
simulates the effect of a low-pass filter on a series of dig-
d vout ital samples:
vin (t) − vout (t) = RC
dt
// Return RC low-pass filter output samples, given input
This equation can be discretized. For simplicity, assume samples, // time interval dt, and time constant RC func-
that samples of the input and output are taken at evenly tion lowpass(real[0..n] x, real dt, real RC) var real[0..n]
spaced points in time separated by ∆T time. Let the sam- y var real α := dt / (RC + dt) y[0] := x[0] for i from 1 to
ples of vin be represented by the sequence (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) , n y[i] := α * x[i] + (1-α) * y[i-1] return y
and let vout be represented by the sequence (y1 , y2 , ..., yn )
The loop that calculates each of the n outputs can be
, which correspond to the same points in time. Making
refactored into the equivalent:
these substitutions:
for i from 1 to n y[i] := y[i-1] + α * (x[i] - y[i-1])

yi − yi−1 That is, the change from one filter output to the next
xi − yi = RC is proportional to the difference between the previous
∆T
output and the next input. This exponential smooth-
And rearranging terms gives the recurrence relation ing property matches the exponential decay seen in the
continuous-time system. As expected, as the time con-
stant RC increases, the discrete-time smoothing param-
contribution Input
z ( }|
output previous from Inertia eter α decreases, and the output samples (y1 , y2 , ..., yn )
){ z ( }| ){ respond more slowly to a change in the input samples
∆T RC
yi = xi + yi−1 . (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) ; the system has more inertia. This filter
RC + ∆T RC + ∆T
is an infinite-impulse-response (IIR) single-pole low-pass
That is, this discrete-time implementation of a simple RC filter.
low-pass filter is the exponentially weighted moving aver-
age
Finite impulse response Finite-impulse-response fil-
ters can be built that approximate to the sinc function
∆T time-domain response of an ideal sharp-cutoff low-pass
yi = αxi +(1−α)yi−1 where α≜ filter. In practice, the time-domain response must be time
RC + ∆T
truncated and is often of a simplified shape; in the sim-
By definition, the smoothing factor 0 ≤ α ≤ 1 . The ex- plest case, a running average can be used, giving a square
pression for α yields the equivalent time constant RC in time response.[7]
122 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

Fourier transformation For minimum distortion the 4.5 High-pass filter

finite impulse response filter has an unbounded number
of coefficients. This article is about an electronic component. For the
For non-realtime filtering, to achieve a low pass filter, the Australian band, see High Pass Filter (band).
entire signal is usually taken as a looped signal, the Fourier
transform is taken, filtered in the frequency domain, fol- A high-pass filter is an electronic filter that passes signals
lowed by an inverse Fourier transform. Only O(n log(n)) with a frequency higher than a certain cutoff frequency
operations are required compared to O(n2 ) for the time and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cut-
domain filtering algorithm. off frequency. The amount of attenuation for each fre-
This can also sometimes be done in real-time, where quency depends on the filter design. A high-pass filter
the signal is delayed long enough to perform the Fourier is usually modeled as a linear time-invariant system. It
transformation on shorter, overlapping blocks. is sometimes called a low-cut filter or bass-cut filter.[1]
High-pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC
from circuitry sensitive to non-zero average voltages or
4.4.5 See also radio frequency devices. They can also be used in con-
junction with a low-pass filter to produce a bandpass fil-
• Baseband ter.
• DSL filter
4.5.1 First-order continuous-time imple-
4.4.6 References mentation

[1] Sedra, Adel; Smith, Kenneth C. (1991). Microelectronic

Circuits, 3 ed. Saunders College Publishing. p. 60. ISBN C
0-03-051648-X.
Vin Vout
[2] “ADSL filters explained”. Epanorama.net. Retrieved
2013-09-24.

[3] “Home Networking – Local Area Network”. Pcwee- R

nie.com. 2009-04-12. Retrieved 2013-09-24.

[4] Mastering Windows: Improving Reconstruction

[5] K. V. Cartwright, P. Russell and E. J. Kaminsky,”Finding

the maximum magnitude response (gain) of second-order Figure 1: A passive, analog, first-order high-pass filter, realized
filters without calculus,” Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 6, by an RC circuit
No. 4, pp. 559-565, 2012.

[6] Cartwright, K. V.; P. Russell; E. J. Kaminsky (2013).

The simple first-order electronic high-pass filter shown
“Finding the maximum and minimum magnitude re- in Figure 1 is implemented by placing an input voltage
sponses (gains) of third-order filters without calculus” across the series combination of a capacitor and a resistor
(PDF). Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. 7 (4): 582–587. and using the voltage across the resistor as an output. The
product of the resistance and capacitance (R×C) is the
[7] Signal recovery from noise in electronic instrumentation – time constant (τ); it is inversely proportional to the cutoff
T H Whilmshurst frequency fc, that is,

4.4.7 External links 1 1

fc = = ,
2πτ 2πRC
• Low-pass filter
where fc is in hertz, τ is in seconds, R is in ohms, and C
• Low Pass Filter java simulator is in farads.
• ECE 209: Review of Circuits as LTI Systems, a Figure 2 shows an active electronic implementation of a
short primer on the mathematical analysis of (elec- first-order high-pass filter using an operational amplifier.
trical) LTI systems. In this case, the filter has a passband gain of -R2 /R1 and
has a cutoff frequency of
• ECE 209: Sources of Phase Shift, an intuitive expla-
nation of the source of phase shift in a low-pass fil-
ter. Also verifies simple passive LPF transfer func- 1 1
tion by means of trigonometric identity. fc = = ,
2πτ 2πR1 C
4.5. HIGH-PASS FILTER 123

inputs prior from contribution Decaying input in change from Contribution

z }| { z }| {
RC RC
yi = yi−1 + (xi − xi−1 )
RC + ∆T RC + ∆T
That is, this discrete-time implementation of a simple
continuous-time RC high-pass filter is

RC
Figure 2: An active high-pass filter yi = αyi−1 +α(xi −xi−1 ) where α≜
RC + ∆T
By definition, 0 ≤ α ≤ 1 . The expression for parameter
Because this filter is active, it may have non-unity pass- α yields the equivalent time constant RC in terms of the
band gain. That is, high-frequency signals are inverted sampling period ∆ and α :
T
and amplified by R2 /R1 .
( )
α
4.5.2 Discrete-time realization RC = ∆T
1−α
For another method of conversion from continuous- to Recalling that
discrete-time, see Bilinear transform.
1 1
fc = 2πRC so RC = 2πfc
Discrete-time high-pass filters can also be designed.
Discrete-time filter design is beyond the scope of this ar- then α and fc are related by:
ticle; however, a simple example comes from the con-
version of the continuous-time high-pass filter above to
a discrete-time realization. That is, the continuous-time α = 1
behavior can be discretized. 2π∆T fc + 1
From the circuit in Figure 1 above, according to and
Kirchhoff’s Laws and the definition of capacitance:

1−α
 fc =

Vout (t) = I(t) R (V) 2πα∆T
Qc (t) = C (Vin (t) − Vout (t)) (Q) If α = 0.5 , then the RC time constant equal to the


I(t) = ddQtc (I) sampling period. If α ≪ 0.5 , then RC is significantly
smaller than the sampling interval, and RC ≈ α∆T .
where Qc (t) is the charge stored in the capacitor at time
t . Substituting Equation (Q) into Equation (I) and then
Equation (I) into Equation (V) gives: Algorithmic implementation

The filter recurrence relation provides a way to determine

I(t) the output samples in terms of the input samples and the
z ( }| ){ ( )
d Vin d Vout d Vin d Vout preceding output. The following pseudocode algorithm
Vout (t) = C − R = RC − will simulate the effect of a high-pass filter on a series of
dt dt dt dt
digital samples:
This equation can be discretized. For simplicity, as- // Return RC high-pass filter output samples, given input
sume that samples of the input and output are taken samples, // time interval dt, and time constant RC func-
at evenly spaced points in time separated by ∆T time. tion highpass(real[0..n] x, real dt, real RC) var real[0..n]
Let the samples of Vin be represented by the sequence y var real α := RC / (RC + dt) y[0] := x[0] for i from 1
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) , and let Vout be represented by the se- to n y[i] := α * y[i-1] + α * (x[i] - x[i-1]) return y
quence (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) which correspond to the same
points in time. Making these substitutions: The loop which calculates each of the n outputs can be
refactored into the equivalent:
( ) for i from 1 to n y[i] := α * (y[i-1] + x[i] - x[i-1])
xi − xi−1 yi − yi−1
yi = RC − However, the earlier form shows how the parameter α
∆T ∆T
changes the impact of the prior output y[i-1] and current
And rearranging terms gives the recurrence relation change in input (x[i] - x[i-1]). In particular,
124 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

• A large α implies that the output will decay very High-pass filters are also used for AC coupling at the in-
slowly but will also be strongly influenced by even puts of many audio power amplifiers, for preventing the
small changes in input. By the relationship between amplification of DC currents which may harm the ampli-
parameter α and time constant RC above, a large fier, rob the amplifier of headroom, and generate waste
α corresponds to a large RC and therefore a low heat at the loudspeakers voice coil. One amplifier, the
corner frequency of the filter. Hence, this case cor- professional audio model DC300 made by Crown Inter-
responds to a high-pass filter with a very narrow stop national beginning in the 1960s, did not have high-pass
band. Because it is excited by small changes and filtering at all, and could be used to amplify the DC sig-
tends to hold its prior output values for a long time, nal of a common 9-volt battery at the input to supply 18
it can pass relatively low frequencies. However, a volts DC in an emergency for mixing console power.[2]
constant input (i.e., an input with (x[i] - x[i-1])=0) However, that model’s basic design has been superseded
will always decay to zero, as would be expected with by newer designs such as the Crown Macro-Tech series
a high-pass filter with a large RC . developed in the late 1980s which included 10 Hz high-
pass filtering on the inputs and switchable 35 Hz high-
• A small α implies that the output will decay quickly pass filtering on the outputs.[3] Another example is the
and will require large changes in the input (i.e., (x[i] QSC Audio PLX amplifier series which includes an in-
- x[i-1]) is large) to cause the output to change much. ternal 5 Hz high-pass filter which is applied to the inputs
By the relationship between parameter α and time whenever the optional 50 and 30 Hz high-pass filters are
constant RC above, a small α corresponds to a small turned off.[4]
RC and therefore a high corner frequency of the fil-
ter. Hence, this case corresponds to a high-pass fil-
ter with a very wide stop band. Because it requires
large (i.e., fast) changes and tends to quickly forget
its prior output values, it can only pass relatively high
frequencies, as would be expected with a high-pass
filter with a small RC .

4.5.3 Applications

Audio

High-pass filters have many applications. They are used

as part of an audio crossover to direct high frequencies A 75 Hz “low cut” filter from an input channel of a Mackie 1402
to a tweeter while attenuating bass signals which could mixing console as measured by Smaart software. This high-pass
filter has a slope of 18 dB per octave.
interfere with, or damage, the speaker. When such a filter
is built into a loudspeaker cabinet it is normally a passive
filter that also includes a low-pass filter for the woofer and Mixing consoles often include high-pass filtering at each
so often employs both a capacitor and inductor (although channel strip. Some models have fixed-slope, fixed-
very simple high-pass filters for tweeters can consist of frequency high-pass filters at 80 or 100 Hz that can be
a series capacitor and nothing else). As an example, the engaged; other models have sweepable high-pass filters,
formula above, applied to a tweeter with R=10 Ohm, will filters of fixed slope that can be set within a specified fre-
determine the capacitor value for a cut-off frequency of quency range, such as from 20 to 400 Hz on the Midas
1
5 kHz. C = 2πf1 R = 6.28×5000×10 = 3.18 × 10−6 , or Heritage 3000, or 20 to 20,000 Hz on the Yamaha M7CL
approx 3.2 μF. digital mixing console. Veteran systems engineer and live
sound mixer Bruce Main recommends that high-pass fil-
An alternative, which provides good quality sound with- ters be engaged for most mixer input sources, except for
out inductors (which are prone to parasitic coupling, are those such as kick drum, bass guitar and piano, sources
expensive, and may have significant internal resistance) which will have useful low frequency sounds. Main writes
is to employ bi-amplification with active RC filters or ac- that DI unit inputs (as opposed to microphone inputs)
tive digital filters with separate power amplifiers for each do not need high-pass filtering as they are not subject to
loudspeaker. Such low-current and low-voltage line level modulation by low-frequency stage wash—low frequency
crossovers are called active crossovers.[1] sounds coming from the subwoofers or the public ad-
Rumble filters are high-pass filters applied to the removal dress system and wrapping around to the stage. Main
of unwanted sounds near to the lower end of the audible indicates that high-pass filters are commonly used for di-
range or below. For example, noises (e.g., footsteps, or rectional microphones which have a proximity effect—a
motor noises from record players and tape decks) may be low-frequency boost for very close sources. This low fre-
removed because they are undesired or may overload the quency boost commonly causes problems up to 200 or
RIAA equalization circuit of the preamp.[1] 300 Hz, but Main notes that he has seen microphones
4.6. BAND-PASS FILTER 125

that benefit from a 500 Hz high-pass filter setting on the [4] “User Manual: PLX Series Amplifiers” (PDF). QSC Au-
console.[5] dio. 1999. Retrieved March 9, 2010.

[5] Main, Bruce (February 16, 2010). “Cut 'Em Off

Image At The Pass: Effective Uses Of High-Pass Filtering”.
Live Sound International. Framingham, Massachusetts:
ProSoundWeb, EH Publishing.

[6] Paul M. Mather (2004). Computer processing of remotely

sensed images: an introduction (3rd ed.). John Wiley and
Sons. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-470-84919-4.

[7] “Gimp tutorial with high-pass filter operation”.

4.5.6 External links

• Common Impulse Responses

• ECE 209: Review of Circuits as LTI Systems, a

short primer on the mathematical analysis of (elec-
trical) LTI systems.
Example of high-pass filter applied to the right half of a pho-
tograph. Left side is unmodified, Right side is with a high-pass • ECE 209: Sources of Phase Shift, an intuitive expla-
filter applied (in this case, with a radius of 4.9) nation of the source of phase shift in a high-pass fil-
ter. Also verifies simple passive LPF transfer func-
High-pass and low-pass filters are also used in digital tion by means of trigonometric identity.
image processing to perform image modifications, en-
hancements, noise reduction, etc., using designs done in
either the spatial domain or the frequency domain.[6]
4.6 Band-pass filter
A high-pass filter, if the imaging software does not have
one, can be done by duplicating the layer, putting a gaus-
sian blur, inverting, and then blending with the original 0 dB
layer using an opacity (say 50%) with the original layer.[7]
The unsharp masking, or sharpening, operation used in
image editing software is a high-boost filter, a generaliza- −3 dB
tion of high-pass.

4.5.4 See also B

• DSL filter f

• Band-stop filter fL f0 fH

• Bias tee
Bandwidth measured at half-power points (gain −3 dB, √2/2, or
• Differentiator about 0.707 relative to peak) on a diagram showing magnitude
transfer function versus frequency for a band-pass filter.

4.5.5 References
[1] Watkinson, John (1998). The Art of Sound Reproduction. L L
Focal Press. pp. 268, 479. ISBN 0-240-51512-9. Re- C C
trieved March 9, 2010.
Vi Vo
[2] Andrews, Keith; posting as ssltech (January 11, 2010). L C
“Re: Running the board for a show this big?". Record-
ing, Engineering & Production. ProSoundWeb. Retrieved
9 March 2010.

[3] “Operation Manual: MA-5002VZ” (PDF). Macro-Tech

Series. Crown Audio. 2007. Retrieved March 9, 2010. A medium-complexity example of a band-pass filter.
126 CHAPTER 4. AC ANALYSIS

A band-pass filter is a device that passes frequencies 4.6.3 Applications

within a certain range and rejects (attenuates) frequen-
cies outside that range. Bandpass filters are widely used in wireless transmitters
and receivers. The main function of such a filter in a
transmitter is to limit the bandwidth of the output sig-
nal to the band allocated for the transmission. This pre-
4.6.1 Description vents the transmitter from interfering with other stations.
In a receiver, a bandpass filter allows signals within a se-
An example of an analogue electronic band-pass filter lected range of frequencies to be heard or decoded, while
is an RLC circuit (a resistor–inductor–capacitor circuit). preventing signals at unwanted frequencies from getting
These filters can also be created by combining a low-pass through. A bandpass filter also optimizes the signal-to-
filter with a high-pass filter.[1] noise ratio and sensitivity of a receiver.
Bandpass is an adjective that describes a type of filter or In both transmitting and receiving applications, well-
filtering process; it is to be distinguished from passband, designed bandpass filters, having the optimum bandwidth
which refers to the actual portion of affected spectrum. for the mode and speed of communication being used,
Hence, one might say “A dual bandpass filter has two maximize the number of signal transmitters that can exist
passbands.” A bandpass signal is a signal containing a in a system, while minimizing the interference or compe-
band of frequencies not adjacent to zero frequency, such tition among signals.
as a signal that comes out of a bandpass filter.[2] Outside of electronics and signal processing, one exam-
An ideal bandpass filter would have a completely flat ple of the use of band-pass filters is in the atmospheric
passband (e.g. with no gain/attenuation throughout) and sciences. It is common to band-pass filter recent meteo-
would completely attenuate all frequencies outside the rological data with a period range of, for example, 3 to 10
passband. Additionally, the transition out of the passband days, so that only cyclones remain as fluctuations in the
would have brickwall characteristics. data fields.
In practice, no bandpass filter is ideal. The filter does In neuroscience, visual cortical simple cells were first
not attenuate all frequencies outside the desired frequency shown by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel to have re-
range completely; in particular, there is a region just out- sponse properties that resemble Gabor filters, which are
[3]
side the intended passband where frequencies are attenu- band-pass.
ated, but not rejected. This is known as the filter roll-off, In astronomy, band-pass filters are used to allow only a
and it is usually expressed in dB of attenuation per octave single portion of the light spectrum into an instrument.
or decade of frequency. Generally, the design of a fil- Band-pass filters can help with finding where stars lie on
ter seeks to make the roll-off as narrow as possible, thus the main sequence, identifying redshifts, and many other
allowing the filter to perform as close as possible to its applications.
intended design. Often, this is achieved at the expense of
pass-band or stop-band ripple.
The bandwidth of the filter is simply the difference be- 4.6.4 See also
tween the upper and lower cutoff frequencies. The shape
factor is the ratio of bandwidths measured using two • Atomic line filter
different attenuation values to determine the cutoff fre-
quency, e.g., a shape factor of 2:1 at 30/3 dB means the • Audio crossover
bandwidth measured between frequencies at 30 dB atten-
uation is twice that measured between frequencies at 3 dB • Band-stop filter
attenuation.
Optical band-pass filters are common in photography and
theatre lighting work. These filters take the form of a 4.6.5 References
transparent coloured film or sheet.
[1] E. R. Kanasewich (1981). Time Sequence Analysis in Geo-
physics. University of Alberta. p. 260. ISBN 0-88864-
074-9.
4.6.2 Q factor
[2] Belle A. Shenoi (2006). Introduction to digital signal pro-
cessing and filter design. John Wiley and Sons. p. 120.
A band-pass filter can be characterized by its Q factor. ISBN 978-0-471-46482-2.
The Q-factor is the inverse of the fractional bandwidth.
A high-Q filter will have a narrow passband and a low-Q [3] Norman Stuart Sutherland (1979). Tutorial Essays in Psy-
filter will have a wide passband. These are respectively chology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 68. ISBN
referred to as narrow-band and wide-band filters. 0-470-26652-X.
4.6. BAND-PASS FILTER 127

4.6.6 External links

Media related to Bandpass filters at Wikimedia Com-
mons
Chapter 5

Basic devices

5.1 p–n junction 5.1.1 Properties

See also: p–n diode and Diode § Semiconductor diodes

A p–n junction. The circuit symbol is shown: the triangle corre-

sponds to the p side.

A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two

types of semiconductor material, p-type and n-type, in-
side a single crystal of semiconductor. The “p” (positive)
side contains an excess of holes, while the “n” (negative)
Image silicon atoms (Si) enlarged about 45,000,000x.
side contains an excess of electrons. The p-n junction
is created by doping, for example by ion implantation, The p–n junction possesses some interesting properties
diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of that have useful applications in modern electronics. A p-
crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same
crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two sep- is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction be-
arate pieces of material were used, this would introduce tween them can become depleted of charge carriers, and
a grain boundary between the semiconductors that would hence non-conductive, depending on the relative voltages
severely inhibit its utility by scattering the electrons and of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating this
holes. non-conductive layer, p–n junctions are commonly used
p–n junctions are elementary “building blocks” of as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow of electricity
most semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction.
transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they Bias is the application of a voltage across a p–n junction;
are the active sites where the electronic action of the forward bias is in the direction of easy current flow, and
device takes place. For example, a common type of reverse bias is in the direction of little or no current flow.
transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two
p–n junctions in series, in the form n–p–n or p–n–p.
Equilibrium (zero bias)
The invention of the p–n junction is usually attributed to
American physicist Russell Ohl of Bell Laboratories.[1] In a p–n junction, without an external applied voltage,
However, Vadim Lashkaryov reported discovery of p-n- an equilibrium condition is reached in which a potential
junctions in Cu 2 O and silver sulphide photocells and difference is formed across the junction. This potential
selenium rectifiers in 1941. difference is called built-in potential Vbi .
A Schottky junction is a special case of a p–n junction, After joining p-type and n-type semiconductors, elec-
where metal serves the role of the p-type semiconductor. trons from the n region near the p–n interface tend to dif-

128
5.1. P–N JUNCTION 129

fuse into the p region leaving behind positively charged

ions in the n region and being recombined with holes,
forming negatively charged ions in the p region. Like-
wise, holes from the p-type region near the p–n interface
begin to diffuse into the n-type region, leaving behind
negatively charged ions in the p region and recombin-
ing with electrons, forming positive ions in the n region
Template:Explain holes move?. The regions near the p–
n interface lose their neutrality and most of their mo-
bile carriers, forming the space charge region or depletion
layer (see figure A).

Figure B. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias

voltage applied. Under the junction, plots for the charge density,
the electric field, and the voltage are reported. (The log concen-
tration curves should actually be smoother, like the voltage.)

Figure A. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias Forward bias

voltage applied. Electron and hole concentration are reported
with blue and red lines, respectively. Gray regions are charge- In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive
neutral. Light-red zone is positively charged. Light-blue zone is terminal and the n-type is connected with the negative
negatively charged. The electric field is shown on the bottom, terminal.
the electrostatic force on electrons and holes and the direction
in which the diffusion tends to move electrons and holes. (The
log concentration curves should actually be smoother with slope
varying with field strength.)

The electric field created by the space charge region op-

poses the diffusion process for both electrons and holes.
There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion pro-
cess that tends to generate more space charge, and the
electric field generated by the space charge that tends to
counteract the diffusion. The carrier concentration pro- PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing
file at equilibrium is shown in figure A with blue and red depletion width. The panels show energy band diagram, electric
lines. Also shown are the two counterbalancing phenom- field, and net charge density. Both p and n junctions are doped
at a 1e15/cm3 (0.00016C/cm3 ) doping level, leading to built-in
ena that establish equilibrium.
potential of ~0.59 V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred
The space charge region is a zone with a net charge pro- from the shrinking charge profile, as fewer dopants are exposed
vided by the fixed ions (donors or acceptors) that have with increasing forward bias. Observe the different quasi-fermi
been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When levels for conduction band and valence band in n and p regions
equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approxi- (red curves)
mated by the displayed step function. In fact, since the
y-axis of figure A is log-scale, the region is almost com- With a battery connected this way, the holes in the p-type
pletely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge region and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed
density equal to the net doping level), and the edge be- toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion
tween the space charge region and the neutral region is zone, reducing its width. The positive potential applied
quite sharp (see figure B, Q(x) graph). The space charge to the p-type material repels the holes, while the negative
region has the same magnitude of charge on both sides potential applied to the n-type material repels the elec-
of the p–n interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less trons. The change in potential between the p side and
doped side in this example (the n side in figures A and the n side decreases or switches sign. With increasing
B). forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually be-
130 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

comes thin enough that the zone’s electric field cannot

counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction,
which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. The
electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type ma-
terial (or holes that cross into the n-type material) will
diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of
minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines
the amount of current that may flow through the diode.
Only majority carriers (electrons in n-type material or
holes in p-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias.
macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow
of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes
Because the p-type material is now connected to the nega-
a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side
tive terminal of the power supply, the 'holes' in the p-type
toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion re-
material are pulled away from the junction, leaving be-
gion is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junc-
hind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion
tion and inject into the p-type material. However, they
region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region
do not continue to flow through the p-type material in-
is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will
definitely, because it is energetically favorable for them
also be pulled away from the junction, with similar ef-
to recombine with holes. The average length an electron
fect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high
travels through the p-type material before recombining is
resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing
called the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order
minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The
of micrometers.[2]
increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the
Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into junction behaving as an insulator.
the p-type material, the electric current continues unin-
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases
terrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to
as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric
flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum
field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–
of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, be-
n junction depletion zone breaks down and current be-
cause any variation would cause charge buildup over time
gins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche
(this is Kirchhoff’s current law). The flow of holes from
breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown pro-
the p-type region into the n-type region is exactly analo-
cesses are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as
gous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and
the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that
holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages
cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause
are reversed).
thermal damage.
Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow
This effect is used to advantage in Zener diode regulator
through the diode involves electrons flowing through the
circuits. Zener diodes have a low breakdown voltage. A
n-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through
standard value for breakdown voltage is for instance 5.6
the p-type region in the opposite direction toward the
V. This means that the voltage at the cathode cannot be
junction, and the two species of carriers constantly re-
more than about 5.6 V higher than the voltage at the anode
combining in the vicinity of the junction. The electrons
(although there is a slight rise with current), because the
and holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have
diode will break down – and therefore conduct – if the
opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same di-
voltage gets any higher. This in effect limits the voltage
rection on both sides of the diode, as required.
over the diode.
The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias
Another application of reverse biasing is Varicap diodes,
operational characteristics of a p–n junction outside the
where the width of the depletion zone (controlled with
avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region.
the reverse bias voltage) changes the capacitance of the
diode.

Reverse bias
5.1.2 Governing equations
Connecting the p-type region to the negative terminal of
Size of depletion region
the battery and the n-type region to the positive terminal
corresponds to reverse bias. If a diode is reverse-biased,
the voltage at the cathode is comparatively higher than at See also: Band bending
the anode. Therefore, very little current will flow until the
diode breaks down. The connections are illustrated in the For a p–n junction, letting CA (x) and CD (x) be the con-
adjacent diagram. centrations of acceptor and donor atoms respectively, and
5.1. P–N JUNCTION 131

letting N0 (x) and P0 (x) be the equilibrium concentra- 5.1.3 Summary

tions of electrons and holes respectively, yields, by Pois-
son’s equation: The forward-bias and the reverse-bias properties of the
2 p–n junction imply that it can be used as a diode. A p–n
− ddxV2 = ε = ε [(N0 − P0 ) + (CD − CA )]
ρ q
junction diode allows electric charges to flow in one di-
where V is the electric potential, ρ is the charge density, rection, but not in the opposite direction; negative charges
ε is permittivity and q is the magnitude of the electron (electrons) can easily flow through the junction from n to
charge. Letting dp be the width of the depletion region p but not from p to n, and the reverse is true for holes.
within the p-side, and letting dn be the width of the de- When the p–n junction is forward-biased, electric charge
pletion region within the n-side, it must be that flows freely due to reduced resistance of the p–n junc-
dp CA = dn CD tion. When the p–n junction is reverse-biased, however,
the junction barrier (and therefore resistance) becomes
because the total charge on either side of the depletion greater and charge flow is minimal.
region must cancel out. Therefore, letting D and ∆V
represent the entire depletion region and the potential dif-
ference across it, 5.1.4 Non-rectifying junctions
∫ ∫ q
∆V = D ε [(N0 − P0 ) + (CD − CA )] dx dx
In the above diagrams, contact between the metal wires
CD q
= CCAA+C D 2ε
(d p + dn )2
and the semiconductor material also creates metal–
where P0 = N0 = 0 , because we are in the depletion semiconductor junctions called Schottky diodes. In a
region. And thus, letting d be the total width of the de- simplified ideal situation a semiconductor diode would
pletion region, we get never function, since it would be composed of several
√ diodes connected back-to-front in series. But, in prac-
CA +CD
d = 2ε q CA CD ∆V tice, surface impurities within the part of the semicon-
ductor that touches the metal terminals will greatly reduce
∆V can be written as ∆V0 + ∆Vext , where we have bro-
the width of those depletion layers to such an extent that
ken up the voltage difference into the equilibrium plus
the metal-semiconductor junctions do not act as diodes.
external components. The equilibrium potential results
These non-rectifying junctions behave as ohmic contacts
from diffusion forces, and thus we can calculate ∆V0
regardless of applied voltage polarity.
by implementing the Einstein relation and assuming the
semiconductor is nondegenerate (i.e. the product P0 N0
is independent of the Fermi energy): 5.1.5 See also
( )
kT CA CD
∆V0 = q ln P0 N0
• Alloy-junction transistor
where T is the temperature of the semiconductor and k is
Boltzmann constant.[3] • Capacitance–voltage profiling

• Deep-level transient spectroscopy

Current across depletion region • Delocalized electron

The Shockley ideal diode equation characterizes the cur- • Diode modelling
rent across a p–n junction as a function of external voltage
and ambient conditions (temperature, choice of semicon- • Field-effect transistor
ductor, etc.). To see how it can be derived, we must ex- • n–p–n transistor
amine the various reasons for current. The convention
is that the forward (+) direction be pointed against the • p–n–p transistor
diode’s built-in potential gradient at equilibrium.
• Semiconductor detector
• Forward Current ( JF ) • Semiconductor device

• Diffusion Current: current due to local imbal- • Transistor–transistor logic

ances in carrier concentration n , via the equa-
tion JD ∝ −q∇n
5.1.6 References
• Reverse Current ( JR )
[1] Riordan, Michael; Lillian Hoddeson (1988). Crystal fire:
• Field Current the invention of the transistor and the birth of the informa-
tion age. USA: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 88–97.
• Generation Current ISBN 0-393-31851-6.
132 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

[2] Hook, J. R.; H. E. Hall (2001). Solid State Physics. John

Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-92805-4.

[3] Luque, Antonio; Steven Hegedus (29 March 2011).

Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-97612-8.

5.1.7 Further reading

• Shockley, William (1949). “The Theory of p-n
Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Tran-
sistors”. Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3): 435–
489. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x.

5.1.8 External links

• V. E. Lashkaryov, Investigation of a barrier layer by
the thermoprobe method, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR,
Ser. Fiz. 5, 442-446 (1941), English translation:
Ukr. J. Phys. 53, 53-56 (2008),http://ujp.bitp.kiev.
ua/files/journals/53/si/53SI11p.pdf. Report on dis-
covery of p-n-junctions.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBtEckh3L9Q
Educational video on the P-N junction. Typical individual BJT packages. From top to bottom: TO-3,
TO-126, TO-92, SOT-23
• “P-N Junction” – PowerGuru, August, 2012.
• Olav Torheim, Elementary Physics of P-N Junctions, integrated circuits, often in large numbers. The basic
2007. function of a BJT is to amplify current. This allows BJTs
• PN Junction Properties Calculator to be used as amplifiers or switches, giving them wide
applicability in electronic equipment, including comput-
• PN Junction Lab free to use on nanoHUB.org allows ers, televisions, mobile phones, audio amplifiers, indus-
simulation and study of a p–n junction diode with trial control, and radio transmitters.
different doping and materials. Users can calculate
current-voltage (I-V) & capacitance-voltage (C-V)
outputs, as well. 5.2.1 Note on current direction
• Understanding the PN Junction – Explains PN junc- By convention, the direction of current on diagrams is
tion in a very easy to understand language. shown as the direction that a positive charge would move.
This is called conventional current. However, current in
many metal conductors is due to the flow of electrons
5.2 Bipolar junction transistor which, because they carry a negative charge, move in
the opposite direction to conventional current. On the
“Junction transistor” redirects here. For other uses, see other hand, inside a bipolar transistor, currents can be
Junction transistor (disambiguation). composed of both positively charged holes and nega-
“BJT” redirects here. For the Japanese language profi- tively charged electrons. In this article, current arrows
ciency test, see Business Japanese Proficiency Test. For are shown in the conventional direction, but labels for
Beijing Time, see China Standard Time. the movement of holes and electrons show their actual
BJT schematic symbols direction inside the transistor. The arrow on the symbol
A bipolar junction transistor (bipolar transistor or for bipolar transistors points in the direction conventional
BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both electron and current travels.
hole charge carriers. In contrast, unipolar transistors,
such as field-effect transistors, only use one kind of charge
5.2.2 Function
carrier. For their operation, BJTs use two junctions be-
tween two semiconductor types, n-type and p-type. BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known as PNP
BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP, and and NPN based on the doping types of the three main
are available as individual components, or fabricated in terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two
5.2. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 133

semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped region, tor from two separate and oppositely biased diodes con-
and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconductor junc- nected in series.
tions that share a thin n-doped region.
Voltage, current, and charge control
n++ p n+

E iEn electrons iC
C
The collector–emitter current can be viewed as being
iE
iE
iEp
holes iC controlled by the base–emitter current (current control),
recombination
iB1 iB2 or by the base–emitter voltage (voltage control). These
views are related by the current–voltage relation of the
B
vBE iB vCB base–emitter junction, which is just the usual exponen-
tial current–voltage curve of a p-n junction (diode).[1]
The physical explanation for collector current is the con-
centration of minority carriers in the base region.[1][2][3]
NPN BJT with forward-biased E–B junction and reverse-biased
B–C junction
Due to low level injection (in which there are much
fewer excess carriers than normal majority carriers) the
ambipolar transport rates (in which the excess majority
Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carriers and minority carriers flow at the same rate) is in effect
across a junction between two regions of different charge determined by the excess minority carriers.
concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter,
collector, and base.[note 1] A discrete transistor has three Detailed transistor models of transistor action, such as
leads for connection to these regions. Typically, the emit- the Gummel–Poon model, account for the distribution
ter region is heavily doped compared to the other two lay- of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behaviour
[4]
ers, whereas the majority charge carrier concentrations in more exactly. The charge-control view easily handles
base and collector layers are about the same. By design, phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base re-
most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of gion are created by the absorption of photons, and han-
charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into dles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which
the base where they are minority carriers that diffuse to- depends on charge in the base region recombining. How-
ward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority- ever, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at
carrier devices. the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are
generally used in circuit design and analysis.
In typical operation, the base–emitter junction is forward
biased, which means that the p-doped side of the junc- In analog circuit design, the current-control view is some-
tion is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, times used because it is approximately linear. That is, the
and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. In an collector current is approximately βF times the base cur-
NPN transistor, when positive bias is applied to the base– rent. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming
emitter junction, the equilibrium is disturbed between that the emitter–base voltage is approximately constant,
the thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric and that collector current is beta times the base current.
field of the n-doped emitter depletion region. This allows However, to accurately and reliably design production
thermally excited electrons to inject from the emitter into BJT circuits, the voltage-control (for example, Ebers–
[1]
the base region. These electrons diffuse through the base Moll) model is required. The voltage-control model re-
from the region of high concentration near the emitter to- quires an exponential function to be taken into account,
wards the region of low concentration near the collector. but when it is linearized such that the transistor can be
The electrons in the base are called minority carriers be- modeled as a transconductance, as in the Ebers–Moll
cause the base is doped p-type, which makes holes the model, design for circuits such as differential amplifiers
majority carrier in the base. again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the voltage-
control view is often preferred. For translinear circuits,
To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine in which the exponential I–V curve is key to the operation,
before reaching the collector–base junction, the transis- the transistors are usually modeled as voltage-controlled
tor’s base region must be thin enough that carriers can dif- current sources whose transconductance is proportional
fuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor’s to their collector current. In general, transistor-level cir-
minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the thickness of cuit design is performed using SPICE or a comparable
the base must be much less than the diffusion length of the analog circuit simulator, so model complexity is usually
electrons. The collector–base junction is reverse-biased, not of much concern to the designer.
and so little electron injection occurs from the collector
to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the base
towards the collector are swept into the collector by the Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay
electric field in the depletion region of the collector–base
junction. The thin shared base and asymmetric collector– The bipolar transistor exhibits a few delay characteris-
emitter doping are what differentiates a bipolar transis- tics when turning on and off. Most transistors, and espe-
134 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

cially power transistors, exhibit long base-storage times type in an NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region
that limit maximum frequency of operation in switching is connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: emitter
applications. One method for reducing this storage time (E), base (B) and collector (C).
is by using a Baker clamp. The base is physically located between the emitter and the
collector and is made from lightly doped, high-resistivity
Transistor parameters: alpha (α) and beta (β) material. The collector surrounds the emitter region,
making it almost impossible for the electrons injected
The proportion of electrons able to cross the base and into the base region to escape without being collected,
reach the collector is a measure of the BJT efficiency. thus making the resulting value of α very close to unity,
The heavy doping of the emitter region and light dop- and so, giving the transistor a large β. A cross-section
ing of the base region causes many more electrons to be view of a BJT indicates that the collector–base junction
injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be has a much larger area than the emitter–base junction.
injected from the base into the emitter. The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is
The common-emitter current gain is represented by βF or usually not a symmetrical device. This means that inter-
the h-parameter hFE; it is approximately the ratio of the changing the collector and the emitter makes the transis-
DC collector current to the DC base current in forward- tor leave the forward active mode and start to operate in
active region. It is typically greater than 50 for small- reverse mode. Because the transistor’s internal structure
signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed is usually optimized for forward-mode operation, inter-
for high-power applications. changing the collector and the emitter makes the values
of α and β in reverse operation much smaller than those
Another important parameter is the common-base cur- in forward operation; often the α of the reverse mode
rent gain, αF. The common-base current gain is approxi- is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily
mately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collec-
forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close tor. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is
to unity; between 0.980 and 0.998. It is less than unity lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be
due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross the applied before the collector–base junction breaks down.
base region. The collector–base junction is reverse biased in normal
Alpha and beta are more precisely related by the follow- operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to
ing identities (NPN transistor): increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of car-
riers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base.
For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into
IC IC the emitter–base junction must come from the emitter.
αF = , βF =
IE IB
βF αF
αF = ⇐⇒ βF =
1 + βF 1 − αF

5.2.3 Structure

E B C

n
p
n Die of a KSY34 high-frequency NPN transistor. Bond wires con-
nect to the base and emitter

The low-performance “lateral” bipolar transistors some-

Simplified cross section of a planar NPN bipolar junction tran-
sistor
times used in CMOS processes are sometimes designed
symmetrically, that is, with no difference between for-
A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor ward and backward operation.
regions: the emitter region, the base region and the collec- Small changes in the voltage applied across the base–
tor region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type emitter terminals cause the current between the emitter
and p type in a PNP transistor, and n type, p type and n and the collector to change significantly. This effect can
5.2. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 135

be used to amplify the input voltage or current. BJTs

E
can be thought of as voltage-controlled current sources,
but are more simply characterized as current-controlled
current sources, or current amplifiers, due to the low
impedance at the base.
Early transistors were made from germanium but most
modern BJTs are made from silicon. A significant minor-
ity are also now made from gallium arsenide, especially
for very high speed applications (see HBT, below).
B

C
NPN

C The symbol of a PNP BJT. A mnemonic for the symbol is "points

in proudly”.

B PNP

The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of

N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped
material. A small current leaving the base is amplified
in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is “on”
when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter. In a
PNP transistor, the emitter–base region is forward biased,

E
so holes are injected into the base as minority carriers.
The base is very thin, and most of the holes cross the
reverse-biased base–collector junction to the collector.
The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are
on the emitter legs and point in the direction of the
The symbol of an NPN BJT. A mnemonic for the symbol is "not
conventional current when the device is in forward active
pointing in".
or forward saturated mode.
A mnemonic device for the PNP transistor symbol is
NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, con- "pointing in (proudly/permanently)", based on the arrows
sisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the “base”) in the symbol and the letters in the name.[6]
between two N-doped layers. A small current entering
the base is amplified to produce a large collector and
emitter current. That is, when there is a positive poten- Heterojunction bipolar transistor
tial difference measured from the base of an NPN tran-
sistor to its emitter (that is, when the base is high relative The heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) is an im-
to the emitter), as well as a positive potential difference provement of the BJT that can handle signals of very high
measured from the collector to the emitter, the transistor frequencies up to several hundred GHz. It is common in
becomes active. In this “on” state, charge flows from the modern ultrafast circuits, mostly RF systems.[7]
collector to the emitter of the transistor. Most of the cur- [8]
Heterojunction transistors have different semiconduc-
rent is carried by electrons moving from emitter to collec-
tors for the elements of the transistor. Usually the emitter
tor as minority carriers in the P-type base region. To al-
is composed of a larger bandgap material than the base.
low for greater current and faster operation, most bipolar
The figure shows that this difference in bandgap allows
transistors used today are NPN because electron mobilitythe barrier for holes to inject backward from the base
is higher than hole mobility. into the emitter, denoted in the figure as Δφ , to be made
A mnemonic device for the NPN transistor symbol is "not large, while the barrier for electrons to inject into the base
pointing in", based on the arrows in the symbol and the Δφ is made low. This barrier arrangement helps reduce
letters in the name.[5] minority carrier injection from the base when the emitter-
136 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

Δφn ΔφG “built-in” field that assists electron transport across the
base. That drift component of transport aids the nor-
mal diffusive transport, increasing the frequency response
p of the transistor by shortening the transit time across the
n base.
Two commonly used HBTs are silicon–germanium and
aluminum gallium arsenide, though a wide variety of
Δφp semiconductors may be used for the HBT structure. HBT
n structures are usually grown by epitaxy techniques like
MOCVD and MBE.

Bands in graded heterojunction NPN bipolar transistor. Barriers

5.2.4 Regions of operation
indicated for electrons to move from emitter to base, and for holes
to be injected backward from base to emitter; also, grading of
bandgap in base assists electron transport in base region; light Bipolar transistors have four distinct regions of operation,
colors indicate depleted regions. defined by BJT junction biases.

C Forward-active (or simply active) The base–emitter

junction is forward biased and the base–collector

Ic junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors

are designed to afford the greatest common-emitter
current gain, βF, in forward-active mode. If this is
the case, the collector–emitter current is approxi-
mately proportional to the base current, but many

B times larger, for small base current variations.

Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted) By re-

versing the biasing conditions of the forward-active
IB region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active
mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector re-
gions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed
to maximize current gain in forward-active mode,

IE
the βF in inverted mode is several times smaller
(2–3 times for the ordinary germanium transistor).

E
This transistor mode is seldom used, usually being
considered only for failsafe conditions and some
types of bipolar logic. The reverse bias breakdown
Symbol for NPN Bipolar Transistor with current flow direction. voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude
lower in this region.

base junction is under forward bias, and thus reduces base Saturation With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT
current and increases emitter injection efficiency. is in saturation mode and facilitates high current
conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the
The improved injection of carriers into the base allows other direction in the case of NPN, with negatively
the base to have a higher doping level, resulting in lower charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector).
resistance to access the base electrode. In the more tra- This mode corresponds to a logical “on”, or a closed
ditional BJT, also referred to as homojunction BJT, the switch.
efficiency of carrier injection from the emitter to the base
is primarily determined by the doping ratio between the Cut-off In cut-off, biasing conditions opposite of satu-
emitter and base, which means the base must be lightly ration (both junctions reverse biased) are present.
doped to obtain high injection efficiency, making its re- There is very little current, which corresponds to a
sistance relatively high. In addition, higher doping in the logical “off”, or an open switch.
base can improve figures of merit like the Early voltage
by lessening base narrowing. Avalanche breakdown region
The grading of composition in the base, for example,
by progressively increasing the amount of germanium in The modes of operation can be described in terms of the
a SiGe transistor, causes a gradient in bandgap in the applied voltages (this description applies to NPN transis-
neutral base, denoted in the figure by ΔφG, providing a tors; polarities are reversed for PNP transistors):
5.2. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 137

IC

n C
VCE IB
p B
The relationship between IC , UCE and IB
VBE
Forward-active Base higher than emitter, collector n E
higher than base (in this mode the collector current
is proportional to base current by βF ).

Saturation Base higher than emitter, but collector is not IE

higher than base.

Cut-off Base lower than emitter, but collector is higher

than base. It means the transistor is not letting con-
Structure and use of NPN transistor. Arrow according to
ventional current go through from collector to emit- schematic.
ter.

Reverse-active Base lower than emitter, collector lower

than base: reverse conventional current goes through
transistor.
electrons to cross the upper P-N junction into the collec-
In terms of junction biasing: (reverse biased base– tor to form the collector current IC. The remainder of the
collector junction means V < 0 for NPN, opposite for electrons recombine with holes, the majority carriers in
PNP) the base, making a current through the base connection to
Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently form the base current, IB. As shown in the diagram, the
large applied voltage, they overlap somewhat for small emitter current, IE, is the total transistor current, which
(less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, is the sum of the other terminal currents, (i.e., IE = IB +
in the typical grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN IC).
BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the “off” In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in
state never involves a reverse-biased junction because the the direction of conventional current – the flow of elec-
base voltage never goes below ground; nevertheless the trons is in the opposite direction of the arrows because
forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially no electrons carry negative electric charge. In active mode,
current flows, so this end of the forward active region can the ratio of the collector current to the base current is
be regarded as the cutoff region. called the DC current gain. This gain is usually 100 or
more, but robust circuit designs do not depend on the ex-
act value (for example see op-amp). The value of this
Active-mode NPN transistors in circuits
gain for DC signals is referred to as hFE , and the value
The diagram shows a schematic representation of an of this gain for small signals is referred to as hfe . That is,
NPN transistor connected to two voltage sources. To when a small change in the currents occurs, and sufficient
make the transistor conduct appreciable current (on the time has passed for the new condition to reach a steady
order of 1 mA) from C to E, VBE must be above a min- state h fe is the ratio of the change in collector current to

imum value sometimes referred to as the cut-in voltage. the change in[9] base current. The symbol β is used for both
h FE and hfe .
The cut-in voltage is usually about 650 mV for silicon
BJTs at room temperature but can be different depending The emitter current is related to VBE exponentially. At
on the type of transistor and its biasing. This applied volt- room temperature, an increase in VBE by approximately
age causes the lower P-N junction to 'turn on', allowing a 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10.
flow of electrons from the emitter into the base. In active Because the base current is approximately proportional to
mode, the electric field existing between base and col- the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same
lector (caused by VCE) will cause the majority of these way.
138 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

room temperature, an increase in VEB by approximately

60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10.
Because the base current is approximately proportional to
IE the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same
way.
VEB
p E 5.2.5 History
VCE The bipolar point-contact transistor was invented in De-
n B cember 1947[10] at the Bell Telephone Laboratories by
IB John Bardeen and Walter Brattain under the direction of
William Shockley. The junction version known as the
bipolar junction transistor (BJT), invented by Shockley in
p C 1948,[11] was for three decades the device of choice in the
design of discrete and integrated circuits. Nowadays, the
use of the BJT has declined in favor of CMOS technology
in the design of digital integrated circuits. The incidental
IC low performance BJTs inherent in CMOS ICs, however,
are often utilized as bandgap voltage reference, silicon
bandgap temperature sensor and to handle electrostatic
discharge.
Structure and use of PNP transistor
Germanium transistors
Active-mode PNP transistors in circuits
The germanium transistor was more common in the
The diagram shows a schematic representation of a PNP 1950s and 1960s, and while it exhibits a lower “cut-off”
transistor connected to two voltage sources. To make the voltage, typically around 0.2 V, making it more suitable
transistor conduct appreciable current (on the order of 1 for some applications, it also has a greater tendency to
mA) from E to C, VEB must be above a minimum value exhibit thermal runaway.
sometimes referred to as the cut-in voltage. The cut-in
voltage is usually about 650 mV for silicon BJTs at room Early manufacturing techniques
temperature but can be different depending on the type of
transistor and its biasing. This applied voltage causes the Various methods of manufacturing bipolar transistors
upper P-N junction to 'turn-on' allowing a flow of holes were developed.[12]
from the emitter into the base. In active mode, the elec-
tric field existing between the emitter and the collector
(caused by VCE ) causes the majority of these holes to Bipolar transistors
cross the lower p-n junction into the collector to form
the collector current IC . The remainder of the holes re- • Point-contact transistor – first transistor ever con-
combine with electrons, the majority carriers in the base, structed (December 1947), a bipolar transistor, lim-
making a current through the base connection to form the ited commercial use due to high cost and noise.
base current, IB . As shown in the diagram, the emitter • Tetrode point-contact transistor – Point-
current, IE , is the total transistor current, which is the contact transistor having two emitters. It
sum of the other terminal currents (i.e., IE = IB + IC). became obsolete in the middle 1950s.
In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in • Junction transistors
the direction of conventional current – the flow of holes
is in the same direction of the arrows because holes carry • Grown-junction transistor – first bipolar junc-
positive electric charge. In active mode, the ratio of the tion transistor made.[13] Invented by William
collector current to the base current is called the DC cur- Shockley at Bell Labs on June 23, 1948.[14]
rent gain. This gain is usually 100 or more, but robust Patent filed on June 26, 1948.
circuit designs do not depend on the exact value. The • Alloy-junction transistor – emitter and collec-
value of this gain for DC signals is referred to as hFE , tor alloy beads fused to base. Developed at
and the value of this gain for AC signals is referred to General Electric and RCA[15] in 1951.
as hfe . However, when there is no particular frequency • Micro-alloy transistor (MAT) – high
range of interest, the symbol β is used. speed type of alloy junction transistor.
The emitter current is related to VEB exponentially. At Developed at Philco.[16]
5.2. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 139

• Micro-alloy diffused transistor (MADT) Emitter diffusion

Base drift
Collector
– high speed type of alloy junction tran-
sistor, speedier than MAT, a diffused-
base transistor. Developed at Philco.
• Post-alloy diffused transistor (PADT) – Ec
high speed type of alloy junction transis- Ef
tor, speedier than MAT, a diffused-base
diffusion
transistor. Developed at Philips.
depletion depletion Ev
• Tetrode transistor – high speed variant of n-type p-type
region region n-type

[17]
grown-junction transistor or alloy junction
transistor[18] with two connections to base. Band diagram for NPN transistor in active mode, showing injec-
tion of electrons from emitter to base, and their overshoot into the
• Surface-barrier transistor – high-speed metal
collector
barrier junction transistor. Developed at
Philco[19] in 1953.[20]
move through. A PNP BJT will function like two diodes
• Drift-field transistor – high speed bipolar junc- that share an N-type cathode region, and the NPN like
tion transistor. Invented by Herbert Kroe- two diodes sharing a P-type anode region. Connecting
mer[21][22] at the Central Bureau of Telecom- two diodes with wires will not make a transistor, since
munications Technology of the German Postal minority carriers will not be able to get from one P–N
Service, in 1953. junction to the other through the wire.
• Spacistor – circa 1957. Both types of BJT function by letting a small current input
• Diffusion transistor – modern type bipolar to the base control an amplified output from the collec-
junction transistor. Prototypes[23] developed tor. The result is that the transistor makes a good switch
at Bell Labs in 1954. that is controlled by its base input. The BJT also makes a
• Diffused-base transistor – first implemen- good amplifier, since it can multiply a weak input signal to
tation of diffusion transistor. about 100 times its original strength. Networks of tran-
sistors are used to make powerful amplifiers with many
• Mesa transistor – Developed at Texas In-
different applications. In the discussion below, focus is
struments in 1957.
on the NPN bipolar transistor. In the NPN transistor in
• Planar transistor – the bipolar junc- what is called active mode, the base–emitter voltage V
BE
tion transistor that made mass-produced and collector–base voltage V are positive, forward bi-
CB
monolithic integrated circuits possible. asing the emitter–base junction and reverse-biasing the
Developed by Jean Hoerni[24] at Fairchild collector–base junction. In the active mode of operation,
in 1959. electrons are injected from the forward biased n-type
• Epitaxial transistor[25] – a bipolar junction emitter region into the p-type base where they diffuse as
transistor made using vapor phase deposition. minority carriers to the reverse-biased n-type collector
See epitaxy. Allows very precise control of and are swept away by the electric field in the reverse-
doping levels and gradients. biased collector–base junction. For a figure describing
forward and reverse bias, see semiconductor diodes.

5.2.6 Theory and modeling

Large-signal models

Emitter Base Collector In 1954, Jewell James Ebers and John L. Moll introduced
n-type
depletion
region p-type
depletion
region n-type their mathematical model of transistor currents:[26]

Ebers–Moll model The DC emitter and collector cur-

Ec
rents in active mode are well modeled by an approxima-
Ef
tion to the Ebers–Moll model:

Ev ( VBE )
IE = IES e VT − 1
IC = α F IE
Band diagram for NPN transistor at equilibrium
IB = (1 − αF ) IE
Transistors can be thought of as two diodes (P–N junc- The base internal current is mainly by diffusion (see Fick’s
tions) sharing a common region that minority carriers can law) and
140 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

• VT is the thermal voltage kT /q (approximately 26

αR ICD αF IED mV at 300 K ≈ room temperature).

• IE is the emitter current

• IC is the collector current

IE IC
• αF is the common base forward short-circuit current
E C gain (0.98 to 0.998)
IED ICD • IES is the reverse saturation current of the base–
IB emitter diode (on the order of 10−15 to 10−12 am-
B peres)

Ebers–Moll model for an NPN transistor[27] * IB, IC, IE: base, • VBE is the base–emitter voltage
collector and emitter currents * ICD, IED: collector and emit-
ter diode currents * αF, αR: forward and reverse common-base • Dn is the diffusion constant for electrons in the p-
current gains type base

• W is the base width

αR ICD αF IED
The α and forward β parameters are as described previ-
ously. A reverse β is sometimes included in the model.
The unapproximated Ebers–Moll equations used to de-
IE IC scribe the three currents in any operating region are given
below. These equations are based on the transport model
E C for a bipolar junction transistor.[28]
IED ICD
IB [( ) 1 ( VVBC )]
B
VBE VBC
iC = IS e VT
−e VT
− e T −1
βR
[ )]
Ebers–Moll model for a PNP transistor 1 ( VVBE ) 1 ( VVBC
iB = IS e T −1 + e T −1
βF βR
[( )]
VBC ) 1 ( VVBE
αR ICD αF IED
VBE
iE = IS e VT
−e VT
+ e T −1
βF

where

IE IC • iC is the collector current

• iB is the base current

E C
IED ICD • iE is the emitter current
IB
• βF is the forward common emitter current gain (20
B to 500)
Approximated Ebers–Moll model for an NPN transistor in the
forward active mode. The collector diode is reverse-biased so
• βR is the reverse common emitter current gain (0 to
ICD is virtually zero. Most of the emitter diode current (αF is 20)
nearly 1) is drawn from the collector, providing the amplification
of the base current. • IS is the reverse saturation current (on the order of
10−15 to 10−12 amperes)

• VT is the thermal voltage (approximately 26 mV at

300 K ≈ room temperature).
1 VEB
Jn (base) = qDn nbo e VT • VBE is the base–emitter voltage
W
where • VBC is the base–collector voltage
5.2. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 141

( )
VCE1 vBE
iC = IS e VT 1 +
VCE
VA
( )
VBE B βF = βF 0 1 +
VCB
VA
VA
ro =
n p n IC

E C where:

Weff • VCE is the collector–emitter voltage

ΔWeff
• VA is the Early voltage (15 V to 150 V)
E C • βF 0 is forward common-emitter current gain when
n p n VCB = 0 V
• ro is the output impedance
VBE B depletion • IC is the collector current
regions
Punchthrough When the base–collector voltage
VCE2 reaches a certain (device-specific) value, the base–
collector depletion region boundary meets the base–
emitter depletion region boundary. When in this state
Top: NPN base width for low collector-base reverse bias; Bottom:
the transistor effectively has no base. The device thus
narrower NPN base width for large collector-base reverse bias.
Hashed regions are depleted regions. loses all gain when in this state.

Gummel–Poon charge-control model The Gummel–

Base-width modulation Main article: Early Effect Poon model[29] is a detailed charge-controlled model of
BJT dynamics, which has been adopted and elaborated by
As the collector–base voltage ( VCB = VCE −VBE ) varies, others to explain transistor dynamics in greater detail than
the collector–base depletion region varies in size. An in- the terminal-based models typically do.[30] This model
crease in the collector–base voltage, for example, causes also includes the dependence of transistor β -values upon
a greater reverse bias across the collector–base junction, the direct current levels in the transistor, which are as-
increasing the collector–base depletion region width, and sumed current-independent in the Ebers–Moll model.[31]
decreasing the width of the base. This variation in base
width often is called the "Early effect" after its discoverer Small-signal models
James M. Early.
Narrowing of the base width has two consequences: rb'c

rbb ic C
• There is a lesser chance for recombination within the B ib B'
“smaller” base region.
Cc
rb'e
• The charge gradient is increased across the base, gce
Ce gmvb'e
and consequently, the current of minority carriers
injected across the emitter junction increases.
E
Both factors increase the collector or “output” current of Hybrid-pi model
the transistor in response to an increase in the collector–
base voltage. hybrid-pi model Main article: hybrid-pi model
In the forward-active region, the Early effect modifies the
collector current ( iC ) and the forward common emitter The hybrid-pi model is a popular circuit model used for
current gain ( βF ) as given by: analyzing the small signal behavior of bipolar junction
142 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

and field effect transistors. Sometimes it is also called • h ₓ = h ₑ, the current-gain of the transistor. This pa-
Giacoletto model because it was introduced by L.J. Gia- rameter is often specified as hFE or the DC current-
coletto in 1969. The model can be quite accurate for low- gain (βDC) in datasheets.
frequency circuits and can easily be adapted for higher-
frequency circuits with the addition of appropriate inter- • hₒₓ = 1/hₒₑ, the output impedance of transistor. The
electrode capacitances and other parasitic elements. parameter hₒₑ usually corresponds to the output ad-
mittance of the bipolar transistor and has to be in-
verted to convert it to an impedance.
1 ii io 2
As shown, the h-parameters have lower-case subscripts
hix and hence signify AC conditions or analyses. For DC
conditions they are specified in upper-case. For the CE
topology, an approximate h-parameter model is com-
Vi hox Vo monly used which further simplifies the circuit analysis.
hrxVo hfxii For this the hₒₑ and hᵣₑ parameters are neglected (that
is, they are set to infinity and zero, respectively). The
h-parameter model as shown is suited to low-frequency,
3 small-signal analysis. For high-frequency analyses the
inter-electrode capacitances that are important at high
Generalized h-parameter model of an NPN BJT. frequencies must be added.
Replace x with e, b or c for CE, CB and CC topologies respec-
tively.
Etymology of hFE The h refers to its being an h-
h-parameter model Another model commonly used to parameter, a set of parameters named for their origin in
analyze BJT circuits is the h-parameter model, closely a hybrid equivalent circuit model. F is from forward cur-
related to the hybrid-pi model and the y-parameter two- rent amplification also called the current gain. E refers to
port, but using input current and output voltage as inde- the transistor operating in a common emitter (CE) config-
pendent variables, rather than input and output voltages. uration. Capital letters used in the subscript indicate that
This two-port network is particularly suited to BJTs as hFE refers to a direct current circuit.
it lends itself easily to the analysis of circuit behaviour,
and may be used to develop further accurate models. As
Industry models
shown, the term, x, in the model represents a different
BJT lead depending on the topology used. For common-
The Gummel–Poon SPICE model is often used, but it
emitter mode the various symbols take on the specific val-
suffers from several limitations. These have been ad-
ues as:
dressed in various more advanced models: Mextram,
VBIC, HICUM, Modella.[32][33][34][35]
• Terminal 1, base

• Terminal 2, collector
5.2.7 Applications
• Terminal 3 (common), emitter; giving x to be e
The BJT remains a device that excels in some appli-
• iᵢ, base current (i ) cations, such as discrete circuit design, due to the very
wide selection of BJT types available, and because of its
• iₒ, collector current (i ) high transconductance and output resistance compared to
MOSFETs.
• Vᵢ , base-to-emitter voltage (VBE)
The BJT is also the choice for demanding analog circuits,
• Vₒ, collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE) especially for very-high-frequency applications, such as
radio-frequency circuits for wireless systems.
and the h-parameters are given by:
High speed digital logic
• hᵢₓ = hᵢₑ, the input impedance of the transistor (cor-
responding to the base resistance r ᵢ). Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) use BJTs.
• hᵣₓ = hᵣₑ, represents the dependence of the transis- Bipolar transistors can be combined with MOSFETs in an
tor’s IB–VBE curve on the value of VCE. It is usu- integrated circuit by using a BiCMOS process of wafer
ally very small and is often neglected (assumed to be fabrication to create circuits that take advantage of the
zero). application strengths of both types of transistor.
5.2. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 143

Amplifiers If the emitter-base junction is reverse biased into

avalanche or Zener mode and charge flows for a short pe-
Main article: Electronic amplifier riod of time, the current gain of the BJT will be perma-
nently degraded.
The transistor parameters α and β characterizes the
current gain of the BJT. It is this gain that allows BJTs 5.2.9 Complementary pairs
to be used as the building blocks of electronic amplifiers.
The three main BJT amplifier topologies are: The follow are examples of some popular complementary
NPN / PNP transistor pairs.
• Common emitter

• Common base 5.2.10 See also

• Common collector • Bipolar transistor biasing
• Gummel plot
Temperature sensors
• Technology CAD (TCAD)
Main article: Silicon bandgap temperature sensor • KT315

Because of the known temperature and current depen-

dence of the forward-biased base–emitter junction volt- 5.2.11 Notes
age, the BJT can be used to measure temperature by sub-
[1] See point-contact transistor for the historical origin of
tracting two voltages at two different bias currents in a these names.
known ratio.[36]

5.2.12 References
Logarithmic converters
[1] Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill (1989). The Art of Elec-
Because base–emitter voltage varies as the logarithm tronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
of the base–emitter and collector–emitter currents, a 0-521-37095-0.
BJT can also be used to compute logarithms and anti-
[2] Juin Jei Liou and Jiann S. Yuan (1998). Semiconductor
logarithms. A diode can also perform these nonlinear
Device Physics and Simulation. Springer. ISBN 0-306-
functions but the transistor provides more circuit flexi- 45724-5.
bility.
[3] General Electric (1962). Transistor Manual (6th ed.). p.
12. “If the principle of space charge neutrality is used in
5.2.8 Vulnerabilities the analysis of the transistor, it is evident that the collector
current is controlled by means of the positive charge (hole
Exposure of the transistor to ionizing radiation causes concentration) in the base region. ... When a transistor
is used at higher frequencies, the fundamental limitation
radiation damage. Radiation causes a buildup of 'de-
is the time it takes the carriers to diffuse across the base
fects’ in the base region that act as recombination centers.
region...” (same in 4th and 5th editions)
The resulting reduction in minority carrier lifetime causes
gradual loss of gain of the transistor. [4] Paolo Antognetti and Giuseppe Massobrio (1993).
Semiconductor Device Modeling with Spice. McGraw–Hill
Power BJTs are subject to a failure mode called Professional. ISBN 0-07-134955-3.
secondary breakdown, in which excessive current and
normal imperfections in the silicon die cause portions [5] Alphonse J. Sistino (1996). Essentials of electronic cir-
of the silicon inside the device to become disproportion- cuitry. CRC Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-8247-9693-8.
ately hotter than the others. The electrical resistivity of [6] Alphonse J. Sistino (1996). Essentials of electronic cir-
doped silicon, like other semiconductors, has a negative cuitry. CRC Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8247-9693-8.
temperature coefficient, meaning that it conducts more
current at higher temperatures. Thus, the hottest part of [7] D.V. Morgan, Robin H. Williams (Editors) (1991).
the die conducts the most current, causing its conductivity Physics and Technology of Heterojunction Devices. Lon-
to increase, which then causes it to become progressively don: Institution of Electrical Engineers (Peter Peregrinus
Ltd.). ISBN 0-86341-204-1.
hotter again, until the device fails internally. The thermal
runaway process associated with secondary breakdown, [8] Peter Ashburn (2003). SiGe Heterojunction Bipolar Tran-
once triggered, occurs almost instantly and may catas- sistors. New York: Wiley. Chapter 10. ISBN 0-470-
trophically damage the transistor package. 84838-3.
144 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

[9] Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill (1989). The Art of Elec- [29] H. K. Gummel and R. C. Poon, “An integral charge con-
tronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 62– trol model of bipolar transistors”, Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol.
66. ISBN 978-0-521-37095-0. 49, pp. 827–852, May–June 1970

[10] “1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor - The [30] “Bipolar Junction Transistors”. Retrieved August 10,
Silicon Engine - Computer History Museum”. Retrieved 2016.
August 10, 2016.

[11] “1948: Conception of the Junction Transistor - The Sili- [31] A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith (2004). Microelectronic Cir-
con Engine - Computer History Museum”. Retrieved Au- cuits (5th ed.). New York: Oxford. p. 509. ISBN 0-19-
gust 10, 2016. 514251-9.

[12] Third case study – the solid state advent Archived Septem- [32] http://www.silvaco.com/content/kbase/smartspice_
ber 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. (PDF) device_models.pdf
[13] Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery,
[33] Gennady Gildenblat, ed. (2010). Compact Modeling:
Bell Labs Type M1752
Principles, Techniques and Applications. Springer Science
[14] Morris, Peter Robin (1990). “4.2”. A History of the World & Business Media. Part II: Compact Models of Bipo-
Semiconductor Industry. IEE History of Technology Se- lar Junction Transistors, pp. 167-267 cover Mextram and
ries 12. London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. p. 29. ISBN HiCuM in-depth. ISBN 978-90-481-8614-3.
0-86341-227-0.
[34] Michael Schröter (2010). Compact Hierarchical Bipolar
[15] “Transistor Museum Photo Gallery RCA TA153”. Re- Transistor Modeling with Hicum. World Scientific. ISBN
trieved August 10, 2016. 978-981-4273-21-3.
[16] High Speed Switching Transistor Handbook (2nd ed.). Mo-
[35] http://joerg-berkner.de/Fachartikel/pdf/2002_ICCAP_
torola. 1963. p. 17.
UM_Berkner_Compact_Models_4_BJTs.pdf
[17] Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery,
Western Electric 3N22 [36] “IC Temperature Sensors Find the Hot Spots - Applica-
tion Note - Maxim”. maxim-ic.com. February 21, 2002.
[18] The Tetrode Power Transistor PDF Retrieved August 10, 2016.
[19] “Transistor Museum Photo Gallery Philco A01 Germa-
nium Surface Barrier Transistor”. Retrieved August 10,
2016. 5.2.13 External links
[20] “Transistor Museum Photo Gallery Germanium Surface
• Lessons In Electric Circuits – Bipolar Junction
Barrier Transistor”. Retrieved August 10, 2016.
Transistors (Note: this site shows current as a flow
[21] Herb’s Bipolar Transistors IEEE Transactions on Electron of electrons, rather than the convention of showing
Devices, vol. 48, no. 11, November 2001 PDF it as a flow of holes)
[22] Influence of Mobility and Lifetime Variations on Drift-
• EncycloBEAMia – Bipolar Junction Transistor
Field Effects in Silicon-Junction Devices PDF

[23] “Transistor Museum Photo Gallery Bell Labs Prototype • Characteristic curves
Diffused Base Germanium Silicon Transistor”. Retrieved
August 10, 2016. • ENGI 242/ELEC 222: BJT Small Signal Models
[24] “Transistor Museum Photo Gallery Fairchild 2N1613
Early Silicon Planar Transistor”. Retrieved August 10, • Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Timeline
2016.
• ECE 327: Transistor Basics – Summarizes simple
[25] “1960: Epitaxial Deposition Process Enhances Transis- Ebers–Moll model of a bipolar transistor and gives
tor Performance - The Silicon Engine - Computer History several common BJT circuits.
Museum”. Retrieved August 10, 2016.

[26] J.J. Ebers and J.L Moll (1954) “Large-signal behavior of • ECE 327: Procedures for Output Filtering Lab –
junction transistors”, Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Section 4 (“Power Amplifier”) discusses design of
Engineers, 42 (12) : 1761–1772. a BJT-Sziklai-pair-based class-AB current driver in
detail.
[27] Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (1987). Microelec-
tronic Circuits, second ed. p. 903. ISBN 0-03-007328-6.
• BJT Operation description for undergraduate and
[28] A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith (2004). Microelectronic Cir- first year graduate students to describe the basic
cuits (5th ed.). New York: Oxford. Eqs. 4.103–4.110, p. principles of operation of Bipolar Junction Transis-
305. ISBN 0-19-514251-9. tor.
5.3. AMPLIFIER 145

plify frequencies in the radio frequency range between 20

kHz and 300 GHz. Another is which quantity, voltage or
current is being amplified; amplifiers can be divided into
voltage amplifiers, current amplifiers, transconductance
amplifiers, and transresistance amplifiers. A further dis-
tinction is whether the output is a linear or nonlinear rep-
resentation of the input. Amplifiers can also be catego-
rized by their physical placement in the signal chain.[1]
The first practical electronic device that could amplify
was the triode vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee
De Forest, which led to the first amplifiers around 1912.
Vacuum tubes were used in almost all amplifiers until the
A 100 watt stereo audio amplifier used in home component audio 1960s–1970s when the transistor, invented in 1947, re-
systems in the 1970s. placed them. Today most amplifiers use transistors, but
vacuum tubes continue to be used in some applications.

V
Vo 5.3.1 History
Vi
t→

Graph of the input vi (t) (blue) and output voltage vo (t) (red)
of an ideal linear amplifier with an arbitrary signal applied as
input. Amplification means increasing the amplitude (voltage or
current) of a time-varying signal by a given factor, as shown
here. In this example the amplifier has a voltage gain of 3; that
is at any instant vo = 3vi

5.3 Amplifier
This article is about electronic amplifiers. For other uses,
see Amplifier (disambiguation).
An amplifier, electronic amplifier or (informally) amp
is an electronic device that can increase the power of a
signal (a time-varying voltage or current). An amplifier
functions by taking power from a power supply and con-
trolling the output to match the input signal shape but with
a larger amplitude. In this sense, an amplifier modulates
the output of the power supply based upon the properties
of the input signal. An amplifier is effectively the oppo-
site of an attenuator: while an amplifier provides gain, an De Forest’s prototype audio amplifier, 1914. His Audion (tri-
ode) vacuum tube had a voltage gain of about 5, so this 3 stage
attenuator provides loss.
amplifier had a gain of about 125
An amplifier can either be a separate piece of equipment
or an electrical circuit contained within another device. The development of audio communication technology;
Amplification is fundamental to modern electronics, and the telephone and intercom around 1880 and the first
amplifiers are widely used in almost all electronic equip- AM radio transmitters and receivers around 1905 cre-
ment. Amplifiers can be categorized in different ways. ated a need to somehow make an electrical audio signal
One is by the frequency of the electronic signal being “louder”. Before the invention of electronic amplifiers,
amplified; audio amplifiers amplify signals in the audio mechanically coupled carbon microphones were used as
(sound) range of less than 20 kHz, RF amplifiers am- crude amplifiers in telephone repeaters. After the turn of
146 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

the century it was found that negative resistance mercury • Noise, a measure of undesired noise mixed into the
lamps could amplify, and were also tried in repeaters.[2] output
The first practical electronic device that could amplify
was the Audion (triode) vacuum tube, invented in 1906 • Output dynamic range, the ratio of the largest and
by Lee De Forest, which led to the first amplifiers around the smallest useful output levels
1912. The terms “amplifier” and “amplification” (from • Slew rate, the maximum rate of change of the output
the Latin amplificare, 'to enlarge or expand'[3] ) were first
used for this new capability around 1915 when triodes • Rise time, settling time, ringing and overshoot that
became widespread.[3] characterize the step response
The amplifying vacuum tube revolutionized electrical • Stability, the ability to avoid self-oscillation
technology, creating the new field of electronics, the tech-
nology of active electrical devices. It made possible long
distance telephone lines, public address systems, radio 5.3.3 Amplifier categorisation
broadcasting, talking motion pictures, practical audio
recording, radar, television, and the first computers. For Amplifiers are described according to the properties of
50 years virtually all consumer electronic devices used their inputs, their outputs, and how they relate.[4] All am-
vacuum tubes. Early tube amplifiers often had positive plifiers have gain, a multiplication factor that relates the
feedback (regeneration), which could increase gain but magnitude of some property of the output signal to a
also make the amplifier unstable and prone to oscillation. property of the input signal. The gain may be specified as
Much of the mathematical theory of amplifiers was de- the ratio of output voltage to input voltage (voltage gain),
veloped at Bell Telephone Laboratories during the 1920s output power to input power (power gain), or some com-
to 1940s. Distortion levels in early amplifiers were high, bination of current, voltage, and power. In many cases
usually around 5%, until 1934, when Harold Black devel- the property of the output that varies is dependent on
oped negative feedback; this allowed the distortion levels the same property of the input, making the gain unitless
to be greatly reduced, at the cost of lower gain. Other ad- (though often expressed in decibels (dB)).
vances in the theory of amplification were made by Harry Most amplifiers are designed to be linear. That is, they
Nyquist and Hendrik Wade Bode. provide constant gain for any normal input level and out-
The vacuum tube was the only amplifying device (besides put signal. If an amplifier’s gain is not linear, the output
specialized power devices such as the magnetic ampli- signal can become distorted. There are, however, cases
fier and amplidyne) for 40 years, and dominated electron- where variable gain is useful. Certain signal processing
ics until 1947, when the first transistor, the BJT, was in- applications use exponential gain amplifiers.[1]
vented. The replacement of bulky, fragile vacuum tubes Amplifiers are usually designed to function well in a
with transistors during the 1960s and 1970s created an- specific application, for example: radio and television
other revolution in electronics, making possible the first transmitters and receivers, high-fidelity (“hi-fi”) stereo
really portable electronic devices, such as the transistor equipment, microcomputers and other digital equipment,
radio developed in 1954. Today most amplifiers use and guitar and other instrument amplifiers. Every ampli-
transistors, but vacuum tubes are still used in some high fier includes at least one active device, such as a vacuum
power applications such as radio transmitters. tube or transistor.

5.3.2 Figures of merit Active devices

Main article: Amplifier figures of merit All amplifiers include some form of active device: this is
the device that does the actual amplification. The active
device can be a vacuum tube, discrete solid state compo-
Amplifier quality is characterized by a list of specifica-
nent, such as a single transistor, or part of an integrated
tions that include:
circuit, as in an op-amp).

• Gain, the ratio between the magnitude of output and

input signals Transistor amplifiers See also: Transistor, Bipolar
junction transistor, Field-effect transistor, JFET, and
• Bandwidth, the width of the useful frequency range MOSFET

• Efficiency, the ratio between the power of the output

and total power consumption Transistor amplifiers (or solid state amplifiers) are the
most common type of amplifier in use today. A transistor
• Linearity, the extent to which the proportion be- is used as the active element. The gain of the amplifier
tween input and output amplitude is the same for is determined by the properties of the transistor itself as
high amplitude and low amplitude input well as the circuit it is contained within.
5.3. AMPLIFIER 147

Common active devices in transistor amplifiers include or valve amplifiers) use a vacuum tube as the active de-
bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and metal oxide semi- vice. While semiconductor amplifiers have largely dis-
conductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). placed valve amplifiers for low power applications, valve
Applications are numerous, some common examples are amplifiers can be much more cost effective in high power
audio amplifiers in a home stereo or public address sys- applications such as radar, countermeasures equipment,
tem, RF high power generation for semiconductor equip- and communications equipment. Many microwave am-
ment, to RF and microwave applications such as radio plifiers are specially designed valve amplifiers, such as
transmitters. the klystron, gyrotron, traveling wave tube, and crossed-
field amplifier, and these microwave valves provide much
Transistor-based amplification can be realized using var- greater single-device power output at microwave frequen-
ious configurations: for example a bipolar junction tran- cies than solid-state devices.[5] Vacuum tubes remain in
sistor can realize common base, common collector or use in some high end audio equipment, as well as in
common emitter amplification; a MOSFET can realize musical instrument amplifiers, due to a preference for
common gate, common source or common drain ampli- "tube sound".
fication. Each configuration has different characteristics.

Magnetic amplifiers Main article: Magnetic ampli-

fier

Magnetic amplifiers are devices somewhat similar to a

transformer where one winding is used to control the sat-
uration of a magnetic core and hence alter the impedance
of the other winding.[6]
They have largely fallen out of use due to development
in semiconductor amplifiers but are still useful in HVDC
control, and in nuclear power control circuitry to their not
being affected by radioactivity.

Negative resistance devices Negative resistances

can be used as amplifiers, such as the tunnel diode
amplifier.[7][8]

Amplifier architectures

Amplifiers can also be categorised by the way they am-

plify the input signal.

Power amplifier A power amplifier is an amplifier de-

signed primarily to increase the power available to a load.
In practice, amplifier power gain depends on the source
and load impedances, as well as the inherent voltage and
current gain. A radio frequency (RF) amplifier design
typically optimizes impedances for power transfer, while
audio and instrumentation amplifier designs normally op-
timize input and output impedance for least loading and
highest signal integrity. An amplifier that is said to have a
gain of 20 dB might have a voltage gain of 20 dB and an
available power gain of much more than 20 dB (power ra-
tio of 100)—yet actually deliver a much lower power gain
An ECC83 tube glowing inside a preamp
if, for example, the input is from a 600 Ω microphone and
the output connects to a 47 kΩ input socket for a power
Vacuum-tube amplifiers Main article: Valve ampli- amplifier. In general the power amplifier is the last 'am-
fier plifier' or actual circuit in a signal chain (the output stage)
and is the amplifier stage that requires attention to power
Vacuum-tube amplifiers (also known as tube amplifiers efficiency. Efficiency considerations lead to the various
148 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

An LM741 general purpose op-amp

Power amplifier by Skyworks Solutions in a Smartphone
feedback through an external circuit. Though the term to-
day commonly applies to integrated circuits, the original
classes of power amplifier based on the biasing of the out-
operational amplifier design used valves, and later designs
put transistors or tubes: see power amplifier classes be-
used discrete transistor circuits.
low.

Differential amplifiers Main article: Fully differen-

Power amplifiers by application
tial amplifier
• Audio power amplifiers: typically used to drive
loudspeakers, will often have two output channels A fully differential amplifier is similar to the operational
and deliver equal power to each amplifier, but also has differential outputs. These are usu-
ally constructed using BJTs or FETs.
• RF power amplifier—typical in transmitter final
A differential amplifier is the first stage of an op-amp, a
stages (see also: Linear amplifier)
differential amplifier consists of two transistors which are
• Servo motor controllers: amplify a control voltage emitter coupled. Types of differential amplifiers:
where linearity is not important
• Differential mode
• Piezoelectric audio amplifier—includes a DC-to-
DC converter to generate the high voltage output re-
quired to drive piezoelectric speakers[9] Vd = V1 − V2

• Common mode
Power amplifier circuits Power amplifier circuits in-
clude the following types:
It is the average between the input voltages V2 and V1
V1 +V2
• Vacuum tube/valve, hybrid or transistor power am- Vc = 2
plifiers

• Push-pull output or single-ended output stages Distributed amplifiers Main article: Distributed
amplifier

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) Main articles: These use balanced transmission lines to separate indi-
Operational amplifier and Instrumentation amplifier vidual single stage amplifiers, the outputs of which are
summed by the same transmission line. The transmis-
An operational amplifier is an amplifier circuit which typ- sion line is a balanced type with the input at one end
ically has very high open loop gain and differential inputs. and on one side only of the balanced transmission line
Op amps have become very widely used as standardized and the output at the opposite end is also the opposite
“gain blocks” in circuits due to their versatility; their gain, side of the balanced transmission line. The gain of each
bandwidth and other characteristics can be controlled by stage adds linearly to the output rather than multiplies one
5.3. AMPLIFIER 149

on the other as in a cascade configuration. This allows a Musical instrument amplifiers Main article:
higher bandwidth to be achieved than could otherwise be Instrument amplifier
realised even with the same gain stage elements.
An audio power amplifier is usually used to amplify sig-
nals such as music or speech. In the mid 1960s, guitar and
Switched mode amplifiers These nonlinear ampli- bass amplifiers began to gain popularity because of their
fiers have much higher efficiencies than linear amps, and relatively low price ($50) and guitars being the most pop-
are used where the power saving justifies the extra com- ular instruments as well.[13] Several factors are especially
plexity. Class-D amplifiers are the main example of this important in the selection of musical instrument ampli-
type of amplification—see below. fiers (such as guitar amplifiers) and other audio amplifiers
(although the whole of the sound system – components
such as microphones to loudspeakers – affect these pa-
Applications rameters):

Video amplifiers Video amplifiers are designed to • Frequency response – not just the frequency range
process video signals and have varying bandwidths de- but the requirement that the signal level varies so lit-
pending on whether the video signal is for SDTV, EDTV, tle across the audible frequency range that the hu-
HDTV 720p or 1080i/p etc.. The specification of the man ear notices no variation. A typical specification
bandwidth itself depends on what kind of filter is used— for audio amplifiers may be 20 Hz to 20 kHz +/− 0.5
and at which point (−1 dB or −3 dB for example) the dB.
bandwidth is measured. Certain requirements for step re-
sponse and overshoot are necessary for an acceptable TV • Power output – the power level obtainable with little
image.[10] distortion, to obtain a sufficiently loud sound pres-
sure level from the loudspeakers.
• Low distortion – all amplifiers and transducers dis-
Oscilloscope vertical amplifiers These deal with
tort to some extent. They cannot be perfectly lin-
video signals that drive an oscilloscope display tube, and
ear, but aim to pass signals without affecting the
can have bandwidths of about 500 MHz. The specifica-
harmonic content of the sound more than the human
tions on step response, rise time, overshoot, and aberra-
ear can tolerate. That tolerance of distortion, and in-
tions can make designing these amplifiers difficult. One
deed the possibility that some “warmth” or second
of the pioneers in high bandwidth vertical amplifiers was
harmonic distortion (tube sound) improves the “mu-
the Tektronix company.[11]
sicality” of the sound, are subjects of great debate.

Before coming onto the music scene, amplifiers were

Microwave amplifiers
heavily used in cinema. In the premiere of Noah’s Ark
in 1929, the movie’s director (Michael Kurtiz) used the
amplifier for a festival following the movie’s premiere.[14]
Travelling wave tube amplifiers Main article:
Traveling wave tube
5.3.4 Classification of amplifier stages and
Traveling wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) are used for systems
high power amplification at low microwave frequencies.
They typically can amplify across a broad spectrum of Many alternative classifications address different aspects
frequencies; however, they are usually not as tunable as of amplifier designs, and they all express some particular
klystrons.[12] perspective relating the design parameters to the objec-
tives of the circuit. Amplifier design is always a compro-
mise of numerous factors, such as cost, power consump-
Klystrons Main article: Klystron tion, real-world device imperfections, and a multitude of
performance specifications. Below are several different
approaches to classification:
Klystrons are specialized linear-beam vacuum-devices,
designed to provide high power, widely tunable amplifi-
cation of millimetre and sub-millimetre waves. Klystrons Input and output variables
are designed for large scale operations and despite having
a narrower bandwidth than TWTAs, they have the advan- Electronic amplifiers use one variable presented as either
tage of coherently amplifying a reference signal so its out- a current and voltage. Either current or voltage can be
put may be precisely controlled in amplitude, frequency used as input and either as output, leading to four types
and phase. of amplifiers.[1] In idealized form they are represented by
150 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

tor. This causes negative feedback, and the output voltage

tends to follow the input voltage. This arrangement is also
used as the input presents a high impedance and does not
load the signal source, though the voltage amplification is
less than one. The common-collector circuit is, therefore,
better known as an emitter follower, source follower, or
cathode follower.

Unilateral or bilateral
The four types of dependent source—control variable on left,
output variable on right
An amplifier whose output exhibits no feedback to
its input side is described as 'unilateral'. The input
each of the four types of dependent source used in linear impedance of a unilateral amplifier is independent of
analysis, as shown in the figure, namely: load, and output impedance is independent of signal
[18]
Each type of amplifier in its ideal form has an ideal in- source impedance.
put and output resistance that is the same as that of the An amplifier that uses feedback to connect part of the
corresponding dependent source:[15] output back to the input is a bilateral amplifier. Bilat-
In practice the ideal impedances are not possible to eral amplifier input impedance depends on the load, and
achieve. For any particular circuit, a small-signal anal- output impedance on the signal source impedance. All
ysis is often used to find the actual impedance. A small- amplifiers are bilateral to some degree; however they may
signal AC test current Ix is applied to the input or output often be modeled as unilateral under operating conditions
node, all external sources are set to AC zero, and the cor- where feedback is small enough to neglect for most pur-
responding alternating voltage Vx across the test current poses, simplifying analysis (see the common base article
source determines the impedance seen at that node as R for an example).
= Vx / Ix.[16] An amplifier design often deliberately applies negative
Amplifiers designed to attach to a transmission line at in- feedback to tailor amplifier behavior. Some feed-
put and output, especially RF amplifiers, do not fit into back, positive or negative, is unavoidable and often
this classification approach. Rather than dealing with undesirable—introduced, for example, by parasitic ele-
voltage or current individually, they ideally couple with ments, such as inherent capacitance between input and
an input or output impedance matched to the transmis- output of devices such as transistors, and capacitive cou-
sion line impedance, that is, match ratios of voltage to pling of external wiring. Excessive frequency-dependent
current. Many real RF amplifiers come close to this positive feedback can turn an amplifier into an oscillator.
ideal. Although, for a given appropriate source and load Linear unilateral and bilateral amplifiers can be repre-
impedance, RF amplifiers can be characterized as ampli- sented as two-port networks.
fying voltage or current, they fundamentally are amplify-
ing power.[17]

Common terminal Inverting or non-inverting

One set of classifications for amplifiers is based on which

device terminal is common to both the input and the out- Another way to classify amplifiers is by the phase rela-
put circuit. In the case of bipolar junction transistors, tionship of the input signal to the output signal. An 'in-
the three classes are common emitter, common base, and verting' amplifier produces an output 180 degrees out of
common collector. For field-effect transistors, the cor- phase with the input signal (that is, a polarity inversion
responding configurations are common source, common or mirror image of the input as seen on an oscilloscope).
gate, and common drain; for vacuum tubes, common A 'non-inverting' amplifier maintains the phase of the in-
cathode, common grid, and common plate. The common put signal waveforms. An emitter follower is a type of
emitter (or common source, common cathode, etc.) is non-inverting amplifier, indicating that the signal at the
most often configured to provide amplification of a volt- emitter of a transistor is following (that is, matching with
age applied between base and emitter, and the output sig- unity gain but perhaps an offset) the input signal. Volt-
nal taken between collector and emitter is inverted, rel- age follower is also non inverting type of amplifier having
ative to the input. The common collector arrangement unity gain.
applies the input voltage between base and collector, and This description can apply to a single stage of an ampli-
to take the output voltage between emitter and collec- fier, or to a complete amplifier system.
5.3. AMPLIFIER 151

Function is still modulated by the relatively large gain-

control DC voltage.
Other amplifiers may be classified by their function or • AM detector circuits that use amplification
output characteristics. These functional descriptions usu- such as Anode-bend detectors, Precision rec-
ally apply to complete amplifier systems or sub-systems tifiers and Infinite impedance detectors (so ex-
and rarely to individual stages. cluding unamplified detectors such as Cat’s-
whisker detectors), as well as peak detector
• A servo amplifier indicates an integrated feedback circuits, rely on changes in amplification based
loop to actively control the output at some desired on the signal's instantaneous amplitude to de-
level. A DC servo indicates use at frequencies down rive a direct current from an alternating current
to DC levels, where the rapid fluctuations of an audio input.
or RF signal do not occur. These are often used in • Operational amplifier comparator and detector
mechanical actuators, or devices such as DC motors circuits.
that must maintain a constant speed or torque. An
AC servo amp can do this for some ac motors. • A wideband amplifier has a precise amplification
factor over a wide frequency range, and is often used
• A linear amplifier responds to different frequency to boost signals for relay in communications sys-
components independently, and does not generate tems. A narrowband amp amplifies a specific nar-
harmonic distortion or Intermodulation distortion. row range of frequencies, to the exclusion of other
No amplifier can provide perfect linearity (even frequencies.
the most linear amplifier has some nonlinearities,
since the amplifying devices—transistors or vacuum • An RF amplifier amplifies signals in the radio fre-
tubes—follow nonlinear power laws such as square- quency range of the electromagnetic spectrum, and
laws and rely on circuitry techniques to reduce those is often used to increase the sensitivity of a receiver
effects). or the output power of a transmitter.[19]

• A nonlinear amplifier generates significant distor- • An audio amplifier amplifies audio frequencies.
tion and so changes the harmonic content; there are This category subdivides into small signal amplifica-
situations where this is useful. Amplifier circuits in- tion, and power amps that are optimised to driving
tentionally providing a non-linear transfer function speakers, sometimes with multiple amps grouped
include: together as separate or bridgeable channels to ac-
commodate different audio reproduction require-
• a device like a Silicon Controlled Rectifier or ments. Frequently used terms within audio ampli-
a transistor used as a switch may be employed fiers include:
to turn either fully ON or OFF a load such as
a lamp based on a threshold in a continuously • Preamplifier (preamp), which may include a
variable input. phono preamp with RIAA equalization, or
tape head preamps with CCIR equalisation fil-
• a non-linear amplifier in an analog computer or
ters. They may include filters or tone control
true RMS converter for example can provide a
circuitry.
special transfer function, such as logarithmic
or square-law. • Power amplifier (normally drives
loudspeakers), headphone amplifiers, and
• a Class C RF amplifier may be chosen because
public address amplifiers.
it can be very efficient—but is non-linear.
Following such an amplifier with a "tank" • Stereo amplifiers imply two channels of out-
tuned circuit can reduce unwanted harmon- put (left and right), though the term sim-
ics (distortion) sufficiently to make it useful in ply means “solid” sound (referring to three-
transmitters, or some desired harmonic may be dimensional)—so quadraphonic stereo was
selected by setting the resonant frequency of used for amplifiers with four channels. 5.1
the tuned circuit to a higher frequency rather and 7.1 systems refer to Home theatre sys-
than fundamental frequency in frequency mul- tems with 5 or 7 normal spatial channels, plus
tiplier circuits. a subwoofer channel.
• Automatic gain control circuits require an • Buffer amplifiers, which may include emitter follow-
amplifier’s gain be controlled by the time- ers, provide a high impedance input for a device
averaged amplitude so that the output am- (perhaps another amplifier, or perhaps an energy-
plitude varies little when weak stations are hungry load such as lights) that would otherwise
being received. The non-linearities are as- draw too much current from the source. Line drivers
sumed arranged so the relatively small signal are a type of buffer that feeds long or interference-
amplitude suffers from little distortion (cross- prone interconnect cables, possibly with differential
channel interference or intermodulation) yet outputs through twisted pair cables.
152 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

• A special type of amplifier—originally used in Direct coupled amplifier, using no impedance and
analog computers—is widely used in measuring in- bias matching components
This class of amplifier was very uncommon in the
struments for signal processing, and many other
vacuum tube days when the anode (output) voltage
uses. These are called operational amplifiers or
was at greater than several hundred volts and the
op-amps. The “operational” name is because this
grid (input) voltage at a few volts minus. So they
type of amplifier can be used in circuits that perform
were only used if the gain was specified down to
mathematical algorithmic functions, or “operations”
DC (e.g., in an oscilloscope). In the context of
on input signals to obtain specific types of output sig-
modern electronics developers are encouraged to
nals. Modern op-amps are usually provided as inte-
use directly coupled amplifiers whenever possible.
grated circuits, rather than constructed from discrete
In FET and CMOS technologies direct coupling is
components. A typical modern op-amp has differ-
dominant since gates of MOSFETs theoretically
ential inputs (one “inverting”, one “non-inverting”)
pass no current through themselves. Therefore, DC
and one output. An idealised op-amp has the fol-
component of the input signals is automatically
lowing characteristics:
filtered.
• Infinite input impedance (so it does not load
the circuitry at its input)
Frequency range
• Zero output impedance
• Infinite gain Depending on the frequency range and other properties
amplifiers are designed according to different principles.
• Zero propagation delay
• Frequency ranges down to DC are only used when
The performance of an op-amp with these characteristics this property is needed. DC amplification leads to
is entirely defined by the (usually passive) components specific complications that are avoided if possible;
that form a negative feedback loop around it. The am- DC-blocking capacitors can be added to remove
plifier itself does not affect the output. All real-world op- DC and sub-sonic frequencies from audio ampli-
amps fall short of the idealised specification above—but fiers.
some modern components have remarkable performance
and come close in some respects. • Depending on the frequency range specified differ-
ent design principles must be used. Up to the MHz
range only “discrete” properties need be considered;
Interstage coupling method e.g., a terminal has an input impedance.

See also: multistage amplifiers • As soon as any connection within the circuit gets
longer than perhaps 1% of the wavelength of the
highest specified frequency (e.g., at 100 MHz the
Amplifiers are sometimes classified by the coupling wavelength is 3 m, so the critical connection length
method of the signal at the input, output, or between is approx. 3 cm) design properties radically change.
stages. Different types of these include: For example, a specified length and width of a
PCB trace can be used as a selective or impedance-
Resistive-capacitive (RC) coupled amplifier, using a matching entity.
network of resistors and capacitors
By design these amplifiers cannot amplify DC sig- • Above a few hundred MHz, it gets difficult to use
nals as the capacitors block the DC component of discrete elements, especially inductors. In most
the input signal. RC-coupled amplifiers were used cases, PCB traces of very closely defined shapes are
very often in circuits with vacuum tubes or discrete used instead.
transistors. In the days of the integrated circuit a
few more transistors on a chip are much cheaper The frequency range handled by an amplifier might be
and smaller than a capacitor. specified in terms of bandwidth (normally implying a re-
sponse that is 3 dB down when the frequency reaches the
Inductive-capacitive (LC) coupled amplifier, using a specified bandwidth), or by specifying a frequency re-
network of inductors and capacitors sponse that is within a certain number of decibels be-
This kind of amplifier is most often used in selective
tween a lower and an upper frequency (e.g. “20 Hz to 20
radio-frequency circuits.
kHz plus or minus 1 dB”).
Transformer coupled amplifier, using a transformer
to match impedances or to decouple parts of the cir-
cuits 5.3.5 Power amplifier classes
Quite often LC-coupled and transformer-coupled
amplifiers cannot be distinguished as a transformer Power amplifier circuits (output stages) are classified as
is some kind of inductor. A, B, AB and C for analog designs—and class D and E for
5.3. AMPLIFIER 153

switching designs—based on the proportion of each input Class A

cycle (conduction angle) during which an amplifying de-
vice passes current.[20] The image of the conduction angle
derives from amplifying a sinusoidal signal. If the device
is always on, the conducting angle is 360°. If it is on for
only half of each cycle, the angle is 180°. The angle of
flow is closely related to the amplifier power efficiency.
The various classes are introduced below, followed by a
more detailed discussion under their individual headings
further down.
In the illustrations below, a bipolar junction transistor is
shown as the amplifying device. However the same at-
tributes are found with MOSFETs or vacuum tubes.

Class-A amplifier
Conduction angle classes
Amplifying devices operating in class A conduct over the
Class A 100% of the input signal is used (conduction
entire range of the input cycle. A class-A amplifier is
angle Θ = 360°). The active element remains
[21] distinguished by the output stage devices being biased for
conducting all of the time.
class A operation. Subclass A2 is sometimes used to refer
Class B 50% of the input signal is used (Θ = 180°); the to vacuum-tube class-A stages that drive the grid slightly
active element carries current half of each cycle, and positive on signal peaks for slightly more power than nor-
is turned off for the other half. mal class A (A1; where the grid is always negative[22][23] ).
This, however, incurs higher signal distortion.
Class AB Class AB is intermediate between class A and
B, the two active elements conduct more than half
of the time. Advantages of class-A amplifiers
Class C Less than 50% of the input signal is used (con-
• Class-A designs are simpler than other classes; for
duction angle Θ < 180°).
example class -AB and -B designs require two con-
nected devices in the circuit (push–pull output), each
A “Class D” amplifier uses some form of pulse-width
to handle one half of the waveform; class A can use
modulation to control the output devices; the conduction
a single device (single-ended).
angle of each device is no longer related directly to the
input signal but instead varies in pulse width. These are • The amplifying element is biased so the device is
sometimes called “digital” amplifiers because the output always conducting, the quiescent (small-signal) col-
device is switched fully on or off, and not carrying current lector current (for transistors; drain current for FETs
proportional to the signal amplitude. or anode/plate current for vacuum tubes) is close
to the most linear portion of its transconductance
Additional classes There are several other amplifier curve.
classes, although they are mainly variations of the
previous classes. For example, class-G and class- • Because the device is never 'off' there is no “turn
H amplifiers are marked by variation of the sup- on” time, no problems with charge storage, and gen-
ply rails (in discrete steps or in a continuous fash- erally better high frequency performance and feed-
ion, respectively) following the input signal. Wasted back loop stability (and usually fewer high-order
heat on the output devices can be reduced as ex- harmonics).
cess voltage is kept to a minimum. The amplifier
• The point where the device comes closest to be-
that is fed with these rails itself can be of any class.
ing 'off' is not at 'zero signal', so the problems of
These kinds of amplifiers are more complex, and
crossover distortion associated with class-AB and -
are mainly used for specialized applications, such
B designs is avoided.
as very high-power units. Also, class-E and class-F
amplifiers are commonly described in literature for • Best for low signal levels of radio receivers due to
radio-frequency applications where efficiency of the low distortion.
traditional classes is important, yet several aspects
deviate substantially from their ideal values. These
classes use harmonic tuning of their output networks Disadvantage of class-A amplifiers
to achieve higher efficiency and can be considered a
subset of class C due to their conduction-angle char- • Class-A amplifiers are inefficient. A theoretical ef-
acteristics. ficiency of 50% is obtainable in a push-pull topol-
154 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

ogy, and only 25% in a single-ended topology, un- class-A devices is the long-tailed pair, which is excep-
less deliberate use of nonlinearities is made (such as tionally linear, and forms the basis of many more com-
in square-law output stages).[24] In a power am- plex circuits, including many audio amplifiers and almost
plifier, this not only wastes power and limits oper- all op-amps.
ation with batteries, but increases operating costs Class-A amplifiers may be used in output stages of op-
and requires higher-rated output devices. Ineffi- amps[28] (although the accuracy of the bias in low cost
ciency comes from the standing current that must op-amps such as the 741 may result in class A or class AB
be roughly half the maximum output current, and or class B performance, varying from device to device or
a large part of the power supply voltage is present
with temperature). They are sometimes used as medium-
across the output device at low signal levels. If high power, low-efficiency, and high-cost audio power ampli-
output power is needed from a class-A circuit, the
fiers. The power consumption is unrelated to the output
power supply and accompanying heat becomes sig- power. At idle (no input), the power consumption is es-
nificant. For every watt delivered to the load, the
sentially the same as at high output volume. The result is
amplifier itself, at best, uses an extra watt. For high low efficiency and high heat dissipation.
power amplifiers this means very large and expen-
sive power supplies and heat sinks.
Class B
Class-A power amplifier designs have largely been super-
seded by more efficient designs, though their simplicity
makes them popular with some hobbyists. There is a mar-
ket for expensive high fidelity class-A amps considered
a “cult item” among audiophiles[25] mainly for their ab-
sence of crossover distortion and reduced odd-harmonic
and high-order harmonic distortion. They also fill a niche
market for recreations of vintage guitar amplifiers, due to
their unique tone.

Single-ended and triode class-A amplifiers Some Class-B amplifier

hobbyists who prefer class-A amplifiers also prefer the
use of thermionic valve (tube) designs instead of transis- Class-B amplifiers only amplify half of the input wave
tors, for several reasons: cycle, thus creating a large amount of distortion, but
their efficiency is greatly improved and is much bet-
[29]
• Single-ended output stages have an asymmetrical ter than class A. Class-B amplifiers are also favoured
transfer function, meaning that even-order harmon- in battery-operated devices, such as transistor radios.
ics in the created distortion tend to not cancel out Class B has[24]a maximum theoretical efficiency of π/4
(as they do in push–pull output stages). For tubes, (≈ 78.5%). This is because the amplifying element
or FETs, most distortion is second-order harmonics, is switched off altogether half of the time, and so can-
from the square law transfer characteristic, which not dissipate power. A single class-B element is rarely
to some produces a “warmer” and more pleasant found in practice, though it has been used for driving the
sound. [26][27] loudspeaker in the early IBM Personal Computers with
beeps, and it can be used in RF power amplifier where
• For those who prefer low distortion figures, the use the distortion levels are less important. However, class C
of tubes with class A (generating little odd-harmonic is more commonly used for this.
distortion, as mentioned above) together with sym- A practical circuit using class-B elements is the push–pull
metrical circuits (such as push–pull output stages, or stage, such as the very simplified complementary pair ar-
balanced low-level stages) results in the cancellation rangement shown below. Here, complementary or quasi-
of most of the even distortion harmonics, hence the complementary devices are each used for amplifying the
removal of most of the distortion. opposite halves of the input signal, which is then recom-
bined at the output. This arrangement gives excellent ef-
• Historically, valve amplifiers often used a class-A ficiency, but can suffer from the drawback that there is a
power amplifier simply because valves are large and small mismatch in the cross-over region – at the “joins”
expensive; many class-A designs use only a single between the two halves of the signal, as one output de-
device. vice has to take over supplying power exactly as the other
finishes. This is called crossover distortion. An improve-
Transistors are much cheaper, and so more elaborate de- ment is to bias the devices so they are not completely off
signs that give greater efficiency but use more parts are when they are not in use. This approach is called class
still cost-effective. A classic application for a pair of AB operation.
5.3. AMPLIFIER 155

Class B amplifiers offer higher efficiency than class A AB2 .[23]

amplifier using a single active device.

Class C
Class AB

Class-C amplifier

Class-AB push–pull amplifier Class-C amplifiers conduct less than 50% of the input sig-
nal and the distortion at the output is high, but high effi-
Class AB is widely considered a good compromise for ciencies (up to 90%) are possible. The usual application
amplifiers, since much of the time the music signal is for class-C amplifiers is in RF transmitters operating at a
quiet enough that the signal stays in the “class A” region, single fixed carrier frequency, where the distortion is con-
where it is amplified with good fidelity, and by defini- trolled by a tuned load on the amplifier. The input signal
tion if passing out of this region, is large enough that the is used to switch the active device causing pulses of cur-
distortion products typical of class B are relatively small. rent to flow through a tuned circuit forming part of the
The crossover distortion can be reduced further by using load.[31]
negative feedback. The class-C amplifier has two modes of operation: tuned
In class-AB operation, each device operates the same way and untuned.[32] The diagram shows a waveform from
as in class B over half the waveform, but also conducts a a simple class-C circuit without the tuned load. This is
small amount on the other half.[30] As a result, the re- called untuned operation, and the analysis of the wave-
gion where both devices simultaneously are nearly off forms shows the massive distortion that appears in the sig-
(the “dead zone”) is reduced. The result is that when nal. When the proper load (e.g., an inductive-capacitive
the waveforms from the two devices are combined, the filter plus a load resistor) is used, two things happen. The
crossover is greatly minimised or eliminated altogether. first is that the output’s bias level is clamped with the av-
The exact choice of quiescent current (the standing cur- erage output voltage equal to the supply voltage. This is
rent through both devices when there is no signal) makes why tuned operation is sometimes called a clamper. This
a large difference to the level of distortion (and to the risk restores the waveform to its proper shape, despite the am-
of thermal runaway, that may damage the devices). Of- plifier having only a one-polarity supply. This is directly
ten, bias voltage applied to set this quiescent current must related to the second phenomenon: the waveform on the
be adjusted with the temperature of the output transis- center frequency becomes less distorted. The residual
tors. (For example, in the circuit at the beginning of the distortion is dependent upon the bandwidth of the tuned
article, the diodes would be mounted physically close to load, with the center frequency seeing very little distor-
the output transistors, and specified to have a matched tion, but greater attenuation the farther from the tuned
temperature coefficient.) Another approach (often used frequency that the signal gets.
with thermally tracking bias voltages) is to include small The tuned circuit resonates at one frequency, the fixed
value resistors in series with the emitters. carrier frequency, and so the unwanted frequencies are
Class AB sacrifices some efficiency over class B in favor suppressed, and the wanted full signal (sine wave) is ex-
of linearity, thus is less efficient (below 78.5% for full- tracted by the tuned load. The signal bandwidth of the
amplitude sine waves in transistor amplifiers, typically; amplifier is limited by the Q-factor of the tuned circuit
much less is common in class-AB vacuum-tube ampli- but this is not a serious limitation. Any residual harmon-
fiers). It is typically much more efficient than class A. ics can be removed using a further filter.
Sometimes a numeral is added for vacuum-tube stages. In practical class-C amplifiers a tuned load is invariably
If grid current is not permitted to flow, the class is AB1 . used. In one common arrangement the resistor shown in
If grid current is allowed to flow (adding more distor- the circuit above is replaced with a parallel-tuned circuit
tion, but giving slightly higher output power) the class is consisting of an inductor and capacitor in parallel, whose
156 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

components are chosen to resonate the frequency of the pulse-width modulation, pulse-density modulation, delta-
input signal. Power can be coupled to a load by trans- sigma modulation or a related modulation technique be-
former action with a secondary coil wound on the induc- fore being applied to the amplifier. The time average
tor. The average voltage at the collector is then equal to power value of the pulses is directly proportional to the
the supply voltage, and the signal voltage appearing across analog signal, so after amplification the signal can be con-
the tuned circuit varies from near zero to near twice the verted back to an analog signal by a passive low-pass fil-
supply voltage during the RF cycle. The input circuit is bi-ter. The purpose of the output filter is to smooth the pulse
ased so that the active element (e.g., transistor) conducts stream to an analog signal, removing the high frequency
for only a fraction of the RF cycle, usually one third (120 spectral components of the pulses. The frequency of the
degrees) or less.[33] output pulses is typically ten or more times the highest
frequency in the input signal to amplify, so that the fil-
The active element conducts only while the collector volt-
age is passing through its minimum. By this means, ter can adequately reduce the [34] unwanted harmonics and
accurately reproduce the input.
power dissipation in the active device is minimised, and
efficiency increased. Ideally, the active element would The main advantage of a class-D amplifier is power effi-
pass only an instantaneous current pulse while the volt- ciency. Because the output pulses have a fixed amplitude,
age across it is zero: it then dissipates no power and 100% the switching elements (usually MOSFETs, but vacuum
efficiency is achieved. However practical devices have a tubes, and at one time bipolar transistors, were used) are
limit to the peak current they can pass, and the pulse must switched either completely on or completely off, rather
therefore be widened, to around 120 degrees, to obtain a than operated in linear mode. A MOSFET operates with
reasonable amount of power, and the efficiency is then the lowest resistance when fully on and thus (excluding
60–70%.[33] when fully off) has the lowest power dissipation when in
that condition. Compared to an equivalent class-AB de-
vice, a class-D amplifier’s lower losses permit the use of
Class D a smaller heat sink for the MOSFETs while also reduc-
ing the amount of input power required, allowing for a
Main article: Class D amplifier lower-capacity power supply design. Therefore, class-D
In the class-D amplifier the active devices (transistors) amplifiers are typically smaller than an equivalent class-
AB amplifier.

Input
Another advantage of the class-D amplifier is that it can
operate from a digital signal source without requiring a
C digital-to-analog converter (DAC) to convert the signal
to analog form first. If the signal source is in digital form,
Low-pass filter
Switching controller
such as in a digital media player or computer sound card,
and output stage
Triangular wave generator the digital circuitry can convert the binary digital signal
directly to a pulse-width modulation signal that is applied
Block diagram of a basic switching or PWM (class-D) amplifier. to the amplifier, simplifying the circuitry considerably.
Class-D amplifiers are widely used to control motors—
but are now also used as power amplifiers, with extra cir-
cuitry that converts analogue to a much higher frequency
pulse width modulated signal. Switching power supplies
have even been modified into crude class-D amplifiers
(though typically these only reproduce low-frequencies
with acceptable accuracy).
High quality class-D audio power amplifiers have now ap-
peared on the market. These designs have been said to ri-
val traditional AB amplifiers in terms of quality. An early
use of class-D amplifiers was high-power subwoofer am-
plifiers in cars. Because subwoofers are generally limited
to a bandwidth of no higher than 150 Hz, switching speed
for the amplifier does not have to be as high as for a full
range amplifier, allowing simpler designs. Class-D am-
Boss Audio class-D mono amplifier with a low-pass filter for plifiers for driving subwoofers are relatively inexpensive
powering subwoofers in comparison to class-AB amplifiers.
The letter D used to designate this amplifier class is sim-
function as electronic switches instead of linear gain de-
ply the next letter after C and, although occasionally used
vices; they are either on or off. The analog signal is con-
as such, does not stand for digital. Class-D and class-E
verted to a stream of pulses that represents the signal by
5.3. AMPLIFIER 157

amplifiers are sometimes mistakenly described as “digi- means that the voltage and the current at the transistor
tal” because the output waveform superficially resembles are symmetric with respect to time. The Fourier trans-
a pulse-train of digital symbols, but a class-D amplifier form allows an elegant formulation to generate the com-
merely converts an input waveform into a continuously plicated LC networks and says that the first harmonic is
pulse-width modulated analog signal. (A digital wave- passed into the load, all even harmonics are shorted and
form would be pulse-code modulated.) all higher odd harmonics are open.
Class E uses a significant amount of second-harmonic
voltage. The second harmonic can be used to reduce the
Additional classes
overlap with edges with finite sharpness. For this to work,
energy on the second harmonic has to flow from the load
Class E The class-E/F amplifier is a highly efficient
into the transistor, and no source for this is visible in the
switching power amplifier, typically used at such high fre-
circuit diagram. In reality, the impedance is mostly re-
quencies that the switching time becomes comparable to
active and the only reason for it is that class E is a class
the duty time. As said in the class-D amplifier, the tran-
F (see below) amplifier with a much simplified load net-
sistor is connected via a serial LC circuit to the load, and
work and thus has to deal with imperfections.
connected via a large L (inductor) to the supply voltage.
The supply voltage is connected to ground via a large ca- In many amateur simulations of class-E amplifiers, sharp
pacitor to prevent any RF signals leaking into the supply. current edges are assumed nullifying the very motivation
The class-E amplifier adds a C (capacitor) between the for class E and measurements near the transit frequency
transistor and ground and uses a defined L1 to connect to of the transistors show very symmetric curves, which look
the supply voltage. much similar to class-F simulations.
The class-E amplifier was invented in 1972 by Nathan O.
+Vcc Sokal and Alan D. Sokal, and details were first published
in 1975.[35] Some earlier reports on this operating class
have been published in Russian and Polish.
L1
L L0 C0
Class F In push–pull amplifiers and in CMOS, the
even harmonics of both transistors just cancel. Experi-
T1 C RL ment shows that a square wave can be generated by those
amplifiers. Theoretically square waves consist of odd
harmonics only. In a class-D amplifier, the output filter
blocks all harmonics; i.e., the harmonics see an open load.
Class-E amplifier So even small currents in the harmonics suffice to gener-
ate a voltage square wave. The current is in phase with
The following description ignores DC, which can be the voltage applied to the filter, but the voltage across the
transistors is out of phase. Therefore, there is a mini-
added easily afterwards. The above-mentioned C and L
are in effect a parallel LC circuit to ground. When the mal overlap between current through the transistors and
voltage across the transistors. The sharper the edges, the
transistor is on, it pushes through the serial LC circuit into
the load and some current begins to flow to the parallel LC lower the overlap.
circuit to ground. Then the serial LC circuit swings back While in class D, transistors and the load exist as two sep-
and compensates the current into the parallel LC circuit. arate modules, class F admits imperfections like the par-
asitics of the transistor and tries to optimise the global
At this point the current through the transistor is zero and
it is switched off. Both LC circuits are now filled with en-system to have a high impedance at the harmonics. Of
ergy in C and L0 . The whole circuit performs a damped course there must be a finite voltage across the transistor
oscillation. The damping by the load has been adjusted to push the current across the on-state resistance. Because
so that some time later the energy from the Ls is gone the combined current through both transistors is mostly in
the first harmonic, it looks like a sine. That means that in
into the load, but the energy in both C0 peaks at the orig-
inal value to in turn restore the original voltage so thatthe middle of the square the maximum of current has to
the voltage across the transistor is zero again and it canflow, so it may make sense to have a dip in the square
be switched on. or in other words to allow some overswing of the voltage
With load, frequency, and duty cycle (0.5) as given pa- square wave. A class-F load network by definition has to
rameters and the constraint that the voltage is not only transmit below a cutoff frequency and reflect above.
restored, but peaks at the original voltage, the four pa- Any frequency lying below the cutoff and having its sec-
rameters (L, L0 , C and C0 ) are determined. The class-E ond harmonic above the cutoff can be amplified, that is
amplifier takes the finite on resistance into account and an octave bandwidth. On the other hand, an inductive-
tries to make the current touch the bottom at zero. This capacitive series circuit with a large inductance and a tun-
158 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

able capacitance may be simpler to implement. By reduc-

ing the duty cycle below 0.5, the output amplitude can
be modulated. The voltage square waveform degrades,
but any overheating is compensated by the lower overall
power flowing. Any load mismatch behind the filter can
only act on the first harmonic current waveform, clearly
only a purely resistive load makes sense, then the lower
the resistance, the higher the current.
Class F can be driven by sine or by a square wave, for
a sine the input can be tuned by an inductor to increase
gain. If class F is implemented with a single transistor,
the filter is complicated to short the even harmonics. All
previous designs use sharp edges to minimise the overlap.

U (V) Ampli class G

+ Vss

+ Vs Rail voltage modulation

0
t

- Vs

- Vss

Idealized class-G rail voltage modulation

U (V) Ampli class H

+ Vss

+ Vs

0
t

- Vs

- Vss

Idealized class-H rail voltage modulation

Classes G and H There is a variety of amplifier de-

signs that enhance class-AB output stages with more ef-
ficient techniques to achieve greater efficiency with low
distortion. These designs are common in large audio am-
plifiers since the heatsinks and power transformers would Basic schematic of a class-H configuration
be prohibitively large (and costly) without the efficiency
increases. The terms “class G” and “class H” are used
interchangeably to refer to different designs, varying in when compared to class D, however, they do not have the
definition from one manufacturer or paper to another. electromagnetic interference effects of class D.
Class-G amplifiers (which use “rail switching” to de- Class-H amplifiers take the idea of class G one step fur-
crease power consumption and increase efficiency) are ther creating an infinitely variable supply rail. This is done
more efficient than class-AB amplifiers. These ampli- by modulating the supply rails so that the rails are only a
fiers provide several power rails at different voltages and few volts larger than the output signal at any given time.
switch between them as the signal output approaches each The output stage operates at its maximum efficiency all
level. Thus, the amplifier increases efficiency by reducing the time. Switched-mode power supplies can be used to
the wasted power at the output transistors. Class-G am- create the tracking rails. Significant efficiency gains can
plifiers are more efficient than class AB but less efficient be achieved but with the drawback of more complicated
5.3. AMPLIFIER 159

supply design and reduced THD performance. In com- degree phase shifting networks as in the Doherty ampli-
mon designs, a voltage drop of about 10V is maintained fier. The unmodulated radio frequency carrier is applied
over the output transistors in Class H circuits. The picture to the control grids of both tubes. Carrier modulation is
above shows positive supply voltage of the output stage applied to the screen grids of both tubes. The bias point
and the voltage at the speaker output. The boost of the of the carrier and peak tubes is different, and is estab-
supply voltage is shown for a real music signal. lished such that the peak tube is cutoff when modulation
The voltage signal shown is thus a larger version of the is absent (and the amplifier is producing rated unmodu-
input, but has been changed in sign (inverted) by the lated carrier power) whereas both tubes contribute twice
the rated carrier power during 100% modulation (as four
amplification. Other arrangements of amplifying device
are possible, but that given (that is, common emitter, times the carrier power is required to achieve 100% mod-
ulation). As both tubes operate in class C, a significant
common source or common cathode) is the easiest to un-
derstand and employ in practice. If the amplifying el- improvement in efficiency is thereby achieved in the fi-
nal stage. In addition, as the tetrode carrier and peak
ement is linear, the output is a faithful copy of the in-
put, only larger and inverted. In practice, transistors are tubes require very little drive power, a significant im-
provement in efficiency within the driver stage is achieved
not linear, and the output only approximates the input.
nonlinearity from any of several sources is the origin of as well (317C, et al.).[37] The released version of the Sain-
distortion within an amplifier. The class of amplifier (A, ton amplifier employs a cathode-follower modulator, not
B, AB or C) depends on how the amplifying device is a push–pull modulator. Previous Continental Electronics
biased. The diagrams omit the bias circuits for clarity. designs, by James O. Weldon and others, retained most
of the characteristics of the Doherty amplifier but added
Any real amplifier is an imperfect realization of an ideal screen-grid modulation of the driver (317B, et al.).
amplifier. An important limitation of a real amplifier is
that the output it generates is ultimately limited by the The Doherty amplifier remains in use in very-high-power
power available from the power supply. An amplifier sat- AM transmitters, but for lower-power AM transmitters,
urates and clips the output if the input signal becomes vacuum-tube amplifiers in general were eclipsed in the
too large for the amplifier to reproduce or exceeds oper- 1980s by arrays of solid-state amplifiers, which could be
ational limits for the device. switched on and off with much finer granularity in re-
sponse to the requirements of the input audio. How-
ever, interest in the Doherty configuration has been re-
Doherty amplifiers Main article: Doherty amplifier vived by cellular-telephone and wireless-Internet applica-
tions where the sum of several constant envelope users
creates an aggregate AM result. The main challenge of
The Doherty amplifier is a hybrid configuration. It was the Doherty amplifier for digital transmission modes is in
invented in 1934 by William H. Doherty for Bell Labo- aligning the two stages and getting the class-C amplifier
ratories—whose sister company, Western Electric, man- to turn on and off very quickly.
ufactured radio transmitters. The Doherty amplifier con-
sists of a class-B primary or carrier stages in parallel with Recently, Doherty amplifiers have found widespread use
a class-C auxiliary or peak stage. The input signal splits to in cellular base station transmitters for GHz frequencies.
drive the two amplifiers, and a combining network sums Implementations for transmitters in mobile devices have
the two output signals. Phase shifting networks are used also been demonstrated.
in inputs and outputs. During periods of low signal level,
the class-B amplifier efficiently operates on the signal and
the class-C amplifier is cutoff and consumes little power. 5.3.6 Implementation
During periods of high signal level, the class-B amplifier
delivers its maximum power and the class-C amplifier de- Amplifiers are implemented using active elements of dif-
livers up to its maximum power. The efficiency of previ- ferent kinds:
ous AM transmitter designs was proportional to modula-
tion but, with average modulation typically around 20%, • The first active elements were relays. They were for
transmitters were limited to less than 50% efficiency. In example used in transcontinental telegraph lines: a
Doherty’s design, even with zero modulation, a transmit- weak current was used to switch the voltage of a bat-
ter could achieve at least 60% efficiency.[36] tery to the outgoing line.
As a successor to Western Electric for broadcast trans- • For transmitting audio, carbon microphones were
mitters, the Doherty concept was considerably refined by used as the active element. This was used to modu-
Continental Electronics Manufacturing Company of Dal- late a radio-frequency source in one of the first AM
las, TX. Perhaps, the ultimate refinement was the screen- audio transmissions, by Reginald Fessenden on Dec.
grid modulation scheme invented by Joseph B. Sainton. 24, 1906.[38]
The Sainton amplifier consists of a class-C primary or
carrier stage in parallel with a class-C auxiliary or peak • Power control circuitry used magnetic amplifiers un-
stage. The stages are split and combined through 90- til the latter half of the twentieth century when high
160 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

power FETs, and their easy interfacing to the newly The negative feedback into the difference amplifier al-
developed digital circuitry, took over. lows the amplifier to compare the input to the actual out-
put. The amplified signal from Q1 is directly fed to the
• Audio and most low power amplifiers used vacuum second stage, Q3, which is a common emitter stage that
tubes exclusively until the 1960s. Today, tubes are provides further amplification of the signal and the DC
used for specialist audio applications such as guitar bias for the output stages, Q4 and Q5. R6 provides the
amplifiers and audiophile amplifiers. Many broad- load for Q3 (a better design would probably use some
cast transmitters still use vacuum tubes. form of active load here, such as a constant-current sink).
• In the 1960s, the transistor started to take over. So far, all of the amplifier is operating in class A. The out-
These days, discrete transistors are still used in high- put pair are arranged in class-AB push–pull, also called
power amplifiers and in specialist audio devices. a complementary pair. They provide the majority of
the current amplification (while consuming low quiescent
• Beginning in the 1970s, more and more transistors current) and directly drive the load, connected via DC-
were connected on a single chip therefore creating blocking capacitor C2. The diodes D1 and D2 provide
the integrated circuit. A large number of ampli- a small amount of constant voltage bias for the output
fiers commercially available today are based on in- pair, just biasing them into the conducting state so that
tegrated circuits. crossover distortion is minimized. That is, the diodes
push the output stage firmly into class-AB mode (assum-
For special purposes, other active elements have been ing that the base-emitter drop of the output transistors is
used. For example, in the early days of the satellite com- reduced by heat dissipation).
munication, parametric amplifiers were used. The core
This design is simple, but a good basis for a practical de-
circuit was a diode whose capacitance was changed by an
sign because it automatically stabilises its operating point,
RF signal created locally. Under certain conditions, this
since feedback internally operates from DC up through
RF signal provided energy that was modulated by the ex-
the audio range and beyond. Further circuit elements
tremely weak satellite signal received at the earth station.
would probably be found in a real design that would roll-
off the frequency response above the needed range to pre-
Amplifier circuit vent the possibility of unwanted oscillation. Also, the use
of fixed diode bias as shown here can cause problems if
the diodes are not both electrically and thermally matched
R1 R3 R4 +V supply to the output transistors – if the output transistors turn
Q3 on too much, they can easily overheat and destroy them-
Q4 selves, as the full current from the power supply is not
Input
D1
limited at this stage.
Output
C1 Q1 Q2 D2
Q5
A common solution to help stabilise the output devices
R7 R8 C2
is to include some emitter resistors, typically one ohm or
R2 R5
R6 so. Calculating the values of the circuit’s resistors and ca-
0V (ground) pacitors is done based on the components employed and
the intended use of the amp.
A practical amplifier circuit Two most common circuits:

The practical amplifier circuit to the right could be the • A Cascode amplifier is a two-stage circuit consisting
basis for a moderate-power audio amplifier. It features a of a transconductance amplifier followed by a buffer
typical (though substantially simplified) design as found amplifier.
in modern amplifiers, with a class-AB push–pull output
stage, and uses some overall negative feedback. Bipolar • A Log amplifier is a linear circuit in which output
transistors are shown, but this design would also be real- voltage is a constant times the natural logarithm of
izable with FETs or valves. input.[39]
The input signal is coupled through capacitor C1 to the For the basics of radio frequency amplifiers using valves,
base of transistor Q1. The capacitor allows the AC sig- see Valved RF amplifiers.
nal to pass, but blocks the DC bias voltage established by
resistors R1 and R2 so that any preceding circuit is not
affected by it. Q1 and Q2 form a differential amplifier Notes on implementation
(an amplifier that multiplies the difference between two
inputs by some constant), in an arrangement known as a Real world amplifiers are imperfect.
long-tailed pair. This arrangement is used to conveniently
allow the use of negative feedback, which is fed from the • The power supply may influence the output, so must
output to Q2 via R7 and R8. be considered in the design.
5.3. AMPLIFIER 161

• A power amplifier is effectively an input signal Amplifiers often have multiple stages in cascade to in-
controlled power regulator. It regulates the power crease gain. Each stage of these designs may be a dif-
sourced from the power supply or mains to the am- ferent type of amp to suit the needs of that stage. For
plifier’s load. The power output from an amplifier instance, the first stage might be a class-A stage, feed-
cannot exceed its input power. ing a class-AB push–pull second stage, which then drives
a class-G final output stage, taking advantage of the
• The amplifier circuit has an “open loop” perfor- strengths of each type, while minimizing their weak-
mance. This is described by various parame- nesses.
ters (gain, slew rate, output impedance, distortion,
bandwidth, signal to noise ratio, etc.).
5.3.7 See also
• Many modern amplifiers use negative feedback
techniques to hold the gain at the desired value and • Class-T amplifier
reduce distortion. Negative loop feedback has the
intended effect of electrically damping loudspeaker • Charge transfer amplifier
motion, thereby damping the mechanical dynamic
performance of the loudspeaker. • Distributed amplifier

• When assessing rated amplifier power output, it is • Faithful amplification

useful to consider the applied load, the signal type • Guitar amplifier
(e.g., speech or music), required power output du-
ration (i.e., short-time or continuous), and required • Instrument amplifier
dynamic range (e.g., recorded or live audio).
• Instrumentation amplifier
• In high-powered audio applications that require long
cables to the load (e.g., cinemas and shopping cen- • Low noise amplifier
tres) it may be more efficient to connect to the load • Magnetic amplifier
at line output voltage, with matching transformers
at source and loads. This avoids long runs of heavy • Negative feedback amplifier
speaker cables.
• Operational amplifier
• Prevent instability or overheating requires care to
ensure solid state amplifiers are adequately loaded. • Optical amplifier
Most have a rated minimum load impedance. • Power added efficiency
• A summing circuit is typical in applications that • Programmable gain amplifier
must combine many inputs or channels to form a
composite output. It is best to combine multiple • RF power amplifier
channels for this.[40]
• Valve audio amplifier
• All amplifiers generate heat through electrical
losses. The amplifier must dissipate this heat via
convection or forced air cooling. Heat can damage 5.3.8 References
or reduce electronic component service life. De-
signers and installers must also consider heating ef- [1] Patronis, Gene (1987). “Amplifiers”. In Glen Ballou.
Handbook for Sound Engineers: The New Audio Cyclo-
fects on adjacent equipment.
pedia. Howard W. Sams & Co. p. 493. ISBN 0-672-
21983-2.
Different power supply types result in many different
methods of bias. Bias is a technique by which active de- [2] Sungook, Hong (2001). Wireless: From Marconi’s Black-
vices are set to operate in a particular region, or by which Box to the Audion. MIT Press. p. 165. ISBN
0262082985.
the DC component of the output signal is set to the mid-
point between the maximum voltages available from the [3] Harper, Douglas (2001). “Amplify”. Online Etymology
power supply. Most amplifiers use several devices at each Dictionary. Etymonline.com. Retrieved July 10, 2015.
stage; they are typically matched in specifications except
for polarity. Matched inverted polarity devices are called [4] Robert Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky (1996). Electronic
complementary pairs. Class-A amplifiers generally use Devices and Circuit Theory, 7th Edition. Prentice Hall
College Division. ISBN 978-0-13-375734-7.
only one device, unless the power supply is set to provide
both positive and negative voltages, in which case a dual [5] Robert S. Symons (1998). “Tubes: Still vital after
device symmetrical design may be used. Class-C ampli- all these years”. IEEE Spectrum. 35 (4): 52–63.
fiers, by definition, use a single polarity supply. doi:10.1109/6.666962.
162 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

[6] Mammano, Bob (2001). “Magnetic Amplifier Control for [26] Ask the Doctors: Tube vs. Solid-State Harmonics
Simple, Low-Cost, Secondary Regulation” (PDF). Texas
Instruments. [27] Volume cranked up in amp debate

[7] “Negative Resistance Revived”. users.tpg.com.au. Re- [28] “Biasing Op-Amps into Class A”. tangentsoft.net. Re-
trieved 2016-06-20. trieved 2016-06-20.

[8] Munsterman, G.T. (June 1965). “Tunnel-Diode Mi- [29] “Class B Amplifier - Class-B Transistor Amplifier Tuto-
crowave Amplifiers” (PDF). APL Technical Digest. 4: 2– rial”. Basic Electronics Tutorials. 2013-07-25. Retrieved
10. 2016-06-20.

[9] Mark Cherry, Maxim Engineering journal, volume 62, [30] “Class AB Power Amplifiers”. www.
Amplifier Considerations in Ceramic Speaker Applica- learnabout-electronics.org. Retrieved 2016-06-20.
tions, p.3, accessed 2012-10-01
[31] “Class C power amplifier circuit diagram and theory. Out-
[10] “What is a video amplifier, video booster amplifiers - Fu- put characteristics DC load line”. www.circuitstoday.com.
ture Electronics”. www.futureelectronics.com. Retrieved Retrieved 2016-06-20.
2016-06-20.
[32] A.P. Malvino, Electronic Principles (2nd Ed.1979. ISBN
[11] Orwiler, Bob (December 1969). “Vertical Amplifier Cir- 0-07-039867-4) p.299.
cuits” (PDF). Tektronix, Inc. [33] Electronic and Radio Engineering, R.P.Terman, McGraw
[12] “Travelling Wave Tube Amplifiers”. www.r-type.org. Re- Hill, 1964
trieved 2016-06-20. [34] “Class D Amplifiers: Fundamentals of Operation and Re-
[13] Rood, George. “Music Concerns Seek New Volume With cent Developments - Application Note - Maxim”. www.
Amplifier”. New York Times. Retrieved 23 February maximintegrated.com. Retrieved 2016-06-20.
2015. [35] N. O. Sokal and A. D. Sokal, “Class E – A New Class
[14] “Amplifier Fills Need in Picture: Loud Speaker Only of High-Efficiency Tuned Single-Ended Switching Power
Method Found to Carry Directions During Turmoil”. Los Amplifiers”, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. SC-
Angeles Times. 10, pp. 168–176, June 1975. HVK

[15] This table is a “Zwicky box”; in particular, it encompasses [36] US patent 2210028, William H. Doherty, “Amplifier”, is-
all possibilities. See Fritz Zwicky. sued 1940-08-06, assigned to Bell Telephone Laborato-
ries
[16] “Small signal analysis of Complex amplifier circuits”.
www.eeherald.com. Retrieved 2016-06-20. [37] US patent 3314034, Joseph B. Sainton, “High Efficiency
Amplifier and Push–Pull Modulator”, issued 1967-04-11,
[17] John Everett (1992). Vsats: Very Small Aperture Termi- assigned to Continental Electronics Manufacturing Com-
nals. IET. ISBN 0-86341-200-9. pany

[18] Administrator. “Microwaves101 | Active Directivity of [38] Lee, Thomas (2004). The Design of CMOS Radio-
Amplifiers”. www.microwaves101.com. Retrieved 2016- Frequency Integrated Circuits. New York, NY: Cambridge
06-20. University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-521-83539-8.

[19] Roy, Apratim; Rashid, S. M. S. (5 June 2012). “A [39] Malina, Roger. “Visual Art, Sound, Music and Technol-
power efficient bandwidth regulation technique for a ogy”.
low-noise high-gain RF wideband amplifier”. Central
European Journal of Engineering. 2 (3): 383–391. [40] Shortess, George. “Interactive Sound Installations Using
Bibcode:2012CEJE....2..383R. doi:10.2478/s13531- Microcomputers”. JSTOR 1578331.
012-0009-1.

[20] “Understanding Amplifier Operating “Classes"". electron- 5.3.9 External links

icdesign.com. Retrieved 2016-06-20.
• Rane audio’s guide to amplifier classes
[21] RCA Receiving Tube Manual, RC-14 (1940) p 12
• Design and analysis of a basic class D amplifier
[22] ARRL Handbook, 1968; page 65
• Conversion: distortion factor to distortion attenua-
[23] “Amplifier classes”. www.duncanamps.com. Retrieved
2016-06-20.
tion and THD

[24] “Amplifier Efficiency”. sound.whsites.net. Retrieved • “An alternate topology called the grounded bridge
2016-06-20. amplifier” (PDF).

[25] Jerry Del Colliano (20 February 2012), Pass Labs XA30.5 • “Amplifier Anatomy - Part 1” (PDF). Archived from
Class-A Stereo Amp Reviewed, Home Theater Review, the original (PDF) on 2004-06-10. – contains an
Luxury Publishing Group Inc. explanation of different amplifier classes
5.4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 163

• “Reinventing the power amplifier” (PDF).

V in
• Anatomy of the power amplifier, including informa-
tion about classes V out
• Tons of Tones - Site explaining non linear distortion
stages in Amplifier Models

• “Class D audio amplifiers: theory and design”

(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-
09-29.
Rg

• “Class E AM Transmitter Descriptions, Circuits,

Etc.”. – tutorials, schematics, examples, and con-
struction details
An op-amp without negative feedback (a comparator)

5.4 Operational amplifier 5.4.1 Operation

The amplifier’s differential inputs consist of a non-

An operational amplifier (often op-amp or opamp) is a
inverting input (+) with voltage V₊ and an inverting input
DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a
(–) with voltage V₋; ideally the op-amp amplifies only the
differential input and, usually, a single-ended output.[1] In
difference in voltage between the two, which is called the
this configuration, an op-amp produces an output poten-
differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-
tial (relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds
amp Vₒᵤ is given by the equation:
of thousands of times larger than the potential difference
between its input terminals. Operational amplifiers had
their origins in analog computers, where they were used
to perform mathematical operations in many linear, non- Vout = AOL (V+ − V− )
linear and frequency-dependent circuits. The popularity
of the op-amp as a building block in analog circuits is where AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier (the
due to its versatility. Due to negative feedback, the char- term “open-loop” refers to the absence of a feedback loop
acteristics of an op-amp circuit, its gain, input and output from the output to the input).
impedance, bandwidth etc. are determined by external
components and have little dependence on temperature Open loop amplifier
coefficients or manufacturing variations in the op-amp it-
self.
The magnitude of AOL is typically very large—100,000
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic de- or more for integrated circuit op-amps—and therefore
vices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, indus- even a quite small difference between V₊ and V₋ drives
trial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps the amplifier output nearly to the supply voltage. Situ-
cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; ations in which the output voltage is equal to or greater
however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers than the supply voltage are referred to as saturation of the
with special performance specifications may cost over amplifier. The magnitude of AOL is not well controlled
US$100 in small quantities.[2] Op-amps may be packaged by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to
as components, or used as elements of more complex in- use an open loop amplifier as a stand-alone differential
tegrated circuits. amplifier.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other Without negative feedback, and perhaps with positive
types of differential amplifier include the fully differen- feedback for regeneration, an op-amp acts as a
tial amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with two out- comparator. If the inverting input is held at ground (0
puts), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from V) directly or by a resistor R , and the input voltage Vᵢ
three op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the in- applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output
strumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common- will be maximum positive; if Vᵢ is negative, the output
mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), will be maximum negative. Since there is no feedback
and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from one from the output to either input, this is an open loop cir-
or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network). cuit acting as a comparator.
164 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

Closed loop non-inverting (+) pin and the inverting (−) pin is
negligibly small.
• The input impedance between (+) and (−) pins is
V in much larger than other resistances in the circuit.

V out The input signal Vᵢ appears at both (+) and (−) pins, re-
sulting in a current i through R equal to Vᵢ /R .

Vin
i=
Rg

Since Kirchhoff’s current law states that the same current

Rf must leave a node as enter it, and since the impedance into
Rg the (−) pin is near infinity, we can assume practically all
of the same current i flows through R , creating an output
voltage

( ) (
Vin Vin × Rf Rf
Vout = Vin +i×Rf = Vin + × Rf = Vin + = Vin 1 +
An op-amp with negative feedback (a non-inverting amplifier) Rg Rg Rg

By combining terms, we determine the closed-loop gain

If predictable operation is desired, negative feedback is ACL:
used, by applying a portion of the output voltage to the
inverting input. The closed loop feedback greatly re-
duces the gain of the circuit. When negative feedback Vout Rf
is used, the circuit’s overall gain and response becomes ACL = =1+
Vin Rg
determined mostly by the feedback network, rather than
by the op-amp characteristics. If the feedback network is
made of components with values small relative to the op 5.4.2 Op-amp characteristics
amp’s input impedance, the value of the op-amp’s open
loop response AOL does not seriously affect the circuit’s Ideal op-amps
performance. The response of the op-amp circuit with its
input, output, and feedback circuits to an input is charac- VS+
terized mathematically by a transfer function; designing
an op-amp circuit to have a desired transfer function is
in the realm of electrical engineering. The transfer func-
tions are important in most applications of op-amps, such v+
as in analog computers. High input impedance at the in-
R in Rout
put terminals and low output impedance at the output ter-
vin vout
minal(s) are particularly useful features of an op-amp.
In the non-inverting amplifier on the right, the presence v− Gvin
of negative feedback via the voltage divider R , R deter-
mines the closed-loop gain ACL = Vₒᵤ / Vᵢ . Equilibrium
will be established when Vₒᵤ is just sufficient to “reach
around and pull” the inverting input to the same voltage VS−
as Vᵢ . The voltage gain of the entire circuit is thus 1 +
R /R . As a simple example, if Vᵢ = 1 V and R = R , An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models
Vₒᵤ will be 2 V, exactly the amount required to keep V₋ some resistive non-ideal parameters.
at 1 V. Because of the feedback provided by the R , R
network, this is a closed loop circuit. An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the follow-
[4][5]
Another way to analyze this circuit proceeds by making ing characteristics:
the following (usually valid) assumptions:[3]
• Infinite open-loop gain G = vₒᵤ / vᵢ
• When an op-amp operates in linear (i.e., not satu- • Infinite input impedance Rᵢ , and so zero input cur-
rated) mode, the difference in voltage between the rent
5.4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 165

• Zero input offset voltage Finite input impedances The differential input
impedance of the operational amplifier is defined as
• Infinite output voltage range the impedance between its two inputs; the common-
• Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift and infinite mode input impedance is the impedance from each
slew rate input to ground. MOSFET-input operational ampli-
fiers often have protection circuits that effectively
• Zero output impedance Rₒᵤ short circuit any input differences greater than a
small threshold, so the input impedance can appear
• Zero noise
to be very low in some tests. However, as long as
• Infinite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) these operational amplifiers are used in a typical
high-gain negative feedback application, these
• Infinite power supply rejection ratio. protection circuits will be inactive. The input bias
and leakage currents described below are a more
These ideals can be summarized by the two “golden important design parameter for typical operational
rules": amplifier applications.

1. In a closed loop the output attempts to do whatever Non-zero output impedance Low output impedance is
is necessary to make the voltage difference between important for low-impedance loads; for these loads,
the inputs zero. the voltage drop across the output impedance effec-
2. The inputs draw no current. [6]:177 tively reduces the open loop gain. In configurations
with a voltage-sensing negative feedback, the output
impedance of the amplifier is effectively lowered;
The first rule only applies in the usual case where the op-
thus, in linear applications, op-amp circuits usually
amp is used in a closed-loop design (negative feedback,
exhibit a very low output impedance indeed.
where there is a signal path of some sort feeding back
from the output to the inverting input). These rules are Low-impedance outputs typically require high quiescent
commonly used as a good first approximation for analyz- (i.e., idle) current in the output stage and will dis-
ing or designing op-amp circuits.[6]:177 sipate more power, so low-power designs may pur-
None of these ideals can be perfectly realized. A real posely sacrifice low output impedance.
op-amp may be modeled with non-infinite or non-zero
parameters using equivalent resistors and capacitors in Input current Due to biasing requirements or leakage, a
the op-amp model. The designer can then include these small amount of current (typically ~10 nanoamperes
effects into the overall performance of the final circuit. for bipolar op-amps, tens of picoamperes (pA) for
Some parameters may turn out to have negligible effect JFET input stages, and only a few pA for MOSFET
on the final design while others represent actual limita- input stages) flows into the inputs. When large re-
tions of the final performance that must be evaluated. sistors or sources with high output impedances are
used in the circuit, these small currents can produce
large unmodeled voltage drops. If the input currents
Real op-amps
are matched, and the impedance looking out of both
inputs are matched, then the voltages produced at
Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various as-
each input will be equal. Because the operational
pects.
amplifier operates on the difference between its in-
puts, these matched voltages will have no effect. It
DC imperfections Real operational amplifiers suffer is more common for the input currents to be slightly
from several non-ideal effects: mismatched. The difference is called input offset
current, and even with matched resistances a small
Finite gain Open-loop gain is infinite in the ideal oper- offset voltage (different from the input offset volt-
ational amplifier but finite in real operational am- age below) can be produced. This offset voltage can
plifiers. Typical devices exhibit open-loop DC gain create offsets or drifting in the operational amplifier.
ranging from 100,000 to over 1 million. So long
as the loop gain (i.e., the product of open-loop and Input offset voltage This voltage, which is what is re-
feedback gains) is very large, the circuit gain will be quired across the op-amp’s input terminals to drive
determined entirely by the amount of negative feed- the output voltage to zero.[7][nb 1] In the perfect am-
back (i.e., it will be independent of open-loop gain). plifier, there would be no input offset voltage. How-
In cases where closed-loop gain must be very high, ever, it exists in actual op-amps because of imper-
the feedback gain will be very low, and the low feed- fections in the differential amplifier that constitutes
back gain causes low loop gain; in these cases, the the input stage of the vast majority of these devices.
operational amplifier will cease to behave ideally. Input offset voltage creates two problems: First, due
166 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

to the amplifier’s high voltage gain, it virtually as- Stability Associated with the bandwidth limitation
sures that the amplifier output will go into satura- is a phase difference between the input sig-
tion if it is operated without negative feedback, even nal and the amplifier output that can lead to
when the input terminals are wired together. Sec- oscillation in some feedback circuits. For ex-
ond, in a closed loop, negative feedback configura- ample, a sinusoidal output signal meant to in-
tion, the input offset voltage is amplified along with terfere destructively with an input signal of the
the signal and this may pose a problem if high pre- same frequency will interfere constructively if
cision DC amplification is required or if the input delayed by 180 degrees forming positive feed-
signal is very small.[nb 2] back. In these cases, the feedback circuit can
be stabilized by means of frequency compen-
Common-mode gain A perfect operational amplifier sation, which increases the gain or phase mar-
amplifies only the voltage difference between its gin of the open-loop circuit. The circuit de-
two inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are signer can implement this compensation exter-
common to both. However, the differential input nally with a separate circuit component. Al-
stage of an operational amplifier is never perfect, ternatively, the compensation can be imple-
leading to the amplification of these common volt- mented within the operational amplifier with
ages to some degree. The standard measure of this the addition of a dominant pole that suffi-
defect is called the common-mode rejection ratio ciently attenuates the high-frequency gain of
(denoted CMRR). Minimization of common mode the operational amplifier. The location of this
gain is usually important in non-inverting amplifiers pole may be fixed internally by the manufac-
(described below) that operate at high amplification. turer or configured by the circuit designer us-
ing methods specific to the op-amp. In gen-
Power-supply rejection The output of a perfect opera- eral, dominant-pole frequency compensation
tional amplifier will be completely independent from reduces the bandwidth of the op-amp even fur-
its power supply. Every real operational amplifier ther. When the desired closed-loop gain is
has a finite power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) that high, op-amp frequency compensation is of-
reflects how well the op-amp can reject changes in ten not needed because the requisite open-loop
its supply voltage. gain is sufficiently low; consequently, applica-
tions with high closed-loop gain can make use
of op-amps with higher bandwidths.
Temperature effects All parameters change with tem-
perature. Temperature drift of the input offset volt- Distortion, and other effects Limited bandwidth
age is especially important. also results in lower amounts of feedback at
higher frequencies, producing higher distor-
Drift Real op-amp parameters are subject to slow tion, and output impedance as the frequency
change over time and with changes in temperature, increases.
input conditions, etc.
Typical low-cost, general-purpose op-amps exhibit
a GBWP of a few megahertz. Specialty and high-
AC imperfections The op-amp gain calculated at DC speed op-amps exist that can achieve a GBWP of
does not apply at higher frequencies. Thus, for high- hundreds of megahertz. For very high-frequency
speed operation, more sophisticated considerations must circuits, a current-feedback operational amplifier is
be used in an op-amp circuit design. often used.

Finite bandwidth All amplifiers have finite bandwidth. Noise Amplifiers generate random voltage at the output
To a first approximation, the op-amp has the fre- even when there is no signal applied. This can be due
quency response of an integrator with gain. That to thermal noise and flicker noise of the devices. For
is, the gain of a typical op-amp is inversely propor- applications with high gain or high bandwidth, noise
tional to frequency and is characterized by its gain– becomes a very important consideration.
bandwidth product (GBWP). For example, an op-
amp with a GBWP of 1 MHz would have a gain of Input capacitance Most important for high frequency
5 at 200 kHz, and a gain of 1 at 1 MHz. This dy- operation because it reduces input impedance and
namic response coupled with the very high DC gain may cause phase shifts.
of the op-amp gives it the characteristics of a first-
order low-pass filter with very high DC gain and low
cutoff frequency given by the GBWP divided by the Common-mode gain See DC imperfections, above.
DC gain.
The finite bandwidth of an op-amp can be the source Power-supply rejection With increasing frequency the
of several problems, including: power-supply rejection usually gets worse. So it can
5.4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 167

be important to keep the supply clean of higher fre- V, 100 kHz sawtooth with a corresponding slew rate
quency ripples and signals, e.g. by the use of bypass of 0.1 V per microsecond. In this instance the 741
capacitors. with its 0.5 V per microsecond slew rate will am-
plify the input properly.
Modern high speed op-amps can have slew rates in
excess of 5,000 V per microsecond. However, it is
more common for op-amps to have slew rates in the
range 5-100 V per microsecond. For example, the
general purpose TL081 op-amp has a slew rate of
13 V per microsecond. As a general rule, low power
and small bandwidth op-amps have low slew rates.
As an example, the LT1494 micropower op-amp
consumes 1.5 microamp but has a 2.7 kHz gain-
bandwidth product and a 0.001 V per microsecond
slew rate.

Non-linear input-output relationship The output

The input (yellow) and output (green) of a saturated op amp in voltage may not be accurately proportional to
an inverting amplifier the difference between the input voltages. It is
commonly called distortion when the input signal
Non-linear imperfections is a waveform. This effect will be very small in a
practical circuit where substantial negative feedback
Saturation Output voltage is limited to a minimum is used.
and maximum value close to the power supply
voltages.[nb 3] The output of older op-amps can reach Phase reversal In some integrated op-amps, when the
to within one or two volts of the supply rails. The published common mode voltage is violated (e.g., by
output of newer so-called “rail to rail” op-amps can one of the inputs being driven to one of the supply
reach to within millivolts of the supply rails when voltages), the output may slew to the opposite polar-
providing low output currents. ity from what is expected in normal operation.[8][9]
Under such conditions, negative feedback becomes
Slewing The amplifier’s output voltage reaches its maxi- positive, likely causing the circuit to “lock up” in that
mum rate of change, the slew rate, usually specified state.
in volts per microsecond. When slewing occurs, fur-
ther increases in the input signal have no effect on Power considerations
the rate of change of the output. Slewing is usu-
ally caused by the input stage saturating; the result Limited output current The output current must be fi-
is a constant current i driving a capacitance C in the nite. In practice, most op-amps are designed to limit
amplifier (especially those capacitances used to im- the output current so as not to exceed a specified
plement its frequency compensation); the slew rate level – around 25 mA for a type 741 IC op-amp –
is limited by dv/dt=i/C. thus protecting the op-amp and associated circuitry
Slewing is associated with the large-signal perfor- from damage. Modern designs are electronically
mance of an op-amp. Consider, for example, an op- more rugged than earlier implementations and some
amp configured for a gain of 10. Let the input be a can sustain direct short circuits on their outputs with-
1 V, 100 kHz sawtooth wave. That is, the amplitude out damage.
is 1 V and the period is 10 microseconds. Accord-
ingly, the rate of change (i.e., the slope) of the input Output sink current The output sink current is the
is 0.1 V per microsecond. After 10x amplification, maximum current allowed to sink into the output
the output should be a 10 V, 100 kHz sawtooth, with stage. Some manufacturers show the output voltage
a corresponding slew rate of 1 V per microsecond. vs. the output sink current plot, which gives an idea
However, the classic 741 op-amp has a 0.5 V per of the output voltage when it is sinking current from
microsecond slew rate specification, so that its out- another source into the output pin.
put can rise to no more than 5 V in the sawtooth’s 10
microsecond period. Thus, if one were to measure Limited dissipated power The output current flows
the output, it would be a 5 V, 100 kHz sawtooth, through the op-amp’s internal output impedance,
rather than a 10 V, 100 kHz sawtooth. dissipating heat. If the op-amp dissipates too much
Next consider the same amplifier and 100 kHz saw- power, then its temperature will increase above
tooth, but now the input amplitude is 100 mV rather some safe limit. The op-amp may enter thermal
than 1 V. After 10x amplification the output is a 1 shutdown, or it may be destroyed.
168 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

Modern integrated FET or MOSFET op-amps approx- along with output current limiting, and output short-
imate more closely the ideal op-amp than bipolar ICs circuit protection.
when it comes to input impedance and input bias cur-
rents. Bipolars are generally better when it comes to input Additionally, it contains current mirror (outlined red) bias
voltage offset, and often have lower noise. Generally, at circuitry and compensation capacitor (30 pF).
room temperature, with a fairly large signal, and limited
bandwidth, FET and MOSFET op-amps now offer better
performance. Differential amplifier The input stage consists of
a cascaded differential amplifier (outlined in blue) fol-
lowed by a current-mirror active load. This constitutes
5.4.3 Internal circuitry of 741-type op- a transconductance amplifier, turning a differential volt-
amp age signal at the bases of Q1, Q2 into a current signal into
the base of Q15.
Q12 Q13 7
It entails two cascaded transistor pairs, satisfying conflict-
Q8 Q9
Q14
VS+
ing requirements. The first stage consists of the matched
Non-inverting
input
Inverting
input
NPN emitter follower pair Q1, Q2 that provide high input
Q1 Q2 4.5 kΩ
3 2
Q16 Q17
25 Ω
impedance. The second is the matched PNP common-
30 pF
Q3 Q4
39 kΩ 6 base pair Q3, Q4 that eliminates the undesirable Miller
7.5 kΩ Output

Q7
50 Ω effect; it drives an active load Q7 plus matched pair Q5,
Q6.
Q20
Q10 Q15

1 Q6 5 Q22
Q19
That active load is implemented as a modified Wilson
Q5
Offset
null
50 kΩ Offset
null
Q11
current mirror; its role is to convert the (differential) in-
1 kΩ 5 kΩ 50 kΩ 50 Ω
1 kΩ
4 put current signal to a single-ended signal without the at-
VS−
tendant 50% losses (increasing the op-amp’s open-loop
gain by 3 dB).[nb 4] Thus, a small-signal differential cur-
A component-level diagram of the common 741 op-amp. Dotted rent in Q3 versus Q4 appears summed (doubled) at the
lines outline: current mirrors (red); differential amplifier (blue);
base of Q15, the input of the voltage gain stage.
class A gain stage (magenta); voltage level shifter (green); output
stage (cyan).
Voltage amplifier The (class-A) voltage gain stage
Sourced by many manufacturers, and in multiple similar (outlined in magenta) consists of the two NPN transistors
products, an example of a bipolar transistor operational Q15/Q19 connected in a Darlington configuration and
amplifier is the 741 integrated circuit designed in 1968 uses the output side of current mirror Q12/Q13 as its col-
by David Fullagar at Fairchild Semiconductor after Bob lector (dynamic) load to achieve its high voltage gain. The
Widlar's LM301 integrated circuit design.[10] In this dis- output sink transistor Q20 receives its base drive from the
cussion, we use the parameters of the Hybrid-pi model common collectors of Q15 and Q19; the level-shifter Q16
to characterize the small-signal, grounded emitter char- provides base drive for the output source transistor Q14.
acteristics of a transistor. In this model, the current gain .
of a transistor is denoted h ₑ, more commonly called the
β.[11] The transistor Q22 prevents this stage from delivering ex-
cessive current to Q20 and thus limits the output sink cur-
rent.
Architecture

A small-scale integrated circuit, the 741 op-amp shares Output amplifier The output stage (Q14, Q20, out-
with most op-amps an internal structure consisting of lined in cyan) is a Class AB complementary-symmetry
three gain stages:[12] amplifier. It provides an output drive with impedance of
≈50Ω, in essence, current gain. Transistor Q16 (outlined
in green) provides the quiescent current for the output
1. Differential amplifier (outlined blue) — provides transistors, and Q17 provides output current limiting.
high differential amplification (gain), with rejec-
tion of common-mode signal, low noise, high input
impedance, and drives a Biasing circuits

2. Voltage amplifier (outlined magenta) — provides Provide appropriate quiescent current for each stage of
high voltage gain, a single-pole frequency roll-off, the op-amp.
and in turn drives the
The resistor (39 kΩ) connecting the (diode-connected)
3. Output amplifier (outlined cyan and green) — pro- Q11 and Q12, and the given supply voltage (VS₊−VS₋),
vides high current gain (low output impedance), determine the current in the current mirrors, (matched
5.4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 169

pairs) Q10/Q11 and Q12/Q13. The collector current of base of ≈ 1 V, regardless of the common-mode voltage
Q11, i11 * 39 kΩ = VS₊ − VS₋ − 2 VBE. For the typical of Q14/Q20 base. The standing current in Q14/Q20 will
VS = ±20 V, the standing current in Q11/Q12 (as well as be a factor exp(100 mV / VT ) ≈ 36 smaller than the
in Q13) would be ≈1 mA. A supply current for a typical 1 mA quiescent current in the class A portion of the op
741 of about 2 mA agrees with the notion that these two amp. This (small) standing current in the output transis-
bias currents dominate the quiescent supply current. tors establishes the output stage in class AB operation and
Transistors Q11 and Q10 form a Widlar current mirror, reduces the crossover distortion of this stage.
with quiescent current in Q10 i10 such that ln( i11 / i10 )
= i10 * 5 kΩ / 28 mV, where 5 kΩ represents the emitter Small-signal differential mode
resistor of Q10, and 28 mV is VT, the thermal voltage at
room temperature. In this case i10 ≈ 20 μA. A small differential input voltage signal gives rise, through
multiple stages of current amplification, to a much larger
Differential amplifier The biasing circuit of this stage voltage signal on output.
is set by a feedback loop that forces the collector currents
of Q10 and Q9 to (nearly) match. The small difference
Input impedance The input stage with Q1 and Q3 is
in these currents provides the drive for the common base
similar to an emitter-coupled pair (long-tailed pair), with
of Q3/Q4 (note that the base drive for input transistors
Q2 and Q4 adding some degenerating impedance. The
Q1/Q2 is the input bias current and must be sourced ex-
input impedance is relatively high because of the small
ternally). The summed quiescent currents of Q1/Q3 plus
current through Q1-Q4. A typical 741 op amp has an
Q2/Q4 is mirrored from Q8 into Q9, where it is summed
differential input impedance of about 2 MΩ. The com-
with the collector current in Q10, the result being applied
mon mode input impedance is even higher, as the input
to the bases of Q3/Q4.
stage works at an essentially constant current.
The quiescent currents of Q1/Q3 (resp., Q2/Q4) i1 will
thus be half of i10 , of order ≈ 10 μA. Input bias cur-
rent for the base of Q1 (resp. Q2) will amount to i1 / β; Differential amplifier A differential voltage VI at the
typically ≈50 nA, implying a current gain h ₑ ≈ 200 for op-amp inputs (pins 3 and 2, respectively) gives rise to a
Q1(Q2). small differential current in the bases of Q1 and Q2 iI ≈
VI / ( 2 hᵢₑ * h ₑ). This differential base current causes a
This feedback circuit tends to draw the common base
change in the differential collector current in each leg by
node of Q3/Q4 to a voltage V ₒ − 2 * VBE, where V ₒ
iI * h ₑ. Introducing the transconductance of Q1, gm =
is the input common-mode voltage. At the same time, the
h ₑ / hᵢₑ, the (small-signal) current at the base of Q15 (the
magnitude of the quiescent current is relatively insensitive
input of the voltage gain stage) is VI * gm / 2.
to the characteristics of the components Q1–Q4, such as
h ₑ, that would otherwise cause temperature dependence This portion of the op amp cleverly changes a differential
or part-to-part variations. signal at the op amp inputs to a single-ended signal at the
base of Q15, and in a way that avoids wastefully discard-
Transistor Q7 drives Q5 and Q6 into conduction until
ing the signal in either leg. To see how, notice that a small
their (equal) collector currents match that of Q1/Q3 and
negative change in voltage at the inverting input (Q2 base)
Q2/Q4. The quiescent current in Q7 is VBE / 50 kΩ,
drives it out of conduction, and this incremental decrease
about 35μA, as is the quiescent current in Q15, with its
in current passes directly from Q4 collector to its emit-
matching operating point. Thus, the quiescent currents
ter, resulting in a decrease in base drive for Q15. On the
are pairwise matched in Q1/Q2, Q3/Q4, Q5/Q6, and
other hand, a small positive change in voltage at the non-
Q7/Q15.
inverting input (Q1 base) drives this transistor into con-
duction, reflected in an increase in current at the collector
Voltage amplifier Quiescent currents in Q16 and Q19 of Q3. This current drives Q7 further into conduction,
are set by the current mirror Q12/Q13, which is running which turns on current mirror Q5/Q6. Thus, the increase
at ≈ 1 mA. Through some mechanism, the collector cur- in Q3 emitter current is mirrored in an increase in Q6
rent in Q19 tracks that standing current. collector current; the increased collector currents shunts
more from the collector node and results in a decrease in
base drive current for Q15. Besides avoiding wasting 3
Output amplifier In the circuit involving Q16 (vari- dB of gain here, this technique decreases common-mode
ously named rubber diode or VBE multiplier), the 4.5 kΩ gain and feedthrough of power supply noise.
resistor must be conducting about 100 μA, with the Q16
VBE roughly 700 mV. Then the VCB must be about 0.45
V and VCE at about 1.0 V. Because the Q16 collector is Voltage amplifier A current signal i at Q15’s base
driven by a current source and the Q16 emitter drives into gives rise to a current in Q19 of order i * β2 (the product
the Q19 collector current sink, the Q16 transistor estab- of the h ₑ of each of Q15 and Q19, which are connected in
lishes a voltage difference between Q14 base and Q20 a Darlington pair). This current signal develops a voltage
170 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

at the bases of output transistors Q14/Q20 proportional such as the μA748, may require external compensation
to the hᵢₑ of the respective transistor. or closed-loop gains significantly higher than unity.

Output amplifier Output transistors Q14 and Q20 are Input offset voltage The “offset null” pins may be used
to place external resistors (typically in the form of the
each configured as an emitter follower, so no voltage gain
two ends of a potentiometer, with the slider connected
occurs there; instead, this stage provides current gain,
equal to the h ₑ of Q14 (resp. Q20). to VS–) in parallel with the emitter resistors of Q5 and
Q6, to adjust the balance of the Q5/Q6 current mirror.
The output impedance is not zero, as it would be in an
The potentiometer is adjusted such that the output is null
ideal op-amp, but with negative feedback it approaches
(midrange) when the inputs are shorted together.
zero at low frequencies.

Non-linear characteristics
Overall open-loop voltage gain The net open-loop
small-signal voltage gain of the op amp involves the prod- Input breakdown voltage The transistors Q3, Q4
uct of the current gain h ₑ of some 4 transistors. In prac- help to increase the reverse VBE rating: the base-emitter
tice, the voltage gain for a typical 741-style op amp is junctions of the NPN transistors Q1 and Q2 break down
of order 200,000, and the current gain, the ratio of in- at around 7V, but the PNP transistors Q3 and Q4 have
put impedance (≈2−6 MΩ) to output impedance (≈50Ω) VBE breakdown voltages around 50 V.[13]
provides yet more (power) gain.

Output-stage voltage swing and current limiting

Other linear characteristics Variations in the quiescent current with temperature, or
between parts with the same type number, are common,
Small-signal common mode gain The ideal op so crossover distortion and quiescent current may be sub-
amp has infinite common-mode rejection ratio, or zero ject to significant variation.
common-mode gain.
The output range of the amplifier is about one volt less
In the present circuit, if the input voltages change in the than the supply voltage, owing in part to VBE of the out-
same direction, the negative feedback makes Q3/Q4 base put transistors Q14 and Q20.
voltage follow (with 2VBE below) the input voltage vari-
ations. Now the output part (Q10) of Q10-Q11 current The 25 Ω resistor at the Q14 emitter, along with Q17,
mirror keeps up the common current through Q9/Q8 con- acts to limit Q14 current to about 25 mA; otherwise, Q17
stant in spite of varying voltage. Q3/Q4 collector cur- conducts no current.
rents, and accordingly the output current at the base of Current limiting for Q20 is performed in the voltage gain
Q15, remain unchanged. stage: Q22 senses the voltage across Q19’s emitter resis-
In the typical 741 op amp, the common-mode rejection tor (50Ω); as it turns on, it diminishes the drive current to
ratio is 90 dB, implying an open-loop common-mode Q15 base.
voltage gain of about 6. Later versions of this amplifier schematic may show a
somewhat different method of output current limiting.

Frequency compensation The innovation of the

Fairchild μA741 was the introduction of frequency com- Applicability considerations
pensation via an on-chip (monolithic) capacitor, simpli-
fying application of the op amp by eliminating the need Note: while the 741 was historically used in audio and
for external components for this function. The 30 pF ca- other sensitive equipment, such use is now rare because
pacitor stabilizes the amplifier via Miller compensation of the improved noise performance of more modern op-
and functions in a manner similar to an op-amp integrator amps. Apart from generating noticeable hiss, 741s and
circuit. Also known as 'dominant pole compensation' be- other older op-amps may have poor common-mode rejec-
cause it introduces a pole that masks (dominates) the ef- tion ratios and so will often introduce cable-borne mains
fects of other poles into the open loop frequency response; hum and other common-mode interference, such as switch
in a 741 op amp this pole can be as low as 10 Hz (where 'clicks’, into sensitive equipment.
it causes a −3 dB loss of open loop voltage gain). The “741” has come to often mean a generic op-amp IC
This internal compensation is provided to achieve un- (such as μA741, LM301, 558, LM324, TBA221 — or a
conditional stability of the amplifier in negative feed- more modern replacement such as the TL071). The de-
back configurations where the feedback network is non- scription of the 741 output stage is qualitatively similar
reactive and the closed loop gain is unity or higher. for many other designs (that may have quite different in-
By contrast, amplifiers requiring external compensation, put stages), except:
5.4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 171

• Some devices (μA748, LM301, LM308) are not in- • other varieties of op-amp include programmable op-
ternally compensated (require an external capacitor amps (simply meaning the quiescent current, band-
from output to some point within the operational width and so on can be adjusted by an external re-
amplifier, if used in low closed-loop gain applica- sistor).
tions).
• manufacturers often tabulate their op-amps accord-
• Some modern devices have “rail-to-rail output” ca- ing to purpose, such as low-noise pre-amplifiers,
pability, meaning that the output can range from wide bandwidth amplifiers, and so on.
within a few millivolts of the positive supply volt-
age to within a few millivolts of the negative supply
voltage. 5.4.5 Applications

5.4.4 Classification
Op-amps may be classified by their construction:

• discrete (built from individual transistors or

tubes/valves)
• IC (fabricated in an Integrated circuit) — most com-
mon DIP pinout for 741-type operational amplifier

• hybrid Main article: Operational amplifier applications

IC op-amps may be classified in many ways, including:

Use in electronics system design
• Military, Industrial, or Commercial grade (for ex-
ample: the LM301 is the commercial grade version
The use of op-amps as circuit blocks is much easier and
of the LM101, the LM201 is the industrial version).
clearer than specifying all their individual circuit ele-
This may define operating temperature ranges and
ments (transistors, resistors, etc.), whether the amplifiers
other environmental or quality factors.
used are integrated or discrete circuits. In the first ap-
• Classification by package type may also affect envi- proximation op-amps can be used as if they were ideal
ronmental hardiness, as well as manufacturing op- differential gain blocks; at a later stage limits can be
tions; DIP, and other through-hole packages are placed on the acceptable range of parameters for each
tending to be replaced by surface-mount devices. op-amp.
Circuit design follows the same lines for all electronic cir-
• Classification by internal compensation: op-amps
cuits. A specification is drawn up governing what the cir-
may suffer from high frequency instability in some
cuit is required to do, with allowable limits. For example,
negative feedback circuits unless a small compen-
the gain may be required to be 100 times, with a tolerance
sation capacitor modifies the phase and frequency
of 5% but drift of less than 1% in a specified temperature
responses. Op-amps with a built-in capacitor are
range; the input impedance not less than one megohm;
termed "compensated", and allow circuits above
etc.
some specified closed-loop gain to operate stably
with no external capacitor. In particular, op-amps A basic circuit is designed, often with the help of circuit
that are stable even with a closed loop gain of 1 aremodeling (on a computer). Specific commercially avail-
called “unity gain compensated”. able op-amps and other components are then chosen that
meet the design criteria within the specified tolerances at
• Single, dual and quad versions of many commercial acceptable cost. If not all criteria can be met, the speci-
op-amp IC are available, meaning 1, 2 or 4 opera- fication may need to be modified.
tional amplifiers are included in the same package.
A prototype is then built and tested; changes to meet or
• Rail-to-rail input (and/or output) op-amps can work improve the specification, alter functionality, or reduce
with input (and/or output) signals very close to the the cost, may be made.
power supply rails.
• CMOS op-amps (such as the CA3140E) provide ex- Applications without using any feedback
tremely high input resistances, higher than JFET-
input op-amps, which are normally higher than That is, the op-amp is being used as a voltage comparator.
bipolar-input op-amps. Note that a device designed primarily as a comparator
172 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

may be better if, for instance, speed is important or a wide Non-inverting amplifier In a non-inverting amplifier,
range of input voltages may be found, since such devices the output voltage changes in the same direction as the input
can quickly recover from full on or full off (“saturated”) voltage.
states. The gain equation for the op-amp is:
A voltage level detector can be obtained if a reference
voltage Vᵣₑ is applied to one of the op-amp’s inputs. This
means that the op-amp is set up as a comparator to detect Vout = AOL (V+ − V− )
a positive voltage. If the voltage to be sensed, Eᵢ, is ap-
plied to op amp’s (+) input, the result is a noninverting However, in this circuit V₋ is a function of Vₒᵤ because of
positive-level detector: when Eᵢ is above Vᵣₑ , VO equals the negative feedback through the R1 R2 network. R1 and
+V ₐ ; when Eᵢ is below Vᵣₑ , VO equals −V ₐ . If Eᵢ is R2 form a voltage divider, and as V₋ is a high-impedance
applied to the inverting input, the circuit is an inverting input, it does not load it appreciably. Consequently:
positive-level detector: When Eᵢ is above Vᵣₑ , VO equals
−V ₐ .
A zero voltage level detector (Eᵢ = 0) can convert, for ex- V− = β · Vout
ample, the output of a sine-wave from a function genera-
where
tor into a variable-frequency square wave. If Eᵢ is a sine
wave, triangular wave, or wave of any other shape that
is symmetrical around zero, the zero-crossing detector’s R1
output will be square. Zero-crossing detection may also β=
R1 + R2
be useful in triggering TRIACs at the best time to reduce
mains interference and current spikes. Substituting this into the gain equation, we obtain:

Positive feedback applications

Vout = AOL (Vin − β · Vout )
Another typical configuration of op-amps is with posi- Solving for Vout :
tive feedback, which takes a fraction of the output signal
back to the non-inverting input. An important application
of it is the comparator with hysteresis, the Schmitt trig- ( )
1
ger. Some circuits may use Positive feedback and Neg- Vout = Vin β + 1/A
OL
ative feedback around the same amplifier, for example
Triangle wave oscillators and active filters. If AOL is very large, this simplifies to
Because of the wide slew-range and lack of positive feed-
back, the response of all the open-loop level detectors ( )
Vin Vin R2
described above will be relatively slow. External over- Vout ≈ = R1
= Vin 1+
all positive feedback may be applied but (unlike internal β R1 +R2
R1
positive feedback that may be applied within the latter
The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier
stages of a purpose-designed comparator) this markedly
needs a path for DC to ground; if the signal source does
affects the accuracy of the zero-crossing detection point.
not supply a DC path, or if that source requires a given
Using a general-purpose op-amp, for example, the fre-
load impedance, then the circuit will require another re-
quency of Eᵢ for the sine to square wave converter should
sistor from the non-inverting input to ground. When the
probably be below 100 Hz.
operational amplifier’s input bias currents are significant,
then the DC source resistances driving the inputs should
Negative feedback applications be balanced.[14] The ideal value for the feedback resis-
tors (to give minimum offset voltage) will be such that the
two resistances in parallel roughly equal the resistance to
ground at the non-inverting input pin. That ideal value
Vin assumes the bias currents are well-matched, which may
Vout
not be true for all op-amps.[15]

Inverting amplifier In an inverting amplifier, the out-

R1 R2 put voltage changes in an opposite direction to the input
voltage.
An op-amp connected in the non-inverting amplifier configura- As with the non-inverting amplifier, we start with the gain
tion equation of the op-amp:
5.4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 173

Rf • differential amplifiers

• differentiators and integrators

Rin • filters
Vin
Vout • precision rectifiers

• precision peak detectors

• voltage and current regulators

• analog calculators
An op-amp connected in the inverting amplifier configuration
• analog-to-digital converters

• digital-to-analog converters
Vout = AOL (V+ − V− )
• Voltage clamping
This time, V₋ is a function of both Vₒᵤ and Vᵢ due to the
voltage divider formed by R and Rᵢ . Again, the op-amp • oscillators and waveform generators
input does not apply an appreciable load, so:
Most single, dual and quad op-amps available have a stan-
1 dardized pin-out which permits one type to be substituted
V− = (Rf Vin + Rin Vout ) for another without wiring changes. A specific op-amp
Rf + Rin
may be chosen for its open loop gain, bandwidth, noise
Substituting this into the gain equation and solving for performance, input impedance, power consumption, or a
Vout : compromise between any of these factors.

AOL Rf
Vout = −Vin · 5.4.6 Historical timeline
Rf + Rin + AOL Rin
If AOL is very large, this simplifies to 1941: A vacuum tube op-amp. An op-amp, defined
as a general-purpose, DC-coupled, high gain, inverting
feedback amplifier, is first found in U.S. Patent 2,401,779
Rf “Summing Amplifier” filed by Karl D. Swartzel Jr. of
Vout ≈ −Vin
Rin Bell Labs in 1941. This design used three vacuum tubes
A resistor is often inserted between the non-inverting in- to achieve a gain of 90 dB and operated on voltage rails of
put and ground (so both inputs “see” similar resistances), ±350 V. It had a single inverting input rather than differ-
reducing the input offset voltage due to different voltage ential inverting and non-inverting inputs, as are common
drops due to bias current, and may reduce distortion in in today’s op-amps. Throughout World War II, Swartzel’s
some op-amps. design proved its value by being liberally used in the M9
artillery director designed at Bell Labs. This artillery di-
A DC-blocking capacitor may be inserted in series with
rector worked with the SCR584 radar system to achieve
the input resistor when a frequency response down to DC
extraordinary hit rates (near 90%) that would not have
is not needed and any DC voltage on the input is un-
been possible otherwise.[16]
wanted. That is, the capacitive component of the input
impedance inserts a DC zero and a low-frequency pole 1947: An op-amp with an explicit non-inverting in-
that gives the circuit a bandpass or high-pass characteris- put. In 1947, the operational amplifier was first formally
tic. defined and named in a paper[17] by John R. Ragazzini of
Columbia University. In this same paper a footnote men-
The potentials at the operational amplifier inputs remain
tioned an op-amp design by a student that would turn out
virtually constant (near ground) in the inverting configu-
to be quite significant. This op-amp, designed by Loebe
ration. The constant operating potential typically results
Julie, was superior in a variety of ways. It had two major
in distortion levels that are lower than those attainable
innovations. Its input stage used a long-tailed triode pair
with the non-inverting topology.
with loads matched to reduce drift in the output and, far
more importantly, it was the first op-amp design to have
Other applications two inputs (one inverting, the other non-inverting). The
differential input made a whole range of new functional-
• audio- and video-frequency pre-amplifiers and ity possible, but it would not be used for a long time due
buffers to the rise of the chopper-stabilized amplifier.[16]
174 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

the release of the model K2-W from George A. Philbrick

Researches, Incorporated. The designation on the de-
vices shown, GAP/R, is an acronym for the complete
company name. Two nine-pin 12AX7 vacuum tubes
were mounted in an octal package and had a model K2-P
chopper add-on available that would effectively “use up”
the non-inverting input. This op-amp was based on a de-
scendant of Loebe Julie’s 1947 design and, along with its
successors, would start the widespread use of op-amps in
industry.

GAP/R’s model P45: a solid-state, discrete op-amp (1961).

1961: A discrete IC op-amp. With the birth of the

transistor in 1947, and the silicon transistor in 1954, the
concept of ICs became a reality. The introduction of the
planar process in 1959 made transistors and ICs stable
enough to be commercially useful. By 1961, solid-state,
discrete op-amps were being produced. These op-amps
were effectively small circuit boards with packages such
as edge connectors. They usually had hand-selected re-
sistors in order to improve things such as voltage offset
GAP/R’s K2-W: a vacuum-tube op-amp (1953)
and drift. The P45 (1961) had a gain of 94 dB and ran
on ±15 V rails. It was intended to deal with signals in the
range of ±10 V.
1949: A chopper-stabilized op-amp. In 1949, Edwin
A. Goldberg designed a chopper-stabilized op-amp.[18] 1961: A varactor bridge op-amp. There have
been many different directions taken in op-amp design.
This set-up uses a normal op-amp with an additional AC
amplifier that goes alongside the op-amp. The chopper Varactor bridge op-amps started to be produced in the
early 1960s.[19][20] They were designed to have extremely
gets an AC signal from DC by switching between the DC
voltage and ground at a fast rate (60 Hz or 400 Hz). This small input current and are still amongst the best op-amps
signal is then amplified, rectified, filtered and fed into available in terms of common-mode rejection with the
the op-amp’s non-inverting input. This vastly improved ability to correctly deal with hundreds of volts at their in-
the gain of the op-amp while significantly reducing the puts.
output drift and DC offset. Unfortunately, any design 1962: An op-amp in a potted module. By 1962, sev-
that used a chopper couldn't use their non-inverting input eral companies were producing modular potted packages
for any other purpose. Nevertheless, the much improved that could be plugged into printed circuit boards. These
characteristics of the chopper-stabilized op-amp made it packages were crucially important as they made the op-
the dominant way to use op-amps. Techniques that used erational amplifier into a single black box which could be
the non-inverting input regularly would not be very pop- easily treated as a component in a larger circuit.
ular until the 1960s when op-amp ICs started to show up
1963: A monolithic IC op-amp. In 1963, the first
in the field. monolithic IC op-amp, the μA702 designed by Bob Wid-
1953: A commercially available op-amp. In 1953, vac- lar at Fairchild Semiconductor, was released. Monolithic
uum tube op-amps became commercially available with ICs consist of a single chip as opposed to a chip and dis-
5.4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 175

GAP/R’s model PP65: a solid-state op-amp in a potted module ADI’s HOS-050: a high speed hybrid IC op-amp (1979)
(1962)

came in a quad package (four separate op-amps in one

crete parts (a discrete IC) or multiple chips bonded and package) and became an industry standard. In addition
connected on a circuit board (a hybrid IC). Almost all to packaging multiple op-amps in a single package, the
modern op-amps are monolithic ICs; however, this first 1970s also saw the birth of op-amps in hybrid packages.
IC did not meet with much success. Issues such as an un- These op-amps were generally improved versions of ex-
even supply voltage, low gain and a small dynamic range isting monolithic op-amps. As the properties of mono-
held off the dominance of monolithic op-amps until 1965 lithic op-amps improved, the more complex hybrid ICs
when the μA709[21] (also designed by Bob Widlar) was were quickly relegated to systems that are required to
released. have extremely long service lives or other specialty sys-
tems.
1968: Release of the μA741. The popularity of mono-
lithic op-amps was further improved upon the release of
the LM101 in 1967, which solved a variety of issues,
and the subsequent release of the μA741 in 1968. The
μA741 was extremely similar to the LM101 except that
Fairchild’s facilities allowed them to include a 30 pF com-
pensation capacitor inside the chip instead of requiring
external compensation. This simple difference has made
the 741 the canonical op-amp and many modern amps
base their pinout on the 741s. The μA741 is still in
production, and has become ubiquitous in electronics—
many manufacturers produce a version of this classic
chip, recognizable by part numbers containing 741. The
same part is manufactured by several companies.
1970: First high-speed, low-input current FET de-
sign. In the 1970s high speed, low-input current designs
started to be made by using FETs. These would be largely
replaced by op-amps made with MOSFETs in the 1980s.
An op-amp in a mini DIP package
1972: Single sided supply op-amps being produced.
A single sided supply op-amp is one where the input and
Recent trends. Recently supply voltages in analog cir-
output voltages can be as low as the negative power supply
cuits have decreased (as they have in digital logic) and
voltage instead of needing to be at least two volts above it.
low-voltage op-amps have been introduced reflecting this.
The result is that it can operate in many applications with
Supplies of 5 V and increasingly 3.3 V (sometimes as low
the negative supply pin on the op-amp being connected to
as 1.8 V) are common. To maximize the signal range
the signal ground, thus eliminating the need for a separate
modern op-amps commonly have rail-to-rail output (the
negative power supply. output signal can range from the lowest supply voltage to
The LM324 (released in 1972) was one such op-amp that the highest) and sometimes rail-to-rail inputs.
176 CHAPTER 5. BASIC DEVICES

5.4.7 See also [7] D.F. Stout Handbook of Operational Amplifier Circuit De-
sign (McGraw-Hill, 1976, ISBN 0-07-061797-X ) pp. 1–
• Active filter 11.

• Analog computer [8] “Op Amp Output Phase-Reversal and Input Over-Voltage
Protection” (PDF). Analog Devices. 2009. Retrieved
• Bob Widlar 2012-12-27.
• Current conveyor [9] King, Grayson; Watkins, Tim (13 May 1999).
“Bootstrapping your op amp yields wide voltage
• Current-feedback operational amplifier swings”. Electronic Design News. Archived from
• Differential amplifier the original (PDF) on January 31, 2013. Retrieved
2012-12-27.
• George A. Philbrick
[10] Lee, Thomas H. (November 18, 2002). “IC Op-Amps
• Instrumentation amplifier Through the Ages” (PDF). Stanford UniversityHandout
#18: EE214 Fall 2002.
• Negative feedback amplifier
[11] Lu, Liang-Hung. “Electronics 2, Chapter 10” (PDF). Na-
• Op-amp swapping tional Taiwan University, Graduate Institute of Electron-
ics Engineering. Retrieved 2014-02-22.
• Operational amplifier applications
[12] Inside the ubiquitous 741 opamp; Ken Shirriff’s blog.
• Operational transconductance amplifier
[13] The μA741 Operational Amplifier

5.4.8 Notes [14] An input bias current of 1 µA through a DC source re-

sistance of 10 kΩ produces a 10 mV offset voltage. If
[1] This definition hews to the convention of measuring op- the other input bias current is the same and sees the same
amp parameters with respect to the zero voltage point in source resistance, then the two input offset voltages will
the circuit, which is usually half the total voltage between cancel out. Balancing the DC source resistances may not
the amplifier’s positive and negative power rails. be necessary if the input bias current and source resistance
product is small.
[2] Many older designs of operational amplifiers have offset
null inputs to allow the offset to be manually adjusted [15] http://www.analog.com/static/imported-files/tutorials/
away. Modern precision op-amps can have internal cir- MT-038.pdf
cuits that automatically cancel this offset using choppers
or other circuits that measure the offset voltage periodi- [16] Jung, Walter G. (2004). “Chapter 8: Op Amp History”.
cally and subtract it from the input voltage. Op Amp Applications Handbook. Newnes. p. 777. ISBN
978-0-7506-7844-5. Retrieved 2008-11-15.
[3] That the output cannot reach the power supply voltages is
usually the result of limitations of the amplifier’s output [17] Ragazzini, John R.; Randall, Robert H.; Russell, Freder-
stage transistors. See Output stage. ick A. (May 1947). “Analysis of Problems in Dynamics
by Electronic Circuits”. Proceedings of the IRE. IEEE.
[4] Widlar used this same trick in μA702 and μA709
35 (5): 444–452. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1947.232616.
ISSN 0096-8390.
5.4.9 References [18] http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/
archives/39-05/Web_ChH_final.pdf
[1] Maxim Application Note 1108: Understanding Single-
Ended, Pseudo-Differential and Fully-Differential ADC [19] The Philbrick Archive
Inputs – Retrieved November 10, 2007
[20] June 1961 advertisement for Philbrick P2,
[2] “Apex OP PA98”. Retrieved 8 November 2015. APEX
http://www.philbrickarchive.org/p2%20and%206033%
PA98 Op Amp Modules, Selling Price: $207.51
20ad%20rsi%20vol32%20no6%20june1961.pdf
[3] Jacob Millman, Microelectronics: Digital and Analog
[21] A.P. Malvino, Electronic Principles (2nd Ed. 1979. ISBN
Circuits and Systems, McGraw-Hill, 1979, ISBN 0-07-
0-07-039867-4) p. 476.
042327-X, pp. 523-527

[4] “Understanding Basic Analog – Ideal Op Amps” (PDF).

5.4.10 Further reading
[5] “Lecture 5: The ideal operational amplifier” (PDF).

[6] Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989). The Art of Elec- • Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog In-
tronics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. tegrated Circuits; 4th Ed; Sergio Franco; McGraw
ISBN 0-521-37095-7. Hill; 672 pages; 2014; ISBN 978-0078028168.
5.4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 177

• Op Amps For Everyone; 4th Ed; Ron Mancini; 5.4.11 External links
Newnes; 304 pages; 2013; ISBN 978-0123914958.
(3 MB PDF of older edition) • Operational Amplifiers - Chapter on All About Cir-
cuits
• Operational Amplifiers - Theory and Design; 2nd Ed;
Johan Huijsing; Springer; 430 pages; 2011; ISBN • Loop Gain and its Effects on Analog Circuit Perfor-
978-9400705951. (7 MB PDF) mance - Introduction to loop gain, gain and phase
margin, loop stability
• Small Signal Audio Design; 1st Ed; Douglas Self; Fo- • Simple Op Amp Measurements How to measure
cal Press; 556 pages; 2010; ISBN 978-0240521770. offset voltage, offset and bias current, gain, CMRR,
and PSRR.
• Lessons in Electric Circuits - Volume III - Semicon-
ductors; 2009. (Chapter 8 is 59 pages) (4 MB PDF) • Operational Amplifiers. Introductory on-line text by
E. J. Mastascusa (Bucknell University).
• Linear Circuit Design Handbook; 1st Ed; Hank
Zumbahlen; Newnes; 960 pages; 2008; ISBN 978- • Introduction to op-amp circuit stages, second order
0750687034. (35 MB PDF) filters, single op-amp bandpass filters, and a simple
intercom
• Op Amp Applications Handbook; 1st Ed; Wal- • MOS op amp design: A tutorial overview
ter Jung; Newnes; 896 pages; 2004; ISBN 978-
0750678445. (17 MB PDF) • Operational Amplifier Noise Prediction (All Op
Amps) using spot noise
• Op Amps For Everyone; 1st Ed; Ron Mancini; 464
pages; 2002; Texas Instruments SLOD006B. (2 MB • Operational Amplifier Basics
PDF)
• History of the Op-amp from vacuum tubes to about
2002. Lots of detail, with schematics. IC part is
• Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog In-
somewhat ADI-centric.
tegrated Circuits; 3rd Ed; Sergio Franco; 672 pages;
2002; ISBN 978-0072320848. • Loebe Julie historical OpAmp interview by Bob
Pease
• Op Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits; 1st Ed;
James Fiore; Cengage Learning; 616 pages; 2000; • www.PhilbrickArchive.org – A free repository of
ISBN 978-0766817937. materials from George A Philbrick / Researches -
Operational Amplifier Pioneer
• Operational Amplifiers and Linear Integrated Cir-
• What’s The Difference Between Operational Am-
cuits; 6th Ed; Robert Coughlin; Prentice Hall; 529
plifiers And Instrumentation Amplifiers?, Elec-
pages; 2000; ISBN 978-0130149916.
tronic Design Magazine
• Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits; 4th Ed;
Ram Gayakwad; Prentice Hall; 543 pages; 1999; Datasheets / Databooks
ISBN 978-0132808682.
• LM301, Single BJT OpAmp, Texas Instruments
• Basic Operational Amplifiers and Linear Integrated
Circuits; 2nd Ed; Thomas Floyd and David Buchla; • LM324, Quad BJT OpAmp, Texas Instruments
Prentice Hall; 593 pages; 1998; ISBN 978- • LM741, Single BJT OpAmp, Texas Instruments
0130829870.
• NE5532, Dual BJT OpAmp, Texas Instruments
• Troubleshooting Analog Circuits; 1st Ed; Bob Pease; (NE5534 is similar single)
Newnes; 217 pages; 1991; ISBN 978-0750694995.
• TL072, Dual JFET OpAmp, Texas Instruments
• IC Op-Amp Cookbook; 3rd Ed; Walter Jung; Pren- (TL074 is Quad)
tice Hall; 433 pages; 1986; ISBN 978-0138896010.

• Engineer’s Mini-Notebook – OpAmp IC Circuits;

Forrest Mims III; Radio Shack; 49 pages; 1985;
ASIN B000DZG196. (4 MB PDF)

• Analog Applications Manual; Signetics; 418 pages;

1979. (Chapter 3 is 32 pages) (32 MB PDF)
Chapter 6

Digital circuits

6.1 Boolean algebra Shannon observed that one could also apply the rules of
Boole’s algebra in this setting, and he introduced switch-
For other uses, see Boolean algebra (disambiguation). ing algebra as a way to analyze and design circuits by
algebraic means in terms of logic gates. Shannon al-
ready had at his disposal the abstract mathematical ap-
In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean alge- paratus, thus he cast his switching algebra as the two-
bra is the branch of algebra in which the values of the element Boolean algebra. In circuit engineering settings
variables are the truth values true and false, usually de- today, there is little need to consider other Boolean alge-
noted 1 and 0 respectively. Instead of elementary alge- bras, thus “switching algebra” and “Boolean algebra” are
bra where the values of the variables are numbers, and often used interchangeably.[5][6][7] Efficient implementa-
the main operations are addition and multiplication, the tion of Boolean functions is a fundamental problem in the
main operations of Boolean algebra are the conjunction design of combinational logic circuits. Modern electronic
and denoted as ∧, the disjunction or denoted as ∨, and design automation tools for VLSI circuits often rely on an
the negation not denoted as ¬. It is thus a formalism for efficient representation of Boolean functions known as
describing logical relations in the same way that ordinary (reduced ordered) binary decision diagrams (BDD) for
algebra describes numeric relations. logic synthesis and formal verification.[8]
Boolean algebra was introduced by George Boole in his Logic sentences that can be expressed in classical
first book The Mathematical Analysis of Logic (1847), propositional calculus have an equivalent expression in
and set forth more fully in his An Investigation of the Boolean algebra. Thus, Boolean logic is sometimes
Laws of Thought (1854).[1] According to Huntington, the used to denote propositional calculus performed in this
term “Boolean algebra” was first suggested by Sheffer in way.[9][10][11] Boolean algebra is not sufficient to capture
1913.[2] logic formulas using quantifiers, like those from first order
Boolean algebra has been fundamental in the develop- logic. Although the development of mathematical logic
ment of digital electronics, and is provided for in all mod- did not follow Boole’s program, the connection between
ern programming languages. It is also used in set theory his algebra and logic was later put on firm ground in the
and statistics.[3] setting of algebraic logic, which also studies the algebraic
systems of many other logics.[4] The problem of deter-
mining whether the variables of a given Boolean (propo-
6.1.1 History sitional) formula can be assigned in such a way as to make
the formula evaluate to true is called the Boolean satisfia-
bility problem (SAT), and is of importance to theoretical
Boole’s algebra predated the modern developments in
computer science, being the first problem shown to be
abstract algebra and mathematical logic; it is however
NP-complete. The closely related model of computation
seen as connected to the origins of both fields.[4] In an
known as a Boolean circuit relates time complexity (of an
abstract setting, Boolean algebra was perfected in the late
algorithm) to circuit complexity.
19th century by Jevons, Schröder, Huntington, and oth-
ers until it reached the modern conception of an (ab-
stract) mathematical structure.[4] For example, the em-
6.1.2 Values
pirical observation that one can manipulate expressions
in the algebra of sets by translating them into expressions
Whereas in elementary algebra expressions denote
in Boole’s algebra is explained in modern terms by say- mainly numbers, in Boolean algebra they denote the truth
ing that the algebra of sets is a Boolean algebra (note the
values false and true. These values are represented with
indefinite article). In fact, M. H. Stone proved in 1936 the bits (or binary digits), namely 0 and 1. They do not be-
that every Boolean algebra is isomorphic to a field of sets.
have like the integers 0 and 1, for which 1 + 1 = 2, but may
In the 1930s, while studying switching circuits, Claude be identified with the elements of the two-element field

178
6.1. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 179

GF(2), that is, integer arithmetic modulo 2, for which 1 + Secondary operations
1 = 0. Addition and multiplication then play the Boolean
roles of XOR (exclusive-or) and AND (conjunction) re- The three Boolean operations described above are re-
spectively, with disjunction x∨y (inclusive-or) definable ferred to as basic, meaning that they can be taken as a
as x + y + xy. basis for other Boolean operations that can be built up
from them by composition, the manner in which oper-
Boolean algebra also deals with functions which have
ations are combined or compounded. Operations com-
their values in the set {0, 1}. A sequence of bits is a com-
posed from the basic operations include the following ex-
monly used such function. Another common example is
amples:
the subsets of a set E: to a subset F of E is associated
the indicator function that takes the value 1 on F and 0
outside F. The most general example is the elements of a
Boolean algebra, with all of the foregoing being instances x → y = ¬x ∨ y
thereof.
x ⊕ y = (x ∨ y) ∧ ¬(x ∧ y)
As with elementary algebra, the purely equational part of
the theory may be developed without considering explicit x ≡ y = ¬(x ⊕ y)
values for the variables.[12] These definitions give rise to the following truth tables
giving the values of these operations for all four possible
inputs.
6.1.3 Operations
Basic operations

The basic operations of Boolean calculus are as follows. The first operation, x → y, or Cxy, is called material im-
plication. If x is true then the value of x → y is taken
• AND (conjunction), denoted x∧y (sometimes x to be that of y. But if x is false then the value of y
AND y or Kxy), satisfies x∧y = 1 if x = y = 1 and can be ignored; however the operation must return some
x∧y = 0 otherwise. truth value and there are only two choices, so the return
value is the one that entails less, namely true. (Relevance
• OR (disjunction), denoted x∨y (sometimes x OR y logic addresses this by viewing an implication with a false
or Axy), satisfies x∨y = 0 if x = y = 0 and x∨y = 1 premise as something other than either true or false.)
otherwise.
The second operation, x ⊕ y, or Jxy, is called exclusive
• NOT (negation), denoted ¬x (sometimes NOT x, Nx or (often abbreviated as XOR) to distinguish it from dis-
or !x), satisfies ¬x = 0 if x = 1 and ¬x = 1 if x = 0. junction as the inclusive kind. It excludes the possibility
of both x and y. Defined in terms of arithmetic it is addi-
If the truth values 0 and 1 are interpreted as integers, these tion mod 2 where 1 + 1 = 0.
operations may be expressed with the ordinary operations The third operation, the complement of exclusive or, is
of arithmetic, or by the minimum/maximum functions: equivalence or Boolean equality: x ≡ y, or Exy, is true
just when x and y have the same value. Hence x ⊕ y as its
complement can be understood as x ≠ y, being true just
x ∧ y = x × y = min(x, y) when x and y are different. Equivalence counterpart in
x ∨ y = x + y − (x × y) = max(x, y) arithmetic mod 2 is x + y + 1.
¬x = 1 − x Given two operands, each with two possible values, there
are 22 = 4 possible combinations of inputs. Because each
Alternatively the values of x∧y, x∨y, and ¬x can be ex-
output can have two possible values, there are a total of
pressed by tabulating their values with truth tables as fol- 4
2 = 16 possible binary Boolean operations.
lows.

6.1.4 Laws
One may consider that only the negation and one of the A law of Boolean algebra is an identity such as x∨(y∨z)
two other operations are basic, because of the following = (x∨y)∨z between two Boolean terms, where a Boolean
identities that allow to define the conjunction in terms of term is defined as an expression built up from variables
the negation and the disjunction, and vice versa: and the constants 0 and 1 using the operations ∧, ∨, and
¬. The concept can be extended to terms involving other
Boolean operations such as ⊕, →, and ≡, but such ex-
x ∧ y = ¬(¬x ∨ ¬y) tensions are unnecessary for the purposes to which the
x ∨ y = ¬(¬x ∧ ¬y) laws are put. Such purposes include the definition of a
180 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Boolean algebra as any model of the Boolean laws, and

as a means for deriving new laws from old as in the deriva-
tion of x∨(y∧z) = x∨(z∧y) from y∧z = z∧y as treated in the 1 Complementation x ∧ ¬x = 0
section on axiomatization. 2 Complementation x ∨ ¬x = 1

All properties of negation including the laws below follow

Monotone laws from the above two laws alone.[3]

Boolean algebra satisfies many of the same laws as ordi- In both ordinary and Boolean algebra, negation works by
nary algebra when one matches up ∨ with addition and ∧ exchanging pairs of elements, whence in both algebras it
with multiplication. In particular the following laws are satisfies the double negation law (also called involution
common to both kinds of algebra:[13] law)

of Associativity∨ x ∨ (y ∨ z) = (x ∨ y) ∨ z negation Double ¬(¬x) = x

of Associativity∧ x ∧ (y ∧ z) = (x ∧ y) ∧ z
But whereas ordinary algebra satisfies the two laws
of Commutativity∨ x∨y =y∨x
of Commutativity∧ x∧y =y∧x
of Distributivity ∧ over ∨ x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧(−x)(−y)
z) = xy
for Identity∨ x∨0=x (−x) + (−y) = −(x + y)
for Identity∧ x∧1=x
Boolean algebra satisfies De Morgan’s laws:
for Annihilator∧ x∧0=0
for Annihilator∨ x∨1=1
of Idempotence∨ x∨x=x 1 Morgan De ¬x ∧ ¬y = ¬(x ∨ y)
of Idempotence∧ x∧x=x 2 Morgan De ¬x ∨ ¬y = ¬(x ∧ y)
1 Absorption x ∧ (x ∨ y) = x
2 Absorption x ∨ (x ∧ y) = x Completeness
However, the following law is not in common with or-
dinary algebra, as in ordinary algebra addition does not The laws listed above define Boolean algebra, in the sense
distribute over multiplication: that they entail the rest of the subject. The laws Com-
plementation 1 and 2, together with the monotone laws,
suffice for this purpose and can therefore be taken as
of Distributivity ∨ over ∧ x ∨ (y ∧ z) = (x ∨ y) ∧ (xone possible complete set of laws or axiomatization of
∨ z)
Boolean algebra. Every law of Boolean algebra follows
A consequence of the first of these laws is 1∨1 = 1, which logically from these axioms. Furthermore, Boolean alge-
is false in ordinary algebra, where 1+1 = 2. Taking x = 2 bras can then be defined as the models of these axioms as
in the second law shows that it is not an ordinary algebra treated in the section thereon.
law either, since 2×2 = 4. The remaining four laws can
To clarify, writing down further laws of Boolean algebra
be falsified in ordinary algebra by taking all variables to
cannot give rise to any new consequences of these axioms,
be 1, for example in Absorption Law 1 the left hand side
nor can it rule out any model of them. In contrast, in a
is 1(1+1) = 2 while the right hand side is 1, and so on.
list of some but not all of the same laws, there could have
All of the laws treated so far have been for conjunc- been Boolean laws that did not follow from those on the
tion and disjunction. These operations have the property list, and moreover there would have been models of the
that changing either argument either leaves the output un- listed laws that were not Boolean algebras.
changed or the output changes in the same way as the in-
This axiomatization is by no means the only one, or
put. Equivalently, changing any variable from 0 to 1 never
even necessarily the most natural given that we did not
results in the output changing from 1 to 0. Operations
pay attention to whether some of the axioms followed
with this property are said to be monotone. Thus the ax-
from others but simply chose to stop when we noticed
ioms so far have all been for monotonic Boolean logic.
[3] we had enough laws, treated further in the section on
Nonmonotonicity enters via complement ¬ as follows.
axiomatizations. Or the intermediate notion of axiom can
be sidestepped altogether by defining a Boolean law di-
Nonmonotone laws rectly as any tautology, understood as an equation that
holds for all values of its variables over 0 and 1. All these
The complement operation is defined by the following definitions of Boolean algebra can be shown to be equiv-
two laws. alent.
6.1. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 181

Duality principle 6.1.5 Diagrammatic representations

Venn diagrams

A Venn diagram[15] is a representation of a Boolean op-

Principle: If {X, R} is a poset, then {X, R(inverse)} is eration using shaded overlapping regions. There is one
also a poset. region for each variable, all circular in the examples here.
There is nothing magical about the choice of symbols for The interior and exterior of region x corresponds respec-
the values of Boolean algebra. We could rename 0 and tively to the values 1 (true) and 0 (false) for variable x.
1 to say α and β, and as long as we did so consistently The shading indicates the value of the operation for each
throughout it would still be Boolean algebra, albeit with combination of regions, with dark denoting 1 and light 0
some obvious cosmetic differences. (some authors use the opposite convention).

But suppose we rename 0 and 1 to 1 and 0 respectively. The three Venn diagrams in the figure below represent
Then it would still be Boolean algebra, and moreover op- respectively conjunction x∧y, disjunction x∨y, and com-
erating on the same values. However it would not be iden- plement ¬x.
tical to our original Boolean algebra because now we find
∨ behaving the way ∧ used to do and vice versa. So there
are still some cosmetic differences to show that we've
been fiddling with the notation, despite the fact that we're
still using 0s and 1s. x y x y x

But if in addition to interchanging the names of the values x⋀y x⋁y ¬x

we also interchange the names of the two binary opera-
tions, now there is no trace of what we have done. The
Figure 2. Venn diagrams for conjunction, disjunction, and com-
end product is completely indistinguishable from what we plement
started with. We might notice that the columns for x∧y
and x∨y in the truth tables had changed places, but that
For conjunction, the region inside both circles is shaded
switch is immaterial.
to indicate that x∧y is 1 when both variables are 1. The
When values and operations can be paired up in a way other regions are left unshaded to indicate that x∧y is 0
that leaves everything important unchanged when all pairs for the other three combinations.
are switched simultaneously, we call the members of each
pair dual to each other. Thus 0 and 1 are dual, and ∧ The second diagram represents disjunction x∨y by shad-
and ∨ are dual. The Duality Principle, also called De ing those regions that lie inside either or both circles. The
Morgan duality, asserts that Boolean algebra is unchanged third diagram represents complement ¬x by shading the
when all dual pairs are interchanged. region not inside the circle.

One change we did not need to make as part of this in- While we have not shown the Venn diagrams for the
constants 0 and 1, they are trivial, being respectively a
terchange was to complement. We say that complement
is a self-dual operation. The identity or do-nothing op- white box and a dark box, neither one containing a cir-
cle. However we could put a circle for x in those boxes,
eration x (copy the input to the output) is also self-dual.
A more complicated example of a self-dual operation is in which case each would denote a function of one ar-
gument, x, which returns the same value independently
(x∧y) ∨ (y∧z) ∨ (z∧x). There is no self-dual binary oper-
ation that depends on both its arguments. A composition of x, called a constant function. As far as their outputs
are concerned, constants and constant functions are in-
of self-dual operations is a self-dual operation. For ex-
ample, if f(x, y, z) = (x∧y) ∨ (y∧z) ∨ (z∧x), then f(f(x, y, distinguishable; the difference is that a constant takes no
z), x, t) is a self-dual operation of four arguments x,y,z,t. arguments, called a zeroary or nullary operation, while a
constant function takes one argument, which it ignores,
The principle of duality can be explained from a group and is a unary operation.
theory perspective by fact that there are exactly four func-
tions that are one-to-one mappings (automorphisms) of Venn diagrams are helpful in visualizing laws. The com-
the set of Boolean polynomials back to itself: the iden- mutativity laws for ∧ and ∨ can be seen from the symme-
tity function, the complement function, the dual func- try of the diagrams: a binary operation that was not com-
tion and the contradual function (complemented dual). mutative would not have a symmetric diagram because
These four functions form a group under function compo- interchanging x and y would have the effect of reflecting
sition, isomorphic to the Klein four-group, acting on the the diagram horizontally and any failure of commutativ-
set of Boolean polynomials. Walter Gottschalk remarked ity would then appear as a failure of symmetry.
that consequently a more appropriate name for the phe- Idempotence of ∧ and ∨ can be visualized by sliding the
nomenon would be the principle (or square) of quaternal- two circles together and noting that the shaded area then
ity.[14] becomes the whole circle, for both ∧ and ∨.
182 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

To see the first absorption law, x∧(x∨y) = x, start with the way through, whether it is an input or output port.
diagram in the middle for x∨y and note that the portion of The Duality Principle, or De Morgan’s laws, can be un-
the shaded area in common with the x circle is the whole derstood as asserting that complementing all three ports
of the x circle. For the second absorption law, x∨(x∧y) = of an AND gate converts it to an OR gate and vice versa,
x, start with the left diagram for x∧y and note that shading as shown in Figure 4 below. Complementing both ports
the whole of the x circle results in just the x circle being of an inverter however leaves the operation unchanged.
shaded, since the previous shading was inside the x circle.
The double negation law can be seen by complementing
the shading in the third diagram for ¬x, which shades the
x circle.
To visualize the first De Morgan’s law, (¬x)∧(¬y) =
¬(x∨y), start with the middle diagram for x∨y and com-
plement its shading so that only the region outside both More generally one may complement any of the eight
circles is shaded, which is what the right hand side of the subsets of the three ports of either an AND or OR gate.
law describes. The result is the same as if we shaded that The resulting sixteen possibilities give rise to only eight
region which is both outside the x circle and outside the Boolean operations, namely those with an odd number of
y circle, i.e. the conjunction of their exteriors, which is 1’s in their truth table. There are eight such because the
what the left hand side of the law describes. “odd-bit-out” can be either 0 or 1 and can go in any of
The second De Morgan’s law, (¬x)∨(¬y) = ¬(x∧y), works four positions in the truth table. There being sixteen bi-
the same way with the two diagrams interchanged. nary Boolean operations, this must leave eight operations
with an even number of 1’s in their truth tables. Two
The first complement law, x∧¬x = 0, says that the interior of these are the constants 0 and 1 (as binary operations
and exterior of the x circle have no overlap. The second that ignore both their inputs); four are the operations that
complement law, x∨¬x = 1, says that everything is either depend nontrivially on exactly one of their two inputs,
inside or outside the x circle. namely x, y, ¬x, and ¬y; and the remaining two are x⊕y
(XOR) and its complement x≡y.
Digital logic gates
6.1.6 Boolean algebras
Digital logic is the application of the Boolean algebra of
0 and 1 to electronic hardware consisting of logic gates Main article: Boolean algebra (structure)
connected to form a circuit diagram. Each gate imple-
ments a Boolean operation, and is depicted schematically
by a shape indicating the operation. The shapes asso- The term “algebra” denotes both a subject, namely the
ciated with the gates for conjunction (AND-gates), dis- subject of algebra, and an object, namely an algebraic
junction (OR-gates), and complement (inverters) are as structure. Whereas the foregoing has addressed the sub-
follows.[16] ject of Boolean algebra, this section deals with mathe-
matical objects called Boolean algebras, defined in full
generality as any model of the Boolean laws. We begin
with a special case of the notion definable without refer-
ence to the laws, namely concrete Boolean algebras, and
then give the formal definition of the general notion.

The lines on the left of each gate represent input wires Concrete Boolean algebras
or ports. The value of the input is represented by a volt-
age on the lead. For so-called “active-high” logic, 0 is A concrete Boolean algebra or field of sets is any
represented by a voltage close to zero or “ground”, while nonempty set of subsets of a given set X closed under
1 is represented by a voltage close to the supply voltage; the set operations of union, intersection, and complement
active-low reverses this. The line on the right of each relative to X.[3]
gate represents the output port, which normally follows (As an aside, historically X itself was required to be
the same voltage conventions as the input ports. nonempty as well to exclude the degenerate or one-
Complement is implemented with an inverter gate. The element Boolean algebra, which is the one exception to
triangle denotes the operation that simply copies the in- the rule that all Boolean algebras satisfy the same equa-
put to the output; the small circle on the output denotes tions since the degenerate algebra satisfies every equa-
the actual inversion complementing the input. The con- tion. However this exclusion conflicts with the preferred
vention of putting such a circle on any port means that the purely equational definition of “Boolean algebra,” there
signal passing through this port is complemented on the being no way to rule out the one-element algebra using
6.1. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 183

only equations— 0 ≠ 1 does not count, being a negated an arbitrary subset of [0,1]).
equation. Hence modern authors allow the degenerate From this bit vector viewpoint, a concrete Boolean alge-
Boolean algebra and let X be empty.) bra can be defined equivalently as a nonempty set of bit
Example 1. The power set 2X of X, consisting of all sub- vectors all of the same length (more generally, indexed by
sets of X. Here X may be any set: empty, finite, infinite, the same set) and closed under the bit vector operations of
or even uncountable. bitwise ∧, ∨, and ¬, as in 1010∧0110 = 0010, 1010∨0110
= 1110, and ¬1010 = 0101, the bit vector realizations of
Example 2. The empty set and X. This two-element al-
gebra shows that a concrete Boolean algebra can be finite intersection, union, and complement respectively.
even when it consists of subsets of an infinite set. It can
be seen that every field of subsets of X must contain the The prototypical Boolean algebra
empty set and X. Hence no smaller example is possible,
other than the degenerate algebra obtained by taking X to Main article: two-element Boolean algebra
be empty so as to make the empty set and X coincide.
Example 3. The set of finite and cofinite sets of integers, The set {0,1} and its Boolean operations as treated above
where a cofinite set is one omitting only finitely many in- can be understood as the special case of bit vectors of
tegers. This is clearly closed under complement, and is length one, which by the identification of bit vectors with
closed under union because the union of a cofinite set subsets can also be understood as the two subsets of a
with any set is cofinite, while the union of two finite sets one-element set. We call this the prototypical Boolean
is finite. Intersection behaves like union with “finite” and algebra, justified by the following observation.
“cofinite” interchanged.
Example 4. For a less trivial example of the point made The laws satisfied by all nondegenerate con-
by Example 2, consider a Venn diagram formed by n crete Boolean algebras coincide with those sat-
closed curves partitioning the diagram into 2n regions, isfied by the prototypical Boolean algebra.
and let X be the (infinite) set of all points in the plane
This observation is easily proved as follows. Certainly any
not on any curve but somewhere within the diagram. The
law satisfied by all concrete Boolean algebras is satisfied
interior of each region is thus an infinite subset of X, and
by the prototypical one since it is concrete. Conversely
every point in X is in exactly one region. Then the set
n any law that fails for some concrete Boolean algebra must
of all 22 possible unions of regions (including the empty
have failed at a particular bit position, in which case that
set obtained as the union of the empty set of regions and
position by itself furnishes a one-bit counterexample to
X obtained as the union of all 2n regions) is closed un-
that law. Nondegeneracy ensures the existence of at least
der union, intersection, and complement relative to X and
one bit position because there is only one empty bit vec-
therefore forms a concrete Boolean algebra. Again we
tor.
have finitely many subsets of an infinite set forming a con-
crete Boolean algebra, with Example 2 arising as the case The final goal of the next section can be understood as
n = 0 of no curves. eliminating “concrete” from the above observation. We
shall however reach that goal via the surprisingly stronger
observation that, up to isomorphism, all Boolean algebras
Subsets as bit vectors are concrete.

A subset Y of X can be identified with an indexed family

of bits with index set X, with the bit indexed by x ∈ X Boolean algebras: the definition
being 1 or 0 according to whether or not x ∈ Y. (This is
the so-called characteristic function notion of a subset.) The Boolean algebras we have seen so far have all been
For example, a 32-bit computer word consists of 32 bits concrete, consisting of bit vectors or equivalently of sub-
indexed by the set {0,1,2,…,31}, with 0 and 31 indexing sets of some set. Such a Boolean algebra consists of a set
the low and high order bits respectively. For a smaller and operations on that set which can be shown to satisfy
example, if X = {a,b,c} where a, b, c are viewed as bit the laws of Boolean algebra.
positions in that order from left to right, the eight subsets Instead of showing that the Boolean laws are satisfied, we
{}, {c}, {b}, {b,c}, {a}, {a,c}, {a,b}, and {a,b,c} of X can instead postulate a set X, two binary operations on X,
can be identified with the respective bit vectors 000, 001, and one unary operation, and require that those operations
010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111. Bit vectors indexed by satisfy the laws of Boolean algebra. The elements of X
the set of natural numbers are infinite sequences of bits, need not be bit vectors or subsets but can be anything at
while those indexed by the reals in the unit interval [0,1] all. This leads to the more general abstract definition.
are packed too densely to be able to write convention-
ally but nonetheless form well-defined indexed families A Boolean algebra is any set with binary oper-
(imagine coloring every point of the interval [0,1] either ations ∧ and ∨ and a unary operation ¬ thereon
black or white independently; the black points then form satisfying the Boolean laws.[17]
184 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

For the purposes of this definition it is irrelevant how the That is, up to isomorphism, abstract and concrete
operations came to satisfy the laws, whether by fiat or Boolean algebras are the same thing. This quite nontriv-
proof. All concrete Boolean algebras satisfy the laws (by ial result depends on the Boolean prime ideal theorem, a
proof rather than fiat), whence every concrete Boolean al- choice principle slightly weaker than the axiom of choice,
gebra is a Boolean algebra according to our definitions. and is treated in more detail in the article Stone’s repre-
This axiomatic definition of a Boolean algebra as a set sentation theorem for Boolean algebras. This strong re-
and certain operations satisfying certain laws or axioms lationship implies a weaker result strengthening the ob-
by fiat is entirely analogous to the abstract definitions of servation in the previous subsection to the following easy
group, ring, field etc. characteristic of modern or abstract consequence of representability.
algebra.
Given any complete axiomatization of Boolean algebra, The laws satisfied by all Boolean algebras co-
such as the axioms for a complemented distributive lat- incide with those satisfied by the prototypical
tice, a sufficient condition for an algebraic structure of Boolean algebra.
this kind to satisfy all the Boolean laws is that it satisfy
just those axioms. The following is therefore an equiva- It is weaker in the sense that it does not of itself imply
lent definition. representability. Boolean algebras are special here, for
example a relation algebra is a Boolean algebra with ad-
ditional structure but it is not the case that every relation
A Boolean algebra is a complemented dis-
algebra is representable in the sense appropriate to rela-
tributive lattice.
tion algebras.

The section on axiomatization lists other axiomatizations,

any of which can be made the basis of an equivalent def- 6.1.7 Axiomatizing Boolean algebra
inition.
Main articles: Axiomatization of Boolean algebras and
Boolean algebras canonically defined
Representable Boolean algebras

Although every concrete Boolean algebra is a Boolean al- The above definition of an abstract Boolean algebra as a
gebra, not every Boolean algebra need be concrete. Let n set and operations satisfying “the” Boolean laws raises the
be a square-free positive integer, one not divisible by the question, what are those laws? A simple-minded answer
square of an integer, for example 30 but not 12. The op- is “all Boolean laws,” which can be defined as all equa-
erations of greatest common divisor, least common mul- tions that hold for the Boolean algebra of 0 and 1. Since
tiple, and division into n (that is, ¬x = n/x), can be shown there are infinitely many such laws this is not a terribly
to satisfy all the Boolean laws when their arguments range satisfactory answer in practice, leading to the next ques-
over the positive divisors of n. Hence those divisors form tion: does it suffice to require only finitely many laws to
a Boolean algebra. These divisors are not subsets of a hold?
set, making the divisors of n a Boolean algebra that is not In the case of Boolean algebras the answer is yes. In par-
concrete according to our definitions. ticular the finitely many equations we have listed above
However, if we represent each divisor of n by the set of its suffice. We say that Boolean algebra is finitely axioma-
prime factors, we find that this nonconcrete Boolean al- tizable or finitely based.
gebra is isomorphic to the concrete Boolean algebra con- Can this list be made shorter yet? Again the answer is
sisting of all sets of prime factors of n, with union corre- yes. To begin with, some of the above laws are implied
sponding to least common multiple, intersection to great- by some of the others. A sufficient subset of the above
est common divisor, and complement to division into laws consists of the pairs of associativity, commutativ-
n. So this example while not technically concrete is at ity, and absorption laws, distributivity of ∧ over ∨ (or the
least “morally” concrete via this representation, called an other distributivity law—one suffices), and the two com-
isomorphism. This example is an instance of the follow- plement laws. In fact this is the traditional axiomatiza-
ing notion. tion of Boolean algebra as a complemented distributive
lattice.
A Boolean algebra is called representable
By introducing additional laws not listed above it be-
when it is isomorphic to a concrete Boolean al-
comes possible to shorten the list yet further. In 1933
gebra.
Edward Huntington showed that if the basic operations
are taken to be x∨y and ¬x, with x∧y considered a de-
The obvious next question is answered positively as fol- rived operation (e.g. via De Morgan’s law in the form
lows. x∧y = ¬(¬x∨¬y)), then the equation ¬(¬x∨¬y)∨¬(¬x∨y)
= x along with the two equations expressing associativity
Every Boolean algebra is representable. and commutativity of ∨ completely axiomatized Boolean
6.1. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 185

algebra. When the only basic operation is the binary Applications

NAND operation ¬(x∧y), Stephen Wolfram has proposed
in his book A New Kind of Science the single axiom One motivating application of propositional calculus is
(((xy)z)(x((xz)x))) = z as a one-equation axiomatization the analysis of propositions and deductive arguments in
of Boolean algebra, where for convenience here xy de- natural language. Whereas the proposition “if x = 3 then
notes the NAND rather than the AND of x and y. x+1 = 4” depends on the meanings of such symbols as
+ and 1, the proposition “if x = 3 then x = 3” does not;
it is true merely by virtue of its structure, and remains
6.1.8 Propositional logic true whether "x = 3” is replaced by "x = 4” or “the moon
is made of green cheese.” The generic or abstract form
of this tautology is “if P then P", or in the language of
Main article: Propositional calculus
Boolean algebra, "P → P".
Replacing P by x = 3 or any other proposition is called in-
Propositional logic is a logical system that is intimately
stantiation of P by that proposition. The result of instan-
connected to Boolean algebra.[3] Many syntactic con-
tiating P in an abstract proposition is called an instance
cepts of Boolean algebra carry over to propositional logic
of the proposition. Thus "x = 3 → x = 3” is a tautology
with only minor changes in notation and terminology,
by virtue of being an instance of the abstract tautology "P
while the semantics of propositional logic are defined via
→ P". All occurrences of the instantiated variable must
Boolean algebras in a way that the tautologies (theorems)
be instantiated with the same proposition, to avoid such
of propositional logic correspond to equational theorems
nonsense as P → x = 3 or x = 3 → x = 4.
of Boolean algebra.
Propositional calculus restricts attention to abstract
Syntactically, every Boolean term corresponds to a
propositions, those built up from propositional variables
propositional formula of propositional logic. In this
using Boolean operations. Instantiation is still possible
translation between Boolean algebra and propositional
within propositional calculus, but only by instantiating
logic, Boolean variables x,y… become propositional
propositional variables by abstract propositions, such as
variables (or atoms) P,Q,…, Boolean terms such as x∨y
instantiating Q by Q→P in P→(Q→P) to yield the in-
become propositional formulas P∨Q, 0 becomes false or
stance P→((Q→P)→P).
⊥, and 1 becomes true or T. It is convenient when refer-
ring to generic propositions to use Greek letters Φ, Ψ,… (The availability of instantiation as part of the ma-
as metavariables (variables outside the language of propo- chinery of propositional calculus avoids the need for
sitional calculus, used when talking about propositional metavariables within the language of propositional cal-
calculus) to denote propositions. culus, since ordinary propositional variables can be con-
sidered within the language to denote arbitrary proposi-
The semantics of propositional logic rely on truth as-
tions. The metavariables themselves are outside the reach
signments. The essential idea of a truth assignment is
of instantiation, not being part of the language of propo-
that the propositional variables are mapped to elements
sitional calculus but rather part of the same language for
of a fixed Boolean algebra, and then the truth value of
talking about it that this sentence is written in, where we
a propositional formula using these letters is the element
need to be able to distinguish propositional variables and
of the Boolean algebra that is obtained by computing the
their instantiations as being distinct syntactic entities.)
value of the Boolean term corresponding to the formula.
In classical semantics, only the two-element Boolean al-
gebra is used, while in Boolean-valued semantics arbi-
trary Boolean algebras are considered. A tautology is a
propositional formula that is assigned truth value 1 by ev- Deductive systems for propositional logic
ery truth assignment of its propositional variables to an
arbitrary Boolean algebra (or, equivalently, every truth An axiomatization of propositional calculus is a set of
assignment to the two element Boolean algebra). tautologies called axioms and one or more inference rules
These semantics permit a translation between tautologies for producing new tautologies from old. A proof in an ax-
of propositional logic and equational theorems of Boolean iom system A is a finite nonempty sequence of proposi-
algebra. Every tautology Φ of propositional logic can be tions each of which is either an instance of an axiom of A
expressed as the Boolean equation Φ = 1, which will be or follows by some rule of A from propositions appearing
a theorem of Boolean algebra. Conversely every theorem earlier in the proof (thereby disallowing circular reason-
Φ = Ψ of Boolean algebra corresponds to the tautologies ing). The last proposition is the theorem proved by the
(Φ∨¬Ψ) ∧ (¬Φ∨Ψ) and (Φ∧Ψ) ∨ (¬Φ∧¬Ψ). If → is in proof. Every nonempty initial segment of a proof is it-
the language these last tautologies can also be written as self a proof, whence every proposition in a proof is itself
(Φ→Ψ) ∧ (Ψ→Φ), or as two separate theorems Φ→Ψ a theorem. An axiomatization is sound when every the-
and Ψ→Φ; if ≡ is available then the single tautology Φ ≡ orem is a tautology, and complete when every tautology
Ψ can be used. is a theorem.[18]
186 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Sequent calculus Main article: Sequent calculus domain in ferromagnetic storage devices, as holes in
punched cards or paper tape, and so on. (Some early
Propositional calculus is commonly organized as a Hilbert computers used decimal circuits or mechanisms instead
system, whose operations are just those of Boolean alge- of two-valued logic circuits.)
bra and whose theorems are Boolean tautologies, those Of course, it is possible to code more than two symbols in
Boolean terms equal to the Boolean constant 1. Another any given medium. For example, one might use respec-
form is sequent calculus, which has two sorts, proposi- tively 0, 1, 2, and 3 volts to code a four-symbol alphabet
tions as in ordinary propositional calculus, and pairs of on a wire, or holes of different sizes in a punched card.
lists of propositions called sequents, such as A∨B, A∧C,… In practice, the tight constraints of high speed, small size,
⊢ A, B→C,…. The two halves of a sequent are called the and low power combine to make noise a major factor.
antecedent and the succedent respectively. The custom- This makes it hard to distinguish between symbols when
ary metavariable denoting an antecedent or part thereof there are several possible symbols that could occur at a
is Γ, and for a succedent Δ; thus Γ,A ⊢ Δ would denote a single site. Rather than attempting to distinguish between
sequent whose succedent is a list Δ and whose antecedent four voltages on one wire, digital designers have settled on
is a list Γ with an additional proposition A appended af- two voltages per wire, high and low.
ter it. The antecedent is interpreted as the conjunction Computers use two-value Boolean circuits for the above
of its propositions, the succedent as the disjunction of its reasons. The most common computer architectures use
propositions, and the sequent itself as the entailment of ordered sequences of Boolean values, called bits, of 32 or
the succedent by the antecedent. 64 values, e.g. 01101000110101100101010101001011.
Entailment differs from implication in that whereas the When programming in machine code, assembly lan-
latter is a binary operation that returns a value in a guage, and certain other programming languages, pro-
grammers work with the low-level digital structure of
Boolean algebra, the former is a binary relation which ei-
ther holds or does not hold. In this sense entailment isthe data registers. These registers operate on voltages,
an external form of implication, meaning external to thewhere zero volts represents Boolean 0, and a reference
voltage (often +5V or +3.3V[20] ) represents Boolean 1.
Boolean algebra, thinking of the reader of the sequent as
also being external and interpreting and comparing an- Such languages support both numeric operations and log-
tecedents and succedents in some Boolean algebra. The ical operations. In this context, “numeric” means that
natural interpretation of ⊢ is as ≤ in the partial order of
the computer treats sequences of bits as binary numbers
the Boolean algebra defined by x ≤ y just when x∨y = (base two numbers) and executes arithmetic operations
y. This ability to mix external implication ⊢ and inter-like add, subtract, multiply, or divide. “Logical” refers
nal implication → in the one logic is among the essential
to the Boolean logical operations of disjunction, con-
differences between sequent calculus and propositional junction, and negation between two sequences of bits, in
calculus.[19] which each bit in one sequence is simply compared to its
counterpart in the other sequence. Programmers there-
fore have the option of working in and applying the rules
6.1.9 Applications of either numeric algebra or Boolean algebra as needed.
A core differentiating feature between these families of
Boolean algebra as the calculus of two values is funda- operations is the existence of the carry operation in the
mental to computer circuits, computer programming, and first but not the second.
mathematical logic, and is also used in other areas of
mathematics such as set theory and statistics.[3]

Two-valued logic
Computers
Other areas where two values is a good choice are the
In the early 20th century, several electrical engineers in- law and mathematics. In everyday relaxed conversation,
tuitively recognized that Boolean algebra was analogous nuanced or complex answers such as “maybe” or “only
to the behavior of certain types of electrical circuits. on the weekend” are acceptable. In more focused situa-
Claude Shannon formally proved such behavior was log- tions such as a court of law or theorem-based mathemat-
ically equivalent to Boolean algebra in his 1937 master’s ics however it is deemed advantageous to frame questions
thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Cir- so as to admit a simple yes-or-no answer—is the defen-
cuits. dant guilty or not guilty, is the proposition true or false—
Today, all modern general purpose computers perform and to disallow any other answer. However much of a
their functions using two-value Boolean logic; that is, straitjacket this might prove in practice for the respon-
their electrical circuits are a physical manifestation of dent, the principle of the simple yes-no question has be-
two-value Boolean logic. They achieve this in various come a central feature of both judicial and mathematical
ways: as voltages on wires in high-speed circuits and ca- logic, making two-valued logic deserving of organization
pacitive storage devices, as orientations of a magnetic and study in its own right.
6.1. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 187

A central concept of set theory is membership. Now an choices are coffee or tea (alternatives). Double negation
organization may permit multiple degrees of member- as in “I don't not like milk” rarely means literally “I do
ship, such as novice, associate, and full. With sets how- like milk” but rather conveys some sort of hedging, as
ever an element is either in or out. The candidates for though to imply that there is a third possibility. “Not not
membership in a set work just like the wires in a digital P” can be loosely interpreted as “surely P”, and although
computer: each candidate is either a member or a non- P necessarily implies “not not P" the converse is suspect
member, just as each wire is either high or low. in English, much as with intuitionistic logic. In view of
Algebra being a fundamental tool in any area amenable the highly idiosyncratic usage of conjunctions in natural
languages, Boolean algebra cannot be considered a reli-
to mathematical treatment, these considerations combine
to make the algebra of two values of fundamental impor- able framework for interpreting them.
tance to computer hardware, mathematical logic, and set Boolean operations are used in digital logic to combine
theory. the bits carried on individual wires, thereby interpreting
Two-valued logic can be extended to multi-valued logic, them over {0,1}. When a vector of n identical binary
notably by replacing the Boolean domain {0, 1} with the gates are used to combine two bit vectors each of n bits,
unit interval [0,1], in which case rather than only taking the individual bit operations can be understood collec-
values 0 or 1, any value between and including 0 and 1 can tively as a single
n
operation on values from a Boolean al-
be assumed. Algebraically, negation (NOT) is replaced gebra with 2 elements.
with 1 − x, conjunction (AND) is replaced with multi- Naive set theory interprets Boolean operations as acting
plication ( xy ), and disjunction (OR) is defined via De on subsets of a given set X. As we saw earlier this behavior
Morgan’s law. Interpreting these values as logical truth exactly parallels the coordinate-wise combinations of bit
values yields a multi-valued logic, which forms the basis vectors, with the union of two sets corresponding to the
for fuzzy logic and probabilistic logic. In these interpre- disjunction of two bit vectors and so on.
tations, a value is interpreted as the “degree” of truth – to The 256-element free Boolean algebra on three gener-
what extent a proposition is true, or the probability that
ators is deployed in computer displays based on raster
the proposition is true. graphics, which use bit blit to manipulate whole regions
consisting of pixels, relying on Boolean operations to
specify how the source region should be combined with
Boolean operations the destination, typically with the help of a third region
3
called the mask. Modern video cards offer all 22 = 256
The original application for Boolean operations was ternary operations for this purpose, with the choice of op-
mathematical logic, where it combines the truth values, eration being a one-byte (8-bit) parameter. The constants
true or false, of individual formulas. SRC = 0xaa or 10101010, DST = 0xcc or 11001100,
Natural languages such as English have words for several and MSK = 0xf0 or 11110000 allow Boolean operations
Boolean operations, in particular conjunction (and), dis- such as (SRC^DST)&MSK (meaning XOR the source
junction (or), negation (not), and implication (implies). and destination and then AND the result with the mask)
But not is synonymous with and not. When used to com- to be written directly as a constant denoting a byte cal-
bine situational assertions such as “the block is on the ta- culated at compile time, 0x60 in the (SRC^DST)&MSK
ble” and “cats drink milk,” which naively are either true example, 0x66 if just SRC^DST, etc. At run time the
or false, the meanings of these logical connectives often video card interprets the byte as the raster operation in-
have the meaning of their logical counterparts. How- dicated by the original expression in a uniform way that
ever, with descriptions of behavior such as “Jim walked requires remarkably little hardware and which takes time
through the door”, one starts to notice differences such completely independent of the complexity of the expres-
as failure of commutativity, for example the conjunction sion.
of “Jim opened the door” with “Jim walked through the Solid modeling systems for computer aided design of-
door” in that order is not equivalent to their conjunction fer a variety of methods for building objects from other
in the other order, since and usually means and then in objects, combination by Boolean operations being one
such cases. Questions can be similar: the order “Is the of them. In this method the space in which objects
sky blue, and why is the sky blue?" makes more sense exist is understood as a set S of voxels (the three-
than the reverse order. Conjunctive commands about be- dimensional analogue of pixels in two-dimensional graph-
havior are like behavioral assertions, as in get dressed and ics) and shapes are defined as subsets of S, allowing ob-
go to school. Disjunctive commands such love me or leave jects to be combined as sets via union, intersection, etc.
me or fish or cut bait tend to be asymmetric via the impli- One obvious use is in building a complex shape from sim-
cation that one alternative is less preferable. Conjoined ple shapes simply as the union of the latter. Another use
nouns such as tea and milk generally describe aggrega- is in sculpting understood as removal of material: any
tion as with set union while tea or milk is a choice. How- grinding, milling, routing, or drilling operation that can
ever context can reverse these senses, as in your choices be performed with physical machinery on physical mate-
are coffee and tea which usually means the same as your
188 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

rials can be simulated on the computer with the Boolean 6.1.11 References
operation x ∧ ¬y or x − y, which in set theory is set dif-
ference, remove the elements of y from those of x. Thus [1] Boole, George (2003) [1854]. An Investigation of the
given two shapes one to be machined and the other the Laws of Thought. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-
material to be removed, the result of machining the for- 59102-089-9.
mer to remove the latter is described simply as their set [2] “The name Boolean algebra (or Boolean 'algebras’) for the
difference. calculus originated by Boole, extended by Schröder, and
perfected by Whitehead seems to have been first suggested
by Sheffer, in 1913.” E. V. Huntington, "New sets of in-
Boolean searches Search engine queries also employ dependent postulates for the algebra of logic, with special
Boolean logic. For this application, each web page on reference to Whitehead and Russell’s Principia mathemat-
the Internet may be considered to be an “element” of a ica", in Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 35 (1933), 274-304;
“set”. The following examples use a syntax supported by footnote, page 278.
Google.[21] [3] Givant, Steven; Halmos, Paul (2009). Introduction to
Boolean Algebras. Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics,
• Doublequotes are used to combine whitespace- Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-40293-2.
separated words into a single search term.[22] [4] J. Michael Dunn; Gary M. Hardegree (2001). Algebraic
methods in philosophical logic. Oxford University Press
• Whitespace is used to specify logical AND, as it is US. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-19-853192-0.
the default operator for joining search terms:
[5] Norman Balabanian; Bradley Carlson (2001). Digital
logic design principles. John Wiley. pp. 39–40. ISBN
“Search term 1” “Search term 2” 978-0-471-29351-4., online sample

[6] Rajaraman & Radhakrishnan. Introduction To Digital

• The OR keyword is used for logical OR:
Computer Design An 5Th Ed. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
p. 65. ISBN 978-81-203-3409-0.
“Search term 1” OR “Search term 2”
[7] John A. Camara (2010). Electrical and Electronics Ref-
erence Manual for the Electrical and Computer PE Exam.
• A prefixed minus sign is used for logical NOT:
www.ppi2pass.com. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-59126-166-7.

“Search term 1” −"Search term 2” [8] Shin-ichi Minato, Saburo Muroga (2007). “Binary Deci-
sion Diagrams”. In Wai-Kai Chen. The VLSI handbook
(2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-4199-1. chap-
ter 29.
6.1.10 See also
[9] Alan Parkes (2002). Introduction to languages, machines
• Binary number and logic: computable languages, abstract machines and
formal logic. Springer. p. 276. ISBN 978-1-85233-464-
• Boolean algebra (structure) 2.

[10] Jon Barwise; John Etchemendy; Gerard Allwein; Dave

• Boolean algebras canonically defined Barker-Plummer; Albert Liu (1999). Language, proof,
and logic. CSLI Publications. ISBN 978-1-889119-08-3.
• Booleo
[11] Ben Goertzel (1994). Chaotic logic: language, thought,
• Heyting algebra and reality from the perspective of complex systems science.
Springer. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-306-44690-0.
• Intuitionistic logic
[12] Halmos, Paul (1963). Lectures on Boolean Algebras. van
Nostrand.
• List of Boolean algebra topics
[13] O'Regan, Gerard (2008). A brief history of computing.
• Logic design Springer. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-84800-083-4.

• Propositional calculus [14] Steven R. Givant; Paul Richard Halmos (2009).

Introduction to Boolean algebras. Springer. pp. 21–22.
ISBN 978-0-387-40293-2.
• Relation algebra
[15] J. Venn, On the Diagrammatic and Mechanical Represen-
• Three-valued logic tation of Propositions and Reasonings, Philosophical Mag-
azine and Journal of Science, Series 5, vol. 10, No. 59,
• Vector logic July 1880.
6.2. LOGIC GATE 189

[16] Shannon, Claude (1949). “The Synthesis of Two- • Dov M. Gabbay, John Woods, ed. (2004). The
Terminal Switching Circuits”. Bell System Tech- rise of modern logic: from Leibniz to Frege. Hand-
nical Journal. 28: 59–98. doi:10.1002/j.1538- book of the History of Logic. 3. Elsevier. ISBN
7305.1949.tb03624.x. 978-0-444-51611-4., several relevant chapters by
[17] Koppelberg, Sabine (1989). “General Theory of Boolean Hailperin, Valencia, and Grattan-Guinesss
Algebras”. Handbook of Boolean Algebras, Vol. 1 (ed. • Calixto Badesa (2004). The birth of model theory:
J. Donald Monk with Robert Bonnet). Amsterdam: North
Löwenheim’s theorem in the frame of the theory of
Holland. ISBN 978-0-444-70261-6.
relatives. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-
[18] Hausman, Alan; Howard Kahane; Paul Tidman (2010) 691-05853-5., chapter 1, “Algebra of Classes and
[2007]. Logic and Philosophy: A Modern Introduction. Propositional Calculus”
Wadsworth Cengage Learning. ISBN 0-495-60158-6.
• Burris, Stanley, 2009. The Algebra of Logic Tradi-
[19] Girard, Jean-Yves; Paul Taylor; Yves Lafont (1990) tion. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[1989]. Proofs and Types. Cambridge University Press
(Cambridge Tracts in Theoretical Computer Science, 7). • Radomir S. Stankovic; Jaakko Astola (2011). From
ISBN 0-521-37181-3. Boolean Logic to Switching Circuits and Automata:
Towards Modern Information Technology. Springer.
[20] https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/logic-levels
ISBN 978-3-642-11681-0.
[21] Not all search engines support the same query syntax. Ad-
ditionally, some organizations (such as Google) provide
“specialized” search engines that support alternate or ex- 6.1.13 External links
tended syntax. (See e.g.,Syntax cheatsheet, Google code-
search supports regular expressions). • Boolean Algebra chapter on All About Circuits

[22] Doublequote-delimited search terms are called “exact • How Stuff Works – Boolean Logic
phrase” searches in the Google documentation.
• Science and Technology - Boolean Algebra contains
a list and proof of Boolean theorems and laws.
Mano, Morris; Ciletti, Michael D. (2013). Digital Design.
Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-277420-8.
6.2 Logic gate
6.1.12 Further reading
“Discrete logic” redirects here. For discrete circuitry,
• J. Eldon Whitesitt (1995). Boolean algebra and its see Discrete circuit.
applications. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN
978-0-486-68483-3. Suitable introduction for stu-
In electronics, a logic gate is an idealized or physical de-
dents in applied fields.
vice implementing a Boolean function; that is, it performs
• Dwinger, Philip (1971). Introduction to Boolean al- a logical operation on one or more binary inputs, and pro-
gebras. Würzburg: Physica Verlag. duces a single binary output. Depending on the context,
the term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that has for
• Sikorski, Roman (1969). Boolean Algebras (3/e instance zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may
ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387- refer to a non-ideal physical device[1] (see Ideal and real
04469-9. op-amps for comparison).
• Bocheński, Józef Maria (1959). A Précis of Mathe- Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or
matical Logic. Translated from the French and Ger- transistors acting as electronic switches, but can also
man editions by Otto Bird. Dordrecht, South Hol- be constructed using vacuum tubes, electromagnetic
land: D. Reidel. relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics,
molecules, or even mechanical elements. With amplifi-
cation, logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that
Historical perspective
Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the con-
struction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and
• George Boole (1848). "The Calculus of Logic," therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can
Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal III: be described with Boolean logic.
183–98.
Logic circuits include such devices as multiplexers,
• Theodore Hailperin (1986). Boole’s logic and prob- registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and
ability: a critical exposition from the standpoint of computer memory, all the way up through com-
contemporary algebra, logic, and probability theory plete microprocessors, which may contain more than
(2nd ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-87952-3. 100 million gates. In modern practice, most gates are
190 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

made from field-effect transistors (FETs), particularly voltage amplifier, which sinks a tiny current at its input
MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect and produces a low-impedance voltage at its output. It is
transistors). not possible for current to flow between the output and
Compound logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR- the input of a semiconductor logic gate.
AND-Invert (OAI) are often employed in circuit design Another important advantage of standardized integrated
because their construction using MOSFETs is simpler circuit logic families, such as the 7400 and 4000 families,
and more efficient than the sum of the individual gates.[2] is that they can be cascaded. This means that the output
In reversible logic, Toffoli gates are used. of one gate can be wired to the inputs of one or several
other gates, and so on. Systems with varying degrees of
complexity can be built without great concern of the de-
signer for the internal workings of the gates, provided the
6.2.1 Electronic gates
limitations of each integrated circuit are considered.
Main article: Logic family The output of one gate can only drive a finite number of
inputs to other gates, a number called the 'fanout limit'.
Also, there is always a delay, called the 'propagation de-
To build a functionally complete logic system, relays,
lay', from a change in input of a gate to the corresponding
valves (vacuum tubes), or transistors can be used. The
change in its output. When gates are cascaded, the total
simplest family of logic gates using bipolar transistors
propagation delay is approximately the sum of the indi-
is called resistor-transistor logic (RTL). Unlike simple
vidual delays, an effect which can become a problem in
diode logic gates (which do not have a gain element),
high-speed circuits. Additional delay can be caused when
RTL gates can be cascaded indefinitely to produce more
a large number of inputs are connected to an output, due
complex logic functions. RTL gates were used in early
to the distributed capacitance of all the inputs and wiring
integrated circuits. For higher speed and better density,
and the finite amount of current that each output can pro-
the resistors used in RTL were replaced by diodes result-
vide.
ing in diode-transistor logic (DTL). Transistor-transistor
logic (TTL) then supplanted DTL. As integrated cir-
cuits became more complex, bipolar transistors were re-
placed with smaller field-effect transistors (MOSFETs);
see PMOS and NMOS. To reduce power consumption 6.2.2 History and development
still further, most contemporary chip implementations of
digital systems now use CMOS logic. CMOS uses com- The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wil-
plementary (both n-channel and p-channel) MOSFET de- helm Leibniz (published in 1705) and he also established
vices to achieve a high speed with low power dissipation. that by using the binary system, the principles of arith-
For small-scale logic, designers now use prefabricated metic and logic could be combined.
logic gates from families of devices such as the TTL In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described
7400 series by Texas Instruments, the CMOS 4000 se- how logical operations could be carried out by electrical
ries by RCA, and their more recent descendants. In- switching circuits.[4] Eventually, vacuum tubes replaced
creasingly, these fixed-function logic gates are being re- relays for logic operations. Lee De Forest's modification,
placed by programmable logic devices, which allow de- in 1907, of the Fleming valve can be used as an AND
signers to pack a large number of mixed logic gates into a logic gate. Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of
single integrated circuit. The field-programmable nature the 16-row truth table as proposition 5.101 of Tractatus
of programmable logic devices such as FPGAs has re- Logico-Philosophicus (1921). Walther Bothe, inventor of
duced the 'hard' property of hardware; it is now possible the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize
to change the logic design of a hardware system by re- in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in
programming some of its components, thus allowing the 1924. Konrad Zuse designed and built electromechani-
features or function of a hardware implementation of a cal logic gates for his computer Z1 (from 1935–38).
logic system to be changed. Claude E. Shannon introduced the use of Boolean al-
Other types of logic gates include, but are not limited to gebra in the analysis and design of switching circuits in
[3]
1937. Using this property of electrical switches to imple-
Electronic logic gates differ significantly from their relay- ment logic is the fundamental concept that underlies all
and-switch equivalents. They are much faster, consume electronic digital computers. Shannon’s work became the
much less power, and are much smaller (all by a factor of foundation of digital circuit design, as it became widely
a million or more in most cases). Also, there is a funda- known in the electrical engineering community during
mental structural difference. The switch circuit creates and after World War II. The theoretical rigor of Shan-
a continuous metallic path for current to flow (in either non’s work superseded the ad hoc methods that had pre-
direction) between its input and its output. The semicon- vailed previously.
ductor logic gate, on the other hand, acts as a high-gain Active research is taking place in molecular logic gates.
6.2. LOGIC GATE 191

6.2.3 Symbols ample, use as embedded symbols) is discouraged.” This

compromise was reached between the respective IEEE
and IEC working groups to permit the IEEE and IEC
standards to be in mutual compliance with one another.
A third style of symbols was in use in Europe and is still
widely used in European academia. See the column “DIN
40700” in the table in the German Wikipedia.
In the 1980s, schematics were the predominant method to
design both circuit boards and custom ICs known as gate
arrays. Today custom ICs and the field-programmable
gate array are typically designed with Hardware Descrip-
tion Languages (HDL) such as Verilog or VHDL.

6.2.4 Universal logic gates

A synchronous 4-bit up/down decade counter symbol (74LS192)
in accordance with ANSI/IEEE Std. 91-1984 and IEC Publica- For more details on the theoretical basis, see Functional
tion 60617-12. completeness.
Charles Sanders Peirce (during 1880–81) showed that
There are two sets of symbols for elementary logic gates
in common use, both defined in ANSI/IEEE Std 91-1984
and its supplement ANSI/IEEE Std 91a-1991. The “dis-
tinctive shape” set, based on traditional schematics, is
used for simple drawings, and derives from MIL-STD-
806 of the 1950s and 1960s. It is sometimes unofficially
described as “military”, reflecting its origin. The “rectan-
gular shape” set, based on ANSI Y32.14 and other early
industry standards, as later refined by IEEE and IEC, has
rectangular outlines for all types of gate and allows rep-
resentation of a much wider range of devices than is pos-
sible with the traditional symbols.[5] The IEC standard,
IEC 60617-12, has been adopted by other standards, such
as EN 60617-12:1999 in Europe, BS EN 60617-12:1999
in the United Kingdom, and DIN EN 60617-12:1998 in
Germany.
The mutual goal of IEEE Std 91-1984 and IEC 60617-
12 was to provide a uniform method of describing the
complex logic functions of digital circuits with schematic
symbols. These functions were more complex than sim-
ple AND and OR gates. They could be medium scale cir-
cuits such as a 4-bit counter to a large scale circuit such
as a microprocessor.
IEC 617-12 and its successor IEC 60617-12 do not ex-
plicitly show the “distinctive shape” symbols, but do The 7400 chip, containing four NANDs. The two additional pins
not prohibit them.[5] These are, however, shown in supply power (+5 V) and connect the ground.
ANSI/IEEE 91 (and 91a) with this note: “The distinctive-
shape symbol is, according to IEC Publication 617, Part
12, not preferred, but is not considered to be in contra- NOR gates alone (or alternatively NAND gates alone)
diction to that standard.” IEC 60617-12 correspondingly can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other
contains the note (Section 2.1) “Although non-preferred, logic gates, but his work on it was unpublished until
the use of other symbols recognized by official national 1933.[6] The first published proof was by Henry M. Shef-
standards, that is distinctive shapes in place of symbols fer in 1913, so the NAND logical operation is sometimes
[list of basic gates], shall not be considered to be in con- called Sheffer stroke; the logical NOR is sometimes called
tradiction with this standard. Usage of these other sym- Peirce’s arrow.[7] Consequently, these gates are some-
bols in combination to form complex symbols (for ex- times called universal logic gates.[8]
192 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

6.2.5 De Morgan equivalent symbols mally, a flip-flop is called a bistable circuit, because it has
two stable states which it can maintain indefinitely. The
By use of De Morgan’s laws, an AND function is iden- combination of multiple flip-flops in parallel, to store a
tical to an OR function with negated inputs and outputs. multiple-bit value, is known as a register. When using any
Likewise, an OR function is identical to an AND function of these gate setups the overall system has memory; it is
with negated inputs and outputs. A NAND gate is equiv- then called a sequential logic system since its output can
alent to an OR gate with negated inputs, and a NOR gate be influenced by its previous state(s), i.e. by the sequence
is equivalent to an AND gate with negated inputs. of input states. In contrast, the output from combinational
This leads to an alternative set of symbols for basic gates logic is purely a combination of its present inputs, unaf-
that use the opposite core symbol (AND or OR) but with fected by the previous input and output states.
the inputs and outputs negated. Use of these alternative These logic circuits are known as computer memory.
symbols can make logic circuit diagrams much clearer They vary in performance, based on factors of speed,
and help to show accidental connection of an active high complexity, and reliability of storage, and many differ-
output to an active low input or vice versa. Any connec- ent types of designs are used based on the application.
tion that has logic negations at both ends can be replaced
by a negationless connection and a suitable change of gate
or vice versa. Any connection that has a negation at one 6.2.7 Three-state logic gates
end and no negation at the other can be made easier to in-
terpret by instead using the De Morgan equivalent symbol
B
at either of the two ends. When negation or polarity in-
B
dicators on both ends of a connection match, there is no
A C A C
logic negation in that path (effectively, bubbles “cancel”),
making it easier to follow logic states from one symbol to
the next. This is commonly seen in real logic diagrams
A tristate buffer can be thought of as a switch. If B is on, the
- thus the reader must not get into the habit of associat- switch is closed. If B is off, the switch is open.
ing the shapes exclusively as OR or AND shapes, but also
take into account the bubbles at both inputs and outputs Main article: Tri-state buffer
in order to determine the “true” logic function indicated.
A De Morgan symbol can show more clearly a gate’s pri- A three-state logic gate is a type of logic gate that can
mary logical purpose and the polarity of its nodes that have three different outputs: high (H), low (L) and high-
are considered in the “signaled” (active, on) state. Con- impedance (Z). The high-impedance state plays no role
sider the simplified case where a two-input NAND gate is in the logic, which is strictly binary. These devices are
used to drive a motor when either of its inputs are brought used on buses of the CPU to allow multiple chips to send
low by a switch. The “signaled” state (motor on) occurs data. A group of three-states driving a line with a suit-
when either one OR the other switch is on. Unlike a reg- able control circuit is basically equivalent to a multiplexer,
ular NAND symbol, which suggests AND logic, the De which may be physically distributed over separate devices
Morgan version, a two negative-input OR gate, correctly or plug-in cards.
shows that OR is of interest. The regular NAND symbol
In electronics, a high output would mean the output is
has a bubble at the output and none at the inputs (the op-
sourcing current from the positive power terminal (posi-
posite of the states that will turn the motor on), but the
De Morgan symbol shows both inputs and output in the tive voltage). A low output would mean the output is sink-
polarity that will drive the motor. ing current to the negative power terminal (zero voltage).
High impedance would mean that the output is effectively
De Morgan’s theorem is most commonly used to imple- disconnected from the circuit.
ment logic gates as combinations of only NAND gates,
or as combinations of only NOR gates, for economic rea-
sons.
6.2.8 Implementations

Main article: Unconventional computing

6.2.6 Data storage
Main article: Sequential logic Since the 1990s, most logic gates are made in CMOS
technology (i.e. NMOS and PMOS transistors are used).
Logic gates can also be used to store data. A storage ele- Often millions of logic gates are packaged in a single
ment can be constructed by connecting several gates in a integrated circuit.
"latch" circuit. More complicated designs that use clock There are several logic families with different charac-
signals and that change only on a rising or falling edge teristics (power consumption, speed, cost, size) such
of the clock are called edge-triggered "flip-flops". For- as: RDL (resistor-diode logic), RTL (resistor-transistor
6.2. LOGIC GATE 193

logic), DTL (diode-transistor logic), TTL (transistor- • Propositional calculus

transistor logic) and CMOS (complementary metal oxide
semiconductor). There are also sub-variants, e.g. stan- • Quantum gate
dard CMOS logic vs. advanced types using still CMOS
• Race hazard
technology, but with some optimizations for avoiding loss
of speed due to slower PMOS transistors. • Reversible computing
Non-electronic implementations are varied, though few
• Truth table
of them are used in practical applications. Many early
electromechanical digital computers, such as the Harvard
Mark I, were built from relay logic gates, using electro- 6.2.10 References
mechanical relays. Logic gates can be made using
pneumatic devices, such as the Sorteberg relay or me- [1] Jaeger, Microelectronic Circuit Design, McGraw-Hill
chanical logic gates, including on a molecular scale.[9] 1997, ISBN 0-07-032482-4, pp. 226-233
Logic gates have been made out of DNA (see DNA nan-
otechnology)[10] and used to create a computer called [2] Tinder, Richard F. (2000). Engineering digital design: Re-
MAYA (see MAYA II). Logic gates can be made from vised Second Edition. pp. 317–319. ISBN 0-12-691295-
quantum mechanical effects (though quantum comput- 5. Retrieved 2008-07-04.
ing usually diverges from boolean design). Photonic logic [3] Rowe, Jim. “Circuit Logic - Why and How” (December
gates use non-linear optical effects. 1966). Electronics Australia.
In principle any method that leads to a gate that is
[4] Peirce, C. S., “Letter, Peirce to A. Marquand", dated
functionally complete (for example, either a NOR or a 1886, Writings of Charles S. Peirce, v. 5, 1993, pp. 541–3.
NAND gate) can be used to make any kind of digital logic Google Preview. See Burks, Arthur W., “Review: Charles
circuit. Note that the use of 3-state logic for bus systems S. Peirce, The new elements of mathematics", Bulletin of
is not needed, and can be replaced by digital multiplex- the American Mathematical Society v. 84, n. 5 (1978), pp.
ers, which can be built using only simple logic gates (such 913–18, see 917. PDF Eprint.
as NAND gates, NOR gates, or AND and OR gates).
[5] Overview of IEEE Standard 91-1984 Explanation of Logic
Symbols, Doc. No. SDYZ001A, Texas Instruments Semi-
6.2.9 See also conductor Group, 1996

[6] Peirce, C. S. (manuscript winter of 1880–81), “A Boolean

• And-inverter graph Algebra with One Constant”, published 1933 in Collected
Papers v. 4, paragraphs 12–20. Reprinted 1989 in
• Boolean algebra topics
Writings of Charles S. Peirce v. 4, pp. 218-21, Google
• Boolean function Preview. See Roberts, Don D. (2009), The Existential
Graphs of Charles S. Peirce, p. 131.
• Digital circuit
[7] Hans Kleine Büning; Theodor Lettmann (1999).
• Espresso heuristic logic minimizer Propositional logic: deduction and algorithms. Cambridge
University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-521-63017-7.
• Fanout
[8] John Bird (2007). Engineering mathematics. Newnes. p.
• Flip-flop (electronics) 532. ISBN 978-0-7506-8555-9.

• Functional completeness [9] Mechanical Logic gates (focused on molecular scale)

• Karnaugh map [10] DNA Logic gates

• Combinational logic
6.2.11 Further reading
• List of 4000 series integrated circuits

• List of 7400 series integrated circuits • Awschalom, D.D.; Loss, D.; Samarth, N. (5 Au-
gust 2002). Semiconductor Spintronics and Quantum
• Logic family Computation. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
ISBN 978-3-540-42176-4. Retrieved 28 November
• Logical graph 2012.
• NMOS logic • Bostock, Geoff (1988). Programmable logic de-
• Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) vices: technology and applications. New York:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-006611-3. Re-
• Programmable Logic Device (PLD) trieved 28 November 2012.
194 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

• Brown, Stephen D.; Francis, Robert J.; Rose, sion leads to OR gates feeding an AND gate.[2] Kar-
Jonathan; Vranesic, Zvonko G. (1992). Field Pro- naugh maps can also be used to simplify logic expres-
grammable Gate Arrays. Boston, MA: Kluwer Aca- sions in software design. Boolean conditions, as used
demic Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7923-9248-4. Re- for example in conditional statements, can get very com-
trieved 28 November 2012. plicated, which makes the code difficult to read and to
maintain. Once minimised, canonical sum-of-products
and product-of-sums expressions can be implemented di-
6.3 Karnaugh map rectly using AND and OR logic operators.[3]

6.3.1 Example
AB
00 01 11 10 Karnaugh maps are used to facilitate the simplification
of Boolean algebra functions. For example, consider the
Boolean function described by the following truth table.
00

0 0 1 1
Following are two different notations describing the
same function in unsimplified Boolean algebra, using the
Boolean variables A , B , C , D , and their inverses.
01

0 0 1 1
CD

∑
• f (A, B, C, D) = mi , i ∈
{6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14} where mi are the
11

0 0 0 1
minterms to map (i.e., rows that have output 1 in
the truth table).
∏
• f (A, B, C, D) ∈
10

0 1 1 1 = Mi , i
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 15} where Mi are the maxterms
f(A,B,C,D) = E(6,8,9,10,11,12,13,14) to map (i.e., rows that have output 0 in the truth
F=AC'+AB'+BCD'+AD' table).
F=(A+B)(A+C)(B'+C'+D')(A+D')
Karnaugh map
An example Karnaugh map. Note that this image actually shows
two Karnaugh maps: for the function f, using minterms (colored
rectangles) and for its complement, using maxterms (gray rect-
angles). In the image,
∑ E() signifies a sum of minterms, denoted
in the article as mi .

The Karnaugh map, also known as the K-map, is a

method to simplify boolean algebra expressions. Maurice
Karnaugh introduced it in 1953 as a refinement of Edward
Veitch's 1952 Veitch diagram. The Karnaugh map re-
duces the need for extensive calculations by taking ad-
vantage of humans’ pattern-recognition capability. It also
permits the rapid identification and elimination of poten- K-map drawn on a torus, and in a plane. The dot-marked cells
tial race conditions. are adjacent.
The required boolean results are transferred from a truth
table onto a two-dimensional grid where the cells are or- In the example above, the four input variables can be
dered in Gray code, and each cell position represents combined in 16 different ways, so the truth table has 16
one combination of input conditions, while each cell rows, and the Karnaugh map has 16 positions. The Kar-
value represents the corresponding output value. Opti- naugh map is therefore arranged in a 4 × 4 grid.
mal groups of 1s or 0s are identified, which represent The row and column indices (shown across the top, and
the terms of a canonical form of the logic in the original
down the left side of the Karnaugh map) are ordered in
truth table.[1] These terms can be used to write a minimal
Gray code rather than binary numerical order. Gray code
boolean expression representing the required logic. ensures that only one variable changes between each pair
Karnaugh maps are used to simplify real-world logic re- of adjacent cells. Each cell of the completed Karnaugh
quirements so that they can be implemented using a mini- map contains a binary digit representing the function’s
mum number of physical logic gates. A sum-of-products output for that combination of inputs.
expression can always be implemented using AND gates After the Karnaugh map has been constructed, it is used
feeding into an OR gate, and a product-of-sums expres- to find one of the simplest possible forms — a canonical
6.3. KARNAUGH MAP 195

AB it includes cells 12 and 8 at the top, and wraps to the

00 01 11 10 bottom to include cells 10 and 14—as is B D , which
ABCD ABCD
includes the four corners.
00

0 4 12 8 0000 - 0 1000 - 8
0001 - 1 1001 - 9
01

1 5 13 9 0010 - 2 1010 - 10 Solution

CD

0011 - 3 1011 - 11
0100 - 4 1100 - 12
11

11

AB
3 7 15
0101 - 5 1101 - 13
0110 - 6 1110 - 14
10

2 6 14 10 00 01 11 10
0111 - 7 1111 - 15

00
K-map construction. Instead of containing output values, this 0 0 1 1
diagram shows the numbers of outputs, therefore it is not a Kar-
naugh map.

01
0 0 1 1

CD
11
0 0 0 1

10
0 1 1 1

f(A,B,C,D) = E(6,8,9,10,11,12,13,14)
F=AC'+AB'+BCD'
F=(A+B)(A+C)(B'+C'+D')

Diagram showing two K-maps. The K-map for the function f(A,
B, C, D) is shown as colored rectangles which correspond to
minterms. The brown region is an overlap of the red 2×2 square
In three dimensions, one can bend a rectangle into a torus. and the green 4×1 rectangle. The K-map for the inverse of f is
shown as gray rectangles, which correspond to maxterms.

form — for the information in the truth table. Adjacent 1s Once the Karnaugh map has been constructed and the ad-
in the Karnaugh map represent opportunities to simplify jacent 1s linked by rectangular and square boxes, the al-
the expression. The minterms ('minimal terms’) for the gebraic minterms can be found by examining which vari-
final expression are found by encircling groups of 1s in ables stay the same within each box.
the map. Minterm groups must be rectangular and must
For the red grouping:
have an area that is a power of two (i.e., 1, 2, 4, 8…).
Minterm rectangles should be as large as possible without
• A is the same and is equal to 1 throughout the box,
containing any 0s. Groups may overlap in order to make
therefore it should be included in the algebraic rep-
each one larger. The optimal groupings in the example
resentation of the red minterm.
below are marked by the green, red and blue lines, and
the red and green groups overlap. The red group is a 2 • B does not maintain the same state (it shifts from 1
× 2 square, the green group is a 4 × 1 rectangle, and the to 0), and should therefore be excluded.
overlap area is indicated in brown.
• C does not change. It is always 0, so its comple-
The cells are often denoted by a shorthand which de- ment, NOT-C, should be included. Thus, C should
scribes the logical value of the inputs that the cell covers. be included.
For example, AD would mean a cell which covers the
2x2 area where A and D are true, i.e. the cells numbered • D changes, so it is excluded.
13, 9, 15, 11 in the diagram above. On the other hand,
AD would mean the cells where A is true and D is false Thus the first minterm in the Boolean sum-of-products
(that is, D is true). expression is AC .
The grid is toroidally connected, which means that rect- For the green grouping, A and B maintain the same state,
angular groups can wrap across the edges (see picture). while C and D change. B is 0 and has to be negated before
Cells on the extreme right are actually 'adjacent' to those it can be included. The second term is therefore AB .
on the far left; similarly, so are those at the very top and Note that it is acceptable that the green grouping overlaps
those at the bottom. Therefore, AD can be a valid term— with the red one.
196 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

In the same way, the blue grouping gives the term BCD
. AB
00 01 11 10
The solutions of each grouping are combined: the normal
form of the circuit is AC + AB + BCD .

00
0 0 1 1
Thus the Karnaugh map has guided a simplification of

01
0 0 1 1
f (A, B, C, D) = ABCD + AB C D + AB CD + ABCD +

CD
ABCD + ABC D + ABCD + ABCD

11
= AC + AB + BCD 0 0 X 1

It would also have been possible to derive this simplifica-

tion by carefully applying the axioms of boolean algebra,

10
0 1 1 1
but the time it takes to do that grows exponentially with
the number of terms.
f(A,B,C,D) = E(6,8,9,10,11,12,13,14)
F=A+BCD'
Inverse F=(A+B)(A+C)(A+D')

The inverse of a function is solved in the same way by The value of f(A,B,C,D) for ABCD = 1111 is replaced by a
grouping the 0s instead. “don't care”. This removes the green term completely and allows
the red term to be larger. It also allows blue inverse term to shift
The three terms to cover the inverse are all shown with and become larger
grey boxes with different colored borders:

• brown: A B This allows the red term to expand all the way down and,
thus, removes the green term completely.
• gold: A C
This yields the new minimum equation:
• blue: BCD

This yields the inverse: f (A, B, C, D) = A + BCD

Note that the first term is just A , not AC . In this case,

f (A, B, C, D) = A B + A C + BCD the don't care has dropped a term (the green rectangle);
simplified another (the red one); and removed the race
Through the use of De Morgan’s laws, the product of hazard (removing the yellow term as shown in the follow-
sums can be determined: ing section on race hazards).
The inverse case is simplified as follows:

f (A, B, C, D) = A B + A C + BCD
f (A, B, C, D) = A B + A C + BCD f (A, B, C, D) = A B + A C + AD
( )
f (A, B, C, D) = (A + B) (A + C) B + C + D

6.3.2 Race hazards

Don't cares
Elimination
Karnaugh maps also allow easy minimizations of func-
tions whose truth tables include "don't care" conditions. Karnaugh maps are useful for detecting and eliminating
A “don't care” condition is a combination of inputs for race conditions. Race hazards are very easy to spot us-
which the designer doesn't care what the output is. There- ing a Karnaugh map, because a race condition may exist
fore, “don't care” conditions can either be included in or when moving between any pair of adjacent, but disjoint,
excluded from any rectangular group, whichever makes it regions circumscribed on the map. However, because of
larger. They are usually indicated on the map with a dash the nature of Gray coding, adjacent has a special defi-
or X. nition explained above - we're in fact moving on a torus,
The example on the right is the same as the example above rather than a rectangle, wrapping around the top, bottom,
but with the value of f(1,1,1,1) replaced by a “don't care”. and the sides.
6.3. KARNAUGH MAP 197

• In the example above, a potential race condition ex-

ists when C is 1 and D is 0, A is 1, and B changes AB
from 1 to 0 (moving from the blue state to the green 00 01 11 10
state). For this case, the output is defined to remain
unchanged at 1, but because this transition is not

00
0 0 1 1
covered by a specific term in the equation, a poten-
tial for a glitch (a momentary transition of the output
to 0) exists.

01
0 0 1 1

CD
• There is a second potential glitch in the same exam-
ple that is more difficult to spot: when D is 0 and A

11
and B are both 1, with C changing from 1 to 0 (mov- 0 0 0 1
ing from the blue state to the red state). In this case
the glitch wraps around from the top of the map to
the bottom.

10
0 1 1 1

f(A,B,C,D) = E(6,8,9,10,11,12,13,14)
AB F=AC'+AB'+BCD'+AD'
00 01 11 10 F=(A+B)(A+C)(B'+C'+D')(A+D')

Above diagram with consensus terms added to avoid race haz-

00

0 0 1 1
ards.

2-variable map examples

01

0 0 1 1
CD

The following are all the possible 2-variable, 2 × 2 Kar-

naugh maps.
∑ Listed with each is the minterms as a func-
11

0 0 0 1
tion of m() and the race hazard free (see previous sec-
tion) minimum equation. A minterm is defined as an ex-
pression that gives the most minimal form of expression
10

0 1 1 1 of the mapped variables. All possible horizontal and ver-

tical interconnected blocks can be formed. These blocks
f(A,B,C,D) = E(6,8,9,10,11,12,13,14) must be of the size of the powers of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,
F=AC'+AB'+BCD' ...). These expressions create a minimal logical mapping
F=(A+B)(A+C)(B'+C'+D') of the minimal logic variable expressions for the binary
expressions to be mapped. Here are all the blocks with
Race hazards are present in this diagram. one field.
A block can be continued across the bottom, top, left, or
Whether glitches will actually occur depends on the phys-
right of the chart. That can even wrap beyond the edge
ical nature of the implementation, and whether we need
of the chart for variable minimization. This is because
to worry about it depends on the application. In clocked
each logic variable corresponds to each vertical column
logic, it is enough that the logic settles on the desired value
and horizontal row. A visualization of the k-map can be
in time to meet the timing deadline. In our example, we
considered cylindrical. The fields at edges on the left and
are not considering clocked logic.
right are adjacent, and the top and bottom are adjacent.
In our case, an additional term of AD would eliminate K-Maps for 4 variables must be depicted as a donut or
the potential race hazard, bridging between the green and torus shape. The four corners of the square drawn by the
blue output states or blue and red output states: this is k-map are adjacent. Still more complex maps are needed
shown as the yellow region (which wraps around from for 5 variables and more.
the bottom to the top of the right half) in the adjacent
diagram. A
0 1
The term is redundant in terms of the static logic of the
system, but such redundant, or consensus terms, are often 0 0
0
B

needed to assure race-free dynamic performance.

0 0
1

Similarly, an additional term of AD must be added to the

f(A,B) = E()
inverse to eliminate another potential race hazard. Ap- K=0 ∑
plying De Morgan’s laws creates another product
( of) sums • K'=1 m(0); K = 0
expression for f, but with a new factor of A + D .
198 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

A A
0 1 0 1

1 0 1 0
0

0
B

B
0 0 0 1

1
1

f(A,B) = E(1) f(A,B) = E(1,4)

K=A'B' ∑ K=A'B'+AB ∑
• K'=A+B m(1); K = A′B′ • K'=AB'+A'B m(1,4); K = A′B′ + AB

A A
0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1
0

0
B

B
0 0 1 0
1

1
f(A,B) = E(2) f(A,B) = E(2,3)
K=AB' ∑ K=AB'+A'B ∑
• K'=A'+B m(2); K = AB′ • K'=A'B'+AB m(2,3); K = AB′ + A′B

A A
0 1 0 1

0 0 0 1
0

0
B

1 0 0 1
1

f(A,B) = E(3) f(A,B) = E(2,4)

K=A'B ∑ K=A ∑
• K'=A+B' m(3); K = A′B • K'=A' m(2,4); K = A

A A
0 1 0 1

0 0 0 0
0

0
B

0 1 1 1
1
1

f(A,B) = E(4) f(A,B) = E(3,4)

K=AB ∑ K=B ∑
• K'=A'+B' m(4); K = AB • K'=B' m(3,4); K = B

A A
0 1 0 1

1 1 1 1
0

0
B

0 0 1 0
1

f(A,B) = E(1,2) f(A,B) = E(1,2,3)

K=B' ∑ K=A'+B' ∑
• K'=B m(1,2); K = B′ • K'=AB m(1,2,3); K = A' + B′

A A
0 1 0 1

1 0 1 1
0

0
B

1 0 0 1
1

f(A,B) = E(1,3) f(A,B) = E(1,2,4)

K=A' ∑ K=B'+A ∑
• K'=A m(1,3); K = A′ • K'=A'B m(1,2,4); K = A + B′
6.4. FINITE-STATE MACHINE 199

A • Katz, Randy (1998) [1994]. Contemporary Logic

0 1 Design. The Benjamin/Cummings. pp. 70–
1 0 85. doi:10.1016/0026-2692(95)90052-7. ISBN 0-
0
8053-2703-7.
B

1 1
1

f(A,B) = E(1,3,4)
• Veitch, Edward W. (1952). “A Chart Method for
K=A'+B ∑ Simplifying Truth Functions”. ACM Annual Con-
• K'=AB' m(1,3,4); K = A′ + B ference/Annual Meeting: Proceedings of the 1952
ACM Annual Meeting (Pittsburg). ACM, NY: 127–
A 133. doi:10.1145/609784.609801.
0 1
• Vingron, Dr. Shimon Peter (2004) [2004]. “Kar-
0 1
0

naugh Maps”. Switching Theory: Insight Through

B

Predicate Logic. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York:

1 1
1

Springer-Verlag. pp. 57–76. ISBN 3-540-40343-

f(A,B) = E(2,3,4)
4.
K=A+B ∑
• K'=A'B' m(2,3,4); K = A + B
• Wickes, William E. (1968). Logic Design with In-
tegrated Circuits. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
A pp. 36–49. Library of Congress Control Number:
0 1
68-21185. A refinement of the Venn diagram in
1 1 that circles are replaced by squares and arranged in
0
B

a form of matrix. The Veitch diagram labels the

1 1 squares with the minterms. Karnaugh assigned 1s
1

f(A,B) = E(1,2,3,4) and 0s to the squares and their labels and deduced
K=1 ∑ the numbering scheme in common use.
• K'=0 m(1,2,3,4); K = 1

6.3.6 External links

6.3.3 See also
• Quine-McCluskey algorithm implementation with a
• Circuit minimization search of all solutions, by Frédéric Carpon.
• Espresso heuristic logic minimizer • Detect Overlapping Rectangles, by Herbert Glarner.
• List of boolean algebra topics
• Using Karnaugh maps in practical applications, Cir-
• Quine–McCluskey algorithm cuit design project to control traffic lights.
• Venn diagram • K-Map Tutorial for 2,3,4 and 5 variables

• Karnaugh Map Example

6.3.4 References
[1] “Karnaugh Maps – Rules of Simplification”. Retrieved
• POCKET–PC BOOLEAN FUNCTION SIMPLI-
2009-05-30. FICATION, Ledion Bitincka — George E. Anto-
niou ∗
[2] “Simplifying Logic Circuits with Karnaugh Maps” (PDF).
The University of Texas at Dallas. Retrieved 7 October
2012.
6.4 Finite-state machine
[3] Cook, Aaron. “Using Karnaugh Maps to Simplify Code”.
Quantum Rarity. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
“State machine” redirects here. For infinite state ma-
chines, see State transition system. For fault-tolerance
6.3.5 Further reading methodology, see State machine replication.
“SFSM” redirects here. For the Italian railway company,
• Karnaugh, Maurice (November 1953). “The Map see Circumvesuviana.
Method for Synthesis of Combinational Logic Cir- “Finite Automata” redirects here. For the electro-
cuits”. Transactions of the American Institute industrial group, see Finite Automata (band).
of Electrical Engineers part I. 72 (9): 593–599. Classes of automata
doi:10.1109/TCE.1953.6371932.
200 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

A finite-state machine (FSM) or finite-state automa-

ton (FSA, plural: automata), finite automaton, or sim-
ply a state machine, is a mathematical model of compu-
tation. It is an abstract machine that can be in exactly one
of a finite number of states at any given time. The FSM
can change from one state to another in response to some
external inputs; the change from one state to another is
called a transition. A FSM is defined by a list of its states,
its initial state, and the conditions for each transition.
The behavior of state machines can be observed in many
devices in modern society that perform a predetermined
sequence of actions depending on a sequence of events
with which they are presented. Examples are vending
machines, which dispense products when the proper com-
bination of coins is deposited, elevators, whose sequence
of stops is determined by the floors requested by riders,
traffic lights, which change sequence when cars are wait-
ing, and combination locks, which require the input of
combination numbers in the proper order.
The finite state machine has less computational power
than some other models of computation such as the
Turing machine.[1] The computational power distinction
means there are computational tasks that a Turing ma-
chine can do but a FSM cannot. This is because a FSM’s
memory is limited by the number of states it has. FSMs
are studied in the more general field of automata theory.

A turnstile
6.4.1 Example: coin-operated turnstile

Putting a coin in – that is, giving the machine a coin in-

put – shifts the state from Locked to Unlocked. In the
Push Coin
unlocked state, putting additional coins in has no effect;
Un- that is, giving additional coin inputs does not change the
Locked locked state. However, a customer pushing through the arms,
giving a push input, shifts the state back to Locked.
Push Coin
The turnstile state machine can be represented by a state
transition table, showing for each possible state, the tran-
sitions between them (based upon the inputs given to the
State diagram for a turnstile
machine) and the outputs resulting from each input:
An example of a mechanism that can be modeled by a
state machine is a turnstile.[2][3] A turnstile, used to con-
trol access to subways and amusement park rides, is a gate
with three rotating arms at waist height, one across the en-
tryway. Initially the arms are locked, blocking the entry,
preventing patrons from passing through. Depositing a
coin or token in a slot on the turnstile unlocks the arms, The turnstile state machine can also be represented by a
allowing a single customer to push through. After the directed graph called a state diagram (above). Each state
customer passes through, the arms are locked again until is represented by a node (circle). Edges (arrows) show
another coin is inserted. the transitions from one state to another. Each arrow is
Considered as a state machine, the turnstile has two pos- labeled with the input that triggers that transition. An in-
sible states: Locked and Unlocked.[2] There are two pos- put that doesn't cause a change of state (such as a coin
sible inputs that affect its state: putting a coin in the slot input in the Unlocked state) is represented by a circular
(coin) and pushing the arm (push). In the locked state, arrow returning to the original state. The arrow into the
pushing on the arm has no effect; no matter how many Locked node from the black dot indicates it is the initial
times the input push is given, it stays in the locked state. state.
6.4. FINITE-STATE MACHINE 201

6.4.2 Concepts and terminology

A state is a description of the status of a system that is

waiting to execute a transition. A transition is a set of ac-
tions to be executed when a condition is fulfilled or when
an event is received. For example, when using an audio
system to listen to the radio (the system is in the “radio”
state), receiving a “next” stimulus results in moving to
the next station. When the system is in the “CD” state,
the “next” stimulus results in moving to the next track.
Identical stimuli trigger different actions depending on
the current state.
In some finite-state machine representations, it is also
possible to associate actions with a state:

• an entry action: performed when entering the state,

and

• an exit action: performed when exiting the state.

6.4.3 Representations

Fig. 2 SDL state machine example

state 1
opened

E: open
Fig. 1 UML state chart example (a toaster oven) door

For an introduction, see State diagram.

transition

close
State/Event table
open
Several state transition table types are used. The most
common representation is shown below: the combination transition condition
of current state (e.g. B) and input (e.g. Y) shows the next
state (e.g. C). The complete action’s information is not
directly described in the table and can only be added us- 2
ing footnotes. A FSM definition including the full actions closed
information is possible using state tables (see also virtual
finite-state machine). E: close
entry action door

UML state machines

The Unified Modeling Language has a notation for de- Fig. 3 Example of a simple finite state machine
scribing state machines. UML state machines overcome
the limitations of traditional finite state machines while
retaining their main benefits. UML state machines in- both Mealy machines and Moore machines. They sup-
troduce the new concepts of hierarchically nested states port actions that depend on both the state of the system
and orthogonal regions, while extending the notion of and the triggering event, as in Mealy machines, as well
actions. UML state machines have the characteristics of as entry and exit actions, which are associated with states
202 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

rather than transitions, as in Moore machines.

1 2 3 4
Start n n_found i i_found c c_found

SDL state machines

The Specification and Description Language is a standard not_n not_i not_c not_e e

from ITU that includes graphical symbols to describe ac-

6 7
tions in the transition:
Error Success

• send an event

• receive an event
Fig. 4 Acceptor FSM: parsing the string “nice”
• start a timer

• cancel a timer input is a sequence of symbols (characters); actions are

not used. The example in figure 4 shows a finite state ma-
• start another concurrent state machine chine that accepts the string “nice”. In this FSM, the only
accepting state is state 7.
• decision
A (possibly infinite) set of symbol sequences, aka. formal
language, is called a regular language if there is some Fi-
SDL embeds basic data types called “Abstract Data
nite State Machine that accepts exactly that set. For ex-
Types”, an action language, and an execution semantic
ample, the set of binary strings with an even number of
in order to make the finite state machine executable.
zeroes is a regular language (cf. Fig. 5), while the set of
all strings whose length is a prime number is not.[5]:18,71
Other state diagrams A machine could also be described as defining a language,
that would contain every string accepted by the machine
There are a large number of variants to represent an FSM but none of the rejected ones; that language is “accepted”
such as the one in figure 3. by the machine. By definition, the languages accepted by
FSMs are the regular languages—; a language is regular
if there is some FSM that accepts it.
6.4.4 Usage
The problem of determining the language accepted by a
In addition to their use in modeling reactive systems given finite state acceptor is an instance of the algebraic
presented here, finite state machines are significant path problem—itself a generalization of the shortest path
in many different areas, including electrical engineer- problem to graphs with edges weighted by the elements
ing, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, biology, of an (arbitrary) semiring.[6][7][8]
mathematics, and logic. Finite state machines are a class
of automata studied in automata theory and the theory of
computation. In computer science, finite state machines
are widely used in modeling of application behavior, de-
sign of hardware digital systems, software engineering,
compilers, network protocols, and the study of computa-
tion and languages.

6.4.5 Classification
Finite state machines can be subdivided into transducers,
acceptors, classifiers and sequencers.[4]
Fig. 5: Representation of a finite-state machine; this example
shows one that determines whether a binary number has an even
Acceptors and recognizers number of 0s, where S1 is an accepting state.

Acceptors, also called recognizers and sequence detec- The start state can also be an accepting state, in which
tors, produce binary output, indicating whether or not the case the automaton accepts the empty string.
received input is accepted. Each state of an FSM is ei- An example of an accepting state appears in Fig.5:
ther “accepting” or “not accepting”. Once all input has a deterministic finite automaton (DFA) that detects
been received, if the current state is an accepting state, whether the binary input string contains an even number
the input is accepted; otherwise it is rejected. As a rule, of 0s.
6.4. FINITE-STATE MACHINE 203

S 1 (which is also the start state) indicates the state at outside world (e.g., to other state machines) the sit-
which an even number of 0s has been input. S1 is there- uation: “door is open” or “door is closed”.
fore an accepting state. This machine will finish in an
accept state, if the binary string contains an even number
sensor closed
of 0s (including any binary string containing no 0s). Ex- 1 2
amples of strings accepted by this DFA are ε (the empty opened closed
string), 1, 11, 11…, 00, 010, 1010, 10110, etc. I: I:

sensor opened

Classifiers
Fig. 7 Transducer FSM: Mealy model example
A classifier is a generalization of a finite state machine
that, similar to an acceptor, produces a single output on Mealy machine The FSM uses only input actions, i.e.,
termination but has more than two terminal states. output depends on input and state. The use of a
Mealy FSM leads often to a reduction of the num-
ber of states. The example in figure 7 shows a
Transducers
Mealy FSM implementing the same behaviour as in
the Moore example (the behaviour depends on the
implemented FSM execution model and will work,
1
opened
e.g., for virtual FSM but not for event-driven FSM).
There are two input actions (I:): “start motor to close
the door if command_close arrives” and “start mo-
sensor opened
close tor in the other direction to open the door if com-
mand_open arrives”. The “opening” and “closing”
open
intermediate states are not shown.
4 2
opening closing
Generators
close
Sequencers’, or generators, are a subclass of the accep-
sensor closed tor and transducer types that have a single-letter input al-
open phabet. They produce only one sequence which can be
3 seen as an output sequence of acceptor or tranducer out-
closed
puts.

Determinism
Fig. 6 Transducer FSM: Moore model example
A further distinction is between deterministic (DFA)
and non-deterministic (NFA, GNFA) automata. In a
Main article: Finite-state transducer deterministic automaton, every state has exactly one tran-
sition for each possible input. In a non-deterministic au-
Transducers generate output based on a given input tomaton, an input can lead to one, more than one, or
and/or a state using actions. They are used for control no transition for a given state. The powerset construc-
applications and in the field of computational linguistics. tion algorithm can transform any nondeterministic au-
tomata into a (usually more complex) deterministic au-
In control applications, two types are distinguished: tomata with identical functionality.
A finite state machine with only one state is called a “com-
Moore machine The FSM uses only entry actions, i.e., binatorial FSM”. It only allows actions upon transition
output depends only on the state. The advantage into a state. This concept is useful in cases where a num-
of the Moore model is a simplification of the be- ber of finite state machines are required to work together,
haviour. Consider an elevator door. The state ma- and when it is convenient to consider a purely combina-
chine recognizes two commands: “command_open” torial part as a form of FSM to suit the design tools.[9]
and “command_close”, which trigger state changes.
The entry action (E:) in state “Opening” starts a mo-
tor opening the door, the entry action in state “Clos- 6.4.6 Alternative semantics
ing” starts a motor in the other direction closing the
door. States “Opened” and “Closed” stop the mo- There are other sets of semantics available to represent
tor when fully opened or closed. They signal to the state machines. For example, there are tools for mod-
204 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

eling and designing logic for embedded controllers.[10] • δ is the state-transition function: δ : S × Σ →
They combine hierarchical state machines (which usually S.
have more than one current state), flow graphs, and truth • ω is the output function.
tables into one language, resulting in a different formal-
ism and set of semantics.[11] These charts, like Harel’s If the output function is a function of a state and input
original state machines,[12] support hierarchically nested alphabet ( ω : S × Σ → Γ ) that definition corre-
states, orthogonal regions, state actions, and transition sponds to the Mealy model, and can be modelled as a
actions.[13] Mealy machine. If the output function depends only on
a state ( ω : S → Γ ) that definition corresponds to
the Moore model, and can be modelled as a Moore ma-
6.4.7 Mathematical model chine. A finite-state machine with no output function at
all is known as a semiautomaton or transition system.
In accordance with the general classification, the follow-
ing formal definitions are found: If we disregard the first output symbol of a Moore ma-
chine, ω(s0 ) , then it can be readily converted to an
• A deterministic finite state machine or acceptor output-equivalent Mealy machine by setting the output
deterministic finite state machine is a quintuple function of every Mealy transition (i.e. labeling every
(Σ, S, s0 , δ, F ) , where: edge) with the output symbol given of the destination
Moore state. The converse transformation is less straight-
• Σ is the input alphabet (a finite, non-empty set forward because a Mealy machine state may have differ-
of symbols). ent output labels on its incoming transitions (edges). Ev-
• S is a finite, non-empty set of states. ery such state needs to be split in multiple Moore machine
states, one for every incident output symbol.[15]
• s0 is an initial state, an element of S .
• δ is the state-transition function: δ : S × Σ →
S (in a nondeterministic finite automaton it 6.4.8 Optimization
would be δ : S × Σ → P(S) , i.e., δ would
return a set of states). Main article: DFA minimization
• F is the set of final states, a (possibly empty)
subset of S . Optimizing an FSM means finding a machine with the
minimum number of states that performs the same
For both deterministic and non-deterministic FSMs, it function. The fastest known algorithm doing this is
is conventional to allow δ to be a partial function, i.e. the Hopcroft minimization algorithm.[16][17] Other tech-
δ(q, x) does not have to be defined for every combina- niques include using an implication table, or the Moore
tion of q ∈ S and x ∈ Σ . If an FSM M is in a state reduction procedure. Additionally, acyclic FSAs can be
q , the next symbol is x and δ(q, x) is not defined, then minimized in linear time.[18]
M can announce an error (i.e. reject the input). This is
useful in definitions of general state machines, but less
useful when transforming the machine. Some algorithms 6.4.9 Implementation
in their default form may require total functions.
Hardware applications
A finite state machine has the same computational power
as a Turing machine that is restricted such its head may
only perform “read” operations, and always has to move
from left to right. That is, each formal language accepted
by a finite state machine is accepted by such a kind of
restricted Turing machine, and vice versa.[14]

• A finite state transducer is a sextuple

(Σ, Γ, S, s0 , δ, ω) , where:
• Σ is the input alphabet (a finite non-empty set
of symbols).
• Γ is the output alphabet (a finite, non-empty Fig. 9 The circuit diagram for a 4-bit TTL counter, a type of
set of symbols). state machine
• S is a finite, non-empty set of states. In a digital circuit, an FSM may be built using a
• s0 is the initial state, an element of S . In a programmable logic device, a programmable logic con-
nondeterministic finite automaton, s0 is a set troller, logic gates and flip flops or relays. More specif-
of initial states. ically, a hardware implementation requires a register to
6.4. FINITE-STATE MACHINE 205

store state variables, a block of combinational logic that • Hidden Markov model
determines the state transition, and a second block of
combinational logic that determines the output of an • Petri net
FSM. One of the classic hardware implementations is the • Pushdown automaton
Richards controller.
• Quantum finite automata (QFA)
In a Medvedev circuit, the output is directly connected
to the state flip-flops minimizing the time delay flip-flops • Recognizable language
and output.[19][20]
• Sequential logic
Through state encoding for low power state machines may
be optimized to minimize power consumption. • Specification and Description Language
• State diagram
Software applications • State pattern

The following concepts are commonly used to build soft- • SCXML

ware applications with finite state machines:
• Transition system

• Automata-based programming • Tree automaton

• Event-driven finite-state machine • Turing machine

• Virtual finite-state machine • UML state machine

• YAKINDU Statechart Tools
• State design pattern

Finite state machines and compilers 6.4.11 References

[1] Belzer, Jack; Holzman, Albert George; Kent, Allen
Finite automata are often used in the frontend of pro- (1975). Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technol-
gramming language compilers. Such a frontend may ogy. 25. USA: CRC Press. p. 73. ISBN 0-8247-2275-2.
comprise several finite state machines that implement a
lexical analyzer and a parser. Starting from a sequence of [2] Koshy, Thomas (2004). Discrete Mathematics With Appli-
characters, the lexical analyzer builds a sequence of lan- cations. Academic Press. p. 762. ISBN 0-12-421180-1.
guage tokens (such as reserved words, literals, and identi- [3] Wright, David R. (2005). “Finite State Machines” (PDF).
fiers) from which the parser builds a syntax tree. The lexi- CSC215 Class Notes. David R. Wright website, N. Car-
cal analyzer and the parser handle the regular and context- olina State Univ. Retrieved July 14, 2012.
free parts of the programming language’s grammar.[21]
[4] Keller, Robert M. (2001). “Classifiers, Acceptors, Trans-
ducers, and Sequencers” (PDF). Computer Science: Ab-
straction to Implementation (PDF). Harvey Mudd College.
6.4.10 See also p. 480.
• Abstract state machines (ASM) [5] John E. Hopcroft and Jeffrey D. Ullman (1979). Introduc-
tion to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation.
• Artificial intelligence (AI) Reading/MA: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02988-X.

• Abstract State Machine Language (AsmL) [6] Pouly, Marc; Kohlas, Jürg (2011). Generic Inference: A
Unifying Theory for Automated Reasoning. John Wiley &
• Behavior model Sons. Chapter 6. Valuation Algebras for Path Problems,
p. 223 in particular. ISBN 978-1-118-01086-0.
• Communicating finite-state machine
[7] Storer, J. A. (2001). An Introduction to Data Structures
• Control system and Algorithms. Springer Science & Business Media. p.
337. ISBN 978-0-8176-4253-2.
• Control table
[8] http://www.iam.unibe.ch/~{}run/talks/
• Decision tables 2008-06-05-Bern-Jonczy.pdf, p. 34

• DEVS: Discrete Event System Specification [9] Brutscheck, M., Berger, S., Franke, M., Schwarzbacher,
A., Becker, S.: Structural Division Procedure for Effi-
• Extended finite-state machine (EFSM) cient IC Analysis. IET Irish Signals and Systems Con-
ference, (ISSC 2008), pp.18-23. Galway, Ireland, 18–19
• Finite state machine with datapath June 2008.
206 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

[10] Tiwari, A. (2002). Formal Semantics and Analysis Meth- • Samek, M., Practical Statecharts in C/C++, CMP
ods for Simulink Stateflow Models. Books, 2002, ISBN 1-57820-110-1.
[11] Hamon, G. (2005). A Denotational Semantics for State-
• Samek, M., Practical UML Statecharts in C/C++,
flow. International Conference on Embedded Software.
Jersey City, NJ: ACM. pp. 164–172. CiteSeerX
2nd Edition, Newnes, 2008, ISBN 0-7506-8706-1.
10.1.1.89.8817 .
• Gardner, T., Advanced State Management, 2007
[12] Harel, D. (1987). A Visual Formalism for Complex Sys-
tems. Science of Computer Programming , 231–274. • Cassandras, C., Lafortune, S., “Introduction to Dis-
crete Event Systems”. Kluwer, 1999, ISBN 0-7923-
[13] Alur, R., Kanade, A., Ramesh, S., & Shashidhar, K. C. 8609-4.
(2008). Symbolic analysis for improving simulation cov-
erage of Simulink/Stateflow models. International Con-
• Timothy Kam, Synthesis of Finite State Machines:
ference on Embedded Software (pp. 89–98). Atlanta,
Functional Optimization. Kluwer Academic Pub-
GA: ACM.
lishers, Boston 1997, ISBN 0-7923-9842-4
[14] Black, Paul E (12 May 2008). “Finite State Machine”.
Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures. U.S. • Tiziano Villa, Synthesis of Finite State Machines:
National Institute of Standards and Technology. Logic Optimization. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Boston 1997, ISBN 0-7923-9892-0
[15] Anderson, James Andrew; Head, Thomas J. (2006).
Automata theory with modern applications. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 105–108. ISBN 978-0-521-84887-
• Carroll, J., Long, D., Theory of Finite Automata with
9. an Introduction to Formal Languages. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, 1989.
[16] Hopcroft, John E. (1971). An n log n algorithm for mini-
mizing states in a finite automaton (PDF) (Technical Re- • Kohavi, Z., Switching and Finite Automata Theory.
port). CS-TR-71-190. Stanford Univ. McGraw-Hill, 1978.
[17] Almeida, Marco; Moreira, Nelma; Reis, Rogerio (2007).
On the performance of automata minimization algorithms • Gill, A., Introduction to the Theory of Finite-state
(PDF) (Technical Report). DCC-2007-03. Porto Univ. Machines. McGraw-Hill, 1962.

[18] Revuz, D. (1992). “Minimization of Acyclic automata in • Ginsburg, S., An Introduction to Mathematical Ma-
Linear Time”. Theoretical Computer Science. Elsevier. chine Theory. Addison-Wesley, 1962.
92: 181–189. doi:10.1016/0304-3975(92)90142-3.

[19] Kaeslin, Hubert (2008). “Mealy, Moore, Medvedev-type

and combinatorial output bits”. Digital Integrated Circuit Finite state machines (automata theory) in theoreti-
Design: From VLSI Architectures to CMOS Fabrication. cal computer science
Cambridge University Press. p. 787. ISBN 978-0-521-
88267-5. • Arbib, Michael A. (1969). Theories of Abstract Au-
tomata (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
[20] Slides, Synchronous Finite State Machines; Design and Be-
haviour, University of Applied Sciences Hamburg, p.18
Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-913368-2.

[21] Aho, Alfred V.; Sethi, Ravi; Ullman, Jeffrey D. (1986). • Bobrow, Leonard S.; Arbib, Michael A. (1974).
Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools (1st ed.). Discrete Mathematics: Applied Algebra for Computer
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-10088-4. and Information Science (1st ed.). Philadelphia: W.
B. Saunders Company, Inc. ISBN 0-7216-1768-9.
6.4.12 Further reading • Booth, Taylor L. (1967). Sequential Machines and
Automata Theory (1st ed.). New York: John Wiley
General and Sons, Inc. Library of Congress Card Catalog
Number 67-25924.
• Sakarovitch, Jacques (2009). Elements of automata
theory. Translated from the French by Reuben • Boolos, George; Jeffrey, Richard (1999) [1989].
Thomas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978- Computability and Logic (3rd ed.). Cambridge,
0-521-84425-3. Zbl 1188.68177 England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-
• Wagner, F., “Modeling Software with Finite State 521-20402-X.
Machines: A Practical Approach”, Auerbach Pub-
lications, 2006, ISBN 0-8493-8086-3. • Brookshear, J. Glenn (1989). Theory of Computa-
tion: Formal Languages, Automata, and Complexity.
• ITU-T, Recommendation Z.100 Specification and Redwood City, California: Benjamin/Cummings
Description Language (SDL) Publish Company, Inc. ISBN 0-8053-0143-7.
6.4. FINITE-STATE MACHINE 207

• Davis, Martin; Sigal, Ron; Weyuker, Elaine J. Abstract state machines in theoretical computer sci-
(1994). Computability, Complexity, and Languages ence
and Logic: Fundamentals of Theoretical Computer
Science (2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press, Har- • Gurevich, Yuri (July 2000). “Sequential Abstract
court, Brace & Company. ISBN 0-12-206382-1. State Machines Capture Sequential Algorithms”
(PDF). ACM Transactions on Computational Logic.
• Hopcroft, John; Ullman, Jeffrey (1979). 1 (1): 77–111. doi:10.1145/343369.343384.
Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages,
and Computation (1st ed.). Reading Mass:
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02988-X. Machine learning using finite-state algorithms

• Hopcroft, John E.; Motwani, Rajeev; Ullman, Jef- • Mitchell, Tom M. (1997). Machine Learning (1st
frey D. (2001). Introduction to Automata Theory, ed.). New York: WCB/McGraw-Hill Corporation.
Languages, and Computation (2nd ed.). Reading ISBN 0-07-042807-7.
Mass: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-44124-1.

Hardware engineering: state minimization and syn-

• Hopkin, David; Moss, Barbara (1976). Automata.
thesis of sequential circuits
New York: Elsevier North-Holland. ISBN 0-444-
00249-9.
• Booth, Taylor L. (1967). Sequential Machines and
Automata Theory (1st ed.). New York: John Wiley
• Kozen, Dexter C. (1997). Automata and Com-
and Sons, Inc. Library of Congress Card Catalog
putability (1st ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Number 67-25924.
ISBN 0-387-94907-0.
• Booth, Taylor L. (1971). Digital Networks and Com-
• Lewis, Harry R.; Papadimitriou, Christos H. (1998). puter Systems (1st ed.). New York: John Wiley and
Elements of the Theory of Computation (2nd ed.). Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-08840-4.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
ISBN 0-13-262478-8. • McCluskey, E. J. (1965). Introduction to the Theory
of Switching Circuits (1st ed.). New York: McGraw-
• Linz, Peter (2006). Formal Languages and Au- Hill Book Company, Inc. Library of Congress Card
tomata (4th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. Catalog Number 65-17394.
ISBN 978-0-7637-3798-6.
• Hill, Fredrick J.; Peterson, Gerald R. (1965). Intro-
• Minsky, Marvin (1967). Computation: Finite and duction to the Theory of Switching Circuits (1st ed.).
Infinite Machines (1st ed.). New Jersey: Prentice- New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Library
Hall. of Congress Card Catalog Number 65-17394.

• Papadimitriou, Christos (1993). Computational

Complexity (1st ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201- Finite Markov chain processes
53082-1.
“We may think of a Markov chain
as a process that moves successively
• Pippenger, Nicholas (1997). Theories of Com-
through a set of states s1 , s2 , …, sr.
putability (1st ed.). Cambridge, England: Cam-
… if it is in state si it moves on to
bridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55380-6.
the next stop to state sj with prob-
ability pij. These probabilities can
• Rodger, Susan; Finley, Thomas (2006). JFLAP: An be exhibited in the form of a tran-
Interactive Formal Languages and Automata Pack- sition matrix” (Kemeny (1959), p.
age (1st ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. 384)
ISBN 0-7637-3834-4.

• Sipser, Michael (2006). Introduction to the Theory Finite Markov-chain processes are also known as
of Computation (2nd ed.). Boston Mass: Thomson subshifts of finite type.
Course Technology. ISBN 0-534-95097-3.
• Booth, Taylor L. (1967). Sequential Machines and
• Wood, Derick (1987). Theory of Computation (1st Automata Theory (1st ed.). New York: John Wiley
ed.). New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. and Sons, Inc. Library of Congress Card Catalog
ISBN 0-06-047208-1. Number 67-25924.
208 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

• Kemeny, John G.; Mirkil, Hazleton; Snell, J. Lau-

rie; Thompson, Gerald L. (1959). Finite Mathe-
matical Structures (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, Inc. Library of Congress Card Cat-
alog Number 59-12841. Chapter 6 “Finite Markov
Chains”.

6.4.13 External links

• Finite State Automata at DMOZ
• Modeling a Simple AI behavior using a Finite State
Machine Example of usage in Video Games
• Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing description
of Finite State Machines
• NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures Die of the first 555 chip (1971)
description of Finite State Machines
• Interactive FSM: Control Circuit, demonstrates the
a PLL IC in 1968. He designed an oscillator for PLLs
logic flow of the Finite State Machines.
such that the frequency did not depend on the power sup-
• FSM simulator, simulates DFAs, NFAs and ε- ply voltage or temperature. However, Signetics laid off
NFAs, including generated by regular expression. half of its employees, and the development was frozen
due to a recession.[7]
• A brief overview of state machine types, comparing
theoretical aspects of Mealy, Moore, Harel & UML Camenzind proposed the development of a universal cir-
state machines. cuit based on the oscillator for PLLs, and asked that he
would develop it alone, borrowing their equipment in-
stead of having his pay cut in half. Other engineers ar-
gued the product could be built from existing parts, but
6.5 555 timer IC the marketing manager bought the idea. Among 5xx
numbers that were assigned for analogue ICs, the special
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a number “555” was chosen.[3][7]
variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applica-
Camenzind also taught circuit design at his nearby uni-
tions. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an
versity in the morning, and went to the Northeastern Uni-
oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide
versity to get the master’s degree at night. The first de-
two or four timing circuits in one package.
sign was reviewed in the summer of 1971. There was no
Introduced in 1972[1] by Signetics,[2] the 555 is still in problem, so it had gone to the layout design. A few days
widespread use due to its low price, ease of use, and sta- later, he got the idea of using a direct resistance instead
bility. It is now made by many companies in the origi- of a constant current source, and found that it worked.
nal bipolar and in low-power CMOS. As of 2003, it was The change decreased the required 9 pins to 8, so the
estimated that 1 billion units were manufactured every IC could be fit in an 8-pin package instead of a 14-pin
year.[3] The 555 is the most popular integrated circuit package. This design passed the second design review,
ever manufactured.[4][5] and the prototype was completed in October 1971. Its
9-pin copy had been already released by another com-
pany founded by an engineer who attended the first review
6.5.1 History and retired from Signetics, but they withdrew it soon after
the 555 was released. The 555 timer was manufactured
The IC was designed in 1971 by Hans R. Camenzind un- by 12 companies in 1972 and it became the best selling
der contract to Signetics (later acquired by Philips Semi- product.[7]
conductors, and now NXP).
In 1962, Camenzind joined PR Mallory’s Laboratory for
Physical Science in Burlington, Massachusetts.[3] He de- 6.5.2 Design
signed a pulse-width modulation (PWM) amplifier for au-
dio applications,[6] but it was not successful in the market Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 pack-
because there was no power transistor included. He be- age includes 25 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a
came interested in tuners such as a gyrator and a phase- silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line pack-
locked loop (PLL). He was hired by Signetics to develop age (DIP-8).[8] Variants available include the 556 (a 14-
6.5. 555 TIMER IC 209

VCC

CONT
GND 1 8 VCC
THRES OUT
TRIG 2 7 DIS
555
TRIG
RESET
OUT 3 6 THR
DISCH
RESET 4 5 CTRL
GND

Internal schematic (bipolar version)

VCC Pinout diagram

RESET
THRES tics of the device. In most applications, the CONTROL
CONT VOLTAGE input is not used. It is usual to connect a
OUT
10 nF capacitor between pin 5 and 0 V to prevent in-
TRIG
terference. The CONTROL VOLTAGE input can be
DISCH
used to build an astable multivibrator with a frequency-
GND
modulated output.
Internal schematic (CMOS version)
Modes
pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the two
The IC 555 has three operating modes:
558 & 559s (both a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly
modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and
TR is falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive). 1. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger – the 555 can op-
erate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected
The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free
0 °C to +70 °C, and the SE555 part number desig- latched switches.
nated the military temperature range, −55 °C to +125
°C. These were available in both high-reliability metal 2. Monostable mode – in this mode, the 555 func-
can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V pack- tions as a “one-shot” pulse generator. Applications
age) packages. Thus the full part numbers were NE555V, include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce-
NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T. It has been hypothe- free switches, touch switches, frequency divider,
sized that the 555 got its name from the three 5 kΩ resis- capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation
tors used within,[9] but Hans Camenzind has stated that (PWM) and so on.
the number was arbitrary.[3]
3. Astable (free-running) mode – the 555 can operate
Low-power versions of the 555 are also available, such
as an electronic oscillator. Uses include LED and
as the 7555 and CMOS TLC555.[10] The 7555 is de-
lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone
signed to cause less supply noise than the classic 555 and
generation, security alarms, pulse position modula-
the manufacturer claims that it usually does not require
tion and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple
a “control” capacitor and in many cases does not require
ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse length
a decoupling capacitor on the power supply. Those parts
(e.g., selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows
should generally be included, however, because noise pro-
the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor and the
duced by the timer or variation in power supply voltage
period of the output pulse is determined by the tem-
might interfere with other parts of a circuit or influence
perature). The use of a microprocessor-based cir-
its threshold voltages.
cuit can then convert the pulse period to tempera-
ture, linearize it and even provide calibration means.
Pins
Bistable In bistable (also called Schmitt trigger) mode,
The connection of the pins for a DIP package is as fol- the 555 timer acts as a basic flip-flop. The trigger and re-
lows: set inputs (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a 555) are held
Pin 5 is also sometimes called the CONTROL VOLT- high via pull-up resistors while the threshold input (pin
AGE pin. By applying a voltage to the CONTROL 6) is simply floating. Thus configured, pulling the trigger
VOLTAGE input one can alter the timing characteris- momentarily to ground acts as a 'set' and transitions the
210 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

VCC

Reset 4 8

RESET VCC
2
TRIG
Trigger 6 3
THR OUT
7
Out
DIS
GND CTRL
1 5
10nF

GND

Schematic of a 555 in bistable mode

output pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high state). Pulling the reset

input to ground acts as a 'reset' and transitions the output where t is in seconds, R is in ohms (resistance) and C is
pin to ground (low state). No timing capacitors are re- in farads (capacitance).
quired in a bistable configuration. Pin 5 (control voltage)
While using the timer IC in monostable mode, the
is connected to ground via a small-value capacitor (usu-main disadvantage is that the time span between any
ally 0.01 to 0.1 μF). Pin 7 (discharge) is left floating.[11]
two triggering pulses must be greater than the RC time
constant.[13] Conversely, ignoring closely spaced pulses
is done by setting the RC time constant to be larger than
Monostable See also: RC circuit
the span between spurious triggers. (Example: ignoring
The output pulse ends when the voltage on the capacitor
switch contact bouncing.)
VCC

VCC
R 4 8

RESET VCC
R1 4 8
7
DIS RESET VCC
6 3 7
C THR OUT DIS
2
Out
6 3
TRIG THR OUT
Trigger Out
GND CTRL R2 2
TRIG
1 5
GND CTRL
10nF
1 5
GND C 10nF

GND
Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode

equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The output pulse width Schematic of a 555 in astable mode
can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific
application by adjusting the values of R and C.[12] Astable In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a con-
tinuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified
The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes frequency. Resistor R is connected between VCC and
1
to charge C to 2/3 of the supply voltage, is given by the discharge pin (pin 7) and another resistor (R2 ) is con-
nected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger
(pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common
t = ln(3) · RC ≈ 1.1RC node. Hence the capacitor is charged through R1 and
6.5. 555 TIMER IC 211

R2 , and discharged only through R2 , since pin 7 has low what it was when RESET is taken low, others will send
impedance to ground during output low intervals of the the output either high or low.
cycle, therefore discharging the capacitor. The astable configuration, with two resistors, cannot pro-
In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream duce a 50% duty cycle. To produce a 50% duty cycle,
depends on the values of R1 , R2 and C: eliminate R1, disconnect pin 7 and connect the supply
end of R2 to pin 3, the output pin. This circuit is similar
1
f = ln(2)·C·(R1 +2R2 ) [14] to using an inverter gate as an oscillator, but with fewer
components than the astable configuration, and a much
higher power output than a TTL or CMOS gate. The
The high time from each pulse is given by:
duty cycle for either the 555 or inverter-gate timer will
not be precisely 50% and will change based off any load
that the output is also driving while high (longer duty cy-
high = ln(2) · C · (R1 + R2 ) cles for greater loads) due to the fact the timing network is
supplied from the devices output pin, which has different
and the low time from each pulse is given by:
internal resistances depending on whether it is in the high
or low state (high side drivers tend to be more resistive).

low = ln(2) · C · R2
6.5.3 Specifications
where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms
and C is the value of the capacitor in farads.
These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555
2
Vcc
The power capability of R1 must be greater than R1 . timers can have different specifications depending on the
grade (military, medical, etc.).
Particularly with bipolar 555s, low values of R1 must be
avoided so that the output stays saturated near zero volts
during discharge, as assumed by the above equation. Oth-
6.5.4 Packages
erwise the output low time will be greater than calculated
above. The first cycle will take appreciably longer than
In 1972, Signetics originally released the 555 timer in 8-
the calculated time, as the capacitor must charge from
pin DIP and 8-pin TO-5 metal can packages, and the 556
0V to 2/3 of VCC from power-up, but only from 1/3 of
timer was released in 14-pin DIP package.[2]
VCC to 2/3 of VCC on subsequent cycles.
Currently, the 555 is available in through-hole pack-
To have an output high time shorter than the low time
ages as DIP-8 and SIP-8 (both 2.54mm pitch),[15] and
(i.e., a duty cycle less than 50%) a small diode (that is
surface-mount packages as SO-8 (1.27mm pitch), SSOP-
fast enough for the application) can be placed in paral-
8 / TSSOP−8 / VSSOP-8 (0.65mm pitch), BGA (0.5mm
lel with R2 , with the cathode on the capacitor side. This
pitch).[16] The Microchip/Micrel MIC1555 is a 555
bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that the
CMOS timer with 3 fewer pins available in SOT23−5
high interval depends only on R1 and C, with an adjust-
(0.95mm pitch) surface mount package.[17]
ment based the voltage drop across the diode. The voltage
drop across the diode slows charging on the capacitor so
that the high time is a longer than the expected and often-
6.5.5 Derivatives
cited ln(2)*R1 C = 0.693 R1 C. The low time will be the
same as above, 0.693 R2 C. With the bypass diode, the
Many pin-compatible variants, including CMOS ver-
high time is
sions, have been built by various companies. Bigger pack-
ages also exist with two or four timers on the same chip.
( ) The 555 is also known under the following type numbers:
2Vcc − 3Vdiode
high = R1 · C · ln
Vcc − 3Vdiode
556 dual timer
where V ᵢₒ ₑ is when the diode’s “on” current is 1/2 of
V /R1 which can be determined from its datasheet or by
The dual version is called 556. It features two complete
testing. As an extreme example, when V = 5 and V ᵢₒ ₑ=
555s in a 14 pin DIL package.
0.7, high time = 1.00 R1 C which is 45% longer than the
“expected” 0.693 R1 C. At the other extreme, when V =
15 and V ᵢₒ ₑ= 0.3, the high time = 0.725 R1 C which is 558 quad timer
closer to the expected 0.693 R1 C. The equation reduces
to the expected 0.693 R1 C if V ᵢₒ ₑ= 0. The quad version is called 558 and has 16 pins. To fit four
The operation of RESET in this mode is not well-defined. 555s into a 16 pin package the power, control voltage, and
Some manufacturers’ parts will hold the output state to reset lines are shared by all four modules. Each module’s
212 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

small value up to about 100 kΩ. The joystick operated at

5 V.[21]
Software running in the host computer started the pro-
cess of determining the joystick position by writing to a
special address (ISA bus I/O address 201h).[21][22] This
would result in a trigger signal to the quad timer, which
would cause the capacitor of the RC network to begin
charging and cause the quad timer to output a pulse.
The width of the pulse was determined by how long it
took the capacitor to charge up to 2/3 of 5 V (or about
3.33 V), which was in turn determined by the joystick
position.[21][23] The software then measured the pulse
width to determine the joystick position. A wide pulse
represented the full-right joystick position, for example,
Die of a 556 dual timer manufactured by STMicroelectronics. while a narrow pulse represented the full-left joystick
position.[21]

6.5.7 See also

• Counter (digital)
• Operational amplifier
• List of LM-series integrated circuits
• List of linear integrated circuits
• 4000 series, List of 4000 series integrated circuits
• 7400 series, List of 7400 series integrated circuits

6.5.8 References
[1] Fuller, Brian (15 August 2012). “Hans Camenzind, 555
timer inventor, dies”. EE Times. Retrieved 27 December
2016.
Die of a 558 quad timer.
[2] 555/556 Timers (databook); Signetics; 1973.

[3] Ward, Jack (2004). The 555 Timer IC – An Interview

discharge and threshold circuits are wired together inter-
with Hans Camenzind. The Semiconductor Museum. Re-
nally. trieved 2010-04-05

[4] Tony R. Kuphaldt. “Lessons In Electric Circuits: Volume

6.5.6 Example applications VI - Experiments”. Chapter 8.

[5] Albert Lozano. “Introduction to Electronic Integrated

Joystick interface circuit using the 558 quad timer Circuits (Chips)"

[6] Camenzind, Hans (11 Feb 1966). “Modulated pulse au-

The Apple II microcomputer used a quad timer 558 in
dio and servo power amplifiers”. Solid-State Circuits Con-
monostable (or “one-shot”) mode to interface up to four ference. Digest of Technical Papers. 1966 IEEE Interna-
“game paddles” or two joysticks to the host computer. It tional: 90–91.
also used a single 555 for flashing the display cursor.
[7] Carmenzind, Hans (2010). Translated by , .
A similar circuit was used in the IBM PC.[19] In the joy- " IC 555 " [The birth of the 555 timer
stick interface circuit of the IBM PC, the capacitor of the IC]. (Transistor Technology) (in Japanese).
RC network (see Monostable Mode above) was gener- CQ . 47 (12): 73, 74. ISSN 0040-9413.
ally a 10 nF capacitor. The resistor of the RC network
consisted of the potentiometer inside the joystick along [8] van Roon, Fig 3 & related text.
with an external resistor of 2.2 kΩ.[20] The joystick po- [9] Scherz, Paul (2000) “Practical Electronics for Inventors”,
tentiometer acted as a variable resistor. By moving the p. 589. McGraw-Hill/TAB Electronics. ISBN 978-0-07-
joystick, the resistance of the joystick increased from a 058078-7. Retrieved 2010-04-05.
6.6. SCHMITT TRIGGER 213

[10] Jung, Walter G. (1983) “IC Timer Cookbook, Second 6.5.10 External links
Edition”, pp. 40–41. Sams Technical Publishing; 2nd ed.
ISBN 978-0-672-21932-0. Retrieved 2010-04-05. • 555 Timer Circuits – the Astable, Monostable and
Bistable
[11] 555-timer-circuits.com
• Simple 555 timer circuits
[12] van Roon, Chapter “Monostable Mode”. (Using the 555
• Java simulation of 555 oscillator circuit
timer as a logic clock)
• NE555 Frequency and duty cycle calculator for
[13] national.com astable multivibrators

[14] van Roon Chapter: “Astable operation”. • Using NE555 as a Temperature DSP

[15] NJM555 product webpage; Japan Radio Company • 555 Timer Tutorial by Tony van Roon
• Common Mistakes When Using a 555 Timer
[16] NE555 product webpage; Texas Instruments
• 555 and 556 Timer Circuits
[17] MIC1555 product webpage; Microchip.
• 555 using areas and examples circuits
[18] customsiliconsolutions.co
• Working with 555 Timer Circuits Engineers Garage
[19] Engdahl, pg 1. • Analysis and synthesis of a 555 astable multivibrator
circuit - online calculator
[20] Engdahl, “Circuit diagram of PC joysyck interface”
• Online simulations of a 555 astable multivibrator
[21] epanorama.net circuit - online simulator

[22] Eggebrecht, p. 197. Datasheets / Databooks

[23] Eggebrecht, pp. 197-99

• NE555, Single Bipolar Timer, Texas Instruments
• NE556, Dual Bipolar Timer, Texas Instruments
6.5.9 Further reading
• NE558, Quad Bipolar Timer, NXP
• 555 Timer Applications Sourcebook Experiments; H. • LMC555, Single CMOS Timer, Texas Instruments
Berlin; BPB Publications; 218 pages; 2008; ISBN (operates down to 1.5 Volt at 50 uAmp)
978-8176567909.
• ICM755x, Single / Dual CMOS Timer, Intersil (op-
• Timer, Op Amp, and Optoelectronic Circuits and erates down to 2.0 Volt at 60 uAmp)
Projects; Forrest Mims III; Master Publishing; 128 • ZSCT1555, Single CMOS Timer, Diodes Inc (op-
pages; 2004; ISBN 978-0-945053-29-3. erates down to 0.9 Volt at 74 uAmp)

• Engineer’s Mini-Notebook – 555 Timer IC Circuits; • TS300x, Single CMOS Timers, Touchstone (oper-
Forrest Mims III; Radio Shack; 33 pages; 1989; ates down to 0.9 Volt at 1.0 uAmp)
ASIN B000MN54A6.
• XTR65x, HiRel HiTemp Timer, X-REL (operates
from −60°C to 230°C)
• IC Timer Cookbook; 2nd Ed; Walter G Jung; Sams
Publishing; 384 pages; 1983; ISBN 978-0-672-
21932-0.
6.6 Schmitt trigger
• 555 Timer Applications Sourcebook with Experi-
ments; Howard M Berlin; Sams Publishing; 158 In electronics, a Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit
pages; 1979; ISBN 978-0-672-21538-4. with hysteresis implemented by applying positive feed-
back to the noninverting input of a comparator or differ-
• IC 555 Projects; E.A. Parr; Bernard Babani Publish- ential amplifier. It is an active circuit which converts an
ing; 144 pages; 1978; ISBN 978-0-85934-047-2. analog input signal to a digital output signal. The circuit is
named a “trigger” because the output retains its value un-
• Analog Applications Manual; Signetics; 418 pages; til the input changes sufficiently to trigger a change. In the
1979. Chapter 6 Timers is 22 pages. non-inverting configuration, when the input is higher than
214 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

out
U
M

A
-T T in

B
-M t
A noisy signal (U) fed into a comparator (A) and a Schmitt trigger
(B). The green dotted lines are the circuit’s switching thresholds.
Transfer function of a Schmitt trigger. The horizontal and verti- The Schmitt trigger tends to remove noise from the signal.
cal axes are input voltage and output voltage, respectively. T and
−T are the switching thresholds, and M and −M are the output
voltage levels. Input Output
A
a chosen threshold, the output is high. When the input is
below a different (lower) chosen threshold the output is B
low, and when the input is between the two levels the out-
put retains its value. This dual threshold action is called
hysteresis and implies that the Schmitt trigger possesses
memory and can act as a bistable multivibrator (latch or Block diagram of a Schmitt trigger circuit. It is a system with
flip-flop). There is a close relation between the two kinds positive feedback in which the output signal fed back into the
input causes the amplifier A to switch rapidly from one saturated
of circuits: a Schmitt trigger can be converted into a latch
state to the other when the input crosses a threshold.
and a latch can be converted into a Schmitt trigger. A > 1 is the amplifier gain
Schmitt trigger devices are typically used in signal condi- B < 1 is the feedback transfer function
tioning applications to remove noise from signals used in
digital circuits, particularly mechanical contact bounce.
They are also used in closed loop negative feedback con- back so that the loop gain is more than one. The posi-
figurations to implement relaxation oscillators, used in tive feedback is introduced by adding a part of the out-
function generators and switching power supplies. put voltage to the input voltage. These circuits contain
an 'attenuator' (the B box in the figure on the right) and
a 'summer' (the circle with "+" inside) in addition to an
6.6.1 Invention amplifier acting as a comparator. There are three specific
techniques for implementing this general idea. The first
The Schmitt trigger was invented by American scien- two of them are dual versions (series and parallel) of the
tist Otto H. Schmitt in 1934 while he was a gradu- general positive feedback system. In these configurations,
ate student,[1] later described in his doctoral dissertation the output voltage increases the effective difference input
(1937) as a “thermionic trigger.”[2] It was a direct result voltage of the comparator by 'decreasing the threshold' or
of Schmitt’s study of the neural impulse propagation in by 'increasing the circuit input voltage'; the threshold and
squid nerves.[2] memory properties are incorporated in one element. In
the third technique, the threshold and memory properties
are separated.
6.6.2 Implementation Dynamic threshold (series feedback): when the input
voltage crosses the threshold in some direction the very
Fundamental idea circuit changes its own threshold to the opposite direc-
tion. For this purpose, it subtracts a part of its output
Circuits with hysteresis are based on the fundamental voltage from the threshold (it is equal to adding voltage to
positive feedback idea: any active circuit can be made to the input voltage). Thus the output affects the threshold
behave as a Schmitt trigger by applying a positive feed- and does not impact on the input voltage. These circuits
6.6. SCHMITT TRIGGER 215

are implemented by a differential amplifier with 'series triangle with a symbol inside representing its ideal hys-
positive feedback' where the input is connected to the in- teresis curve.
verting input and the output - to the non-inverting input.
In this arrangement, attenuation and summation are sepa-
rated: a voltage divider acts as an attenuator and the loop Transistor Schmitt triggers
acts as a simple series voltage summer. Examples are the
classic transistor emitter-coupled Schmitt trigger, the op- V+
amp inverting Schmitt trigger, etc.
Modified input voltage (parallel feedback): when the RC1 RC2
input voltage crosses the threshold in some direction the
circuit changes the very input voltage in the same direc- Q1 Vout
RB R1
tion (now it adds a part of its output voltage directly to Vin Q2
the input voltage). Thus the output augments the input
voltage and does not affect the threshold. These circuits
can be implemented by a single-ended non-inverting am-
plifier with 'parallel positive feedback' where the input RE R2
and the output sources are connected through resistors
to the input. The two resistors form a weighted parallel V−
summer incorporating both the attenuation and summa-
tion. Examples are the less familiar collector-base cou- Schmitt trigger implemented by two emitter-coupled transistor
pled Schmitt trigger, the op-amp non-inverting Schmitt stages
trigger, etc.
Some circuits and elements exhibiting negative resistance Classic emitter-coupled circuit The original Schmitt
can also act in a similar way: negative impedance convert- trigger is based on the dynamic threshold idea that is im-
ers (NIC), neon lamps, tunnel diodes (e.g., a diode with plemented by a voltage divider with a switchable upper
an “N"-shaped current–voltage characteristic in the first leg (the collector resistors RC₁ and RC₂) and a steady
quadrant), etc. In the last case, an oscillating input will lower leg (RE). Q1 acts as a comparator with a differential
cause the diode to move from one rising leg of the “N” input (Q1 base-emitter junction) consisting of an invert-
to the other and back again as the input crosses the rising ing (Q1 base) and a non-inverting (Q1 emitter) inputs.
and falling switching thresholds. The input voltage is applied to the inverting input; the
output voltage of the voltage divider is applied to the non-
Two different unidirectional thresholds are assigned inverting input thus determining its threshold. The com-
in this case to two separate open-loop comparators (with- parator output drives the second common collector stage
out hysteresis) driving a bistable multivibrator (latch) or Q2 (an emitter follower) through the voltage divider R1 -
flip-flop). The trigger is toggled high when the input volt- R2 . The emitter-coupled transistors Q1 and Q2 actually
age crosses down to up the high threshold and low when compose an electronic double throw switch that switches
the input voltage crosses up to down the low threshold. over the upper legs of the voltage divider and changes the
Again, there is a positive feedback but now it is concen- threshold in a different (to the input voltage) direction.
trated only in the memory cell. Examples are the 555
timer and the switch debounce circuit.[3] This configuration can be considered as a differential
amplifier with series positive feedback between its non-
inverting input (Q2 base) and output (Q1 collector) that
forces the transition process. There is also a smaller neg-
ative feedback introduced by the emitter resistor RE. To
make the positive feedback dominate over the negative
one and to obtain a hysteresis, the proportion between
the two collector resistors is chosen RC₁ > RC₂. Thus
less current flows through and less voltage drop is across
RE when Q1 is switched on than in the case when Q2
A symbol of Schmitt trigger shown with a non-inverting hysteresis is switched on. As a result, the circuit has two different
curve embedded in a buffer. Schmitt triggers can also be thresholds in regard to ground (V₋ in the image).
shown with inverting hysteresis curves and may be followed by
bubbles. The documentation for the particular Schmitt trigger
Operation Initial state. For the NPN transistors
being used must be consulted to determine whether the device is
shown on the right, imagine the input voltage is below
non-inverting (i.e., where positive output transitions are caused
the shared emitter voltage (high threshold for concrete-
by positive-going inputs) or inverting (i.e., where positive output
transitions are caused by negative-going inputs). ness) so that Q1 base-emitter junction is reverse-biased
and Q1 does not conduct. The Q2 base voltage is deter-
The symbol for Schmitt triggers in circuit diagrams is a mined by the mentioned divider so that Q2 is conducting
216 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

and the trigger output is in the low state. The two resistors
RC₂ and RE form another voltage divider that determines
the high threshold. Neglecting VBE, the high threshold
value is approximately

RE
VHT = V+
RE + RC2
The output voltage is low but well above ground. It is
approximately equal to the high threshold and may not be
low enough to be a logical zero for next digital circuits.
This may require additional shifting circuit following the
trigger circuit.
Crossing up the high threshold. When the input volt-
age (Q1 base voltage) rises slightly above the voltage Symbol depicting an inverting Schmitt trigger by showing an in-
across the emitter resistor RE (the high threshold), Q1 be- verted hysteresis curve inside a buffer. Other symbols show a
gins conducting. Its collector voltage goes down and Q2 hysteresis curve (which may be inverting or non-inverting) em-
begins going cut-off, because the voltage divider now pro- bedded in a buffer followed by a bubble, which is similar to
vides lower Q2 base voltage. The common emitter volt- the traditional symbol for a digital inverter that shows a buffer
age follows this change and goes down thus making Q1 followed by a bubble. In general, the direction of the Schmitt
conduct more. The current begins steering from the right trigger (inverting or non-inverting) is not necessarily clear from
leg of the circuit to the left one. Although Q1 is more the symbol because multiple conventions are used, even with the
same manufacturer. There are several factors leading to such
conducting, it passes less current through RE (since RC₁
ambiguity,[nb 1] These circumstances may warrant a closer inves-
> RC₂); the emitter voltage continues dropping and the
tigation of the documentation for each particular Schmitt trigger.
effective Q1 base-emitter voltage continuously increases.
This avalanche-like process continues until Q1 becomes
completely turned on (saturated) and Q2 turned off. The
Direct-coupled circuit. To simplify the circuit, the R1 –
trigger is transitioned to the high state and the output (Q2
R2 voltage divider can be omitted connecting Q1 collec-
collector) voltage is close to V+. Now, the two resistors
tor directly to Q2 base. The base resistor RB can be omit-
RC₁ and RE form a voltage divider that determines the
ted as well so that the input voltage source drives directly
low threshold. Its value is approximately
Q1’s base.[4] In this case, the common emitter voltage and
Q1 collector voltage are not suitable for outputs. Only Q2
RE collector should be used as an output since, when the in-
VLT = V+ put voltage exceeds the high threshold and Q1 saturates,
RE + RC1
its base-emitter junction is forward biased and transfers
Crossing down the low threshold. With the trigger now the input voltage variations directly to the emitters. As
in the high state, if the input voltage lowers enough (be- a result, the common emitter voltage and Q1 collector
low the low threshold), Q1 begins cutting-off. Its collec- voltage follow the input voltage. This situation is typical
tor current reduces; as a result, the shared emitter volt- for over-driven transistor differential amplifiers and ECL
age lowers slightly and Q1 collector voltage rises signifi- gates.
cantly. The R1 -R2 voltage divider conveys this change to
the Q2 base voltage and it begins conducting. The voltage
across RE rises, further reducing the Q1 base-emitter po-
tential in the same avalanche-like manner, and Q1 ceases Collector-base coupled circuit Like every latch, the
to conduct. Q2 becomes completely turned on (saturated) fundamental collector-base coupled bistable circuit pos-
and the output voltage becomes low again. sesses a hysteresis. So, it can be converted to a Schmitt
trigger by connecting an additional base resistor R to one
of the inputs (Q1 base in the figure). The two resistors
Variations Non-inverting circuit. The classic non- R and R4 form a parallel voltage summer (the circle in
inverting Schmitt trigger can be turned into an inverting the ballock diagram above) that sums output (Q2 collec-
trigger by taking Vₒᵤ from the emitters instead of from a tor) voltage and the input voltage, and drives the single-
Q2 collector. In this configuration, the output voltage is ended transistor “comparator” Q1. When the base volt-
equal to the dynamic threshold (the shared emitter volt- age crosses the threshold (VBE₀ ∞ 0.65 V) in some direc-
age) and both the output levels stay away from the supply tion, a part of Q2’s collector voltage is added in the same
rails. Another disadvantage is that the load changes the direction to the input voltage. Thus the output modifies
thresholds so, it has to be high enough. The base resistor the input voltage by means of parallel positive feedback
RB is obligatory to prevent the impact of the input voltage and does not affect the threshold (the base-emitter volt-
through Q1 base-emitter junction on the emitter voltage. age).
6.6. SCHMITT TRIGGER 217

R2

R1
Vin
Vout

Schmitt trigger implemented by a non-inverting comparator

augmenting it during and after switching that occurs when

the resulting voltage is near ground. This parallel positive
feedback creates the needed hysteresis that is controlled
by the proportion between the resistances of R1 and R2 .
The output of the parallel voltage summer is single-ended
BJT bistable collector-base coupled circuit can be converted to a (it produces voltage with respect to ground) so the cir-
Schmitt trigger by connecting an additional base resistor to one cuit does not need an amplifier with a differential input.
of the bases Since conventional op-amps have a differential input, the
inverting input is grounded to make the reference point
zero volts.
Comparison between emitter- and collector-coupled
The output voltage always has the same sign as the op-
circuit
amp input voltage but it does not always have the same
sign as the circuit input voltage (the signs of the two in-
The emitter-coupled version has the advantage that the
put voltages can differ). When the circuit input voltage is
input transistor is backward-biased when the input volt-
above the high threshold or below the low threshold, the
age is quite below the high threshold so the transistor is
output voltage has the same sign as the circuit input volt-
surely cut-off. It was important when germanium tran-
age (the circuit is non-inverting). It acts like a comparator
sistors were used for implementing the circuit and this
that switches at a different point depending on whether
advantage has determined its popularity. The input base
the output of the comparator is high or low. When the
resistor can be omitted since the emitter resistor limits the
circuit input voltage is between the thresholds, the output
current when the input base-emitter junction is forward-
voltage is undefined and it depends on the last state (the
biased.
circuit behaves as an elementary latch).
The emitter-coupled Schmitt trigger has not low enough
level at output logical zero and needs an additional output
shifting circuit. The collector-coupled Schmitt trigger has
out
extremely low (almost zero) output level at output logical
zero.
M
Op-amp implementations

Schmitt triggers are commonly implemented using an

operational amplifier or a dedicated comparator.[nb 2] An
open-loop op-amp and comparator may be considered as
an analog-digital device having analog inputs and a digi-
-T T in
tal output that extracts the sign of the voltage difference
between its two inputs.[nb 3] The positive feedback is ap-
plied by adding a part of the output voltage to the input
voltage in series or parallel manner. Due to the extremely -M
high op-amp gain, the loop gain is also high enough and
provides the avalanche-like process.

Typical transfer function of a non-inverting Schmidt trigger like

Non-inverting Schmitt trigger In this circuit, the two the circuit above.
resistors R1 and R2 form a parallel voltage summer. It
adds a part of the output voltage to the input voltage thus For instance, if the Schmitt trigger is currently in the high
218 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

state, the output will be at the positive power supply rail defined by the Zener diodes (which could also be replaced
(+VS). The output voltage V₊ of the resistive summer can with a single double-anode Zener diode). In this config-
be found by applying the superposition theorem: uration, the output levels can be modified by appropriate
choice of Zener diode, and these levels are resistant to
power supply fluctuations (i.e., they increase the PSRR
R2 R1 of the comparator). The resistor R3 is there to limit the
V+ = · Vin + · Vs
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 current through the diodes, and the resistor R4 minimizes
the input voltage offset caused by the comparator’s input
The comparator will switch when V₊=0. Then R2 · Vin = leakage currents (see limitations of real op-amps).
−R1 · Vs (the same result can be obtained by applying
the current conservation principle). So Vin must drop be-
low − R R2 Vs to get the output to switch. Once the com-
1

parator output has switched to −VS, the threshold be- R2

R1
comes + R2 Vs to switch back to high. So this circuit
creates a switching band centered on zero, with trigger
R1
levels ± R
R2 Vs (it can be shifted to the left or the right by
1

applying a bias voltage to the inverting input). The in-

Vout
put voltage must rise above the top of the band, and then
below the bottom of the band, for the output to switch Vin
on (plus) and then back off (minus). If R1 is zero or
R2 is infinity (i.e., an open circuit), the band collapses
to zero width, and it behaves as a standard comparator. Schmitt trigger implemented by an inverting comparator
The transfer characteristic is shown in the picture on the
R1
left. The value of the threshold T is given by R 2
Vs and Inverting Schmitt trigger In the inverting version, the
the maximum value of the output M is the power supply attenuation and summation are separated. The two resis-
rail. tors R1 and R2 act only as a “pure” attenuator (voltage
divider). The input loop acts as a simple series voltage
R2 summer that adds a part of the output voltage in series
to the circuit input voltage. This series positive feedback
R1 creates the needed hysteresis that is controlled by the pro-
Vin R3 portion between the resistances of R1 and the whole re-
Vout sistance (R1 and R2 ). The effective voltage applied to
the op-amp input is floating so the op-amp must have a
Z1 differential input.
R4 Z2
The circuit is named inverting since the output voltage al-
ways has an opposite sign to the input voltage when it is
out of the hysteresis cycle (when the input voltage is above
the high threshold or below the low threshold). However,
if the input voltage is within the hysteresis cycle (between
A practical Schmitt trigger configuration with precise thresholds
the high and low thresholds), the circuit can be inverting
as well as non-inverting. The output voltage is undefined
A unique property of circuits with parallel positive feed- and it depends on the last state so the circuit behaves like
back is the impact on the input source. In circuits with an elementary latch.
negative parallel feedback (e.g., an inverting amplifier),
the virtual ground at the inverting input separates the in- To compare the two versions, the circuit operation will be
put source from the op-amp output. Here there is no vir- considered at the same conditions as above. If the Schmitt
tual ground, and the steady op-amp output voltage is ap- trigger is currently in the high state, the output will be at
plied through R1 -R2 network to the input source. The op- the positive power supply rail (+VS). The output voltage
amp output passes an opposite current through the input V₊ of the voltage divider is:
source (it injects current into the source when the input
voltage is positive and it draws current from the source
when it is negative). R1
V+ = · Vs
R1 + R2
A practical Schmitt trigger with precise thresholds is
shown in the figure on the right. The transfer characteris- The comparator will switch when Vᵢ = V₊. So Vin must
tic has exactly the same shape of the previous basic con- exceed above this voltage to get the output to switch.
figuration, and the threshold values are the same as well. Once the comparator output has switched to −VS, the
On the other hand, in the previous case, the output volt- threshold becomes − R1R+R 1
2
Vs to switch back to high.
age was depending on the power supply, while now it is So this circuit creates a switching band centered on zero,
6.6. SCHMITT TRIGGER 219

with trigger levels ± R1R+R

1
2
Vs (it can be shifted to the left
or the right by connecting R1 to a bias voltage). The in-
put voltage must rise above the top of the band, and then
below the bottom of the band, for the output to switch
off (minus) and then back on (plus). If R1 is zero (i.e., a
short circuit) or R2 is infinity, the band collapses to zero
width, and it behaves as a standard comparator.
In contrast with the parallel version, this circuit does not
impact on the input source since the source is separated
from the voltage divider output by the high op-amp input
differential impedance.

6.6.3 Applications
Philips 74HCT14D, a hex inverting Schmitt trigger
Schmitt triggers are typically used in open loop configu-
rations for noise immunity and closed loop configurations • 7418: Dual Schmitt trigger 4-input NAND Gate
to implement function generators.
• 7419: Hex Schmitt trigger Inverter

Noise immunity • 74121: Monostable Multivibrator with Schmitt

Trigger Inputs
One application of a Schmitt trigger is to increase the
• 74132: Quad 2-input NAND Schmitt Trigger
noise immunity in a circuit with only a single input thresh-
old. With only one input threshold, a noisy input signal • 74221: Dual Monostable Multivibrator with
[nb 4]
near that threshold could cause the output to switch Schmitt Trigger Input
rapidly back and forth from noise alone. A noisy Schmitt
Trigger input signal near one threshold can cause only • 74232: Quad NOR Schmitt Trigger
one switch in output value, after which it would have to
• 74310: Octal Buffer with Schmitt Trigger Inputs
move beyond the other threshold in order to cause another
switch. • 74340: Octal Buffer with Schmitt Trigger Inputs
For example, an amplified infrared photodiode may gen- and three-state inverted outputs
erate an electric signal that switches frequently between
• 74341: Octal Buffer with Schmitt Trigger Inputs
its absolute lowest value and its absolute highest value.
and three-state noninverted outputs
This signal is then low-pass filtered to form a smooth
signal that rises and falls corresponding to the relative • 74344: Octal Buffer with Schmitt Trigger Inputs
amount of time the switching signal is on and off. That fil- and three-state noninverted outputs
tered output passes to the input of a Schmitt trigger. The
net effect is that the output of the Schmitt trigger only • 74(HC/HCT)7541 Octal Buffer with Schmitt Trig-
passes from low to high after a received infrared signal ger Inputs and Three-State Noninverted Outputs
excites the photodiode for longer than some known de-
• SN74LV8151 is a 10-bit universal Schmitt-trigger
lay, and once the Schmitt trigger is high, it only moves
buffer with 3-state outputs
low after the infrared signal ceases to excite the photodi-
ode for longer than a similar known delay. Whereas the
photodiode is prone to spurious switching due to noise A number of 4000 series devices include a Schmitt trigger
from the environment, the delay added by the filter and on inputs, for example:
Schmitt trigger ensures that the output only switches when
there is certainly an input stimulating the device. • 4017: Decade Counter with Decoded Outputs
Schmitt triggers are common in many switching circuits • 4020: 14-Stage Binary Ripple Counter
for similar reasons (e.g., for switch debouncing).
• 4022: Octal Counter with Decoded Outputs
List of IC including input Schmitt triggers
The following 7400 series devices include a Schmitt trig- • 4024: 7-Stage Binary Ripple Counter
ger on their input or on each of their inputs:
• 4040: 12-Stage Binary Ripple Counter
• 7413: Dual Schmitt trigger 4-input NAND Gate • 4093: Quad 2-Input NAND
• 7414: Hex Schmitt trigger Inverter • 40106: Hex Inverter
220 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

• 14538: Dual Monostable Multivibrator Here, a comparator-based Schmitt trigger is used in its
inverting configuration. Additionally, slow negative feed-
Dual Schmitt input configurable single-gate CMOS logic, back is added with an integrating RC network. The result,
AND, OR, XOR, NAND, NOR, XNOR which is shown on the right, is that the output automati-
cally oscillates from VSS to VDD as the capacitor charges
• NC7SZ57 Fairchild from one Schmitt trigger threshold to the other.

• NC7SZ58 Fairchild
6.6.4 See also
• SN74LVC1G57 Texas Instruments
• Operational amplifier applications
• SN74LVC1G58 Texas Instruments
• Bistable multivibrator circuit
Use as an oscillator • Threshold detector with hysteresis

Main article: Relaxation oscillator

A Schmitt trigger is a bistable multivibrator, and it can 6.6.5 Notes
[1] One factor contributing to ambiguity is that one simple
transistor-based realization of a Schmitt trigger is natu-
rally inverting, with a non-inverting Schmitt trigger some-
times consisting of such an inverting implementation fol-
lowed by an inverter. An additional inverter may be added
for buffering a stand-alone inverting configuration. Con-
sequently, inverting configurations within an integrated
circuit may be naturally inverting, while non-inverting
configurations are implemented with a single inverter, and
stand-alone inverting configurations may be implemented
with two inverters. As a result, symbols that combine in-
verting bubbles and hysteresis curves may be using the
Output and capacitor waveforms for comparator-based hysteresis curve to describe the entire device or the em-
relaxation oscillator bedded Schmitt trigger only.

[2] Usually, negative feedback is used in op-amp circuits.

Some operational amplifiers are designed to be used only
in negative-feedback configurations that enforce a negli-
gible difference between the inverting and non-inverting
inputs. They incorporate input-protection circuitry that
prevent the inverting and non-inverting inputs from oper-
ating far away from each other. For example, clipper cir-
cuits made up of two general purpose diodes with opposite
bias in parallel or two Zener diodes with opposite bias in
series (i.e., a double-anode Zener diode) are sometimes
used internally across the two inputs of the operational
amplifier. In these cases, the operational amplifiers will
fail to function well as comparators. Conversely, com-
parators are designed under the assumption that the input
A Schmitt Trigger-based implementation of a relaxation oscilla- voltages can differ significantly.
tor [3] When the non-inverting (+) input is at a higher volt-
age than the inverting (−) input, the comparator output
be used to implement another type of multivibrator, the switches nearly to +VS, which is its high supply voltage.
relaxation oscillator. This is achieved by connecting a sin- When the non-inverting (+) input is at a lower voltage than
gle RC integrating circuit between the output and the in- the inverting (−) input, the comparator output switches
put of an inverting Schmitt trigger. The output will be a nearly to -VS, which is its low supply voltage.
continuous square wave whose frequency depends on the
values of R and C, and the threshold points of the Schmitt [4] Where the noise amplitude is assumed to be small com-
pared to the change in Schmitt trigger threshold.
trigger. Since multiple Schmitt trigger circuits can be pro-
vided by a single integrated circuit (e.g. the 4000 series
CMOS device type 40106 contains 6 of them), a spare 6.6.6 References
section of the IC can be quickly pressed into service as a
simple and reliable oscillator with only two external com- [1] Otto H. Schmitt, A Thermionic Trigger, Journal of Scien-
ponents. tific Instruments 15 (January 1938): 24–26.
6.7. SHIFT REGISTER 221

[2] August 2004 issue of the Pavek Museum of Broad- 'Data Advance' cycles. This arrangement is the hardware
casting Newsletter - http://160.94.102.47/Otto_Images/ equivalent of a queue. Also, at any time, the whole regis-
PavekOHSbio.pdf ter can be set to zero by bringing the reset (R) pins high.
[3] Debouncing switches with an SR latch This arrangement performs destructive readout - each da-
tum is lost once it has been shifted out of the right-most
[4] 7414 datasheet bit.

6.6.7 External links

6.7.2 Serial-in parallel-out (SIPO)
6.7 Shift register
In digital circuits, a shift register is a cascade of flip flops,
sharing the same clock, in which the output of each flip-
flop is connected to the 'data' input of the next flip-flop in
the chain, resulting in a circuit that shifts by one position
the 'bit array' stored in it, 'shifting in' the data present at
its input and 'shifting out' the last bit in the array, at each
transition of the clock input.
More generally, a shift register may be multidimensional,
such that its 'data in' and stage outputs are themselves This configuration allows conversion from serial to paral-
bit arrays: this is implemented simply by running several lel format. Data is input serially, as described in the SISO
shift registers of the same bit-length in parallel. section above. Once the data has been clocked in, it may
Shift registers can have both parallel and serial inputs and be either read off at each output simultaneously, or it can
outputs. These are often configured as 'serial-in, parallel- be shifted out
out' (SIPO) or as 'parallel-in, serial-out' (PISO). There In this configuration, each flip-flop is edge triggered. All
are also types that have both serial and parallel input and flip-flops operate at the given clock frequency. Each input
types with serial and parallel output. There are also 'bidi- bit makes its way down to the Nth output after N clock
rectional' shift registers which allow shifting in both di- cycles, leading to parallel output.
rections: L→R or R→L. The serial input and last output
of a shift register can also be connected to create a 'cir- In cases where the parallel outputs should not change
cular shift register'. during the serial loading process, it is desirable to use
a latched or buffered output. In a latched shift register
(such as the 74595) the serial data is first loaded into an
6.7.1 Serial-in Serial-out (SISO) internal buffer register, then upon receipt of a load sig-
nal the state of the buffer register is copied into a set of
Destructive readout output registers. In general, the practical application of
the serial-in/parallel-out shift register is to convert data
These are the simplest kind of shift registers. The data from serial format on a single wire to parallel format on
string is presented at 'Data In', and is shifted right one multiple wires.
stage each time 'Data Advance' is brought high. At each
advance, the bit on the far left (i.e. 'Data In') is shifted
into the first flip-flop's output. The bit on the far right
(i.e. Data Out) is shifted out and lost. 6.7.3 Parallel-in Serial-out (PISO)
The data are stored after each flip-flop on the 'Q' out-
put, so there are four storage 'slots’ available in this ar-This configuration has the data input on lines D1 through
rangement, hence it is a 4-bit Register. To give an idea of D4 in parallel format, D1 being the most significant bit.
the shifting pattern, imagine that the register holds 0000 To write the data to the register, the Write/Shift control
(so all storage slots are empty). As 'Data In' presents line must be held LOW. To shift the data, the W/S control
1,0,1,1,0,0,0,0 (in that order, with a pulse at 'Data Ad- line is brought HIGH and the registers are clocked. The
vance' each time—this is called clocking or strobing) to arrangement now acts as a PISO shift register, with D1 as
the register, this is the result. The left hand column cor- the Data Input. However, as long as the number of clock
responds to the left-most flip-flop’s output pin, and so on. cycles is not more than the length of the data-string, the
So the serial output of the entire register is 10110000. It Data Output, Q, will be the parallel data read off in order.
can be seen that if data were to be continued to input, The animation below shows the write/shift sequence, in-
it would get exactly what was put in, but offset by four cluding the internal state of the shift register.
222 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

pendency on component values, however, it requires ex-

ternal clock and the timing accuracy is limited by a gran-
ularity of this clock. Example: Ronja Twister, where five
74164 shift registers create the core of the timing logic
this way (schematic).
In early computers, shift registers were used to handle
data processing: two numbers to be added were stored
4-Bit PISO Shift Register in two shift registers and clocked out into an arithmetic
and logic unit (ALU) with the result being fed back to the
input of one of the shift registers (the accumulator) which
was one bit longer since binary addition can only result in
an answer that is the same size or one bit longer.
Many computer languages include instructions to 'shift
right' and 'shift left' the data in a register, effectively di-
viding by two or multiplying by two for each place shifted.
Very large serial-in serial-out shift registers (thousands
of bits in size) were used in a similar manner to the ear-
lier delay line memory in some devices built in the early
1970s. Such memories were sometimes called circulat-
ing memory. For example, the Datapoint 3300 terminal
stored its display of 25 rows of 72 columns of upper-
case characters using fifty-four 200-bit shift registers, ar-
ranged in six tracks of nine packs each, providing stor-
age for 1800 six-bit characters. The shift register design
meant that scrolling the terminal display could be accom-
plished by simply pausing the display output to skip one
line of characters.[1]
Toshiba TC4015BP - Dual 4-Stage Static Shift Register (with se-
rial input/parallel output)

6.7.5 History
6.7.4 Uses
One of the first known examples of a shift register was
One of the most common uses of a shift register is to con- in the Mark 2 Colossus, a code-breaking machine built
vert between serial and parallel interfaces. This is useful in 1944. It was a six-stage device built of vacuum tubes
as many circuits work on groups of bits in parallel, but and thyratrons.[2] A shift register was also used in the IAS
serial interfaces are simpler to construct. Shift registers machine, built by John von Neumann and others at the
can be used as simple delay circuits. Several bidirectional Institute for Advanced Study in the late 1940s.
shift registers could also be connected in parallel for a
hardware implementation of a stack.
6.7.6 See also
SIPO registers are commonly attached to the output
of microprocessors when more General Purpose In- • Delay line memory
put/Output pins are required than are available. This al-
lows several binary devices to be controlled using only • Linear feedback shift register (LFSR)
two or three pins, but slower than parallel I/O - the de-
vices in question are attached to the parallel outputs of • Ring counter
the shift register, then the desired state of all those de-
vices can be sent out of the microprocessor using a sin- • Serial Peripheral Interface Bus
gle serial connection. Similarly, PISO configurations are
commonly used to add more binary inputs to a micropro- • Shift register lookup table (SRL)
cessor than are available - each binary input (i.e. a button
• Circular buffer
or more complicated circuitry) is attached to a parallel
input of the shift register, then the data is sent back via
serial to the microprocessor using several fewer lines than
originally required.
6.7.7 References
Shift registers can also be used as pulse extenders. Com- [1] bitsavers.org, DataPoint 3300 Maintenance Manual, De-
pared to monostable multivibrators, the timing has no de- cember 1976.
6.8. FLIP-FLOP 223

[2] Flowers, Thomas H. (1983), “The Design of Colos- and such a circuit is described as sequential logic. When
sus”, Annals of the History of Computing, 5 (3): 246, used in a finite-state machine, the output and next state
doi:10.1109/MAHC.1983.10079 depend not only on its current input, but also on its current
state (and hence, previous inputs). It can also be used for
counting of pulses, and for synchronizing variably-timed
6.8 Flip-flop input signals to some reference timing signal.
Flip-flops can be either simple (transparent or opaque)
or clocked (synchronous or edge-triggered). Although
+V the term flip-flop has historically referred generically to
both simple and clocked circuits, in modern usage it is
Press the
common to reserve the term flip-flop exclusively for dis-
R1 green button R2
cussing clocked circuits; the simple ones are commonly
called latches.[1][2]
R3 R4
Using this terminology, a latch is level-sensitive, whereas
a flip-flop is edge-sensitive. That is, when a latch is en-
Q1 Q2 abled it becomes transparent, while a flip flop’s output
only changes on a single type (positive going or negative
going) of clock edge.

6.8.1 History
Reset Set

0V

An animated interactive SR latch (R1, R2 = 1 kΩ R3, R4 = 10

kΩ).

An SR latch, constructed from a pair of cross-coupled NOR gates.

In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two

stable states and can be used to store state information.
A flip-flop is a bistable multivibrator. The circuit can be
made to change state by signals applied to one or more
control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the
basic storage element in sequential logic. Flip-flops and
latches are fundamental building blocks of digital elec-
tronics systems used in computers, communications, and
Flip-flop schematics from the Eccles and Jordan patent filed
many other types of systems. 1918, one drawn as a cascade of amplifiers with a positive feed-
Flip-flops and latches are used as data storage elements. back path, and the other as a symmetric cross-coupled pair
A flip-flop stores a single bit (binary digit) of data; one of
its two states represents a “one” and the other represents a The first electronic flip-flop was invented in 1918 by the
“zero”. Such data storage can be used for storage of state, British physicists William Eccles and F. W. Jordan.[3][4]
224 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

It was initially called the Eccles–Jordan trigger circuit Clocked devices are specially designed for synchronous
and consisted of two active elements (vacuum tubes).[5] systems; such devices ignore their inputs except at the
The design was used in the 1943 British Colossus code- transition of a dedicated clock signal (known as clock-
breaking computer[6] and such circuits and their tran- ing, pulsing, or strobing). Clocking causes the flip-flop
sistorized versions were common in computers even af- either to change or to retain its output signal based upon
ter the introduction of integrated circuits, though flip- the values of the input signals at the transition. Some flip-
flops made from logic gates are also common now.[7][8] flops change output on the rising edge of the clock, others
Early flip-flops were known variously as trigger circuits on the falling edge.
or multivibrators.
Since the elementary amplifying stages are inverting, two
According to P. L. Lindley, an engineer at the US Jet stages can be connected in succession (as a cascade) to
Propulsion Laboratory, the flip-flop types detailed below form the needed non-inverting amplifier. In this config-
(SR, D, T, JK) were first discussed in a 1954 UCLA uration, each amplifier may be considered as an active
course on computer design by Montgomery Phister, and inverting feedback network for the other inverting ampli-
then appeared in his book Logical Design of Digital Com- fier. Thus the two stages are connected in a non-inverting
puters.[9][10] Lindley was at the time working at Hughes loop although the circuit diagram is usually drawn as a
Aircraft under Eldred Nelson, who had coined the term symmetric cross-coupled pair (both the drawings are ini-
JK for a flip-flop which changed states when both inputs tially introduced in the Eccles–Jordan patent).
were on (a logical “one”). The other names were coined
by Phister. They differ slightly from some of the defi-
nitions given below. Lindley explains that he heard the 6.8.3 Flip-flop types
story of the JK flip-flop from Eldred Nelson, who is re-
sponsible for coining the term while working at Hughes Flip-flops can be divided into common types: the SR
Aircraft. Flip-flops in use at Hughes at the time were all (“set-reset”), D (“data” or “delay”[12] ), T (“toggle”), and
of the type that came to be known as J-K. In designing a JK. The behavior of a particular type can be described by
logical system, Nelson assigned letters to flip-flop inputs what is termed the characteristic equation, which derives
as follows: #1: A & B, #2: C & D, #3: E & F, #4: G the “next” (i.e., after the next clock pulse) output, Q ₑₓ
& H, #5: J & K. Nelson used the notations "j-input” and in terms of the input signal(s) and/or the current output,
"k-input” in a patent application filed in 1953.[11] Q.

6.8.2 Implementation Simple set-reset latches

VCC VCC

A1 A2

E1 E2

A traditional (simple) flip-flop circuit based on bipolar junction An animation of a SR latch, constructed from a pair of cross-
transistors coupled NOR gates. Red and black mean logical '1' and '0', re-
spectively.
Flip-flops can be either simple (transparent or asyn-
chronous) or clocked (synchronous). The simple ones are SR NOR latch When using static gates as building
commonly described as latches,[1] while the clocked ones blocks, the most fundamental latch is the simple SR latch,
are described as flip-flops.[2] where S and R stand for set and reset. It can be con-
Simple flip-flops can be built around a single pair of cross- structed from a pair of cross-coupled NOR logic gates.
coupled inverting elements: vacuum tubes, bipolar tran- The stored bit is present on the output marked Q.
sistors, field effect transistors, inverters, and inverting While the R and S inputs are both low, feedback main-
logic gates have all been used in practical circuits. tains the Q and Q outputs in a constant state, with Q the
6.8. FLIP-FLOP 225

S
Q

Q
R
An SR latch constructed from cross-coupled NAND gates.

An animated SR latch. Black and white mean logical '1' and '0', and reset now become active low signals, denoted S and R
respectively.
respectively. Otherwise, operation is identical to that of
(A) S = 1, R = 0: set
(B) S = 0, R = 0: hold
the SR latch. Historically, SR-latches have been predom-
(C) S = 0, R = 1: reset inant despite the notational inconvenience of active-low
(D) S = 1, R = 1: not allowed inputs.
The restricted combination (D) leads to an unstable state.

complement of Q. If S (Set) is pulsed high while R (Re-

set) is held low, then the Q output is forced high, and stays
high when S returns to low; similarly, if R is pulsed high
while S is held low, then the Q output is forced low, and
stays low when R returns to low.
Note: X means don't care, that is, either 0 or 1 is a valid
value.
The R = S = 1 combination is called a restricted com-
bination or a forbidden state because, as both NOR An SR AND-OR latch. Light green means logical '1' and dark
gates then output zeros, it breaks the logical equation Q = green means logical '0'. The latch is currently in hold mode (no
not Q. The combination is also inappropriate in circuits change).
where both inputs may go low simultaneously (i.e. a tran-
SR AND-OR latch From the teaching point of view,
sition from restricted to keep). The output would lock at
SR latches realised as a pair of cross-coupled components
either 1 or 0 depending on the propagation time relations
between the gates (a race condition). (transistors, gates, tubes, etc.) are rather hard to under-
stand for beginners. A didactically easier to understand
To overcome the restricted combination, one can add
model uses a feedback loop instead of the cross-coupling.
gates to the inputs that would convert (S,R) = (1,1) to
The following is an SR latch built with an AND gate with
one of the non-restricted combinations. That can be:
one inverted input and an OR gate.

• Q = 1 (1,0) – referred to as an S (dominated)-latch

JK latch The JK latch is much less frequently used than
• Q = 0 (0,1) – referred to as an R (dominated)-latch the JK flip-flop. The JK latch follows the following state
table:
This is done in nearly every programmable logic con-
troller. Hence, the JK latch is an SR latch that is made to toggle
its output (oscillate between 0 and 1) when passed the
input combination of 11.[15] Unlike the JK flip-flop, the
• Keep state (0,0) – referred to as an E-latch
11 input combination for the JK latch is not very useful
because there is no clock that directs toggling.[16]
Alternatively, the restricted combination can be made to
toggle the output. The result is the JK latch.
Characteristic: Q+ = R'Q + R'S or Q+ = R'Q + S.[14] Gated latches and conditional transparency

Latches are designed to be transparent. That is, input sig-

SR NAND latch This is an alternate model of the sim- nal changes cause immediate changes in output. Addi-
ple SR latch which is built with NAND logic gates. Set tional logic can be added to a simple transparent latch to
226 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

make it non-transparent or opaque when another input

(an “enable” input) is not asserted. When several trans- D
parent latches follow each other, using the same enable Q
signal, signals can propagate through all of them at once.
However, by following a transparent-high latch with a E
transparent-low (or opaque-high) latch, a master–slave
flip-flop is implemented.
Q

R A gated D latch based on an SR NOR latch

Q

Q
S

A gated SR latch circuit diagram constructed from AND gates (on

left) and NOR gates (on right).

Gated SR latch A synchronous SR latch (sometimes An animated gated D latch.

clocked SR flip-flop) can be made by adding a second level (A) D = 1, E = 1: set
of NAND gates to the inverted SR latch (or a second level (B) D = 1, E = 0: hold
of AND gates to the direct SR latch). The extra NAND (C) D = 0, E = 0: hold
gates further invert the inputs so the simple SR latch be- (D) D = 0, E = 1: reset
comes a gated SR latch (and a simple SR latch would
transform into a gated SR latch with inverted enable).
With E high (enable true), the signals can pass through the CLK
input gates to the encapsulated latch; all signal combina-
tions except for (0,0) = hold then immediately reproduce
on the (Q,Q) output, i.e. the latch is transparent.
Q
CLK
With E low (enable false) the latch is closed (opaque) and
remains in the state it was left the last time E was high. D
The enable input is sometimes a clock signal, but more
often a read or write strobe. CLK

A gated D latch in pass transistor logic, similar to the ones in the

CD4042 or the CD74HC75 integrated circuits.
D
Q
be considered as a one-input synchronous SR latch. This
configuration prevents application of the restricted input
combination. It is also known as transparent latch, data
Q latch, or simply gated latch. It has a data input and an
E enable signal (sometimes named clock, or control). The
word transparent comes from the fact that, when the en-
able input is on, the signal propagates directly through the
A gated D latch based on an SR NAND latch circuit, from the input D to the output Q.

Gated D latch This latch exploits the fact that, in the Transparent latches are typically used as I/O ports or in
two active input combinations (01 and 10) of a gated SR asynchronous systems, or in synchronous two-phase sys-
latch, R is the complement of S. The input NAND stage tems (synchronous systems that use a two-phase clock),
converts the two D input states (0 and 1) to these two input where two latches operating on different clock phases
combinations for the next SR latch by inverting the data prevent data transparency as in a master–slave flip-flop.
input signal. The low state of the enable signal produces Latches are available as integrated circuits, usually with
the inactive “11” combination. Thus a gated D-latch may multiple latches per chip. For example, 74HC75 is a
6.8. FLIP-FLOP 227

quadruple transparent latch in the 7400 series. tional circuits have an OR layer followed by an AND layer
The truth table shows that when the enable/clock input is as their last two levels. Merging the latch function [17]
can im-
0, the D input has no effect on the output. When E/C is plement the latch with no additional gate delays. The
high, the output equals D. merge is commonly exploited in the design of pipelined
computers, and, in fact, was originally developed by J. G.
Earle to be used in the IBM System/360 Model 91 for
that purpose.[19]
The Earle latch is hazard free.[20] If the middle NAND
E_H gate is omitted, then one gets the polarity hold latch,
which is commonly used because it demands less
logic.[20][21] However, it is susceptible to logic hazard.
Intentionally skewing the clock signal can avoid the
D hazard.[21]
Q

D flip-flop

E_L

S
Earle latch uses complementary enable inputs: enable active low
(E_L) and enable active high (E_H)

D Q

Q
R

D flip-flop symbol
An animated Earle latch.
(A) D = 1, E_H = 1: set The D flip-flop is widely used. It is also known as a “data”
(B) D = 0, E_H = 1: reset or “delay” flip-flop.
(C) D = 1, E_H = 0: hold
The D flip-flop captures the value of the D-input at a def-
(D) D = 1, E_H = 1: set
inite portion of the clock cycle (such as the rising edge of
Earle latch The classic gated latch designs have some the clock). That captured value becomes the Q output.
undesirable characteristics.[17] They require double-rail At other times, the output Q does not change.[22][23] The
logic or an inverter. The input-to-output propagation may D flip-flop can be viewed as a memory cell, a zero-order
take up to three gate delays. The input-to-output propa- hold, or a delay line.[24]
gation is not constant – some outputs take two gate delays Truth table:
while others take three.
Designers looked for alternatives.[18] A successful alter-
native is the Earle latch. It requires only a single data in-
put, and its output takes a constant two gate delays. In ad- ('X' denotes a Don't care condition, meaning the signal is
dition, the two gate levels of the Earle latch can, in some irrelevant)
cases, be merged with the last two gate levels of the cir- Most D-type flip-flops in ICs have the capability to be
cuits driving the latch because many common computa- forced to the set or reset state (which ignores the D and
228 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

clock inputs), much like an SR flip-flop. Usually, the il- the right). If the clock is low, both the output signals of
legal S = R = 1 condition is resolved in D-type flip-flops. the input stage are high regardless of the data input; the
By setting S = R = 0, the flip-flop can be used as described output latch is unaffected and it stores the previous state.
above. Here is the truth table for the others S and R pos- When the clock signal changes from low to high, only one
sible configurations: of the output voltages (depending on the data signal) goes
low and sets/resets the output latch: if D = 0, the lower
output becomes low; if D = 1, the upper output becomes
low. If the clock signal continues staying high, the outputs
keep their states regardless of the data input and force the
QA QB QC QD
Data 0 0 0 0 0 output latch to stay in the corresponding state as the input
D D D D logical zero (of the output stage) remains active while the
0 0 0 0
clock is high. Hence the role of the output latch is to store
Clock0
the data only while the clock is low.
The circuit is closely related to the gated D latch as both
4-bit serial-in, parallel-out (SIPO) shift register the circuits convert the two D input states (0 and 1) to two
input combinations (01 and 10) for the output SR latch by
These flip-flops are very useful, as they form the basis for inverting the data input signal (both the circuits split the
shift registers, which are an essential part of many elec- single D signal in two complementary S and R signals).
tronic devices. The advantage of the D flip-flop over the The difference is that in the gated D latch simple NAND
D-type “transparent latch” is that the signal on the D input logical gates are used while in the positive-edge-triggered
pin is captured the moment the flip-flop is clocked, and D flip-flop SR NAND latches are used for this purpose.
subsequent changes on the D input will be ignored until The role of these latches is to “lock” the active output
the next clock event. An exception is that some flip-flops producing low voltage (a logical zero); thus the positive-
have a “reset” signal input, which will reset Q (to zero), edge-triggered D flip-flop can also be thought of as a gated
and may be either asynchronous or synchronous with the D latch with latched input gates.
clock.
The above circuit shifts the contents of the register to
the right, one bit position on each active transition of the
clock. The input X is shifted into the leftmost bit position. D D Q D Q Q
Clock E Q E Q Q

A master–slave D flip-flop. It responds on the falling edge of the

enable input (usually a clock)

Clock

An implementation of a master–slave D flip-flop that is triggered

on the rising edge of the clock

Master–slave edge-triggered D flip-flop A master–

Data
slave D flip-flop is created by connecting two gated D
latches in series, and inverting the enable input to one of
them. It is called master–slave because the second latch
A positive-edge-triggered D flip-flop
in the series only changes in response to a change in the
Classical positive-edge-triggered D flip-flop This first (master) latch.
circuit[25] consists of two stages implemented by SR For a positive-edge triggered master–slave D flip-flop,
NAND latches. The input stage (the two latches on the when the clock signal is low (logical 0) the “enable” seen
left) processes the clock and data signals to ensure cor- by the first or “master” D latch (the inverted clock signal)
rect input signals for the output stage (the single latch on is high (logical 1). This allows the “master” latch to store
6.8. FLIP-FLOP 229

the input value when the clock signal transitions from low given enough time, leakage paths may discharge the par-
to high. As the clock signal goes high (0 to 1) the inverted asitic capacitance enough to cause the flip-flop to enter
“enable” of the first latch goes low (1 to 0) and the value invalid states.
seen at the input to the master latch is “locked”. Nearly si-
multaneously, the twice inverted “enable” of the second
or “slave” D latch transitions from low to high (0 to 1) T flip-flop
with the clock signal. This allows the signal captured at
the rising edge of the clock by the now “locked” master
latch to pass through the “slave” latch. When the clock
signal returns to low (1 to 0), the output of the “slave”
latch is “locked”, and the value seen at the last rising edge
of the clock is held while the “master” latch begins to ac-
cept new values in preparation for the next rising clock
edge. T Q
By removing the leftmost inverter in the circuit at side, a
D-type flip-flop that strobes on the falling edge of a clock
signal can be obtained. This has a truth table like this:

Q
Vdd Vdd Vdd Vdd Vdd

D Clk R
Q
Clk Clk A circuit symbol for a T-type flip-flop

If the T input is high, the T flip-flop changes state (“tog-

Clk Q
gles”) whenever the clock input is strobed. If the T input
is low, the flip-flop holds the previous value. This behav-
ior is described by the characteristic equation:

A CMOS IC implementation of a “true single-phase edge-triggered

Qnext = T ⊕ Q = T Q + T Q (expanding the
flip-flop with reset”
XOR operator)

and can be described in a truth table:

Edge-triggered dynamic D storage element An effi-
cient functional alternative to a D flip-flop can be made When T is held high, the toggle flip-flop divides the clock
with dynamic circuits (where information is stored in a frequency by two; that is, if clock frequency is 4 MHz,
capacitance) as long as it is clocked often enough; while the output frequency obtained from the flip-flop will be 2
not a true flip-flop, it is still called a flip-flop for its func- MHz. This “divide by” feature has application in various
tional role. While the master–slave D element is triggered types of digital counters. A T flip-flop can also be built
on the edge of a clock, its components are each triggered using a JK flip-flop (J & K pins are connected together and
by clock levels. The “edge-triggered D flip-flop”, as it is act as T) or a D flip-flop (T input XOR Q ᵣₑᵥᵢₒᵤ drives the
called even though it is not a true flip-flop, does not have D input).
the master–slave properties.
Edge-triggered D flip-flops are often implemented in in- JK flip-flop
tegrated high-speed operations using dynamic logic. This
means that the digital output is stored on parasitic device The JK flip-flop augments the behavior of the SR flip-flop
capacitance while the device is not transitioning. This (J=Set, K=Reset) by interpreting the J = K = 1 condition
design of dynamic flip flops also enables simple reset- as a “flip” or toggle command. Specifically, the combi-
ting since the reset operation can be performed by sim- nation J = 1, K = 0 is a command to set the flip-flop;
ply discharging one or more internal nodes. A common the combination J = 0, K = 1 is a command to reset the
dynamic flip-flop variety is the true single-phase clock flip-flop; and the combination J = K = 1 is a command
(TSPC) type which performs the flip-flop operation with to toggle the flip-flop, i.e., change its output to the log-
little power and at high speeds. However, dynamic flip- ical complement of its current value. Setting J = K = 0
flops will typically not work at static or low clock speeds: maintains the current state. To synthesize a D flip-flop,
230 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Clock
J Q
Data
th
K Q tsu tco

Q
Flip-flop setup, hold and clock-to-output timing parameters
A circuit symbol for a positive-edge-triggered JK flip-flop

clock
Setup time is the minimum amount of time the data input
J should be held steady before the clock event, so that the
K data is reliably sampled by the clock.
Q T T T Hold time is the minimum amount of time the data input
should be held steady after the clock event, so that the
Q
data is reliably sampled by the clock.
T = toggle
Aperture is the sum of setup and hold time. The data in-
JK flip-flop timing diagram put should be held steady throughout this time period.[27]
Recovery time is the minimum amount of time the asyn-
chronous set or reset input should be inactive before the
simply set K equal to the complement of J. Similarly, to
clock event, so that the data is reliably sampled by the
synthesize a T flip-flop, set K equal to J. The JK flip-flop
clock. The recovery time for the asynchronous set or re-
is therefore a universal flip-flop, because it can be con-
set input is thereby similar to the setup time for the data
figured to work as an SR flip-flop, a D flip-flop, or a T
input.
flip-flop.
Removal time is the minimum amount of time the asyn-
The characteristic equation of the JK flip-flop is:
chronous set or reset input should be inactive after the
Qnext = JQ + KQ clock event, so that the data is reliably sampled by the
and the corresponding truth table is: clock. The removal time for the asynchronous set or re-
set input is thereby similar to the hold time for the data
input.
6.8.4 Timing considerations Short impulses applied to asynchronous inputs (set, re-
set) should not be applied completely within the recovery-
Timing parameters removal period, or else it becomes entirely indeter-
minable whether the flip-flop will transition to the appro-
The input must be held steady in a period around the ris- priate state. In another case, where an asynchronous sig-
ing edge of the clock known as the aperture. Imagine tak- nal simply makes one transition that happens to fall be-
ing a picture of a frog on a lily-pad.[27] Suppose the frog tween the recovery/removal time, eventually the flip-flop
then jumps into the water. If you take a picture of the frog will transition to the appropriate state, but a very short
as it jumps into the water, you will get a blurry picture of glitch may or may not appear on the output, dependent
the frog jumping into the water—it’s not clear which state on the synchronous input signal. This second situation
the frog was in. But if you take a picture while the frog may or may not have significance to a circuit design.
sits steadily on the pad (or is steadily in the water), you Set and Reset (and other) signals may be either syn-
will get a clear picture. In the same way, the input to a chronous or asynchronous and therefore may be char-
flip-flop must be held steady during the aperture of the acterized with either Setup/Hold or Recovery/Removal
flip-flop. times, and synchronicity is very dependent on the design
6.8. FLIP-FLOP 231

of the flip-flop. So-called metastable-hardened flip-flops are available,

Differentiation between Setup/Hold and Recov- which work by reducing the setup and hold times as much
ery/Removal times is often necessary when verifying the as possible, but even these cannot eliminate the problem
timing of larger circuits because asynchronous signals entirely. This is because metastability is more than sim-
may be found to be less critical than synchronous signals. ply a matter of circuit design. When the transitions in the
The differentiation offers circuit designers the ability clock and the data are close together in time, the flip-flop
to define the verification conditions for these types of is forced to decide which event happened first. However
signals independently. fast we make the device, there is always the possibility
that the input events will be so close together that it can-
not detect which one happened first. It is therefore logi-
Metastability cally impossible to build a perfectly metastable-proof flip-
flop. Flip-flops are sometimes characterized for a maxi-
Main article: metastability in electronics mum settling time (the maximum time they will remain
metastable under specified conditions). In this case, dual-
ranked flip-flops that are clocked slower than the maxi-
Flip-flops are subject to a problem called metastability, mum allowed metastability time will provide proper con-
which can happen when two inputs, such as data and clock ditioning for asynchronous (e.g., external) signals.
or clock and reset, are changing at about the same time.
When the order is not clear, within appropriate timing
constraints, the result is that the output may behave un- Propagation delay
predictably, taking many times longer than normal to set-
tle to one state or the other, or even oscillating several Another important timing value for a flip-flop is the
times before settling. Theoretically, the time to settle clock-to-output delay (common symbol in data sheets:
down is not bounded. In a computer system, this metasta- tCO) or propagation delay (tP), which is the time a flip-
bility can cause corruption of data or a program crash if flop takes to change its output after the clock edge. The
the state is not stable before another circuit uses its value; time for a high-to-low transition (tPHL) is sometimes dif-
in particular, if two different logical paths use the output ferent from the time for a low-to-high transition (tPLH).
of a flip-flop, one path can interpret it as a 0 and the other When cascading flip-flops which share the same clock (as
as a 1 when it has not resolved to stable state, putting the in a shift register), it is important to ensure that the tCO
machine into an inconsistent state.[28] of a preceding flip-flop is longer than the hold time (t ) of
The metastability in flip-flops can be avoided by ensur- the following flip-flop, so data present at the input of the
ing that the data and control inputs are held valid and succeeding flip-flop is properly “shifted in” following the
constant for specified periods before and after the clock active edge of the clock. This relationship between tCO
pulse, called the setup time (t ᵤ) and the hold time (t ) and t is normally guaranteed if the flip-flops are physi-
respectively. These times are specified in the data sheet cally identical. Furthermore, for correct operation, it is
for the device, and are typically between a few nanosec- easy to verify that the clock period has to be greater than
onds and a few hundred picoseconds for modern devices. the sum t ᵤ + t .
Depending upon the flip-flop’s internal organization, it is
possible to build a device with a zero (or even negative)
setup or hold time requirement but not both simultane- 6.8.5 Generalizations
ously.
Flip-flops can be generalized in at least two ways: by mak-
Unfortunately, it is not always possible to meet the setup ing them 1-of-N instead of 1-of-2, and by adapting them
and hold criteria, because the flip-flop may be connected to logic with more than two states. In the special cases
to a real-time signal that could change at any time, out- of 1-of-3 encoding, or multi-valued ternary logic, these
side the control of the designer. In this case, the best the elements may be referred to as flip-flap-flops.[29]
designer can do is to reduce the probability of error to
a certain level, depending on the required reliability of In a conventional flip-flop, exactly one of the two com-
the circuit. One technique for suppressing metastability plementary outputs is high. This can be generalized to a
is to connect two or more flip-flops in a chain, so that memory element with N outputs, exactly one of which is
the output of each one feeds the data input of the next, high (alternatively, where exactly one of N is low). The
and all devices share a common clock. With this method, output is therefore always a one-hot (respectively one-
the probability of a metastable event can be reduced to cold) representation. The construction is similar to a con-
a negligible value, but never to zero. The probability of ventional cross-coupled flip-flop; [30]
each output, when high,
metastability gets closer and closer to zero as the number inhibits all the other outputs. Alternatively, more or
of flip-flops connected in series is increased. The number less conventional flip-flops can be used, one per output,
of flip-flops being cascaded is referred to as the “rank- with additional circuitry to make sure only one at a time
[31]
ing"; “dual-ranked” flip flops (two flip-flops in series) is a can be true.
common situation. Another generalization of the conventional flip-flop is a
232 CHAPTER 6. DIGITAL CIRCUITS

memory element for multi-valued logic. In this case the [10] Phister, Montgomery (1958). Logical Design of Digital
memory element retains exactly one of the logic states Computers. Wiley. p. 128.
until the control inputs induce a change.[32] In addition,
[11] US 2850566, Eldred C. Nelson, “High-Speed Printing
a multiple-valued clock can also be used, leading to new System”, published Sept. 8, 1953, issued Sept. 2, 1958;
possible clock transitions.[33] page 15

[12] Shiva, Sajjan G. (2000). Computer design and architecture

6.8.6 See also (3rd ed.). CRC Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-8247-0368-4.

[13] Roth, Charles H. Jr. “Latches and Flip-Flops.” Funda-

• Deadlock mentals of Logic Design. Boston: PWS, 1995. Print.
• Latching relay [14] Langholz, Gideon; Kandel, Abraham; Mott, Joe L.
(1998). Foundations of Digital Logic Design. Singapore:
• Positive feedback World Scientific Publishing Co. Ptc. Ltd. p. 344. ISBN
978-981-02-3110-1.
• Pulse transition detector
[15] Hinrichsen, Diederich; Pritchard, Anthony J. (2006).
Mathematical Systems Theory I: Modelling, State Space
6.8.7 References Analysis, Stability and Robustness. Springer. pp. 63–64.
ISBN 9783540264101.
[1] Pedroni, Volnei A. (2008). Digital electronics and design
with VHDL. Morgan Kaufmann. p. 329. ISBN 978-0-12- [16] Farhat, Hassan A. (2004). Digital design and computer
374270-4. organization. 1. CRC Press. p. 274. ISBN 978-0-8493-
1191-8.
[2] Latches and Flip Flops (EE 42/100 Lecture 24 from
[17] Kogge, Peter M. (1981). The Architecture of Pipelined
Berkeley) "...Sometimes the terms flip-flop and latch are
Computers. McGraw-Hill. pp. 25–27. ISBN 0-07-
used interchangeably...”
035237-2.
[3] William Henry Eccles and Frank Wilfred Jordan,
[18] Cotten, L. W. (1965). “Circuit Implementa-
"Improvements in ionic relays" British patent number: GB
tion of High-Speed Pipeline Systems”. AFIPS
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5 August 1920).
Proc. Fall Joint Computer Conference: 489–504.
[4] See: doi:10.1145/1463891.1463945.

[19] Earle, J. (March 1965). “Latched Carry-Save Adder”.

• W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19 Septem-
IBM Technical Disclosure Bulletin. 7 (10): 909–910.
ber 1919) “A trigger relay utilizing three-electrode
thermionic vacuum tubes,” The Electrician, 83 : [20] Omondi, Amos R. (1999-04-30). The Microarchitecture
298. of Pipelined and Superscalar Computers. Springer. pp.
• Reprinted in: Radio Review, 1 (3) : 143–146 (De- 40–42. ISBN 978-0-7923-8463-2.
cember 1919).
[21] Kunkel, Steven R.; Smith, James E. (May 1986).
• Summary in: W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (1919) “Optimal Pipelining in Supercomputers”. ACM
“A trigger relay utilising three electrode thermionic SIGARCH Computer Architecture News. ACM. 14
vacuum tubes,” Report of the Eighty-seventh Meet- (2): 404–411 [406]. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.99.2773 .
ing of the British Association for the Advancement doi:10.1145/17356.17403. ISSN 0163-5964.
of Science: Bournemouth: 1919, September 9–13,
pp. 271–272. [22] The D Flip-Flop

[5] Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. [23] Edge-Triggered Flip-flops
(1991). IBM’s 360 and early 370 systems. MIT Press. p.
[24] A Survey of Digital Computer Memory Systems
10. ISBN 978-0-262-16123-7.
[25] SN7474 TI datasheet
[6] Flowers, Thomas H. (1983), “The Design of Colos-
sus”, Annals of the History of Computing, 5 (3): 249, [26] Mano, M. Morris; Kime, Charles R. (2004). Logic and
doi:10.1109/MAHC.1983.10079 Computer Design Fundamentals, 3rd Edition. Upper Sad-
dle River, NJ, USA: Pearson Education International. pp.
[7] Gates, Earl D. (2000-12-01). Introduction to electronics pg283. ISBN 0-13-191165-1.
(4th ed.). Delmar Thomson (Cengage) Learning. p. 299.
ISBN 978-0-7668-1698-5. [27] Harris, S; Harris, D (2016). Digital Design and Com-
puter Architecture - ARM Edition,. Morgan Kaufmann,
[8] Fogiel, Max; Gu, You-Liang (1998). The Electronics Waltham, MA. ISBN 978-0-12-800056-4.
problem solver, Volume 1 (revised ed.). Research & Edu-
cation Assoc. p. 1223. ISBN 978-0-87891-543-9. [28] Chaney, Thomas J.; Molnar, Charles E. (April 1973).
“Anomalous Behavior of Synchronizer and Arbiter Cir-
[9] P. L. Lindley, Aug. 1968, EDN (magazine), (letter dated cuits”. IEEE Transactions on Computers. C–22 (4): 421–
June 13, 1968). 422. doi:10.1109/T-C.1973.223730. ISSN 0018-9340.
6.8. FLIP-FLOP 233

[29] Often attributed to Don Knuth (1969) (see Midhat J.

Gazalé (2000). Number: from Ahmes to Cantor. Prince-
ton University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-691-00515-7.),
the term flip-flap-flop actually appeared much earlier in
the computing literature, for example, Bowdon, Edward
K. (1960). The design and application of a “flip-flap-flop”
using tunnel diodes (Master’s thesis). University of North
Dakota., and in Alexander, W. (Feb 1964). “The ternary
computer”. Electronics and Power. IET. 10 (2): 36–39.
doi:10.1049/ep.1964.0037.

[30] “Ternary “flip-flap-flop"".

[31] US 6975152

[32] Irving, Thurman A.; Shiva, Sajjan G.; Nagle, H. Troy

(March 1976). “Flip-Flops for Multiple-Valued Logic”.
Computers, IEEE Transactions on. C–25 (3): 237–246.
doi:10.1109/TC.1976.5009250.

[33] Wu, Haomin; Zhuang Nan (1991). “Research into ternary

edge-triggered JKL flip-flop”. Journal of Electronics
(China). 8 (Volume 8, Number 3 / July, 1991): 268–275.
doi:10.1007/BF02778378.

6.8.8 External links

• FlipFlop Hierarchy, shows interactive flipflop cir-
cuits.

• The J-K Flip-Flop

Chapter 7

Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses

7.1 Text
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Suicidalhamster, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, TheGerm, Frap, Sephiroth BCR, NoahElhardt, JonHarder, Rrburke, RedHillian, Edivorce,
Dharmabum420, BostonMA, Nakon, Jiddisch~enwiki, DylanW, Doodle77, Bidabadi~enwiki, FlyHigh, ArglebargleIV, Kuru, KenFehling,
J 1982, Soumyasch, Breno, Goodnightmush, Invsoigne, Capmo, CyrilB, Randomtime, Willy turner, Stupid Corn, TerryKing, Waggers,
Jam01, Anonymous anonymous, P199, Jose77, Levineps, Iridescent, Casull, Linkspamremover, Tawkerbot2, JohnTechnologist, JForget,
Biscay, Van helsing, Ilikefood, JohnCD, Nczempin, Jamoche, Michael J. Mullany, Myasuda, MaxEnt, Gogo Dodo, Odie5533, Tawkerbot4,
Dynaflow, Energetic is [email protected], Jrgetsin, Editor at Large, SpK, Aerielle [email protected], BetacommandBot, Epbr123, Barti-
cus88, LaGrange, Linioaxerist, Bulansarkar, Michagal, Almonit, Headbomb, Marek69, John254, Sodaboy1138, Leon7, Sanglap, Silver
Edge, Escarbot, I already forgot, Hmrox, Austin Maxwell, AntiVandalBot, KP Botany, Khin007, Ste4k, Myanw, JAnDbot, Barek, MER-
C, The Transhumanist, BenB4, Heathert87, PhilKnight, Sparky451, Nicolaasuni, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JamesBWatson,
Sam.yates, Father Goose, Ecksemmess, Pixel ;-), Sidneyhuber, Catgut, Theroadislong, Gabriel Kielland, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstare-
cho, M 3bdelqader, Clipjoint, Glen, Patrick Denny, Philg 124, Black Stripe, Hdt83, MartinBot, Vigyani, Manavbhardwaj, BetBot~enwiki,
Jim.henderson, AlexiusHoratius, Brinkie, Mausy5043, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Mange01, Trusilver, Uncle Dick, G. Campbell,
It Is Me Here, Minime72706, Touch Of Light, Mirithing, Evb-wiki, Jamesofur, Vanished user 39948282, Treisijs, Marstronix, Microcon,
Cinnagingercat, DASonnenfeld, Squids and Chips, Ikalogic, Wikieditor06, Irdam, Katy,Girl, F458, Hellosezoo, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, The
Original Wildbear, Porkrind, Sankalpdravid, Qxz, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, Anna Lincoln, Franko234, Bibijee, Leafyplant,
^demonBot2, DesmondW, Seek202, Madhero88, Improve~enwiki, Elliot hoste, Meters, Synthebot, Strangerer, Spinningspark, Atreusk,
Brianga, AlleborgoBot, Symane, Jimmi Hugh, Eloc Jcg, Neparis, Wildelectronics, SieBot, IronGarb, Defparadox, Mikebar, Dawn Bard,
Viskonsas, RJaguar3, Kumudh, Aillema, Flyer22 Reborn, Topher385, Oxymoron83, Lightmouse, Urquhart1, Felizdenovo, Denisarona,
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terbot, Skaapgif, Tnxman307, Singhalawap, Dekisugi, MilesAgain, DerBorg, Sergio15, SoxBot III, Bücherwürmlein, Prasanna gandhiraj,
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don1980, Dimosvki, Marx01, Fieldday-sunday, GyroMagician, Yangandjiao, Ravindra 20, Stan Sykora, NjardarBot, Asaurabh, Download,
CarsracBot, Norman21, Laynelagasse, CuteHappyBrute, Mukulanandsrivastava, Eagle999, Flappychappy, Tide rolls, BetoVinci, Lightbot,
YJoosshhiuea101, B1u SkR33N, Jim, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, OrgasGirl, Fraggle81, Pcap, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Ame-
liorationBot, ArcticREPtilia, Wonderfl, ‫محبوب عالم‬, Thabonch, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Galoubet, King-
pin13, Earizon, NickK, Thefuzzmaster24, Materialscientist, Carl086, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Zad68, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, Creativesoul8,
Praraj99, JimBeam251, Cyphoidbomb, IntellectToday, Magnus0re, Dpro369, Omnipaedista, Coty0816, Secondwatch, Pistol980, Small-

234
7.1. TEXT 235

man12q, Krrish23, Plusspace pcc, Shadowjams, Remshad, Qasim9, RuslanBer, Paine Ellsworth, Raissazhou, Nageh, Foxthor11, Steve
Quinn, Ganesh.fc, Tintenfischlein, Pinethicket, Leogertrudemsc, MJ94, Bzlcs, Calmer Waters, BigDwiki, Noel Streatfield, Craig Lyd,
Serols, SpaceFlight89, Killergod129, Abhishekchavan79, FoxBot, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, SchreyP, DixonDBot, Jordanbenfield,
Bandasuppan, Lotje, Electrifiedpete, GeeZ, Vrenator, Electorial, RobotQuistnix, Canuckian89, Stroppolo, Derild4921, Mean as custard,
TjBot, Alph Bot, Arunr.in, Example111, Midhunnageswaram, EmausBot, Beatnik8983, Korbman, GoingBatty, MICROTECHINDIA,
K6ka, Kxiz, Lamb99, Edmundred, AvicBot, Kkm010, ZéroBot, Tonyton101, Shuipzv3, Arpit.withu, Inamleapord, JackieBM, Access
Denied, Fifa10pro, EWikist, Lion789, Shakti singh 789, Nick007p, Tomásdearg92, Abby1028, GrayFullbuster, Goatboy22, ClueBot
NG, Matthiaspaul, This lousy T-shirt, L284363829, Millermk, Floatjon, O.Koslowski, Widr, WikiPuppies, Nender14, Fahadraza007,
Meniv, Almasimagorwa, Harishgvk, Wbm1058, Shwetamahajan, Neptune’s Trident, Dsajga, Pine, Gokulmaba, Raysylvester, Jprbtech,
Mahmodsamy, Sleeping is fun, MusikAnimal, Amp71, Mitesh1401, Snow Blizzard, Will Gladstone, Psindt1, Glacialfox, Lgmobilephone,
David.moreno72, Spcyoutlaw, Mdann52, Embrittled, Andres shasta, Hksuj91, Underoi, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, Webclient101, Myste-
rious Whisper, CuriousMind01, Numbermaniac, Lugia2453, Frosty, Jamesx12345, FletcherV, Super86, The Anonymouse, M.Ahmad
Blooch, Reatlas, ArslanAlvi, Alexwho314, IliyaKovac, Africanssuckaids, GamerMan7799, ‫دانشجوی گمنام‬, CensoredScribe, Ugog Niz-
dast, Melody Lavender, YiFeiBot, Jojosyjohn, Keithraymondgriffiths, Shamim apee, Drchriswilliams, 2electronic, HiYahhFriend, Span-
glishArmado, ԱշոտՏՆՂ, Welcome1To1The1Jungle, Dcoptimum, Universe DNA, Pavankumarchenna, Thingmaker, KH-1, Lohith-
javali, ChamithN, Julietdeltalima, Weegeerunner, 1989, MarkyNToby, Buhari500, Ibukharix, KasparBot, Kittykatken, CAPTAIN RAJU,
MBlaze Lightning, CLCStudent, Nicole stormsword, Boombiwed, Notfruit, Qzd, Boishakhi Mridha, Chrisdayle, Fmadd, Sopan Kotbagi,
Swarankargaurav, VYSHNAV and Anonymous: 839
• Voltage Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage?oldid=769800469 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tarquin, Rjstott, Heron, Leandrod,
Voidvector, Mcarling, Minesweeper, Julesd, Scott, Vargenau, Raul654, Olathe, Lumos3, Robbot, Jondel, Fuelbottle, Rsduhamel, Giftlite,
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bowOfLight, TenOfAllTrades, Shoefly, Gene Nygaard, Mogigoma, BillC, Armando, Phillipsacp, Dmol, Cbdorsett, Sengkang, Graham87,
Zoz, Nanite, Edison, Jake Wartenberg, MZMcBride, SMC, Crazynas, Ealex292, Crazycomputers, Alfred Centauri, Gurch, Chobot, Karch,
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Newagelink, Light current, JoanneB, Kungfuadam, Sbyrnes321, SmackBot, Unschool, Incnis Mrsi, InverseHypercube, Stev0, Melchoir,
Thorseth, Felix Dance, Delldot, BiT, Jpvinall, Yamaguchi , Kazkaskazkasako, Chris the speller, Onkelschark, Steve0913, Can't sleep,
clown will eat me, Addshore, DGerman, RandomP, DKEdwards, Smremde, The undertow, ArglebargleIV, Kuru, FrozenMan, IronGar-
goyle, 16@r, Dicklyon, Onionmon, KJS77, Blackcloak, Yves-Laurent, Tony Fox, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Erydo, Ale jrb, Van helsing,
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EmausBot, Kutchkutch, Nonchalamment, Solarra, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Solomonfromfinland, Fisalscabs, Thecheesykid, JSquish,
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Cyberbot II, Faizan1210, Webclient101, IngenieroLoco, Shreekumbar, SFK2, Jamesx12345, SteenthIWbot, Kevin12xd, Reatlas, John-
nyJones1018, PhantomTech, Canhamandegg, DavidLeighEllis, Wamiq, Rohitgunturi, Hoggardhigh, Ugog Nizdast, PrivateMasterHD,
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Patrick, D, PhilipMW, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Pit~enwiki, Nixdorf, Delirium, Bjpremore~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Snoyes,
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Sir Joseph, Wtmitchell, Bucephalus, Velella, CaseInPoint, Super-Magician, Wtshymanski, Yuckfoo, Sedimin, Bsadowski1, DV8 2XL,
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Benbest, Robert K S, Raevel, CharlesC, Paxsimius, Mandarax, Graham87, BD2412, Crocodealer, DePiep, Edison, Vary, Seraphimblade,
Salix alba, Tawker, Sferrier, Titoxd, Tordail, Mishuletz, Winhunter, Nivix, Alfred Centauri, RexNL, Fresheneesz, Wesolson, Srleffler,
Imnotminkus, Chobot, Karch, DVdm, WriterHound, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Splash, Madkayaker, Hydrargyrum, Polluxian,
Salsb, Zephyr9, Vanished user 1029384756, Clarenceos, TDogg310, Ospalh, Bucketsofg, Phandel, Rbyrne6722, DeadEyeArrow, Elk-
man, Kkmurray, Searchme, WAS 4.250, Light current, Enormousdude, 2over0, Jwissick, KGasso, Dspradau, Orthografer, GraemeL,
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dox, Thumperward, Oli Filth, Lenko, PureRED, EdgeOfEpsilon, Zven, Darth Panda, Chendy, Zsinj, Nick Levine, Onorem, Rrburke,
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• Frequency Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency?oldid=769603365 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mav, Tarquin, Tbackstr, As-

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Bot, BorisFromStockdale, Kuru, RTejedor, Accurizer, 16@r, Alma Teao Wilson, Mr Stephen, Dicklyon, Optakeover, Oreos are crack,
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tle Mountain 5, NellieBly, Jbeans, ElMeBot, Thatguyflint, Mwstyles2002, Stephen Poppitt, Tayste, Kraaiennest, Addbot, Queenmomcat,
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Frosted14, RibotBOT, Logger9, Hkhk59333, Shadowjams, WaysToEscape, A. di M., Krj373, Vicharam, Dger, Steve Quinn, Internet-
Foundation, Xhaoz, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Martinvl, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Callanecc, LilyKitty,
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crazy123, EmausBot, Dewritech, Robert376, Antodges, Spiderbill, Enggdrive, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, John Cline, Dondervogel 2, Quondum,
7.1. TEXT 237

SporkBot, Wayne Slam, Frigotoni, Cmathio, Arman Cagle, Boashash, Atlantictire, RockMagnetist, TYelliot, DASHBotAV, MicahJonson,
ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, This lousy T-shirt, Chester Markel, AeroPsico, Widr, EmilyGirl003, Pluma, Diyar se, Helpful Pixie Bot, Door-
knob747, Rijinatwiki, Cyberpower678, TheGeneralUser, MusikAnimal, Snow Blizzard, Glacialfox, Loriendrew, BillBucket, TheInfernoX,
Cyberbot II, Mediran, Corn cheese, Reatlas, Faizan, Praveenskpillai, ElHef, Babitaarora, Monkbot, Horseless Headman, Silas69696969,
Justin15w, Thewikichanger666, MatthewS1999, 115.241.241.2d, A Great Catholic Person, Zppix, Stillmorepeople, Cyrej, Kaartic, Cn-
cunjn, Priyanksoni9713, CAPTAIN RAJU, Jaysilver075, RunnyAmiga, Dranoelpnairb, Billr123, NoToleranceForIntolerance, Vahandr,
Jimli536, Mr.Mohel, Kulia91 and Anonymous: 564
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Hartz, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Axpde, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Materialscientist, Englishman in Adana, Carlsotr, Kevin
chen2003, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Capricorn42, Tx D35, Tyrol5, GliderMaven, Bobston, Saiarcot895, Some Old Man, Pinethicket, I
dream of horses, Thinkspank101, Athersrinivas, TobeBot, SchreyP, Overjive, Vrenator, Fozner, Reaper Eternal, Balph Eubank, Vinicius
Lima, EmausBot, Wikipelli, K6ka, JSquish, ZéroBot, Ifrank98, Lambrosus, Donner60, Noggo, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, CocuBot,
Widr, Zejrus, Jk2q3jrklse, NuclearEnergy, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Gauravjuvekar, Mkhatri95, Northamerica1000, MusikAni-
mal, CitationCleanerBot, Garboman, Wegallagher, Keshava.dilwali, The Illusive Man, Khazar2, Lugia2453, Kyohyi, CsDix, Wailordwew,
Adamaverycole, Tigerlily713, Skr15081997, TKer193, Hambomike, Jaanmerugu, KasparBot, Qaei, Ankurg92, Entranced98, Erickzr,
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sen, Rjstott, Ed Poor, Fredbauder, Ortolan88, Waveguy, Heron, Mintguy, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Chris-martin, Ixfd64, Dcljr,
Cameron Dewe, Dori, Eric119, Tiles, Looxix~enwiki, Mkweise, Ahoerstemeier, Suisui, Ojs, Glenn, Nikai, Andres, Evercat, Cherkash,
HPA, Wfeidt, Nikola Smolenski, Mulad, Reddi, Zoicon5, IceKarma, Saltine, Rm, Omegatron, JFinigan, Shizhao, Joy, Indefatiga-
ble, Pstudier, Frazzydee, Denelson83, Robbot, Modulatum, Securiger, Mirv, Drago9034, Auric, Wikibot, Giftlite, Washington irving,
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dull, Mike Rosoft, Mormegil, RedWordSmith, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Alistair1978, Bender235, ZeroOne, Plugwash,
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hiltres, Mike E Fresh, Ronebofh, Chobot, Jared Preston, DVdm, Skela, Cactus.man, Siddhant, YurikBot, Sceptre, Jimp, Clemente~enwiki,
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Poet Gal, MalafayaBot, Cygnus78, ZakTek, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Vasilken, Lchiarav, Chlewbot, TheKMan, Addshore, Sundar-
Bot, Dharmabum420, Krich, Flyguy649, Nakon, A.R., -Ozone-, MilesVorkosigan, Dnavarro, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Ronaz, FlyHigh, An-
ders313, Nmnogueira, Bjankuloski06, CyrilB, Special-T, Dicklyon, Optakeover, Peter Horn, Pseudoanonymous, Phuzion, OnBeyondZe-
brax, [email protected], Tawkerbot2, Chetvorno, Ryt, CmdrObot, Zureks, Jsmaye, Seven of Nine, Grenno, Grahamec, MC10,
DarkoS, Roberta F., Editor at Large, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Marek69, Electron9, Oreo Priest, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin,
Widefox, Guy Macon, Mvjs, Orionus, Janrabbit, Farosdaughter, Qwerty Binary, Gökhan, JAnDbot, CosineKitty, Arch dude, IEman,
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ward321, InvertRect, Gwern, MartinBot, Drewmutt, CommonsDelinker, Cyrus Andiron, J.delanoy, MrBell, TheChrisD, Ferdyshenko,
Goingstuckey, Azndragon1987, NewEnglandYankee, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, 1223334444maz, Suckindiesel, Minesweeper.007, Comet-
styles, Inwind, JavierMC, VolkovBot, ICE77, TheMindsEye, Constant314, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Staplegunther, Lradrama, Opti-
gan13, Mannafredo, Daltxn, Dkgdkg, Wenli, Andy Dingley, Why Not A Duck, Ceranthor, AlleborgoBot, Mr. PIM, FlyingLeopard2014,
SieBot, Tresiden, Tiddly Tom, ScAvenger lv, Sunrise, Anchor Link Bot, Hamiltondaniel, Denisarona, JoeenNc, Rat at WikiFur, ClueBot,
Binksternet, Helenabella, Hughra, Mild Bill Hiccup, Aria1561, CounterVandalismBot, Hwyengineer47, DragonBot, Excirial, Lunchscale,
Iohannes Animosus, Jcline1, Razorflame, La Pianista, WikHead, Mifter, Alexius08, Addbot, Mr0t1633, Olli Niemitalo, Fgnievinski,
Kind87me, Fieldday-sunday, Leszek Jańczuk, WFPM, NjardarBot, Download, LaaknorBot, K Eliza Coyne, Ehrenkater, Dyuku, Tide
rolls, Krano, Arbitrarily0, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Senator Palpatine, Fraggle81, Jordsan, Grebaldar, Axpde, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Etit-
sko, Ubergeekguy, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xqbot, Sionus, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, Mayurvg, Wdl1961, J JMesserly, GrouchoBot,
Zhangzhe0101, Quaerendo, Vaxquis, Kebeta, Dogposter, Jrade2, MGA73bot, Justicelovespeace, Bjnkasdbadfhv, Pinethicket, Evocate,
Tom.Reding, Serols, Tjmoel, Apothecary geoff, Cgtyoder, A7N8X, Trappist the monk, Lam Kin Keung, Specs112, TheMesquito, Mean as
custard, Rx5674, Bento00, Balph Eubank, TGCP, John of Reading, RA0808, Wikipelli, Lamb99, SporkBot, Lambrosus, Kilopi, Shrikan-
thv, Peterh5322, L0veysingh, Rassnik, Donner60, 28bot, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, Nibert~enwiki, Yottamaster, Rezabot, Copper-
Square, NuclearEnergy, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tholme, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, ElectrifiedBrain, Jchanget89, Op47, Fu-
tureTrillionaire, Hstdgrypk, Joydeep, Pupdracula, Rococo1700, BattyBot, Sathya dyan, Cobalt174, Timothy, Freshman404, Kyohyi, G
PViB, CsDix, Michipedian, Xdillonfbsdx, Wooobaby, Wailordwew, SpecialPiggy, Mmpozulp, Kelm Temptes, Kelm Templars, Monkbot,
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Heron, RTC, Michael Hardy, RickK, Omegatron, TedPavlic, Hooperbloob, KAWASAKI Hiroyuki, Cbdorsett, GregorB, Isnow, BD2412,
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Jakuzem, 10v1walsha, Widr, Vortex112, Karthik262399, Sameenahmedkhan, Helpful Pixie Bot, Minderbart1, Pliu88, Wbm1058, Low-
ercase sigmabot, ENSEA92, AntonioSajonia, Piguy101, ZFT, Yowanvista, Crh23, Alexey Villarreal, Dave 3740, Tsopatsopa, Glacialfox,
Chip123456, Funfun2333, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, Embrittled, Chromastone1998, Raptormega123, Mediran, Khazar2, Dexbot, Old-
school1970, Zikri hidayat, Lugia2453, MWikiOrg, Orlin.tel, I am One of Many, Ajay.loveland.jr, Pdecalculus, Binarysequence, Eyesnore,
Tentinator, Auburnate, John Blair76, Peter Sendtown, Tanujkumarpandey, Buntybhai, Temdor, Ginsuloft, 72dodgerpress, Y13bakerm,
JaconaFrere, Cricetone, JREling1, BatManFascination, JaunJimenez, Trackteur, Owais Khursheed, Nodleh, SageRad, Jelabon123, Crys-
tallizedcarbon, Qdavis, Akhil.A.L, Masteerr, Gouravd, JoJMasterRace, JoJMastarRace, Pitchcapper, Sytgod, Infinite0694, KasparBot,
Soyungeniodelavida, NotYourForte, AlwaysSomething, Tpdwkouaa, RIT RAJARSHI, GreenC bot, JohnP12321, ImGameDeving, Bender
the Bot and Anonymous: 914
• Capacitor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor?oldid=768117224 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Sodium, Bryan Derksen, Zundark,
Ap, Andre Engels, Fredbauder, Aldie, PierreAbbat, Ray Van De Walker, Merphant, Waveguy, Heron, Patrick, Tim Starling, Chan siuman,
Modster, Dominus, Vacilandois, Lousyd, Kku, Ixfd64, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Stevenj, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Theresa knott, Darkwind,
Glenn, Bogdangiusca, Nikai, BAxelrod, Smack, Schneelocke, HolIgor, Timwi, Bemoeial, Wikiborg, Reddi, Denni, Sertrel, Maximus Rex,
7.1. TEXT 239

Furrykef, Populus, Omegatron, Phoebe, Thue, Francs2000, Phil Boswell, Rogper~enwiki, Nufy8, Robbot, Ghouston, Hubertus~enwiki,
Naddy, Modulatum, Texture, Gidonb, Jondel, Intangir, Jleedev, Rik G., Wjbeaty, Giftlite, DavidCary, Wolfkeeper, Netoholic, Tom har-
rison, Tubular, Everyking, CyborgTosser, Niteowlneils, Leonard G., Starsong, Guanaco, Yekrats, Mboverload, Pascal666, Solipsist, Foo-
bar, Edcolins, StuartH, SebastianBreier~enwiki, Geni, Gzuckier, Mako098765, MisfitToys, Am088, ShakataGaNai, Jossi, Hutschi, Any-
thingyouwant, Icairns, Gscshoyru, Urhixidur, Shen, Joyous!, Sonett72, Deglr6328, Xspartachris, Grunt, Gazpacho, Fpga, Ralph Corderoy,
NathanHurst, Discospinster, Guanabot, ArnoldReinhold, Flatline, Bender235, ZeroOne, Kjoonlee, FrankCostanza, Rmcii, Sietse Snel,
RoyBoy, Euyyn, Mickeymousechen~enwiki, Jevinsweval, Sole Soul, Bobo192, Shenme, Slicky, Bert Hickman, Kjkolb, Tgabor, Hagerman,
Pearle, Hooperbloob, Jakew, Jumbuck, Neonumbers, Atlant, Mac Davis, Wdfarmer, Snowolf, Velella, CaseInPoint, Wtshymanski, Suruena,
TenOfAllTrades, LFaraone, DV8 2XL, Gene Nygaard, Alai, Mattbrundage, HenryLi, Kenyon, Saeed, Robin F., Woohookitty, Poppafuze,
Mindmatrix, RHaworth, StradivariusTV, Robert K S, Pol098, Tylerni7, Rtdrury, Gyanprakash, SCEhardt, Eyreland, SDC, Frankie1969,
Wayward, CPES, Pfalstad, Msiddalingaiah, Graham87, Crocodealer, FreplySpang, Snafflekid, Edison, Josh Parris, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi,
Zbxgscqf, Tangotango, Tawker, Vegaswikian, SeanMack, FlavrSavr, Thedatastream, FlaBot, Bobstay, Arnero, Shultzc, Jak123, Nivix,
Alfred Centauri, Alex Sims, RexNL, Gurch, Czar, Pewahl, Fosnez, Fresheneesz, Fct, Chobot, Krishnavedala, DVdm, Bgwhite, YurikBot,
Wavelength, Jimp, Adam1213, RussBot, Gokselgoksel, Crazytales, Red Slash, Hydrargyrum, Akamad, Stephenb, Yyy, Shaddack, Wiki
alf, Spike Wilbury, Howcheng, Sangwine, CecilWard, Mikeblas, RUL3R, E2mb0t~enwiki, Zzzzzzus, Ospalh, Syrthiss, Scottfisher, Dead-
EyeArrow, Bota47, Jeh, Supspirit, Dingy, Zelikazi, Smaines, Kev Boy, Wknight94, SamuelRiv, Searchme, Light current, Huangcjz, Knot-
nic, Tabby, Canley, Fergofrog, LeonardoRob0t, Naught101, JLaTondre, Enkauston, GrinBot~enwiki, Dkasak, Mejor Los Indios, Lunch,
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Filth, Pylori, OrangeDog, Papa November, Epastore, Terraguy, Dual Freq, A. B., Langbein Rise, Bread2u, Theneokid, Rheostatik, MKB,
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S Roper, Dreadstar, M jurrens, Minipie8, Clean Copy, Fonebone, DMacks, Kotjze, Sadi Carnot, Kukini, Fjjf, DJIndica, Nmnogueira,
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GeordieMcBain, Nutster, Dkazdan, CmdrObot, Irwangatot, Scohoust, MorkaisChosen, Ilikefood, Prlsmith, JohnCD, Nczempin, Order-
inchaos, Jamoche, Zyxoas, WeggeBot, Seven of Nine, Mike5193, RP98007, Cydebot, Lemurdude, Zginder, JustinForce, My Flatley,
DumbBOT, Electric squall, Fyedernoggersnodden, Thijs!bot, Wikid77, Drpixie, Ishdarian, Young Pioneer, Electron9, Leon7, FourBlades,
Nick Number, Jauricchio, Dawnseeker2000, AntiVandalBot, Linksmask1, Opelio, Shirt58, Gef756, Indrek, BinaryFrog, DarthShrine,
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rion, Meeples, Sangak, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Mondebleu, Xochimec, Nikevich, Catgut, Crunchy Numbers, User A1, Martynas Patasius,
JaGa, Calltech, Oroso, S3000, Audi O Phile~enwiki, Denis tarasov, Axlq, Rettetast, Bissinger, Fuzzyhair2, Avakar, Kateshortforbob, Free-
boson, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nbauman, Uncle Dick, Jesant13, Monodb, Ganymedstanek, LANNOCC, McSly, Mbbradford,
RiverBissonnette, Glens userspace watcher, Warut, Leodj1992, Szzuk, NewEnglandYankee, Vanished user 47736712, Potatoswatter, Ja
62, H1voltage, Alexander Bell, Mlewis000, Samkline, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Deor, Ivor Catt, VolkovBot, Larryisgood, Orphic, Pleas-
antville, Pasquale.Carelli, Constant314, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Circuit13, The Original Wildbear, BertSen, Lordvolton, Sankalp-
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Yk, Synthebot, Altermike, GlassFET, Michaeltripp, Spinningspark, Antosheryl, Nibios, BeowulfNode, Symane, S.Örvarr.S, Theonein-
training, Kbrose, SieBot, Hertz1888, VVVBot, Trigaranus, Mwaisberg, Bentogoa, A. Carty, Ioverka, PHermans, Hello71, KoshVorlon,
Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Alex.muller, Ngriffeth, Fullobeans, PlantTrees, Treekids, TreeSmiler, Asher196, Dp67, SpectrumAnalyser,
ClueBot, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, Snigbrook, Robchat, Wanderer57, GreenSpigot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Ventusa, Edlerk, Enghoff, Pointil-
list, Nima shoormeij, Excirial, Jusdafax, Robbie098, Anon lynx, Lucas the scot, Dagordon01, Tylerdmace, Iner22, Esbboston, Brews ohare,
Simdude2u, Jotterbot, Promethean, Yirkha, Etcwebb, Editor510, Banime, Thingg, Wstorr, Tleave2000, Berean Hunter, Elcap, DumZiBoT,
InternetMeme, AlanM1, XLinkBot, BodhisattvaBot, Rror, Cameracut, Dthomsen8, Noctibus, WikiDao, Airplaneman, Alex Khimich, Ad-
dbot, Mortense, Landon1980, KickimusButtus, Ronhjones, Jncraton, Pcormon, Cst17, MrOllie, Download, LaaknorBot, Redheylin, Favo-
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tur, Theo10011, Vladislav Pogorelov, Minimac, Rad peeps, Hyarmendacil, NerdyScienceDude, Cogniac, Bullet train, Mark Kretschmar,
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Gavinburke, Winner 42, Dcirovic, REMspectrum, Frof eyed, K6ka, ZéroBot, Lindseyrose, Sanalks, Fred Gandt, Sbmeirow, L Kensington,
Zueignung, Ego White Tray, DennisIsMe, Itaharesay, Maminov2, TYelliot, ClueBot NG, Ulflund, Matthiaspaul, Vividvilla, Delusion23,
10v1walsha, Mesoderm, ScottSteiner, Benfriesen12, Widr, Reify-tech, Vortex112, Helpful Pixie Bot, Doorknob747, Lowercase sigmabot,
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fortheweak, Frizb99, BattyBot, Clienthopeless, DarafshBot, Mahmud Halimi Wardag, HubabubbalubbahubbaYABALICIOUS, SD5bot,
JamesHaigh, Kshahinian, Dexbot, Aloysius314, Mogism, TwoTwoHello, Salako1999, Bayezit.dirim, Isarra (HG), MZLauren, Frosty, Pax-
martian, FrostieFrost, Vahid alpha, Madhacker2000, Mark viking, Altered Walter, TREXJET, Fa.aref, Gomunkul51, Murmur75, Gtrsen-
tra, DavidLeighEllis, Glaisher, Jwratner1, Travbm, Asadwarraich, Adam Karlson, Cricetone, Monkbot, JREling1, JaunJimenez, Mad-
Doktor23, Applemusher123, NameloCmaS, Krelcoyne, Ruksakba, KasparBot, Goran Diklic, Delight dmix mutanda, AlwaysSomething,
Tpdwkouaa, Lond1984, Qzd, InternetArchiveBot, Umsn, Abbypjoby, EddardBaratheon, A cube root of one, Dbelkina, RrfPedia, Jayan-
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Zin~enwiki, Heron, Mintguy, Youandme, Hephaestos, Ubiquity, Patrick, RTC, Michael Hardy, Chan siuman, SebastianHelm, Dgrant,
Looxix~enwiki, Glenn, Bogdangiusca, Nikai, Jiang, Smack, Lommer, CAkira, Bemoeial, RickK, Reddi, Zoicon5, Omegatron, Uninvit-
edCompany, Rogper~enwiki, Robbot, Romanm, Cyrius, Giftlite, Wolfkeeper, Dratman, Ssd, Starsong, Yekrats, Bobblewik, Chowbok,
Utcursch, LucasVB, Gzuckier, GeoGreg, Nickptar, Mike Rosoft, Mormegil, Rich Farmbrough, Pjacobi, ArnoldReinhold, Harriv, Mister-
Sheik, Bdieseldorff, Chairboy, Army1987, Meggar, Colin Douglas Howell, Bert Hickman, Nk, Congruence, Haham hanuka, Hooperbloob,
Lornova~enwiki, Jumbuck, Atlant, Keenan Pepper, Benjah-bmm27, Wtshymanski, Apolkhanov, DV8 2XL, Gene Nygaard, Aempirei,
Aidanlister, BillC, Pol098, WadeSimMiser, Rtdrury, Cbdorsett, CharlesC, Frankie1969, CPES, Eirikr, BD2412, Snafflekid, Rjwilmsi,
Joel D. Reid, FlaBot, Neonil~enwiki, Loggie, Alfred Centauri, Pewahl, Fresheneesz, Lmatt, Srleffler, Antikon, Krishnavedala, Berri-
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Headbomb, Arcturus4669, Alphachimpbot, Paulbalegend, JAnDbot, MER-C, Time3000, Freshacconci, Swpb, STBot, Yonaa, R'n'B, Zen-
in, H1voltage, Mlewis000, VolkovBot, ICE77, TXiKiBoT, Martin451, Jackfork, Spinningspark, MarcosWozniak, Kurkku, PlantTrees,
Dolphin51, Taroaldo, Sv1xv, Brews ohare, A Pirard, Razorflame, DnAnd, Johnuniq, Addbot, Mortense, Drydofoo, 3dimen, Jncraton,
Fieldday-sunday, Tide rolls, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Sc920505, GB fan, GrouchoBot,
Maitchy, Prari, FrescoBot, Mazi68ca, Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, DrilBot, RedBot, MastiBot, EmausBot, 8r455, John Cline, Mkratz, Sb-
meirow, ClueBot NG, Jaanus.kalde, Incompetence, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Wikimpan, Ea91b3dd, Bhbuehler, Monkbot, Ajslink12, GreenC
bot, Chaithanya Prabhu M and Anonymous: 96
7.1. TEXT 241

• Kirchhoff’s circuit laws Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchhoff’{}s_circuit_laws?oldid=770132950 Contributors: Jdpipe,

Heron, Michael Hardy, Karada, Stevenj, Julesd, Glenn, Andres, Maximus Rex, Omegatron, Robbot, Romanm, Texture, Nonick, Giftlite,
Aulis Eskola, Ot, Mormegil, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Baruneju, Wood Thrush, Robotje, Smalljim, Pflodo, Hooperbloob, Alansohn,
Fkbreitl, Wtmitchell, Gene Nygaard, OwenX, AirBa~enwiki, BillC, Robert K S, Knuckles, Sdschulze, Zzyzx11, Zeroparallax, Grammar-
bot, Trlovejoy, SMC, The wub, Gurch, Vonkje, Chobot, Banaticus, Roboto de Ajvol, Oliviosu~enwiki, RussBot, Pi Delport, JabberWok,
CambridgeBayWeather, Thane, ENeville, Merosonox, Searchme, Hirak 99, That Guy, From That Show!, True Pagan Warrior, Smack-
Bot, Hydrogen Iodide, Gilliam, Skizzik, Kmarinas86, Gruzd, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Bowlhover, Thehakimboy, Daniel.Cardenas,
Ozhiker, Ortho, Beetstra, Rock4arolla, Rogerbrent, Dicklyon, Mets501, Doczilla, Pgadfor, Chetvorno, Nfwu, Nczempin, Jsd, NickW557,
Myasuda, Jon Stockton, Skittleys, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Editor at Large, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, JAnDbot, Bongwarrior, Sikory, User A1, Cpl
Syx, Glen, Enok.cc, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Jerry, Atulgogtay, Bigbug21, Paolous, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, The Original Wildbear, Sabih
omar, Gnomeza, Ripepette, Tsi43318, Amog, Andy Dingley, Enigmaman, Dirkbb, Purgatory Fubar, Spinningspark, Paverider, SieBot, Ger-
akibot, Yintan, Msadaghd, Flyer22 Reborn, Haitao32668011, CutOffTies, Berserkerus, Wdwd, ClueBot, Ideal gas equation, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Kristolane, Drmies, DragonBot, Awickert, Excirial, Erebus Morgaine, Danmichaelo, Wstorr, Suppiesman123, Roxy
the dog, Mrball25, Addbot, Ashokreddy2, Betterusername, CarsracBot, Peti610botH, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Victorjimi, Luckas-bot, Grebal-
dar, Ipatrol, Materialscientist, Citation bot, LouriePieterse, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Drilnoth, Yhljjang, A. di M., Kwinkunks, , RGForbes,
AliRajabi, Xianyang, I dream of horses, Yahia.barie, 124Nick, Waqasb, Vrenator, Περίεργος, Vampikay, Suffusion of Yellow, Noommos,
EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Hovhannest, Trinibones, Dcirovic, Solomonfromfinland, Hhhippo, Narendran95, Plesna, Sbmeirow, Coast-
erlover1994, RockMagnetist, NTox, Terraflorin, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, PoqVaUSA, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Billybobjoethethird,
Who.was.phone, AvocatoBot, Dan653, Robert the Devil, Salvador85, Jionpedia, Mllyjn, JYBot, Lugia2453, Isarra (HG), Fox2k11, Lsmll,
Jodosma, DigitalPhase, Svjo-2, Clee845, Quenhitran, Exoplanetaryscience, LouAng, Radhakanth14, Vieque, Kavya l, Anarchyte, Sankalpa
Sarkar, Sharanayya R Tenginamath, Shreyash shende, Chaithanya Prabhu M, Tessaract2, Bender the Bot, Lucky.amit1, Sreeharsha17 and
Anonymous: 324
• Norton’s theorem Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norton’{}s_theorem?oldid=762763368 Contributors: Heron, Michael Hardy,
Ixfd64, Looxix~enwiki, Charles Matthews, Zoicon5, RayKiddy, Omegatron, Greudin, Giftlite, Abdull, TedPavlic, JoeSmack, Plugwash,
CDN99, VonWoland, Hooperbloob, Atlant, Wtshymanski, Camw, Cbdorsett, Eras-mus, Arabani, Nihiltres, Fresheneesz, Bgwhite, Banati-
cus, YurikBot, RobotE, ZZ9pluralZalpha, RussBot, DragonHawk, Gareth Jones, Closedmouth, Rdrosson, SmackBot, Haymaker, BeteNoir,
Unyoyega, MonteChristof, Rino Su, Rogerbrent, Dicklyon, JoeBot, Gregbard, Nozog, Thijs!bot, LachlanA, Tjmayerinsf, Drumkid,
PhilKnight, Noodle snacks, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Adavidb, TomyDuby, Richard D. LeCour, Mlewis000, VolkovBot, Lingwitt, TXiK-
iBoT, Qxz, Clarince63, Tsi43318, Positronium, Andy Dingley, Meters, Lanny’s, SieBot, Flyer22 Reborn, Tomas e, Apparition11, Paranoid
Android1208, Alexius08, Addbot, Jojhutton, Jncraton, Cst17, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Kingpin13, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, XZer-
oBot, , Σ, EmausBot, Sbmeirow, Cblambert, Jamars, Bulwersator, Sonicyouth86, Gilderien, BG19bot, Heatherawalls, Cky2250, Ejuy-
oung, Ranjitbbsr2, Svjo, Melonkelon, Allankk, Monkbot, Ajay kumar28, Jin khatama, Mwasngash, Larske, Chendre, Bender the Bot and
Anonymous: 68
• Thévenin’s theorem Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9venin’{}s_theorem?oldid=769109732 Contributors: Heron,
Michael Hardy, Smack, Charles Matthews, Omegatron, Topbanana, Greudin, Betsumei, Giftlite, Sim~enwiki, Ampre, Abdull, Rich Farm-
brough, TedPavlic, JoeSmack, Plugwash, MisterSheik, VonWoland, Hooperbloob, Atlant, Super-Magician, Wtshymanski, Cbdorsett, Es-
sjay, Joe Decker, Arabani, Lionelbrits, Alejo2083, FlaBot, Nihiltres, Alfred Centauri, Fresheneesz, YurikBot, RobotE, Rdrosson, An-
drewWTaylor, BeteNoir, Unyoyega, MalafayaBot, Mariostorti, Flyguy649, SashatoBot, WeeGee, Kevin k, Kuru, Shadowlynk, Noishe, Van-
ished user 8ij3r8jwefi, Rogerbrent, Dicklyon, Kvng, Simon12, Ojan, Myasuda, AndrewHowse, Capmaster, Yatloong, Thijs!bot, Gamebm,
JAnDbot, Crunchy Numbers, Animum, Americanhero, Choihei, TomyDuby, YCM Interista, Stimpak, Mlewis000, VolkovBot, Larryis-
good, Jeff G., Constant314, Lingwitt, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Finlux, Tsi43318, Positronium, Andy Dingley, Meters, Spinningspark, SieBot,
Cwkmail, Sudeep shenoy2007, Int21h, Mx. Granger, ClueBot, André Neves, Mild Bill Hiccup, KALYAN T.V., Wstorr, Johnuniq, Alex-
ius08, Addbot, EjsBot, WikiUserPedia, Download, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, AdjustShift,
TParis, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xqbot, FrescoBot, Cwtiyar, Oalp1003, Boneless555, RedBot, Twistor96, Dinamik-bot, Analog-
guru~enwiki, Senanayake, Onel5969, Mean as custard, SOFTowaha, Hhhippo, AmigoDoPaulo, Josve05a, Jonpatterns, Sbmeirow, Cblam-
bert, I love Laura very much, Alexander Misel, NTox, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Lyla1205, Gauravjuvekar, Saud678, Nukerebel,
Minijackson, Lugia2453, Lihwc, Svjo, Surfer43, Dashingjose, Madhu7544, Monkbot, Kavizangi, 1511 vivek singh, Ajkirk, Sagararoraiitd,
CrafterSvK, Nertuop, Goodphy, Lond1984, KGirlTrucker81, Bender the Bot, Jobuuu, Jimli536 and Anonymous: 130
• Phasor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phasor?oldid=770459982 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Shellreef, Mxn, Omegatron, Gjk-
ing, Giftlite, BenFrantzDale, Sam Hocevar, Talkstosocks, Habbit, Mecanismo, Alistair1978, Sunborn, Plugwash, Grick, Wtshymanski,
RJFJR, Oleg Alexandrov, Cruccone, SCEhardt, Brownsteve, Snafflekid, Krymson, Strake, Mathbot, Alfred Centauri, Fresheneesz, Kri,
Chobot, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Steve carlson, Reedy, Edgar181, Gilliam, Kostmo, Bob K, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Roger-
brent, Chetvorno, Zureks, Johnlogic, Fyedernoggersnodden, Dimotika, Second Quantization, MichaelMaggs, NAHID, R'n'B, Christian
Storm, Copsi, Izno, Spinningspark, Daviddoria, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Paolo.dL, Fratrep, ClueBot, Justin545, VTBushyTail, SoxBot III,
Gonfer, MystBot, Steven CO2, Addbot, Fgnievinski, Michaelwagnercanberra, SpBot, Yobot, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT,
BlackSalamander, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xelnx, Obersachsebot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Raulshc, Steve Quinn, DrilBot, 8s0nc1,
Diannaa, MegaSloth, Onel5969, Primefac, Slawekb, Wayne Slam, MathiasSG, Tijfo098, ClueBot NG, Hypergraph, Braincricket, Rezabot,
Shantnup, Themichaud, Crh23, Comfr, Adewdropnun, Susenparks1546, Rahul kumaresan, Narky Blert, Vins19, Leschnei, Fmadd, Mogge
ketchup and Anonymous: 96
• Electric power Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power?oldid=761918873 Contributors: William Avery, Heron, Rhorn, Zan-
imum, Mac, SEWilco, Omegatron, Indefatigable, PuzzletChung, Giftlite, Everyking, Micru, Piotrus, Icairns, JavaTenor, Talkstosocks,
Shiftchange, RossPatterson, Discospinster, Neko-chan, El C, RoyBoy, Alberto Orlandini, Bert Hickman, Alansohn, Atlant, Bart133, Wt-
shymanski, Dirac1933, DV8 2XL, Ceyockey, Kenyon, Linas, Pol098, MGTom, Cbdorsett, BD2412, Demonuk, Erebus555, Vegaswikian,
Nneonneo, Skorkmaz, Old Moonraker, Srleffler, DVdm, Borgx, Cookie4869~enwiki, Manop, RL0919, Light current, Nachoman-au,
CharlesHBennett, SmackBot, C J Cowie, Gunnar.Kaestle, Mdd4696, EncMstr, Deli nk, Lenko, Dual Freq, HeKeRnd, Celarnor, Sun-
darBot, M jurrens, Mwtoews, DMacks, DA3N, J 1982, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Rogerbrent, Dicklyon, Cvismeg, Levineps, Courcelles,
Chetvorno, Switchercat, CmdrObot, Nilfanion, Mierlo, Chasingsol, Quibik, Christian75, RottweilerCS, Epbr123, Hazmat2, Andyjsmith,
Gralo, Headbomb, Dawnseeker2000, Icep, Escarbot, WinBot, Luna Santin, Arcturus4669, Paste, Whquaint, JAnDbot, MER-C, BenB4,
Connormah, VoABot II, Randolph02, Nposs, Stephenchou0722, MartinBot, Sigmundg, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Rgoodermote,
Yonidebot, Johnymac619, L'Aquatique, Cometstyles, Ja 62, VolkovBot, Jeff G., Soliloquial, Godefroy, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, Vipin-
hari, Walor, Canol, Andy Dingley, Meters, Synthebot, Purgatory Fubar, Spinningspark, Paverider, Doc James, Biscuittin, SieBot, Ger-
akibot, Legion fi, Msadaghd, GlassCobra, Flyer22 Reborn, Paolo.dL, Oxymoron83, Spamsara, Karlawilloughby, Ayyoubzadeh, ClueBot,
242 CHAPTER 7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Wasami007, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rodhullandemu, Meisterkoch, Hadrianheugh, Lampak, , Excirial, Lartoven, Primasz,
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dersBot, Favonian, Neopentrix, Da best editor, Wow098, Zorrobot, Yobot, Nallimbot, P1ayer, AnomieBOT, Jo3sampl, LiuyuanChen,
Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xqbot, Dpsypher, Iadrian yu, Brufydsy, Voltageman, JayJay, A. di M., Musant, GliderMaven, Recogni-
zance, Xxglennxx, Pinethicket, Fat&Happy, Achraf52, Brian Everlasting, FoxBot, SchreyP, Lotje, Itaintnothinbutathang, Ripchip Bot,
EmausBot, John of Reading, Tommy2010, Werieth, ZéroBot, Fæ, Essicajay, Joshuatitsworth, Donner60, Puffin, Alcartur, Xcalizorz,
Mni9791, Teapeat, Владимир Пацюк, ClueBot NG, LogX, Twoborg, NuclearEnergy, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tholme, Kreidos, Strike Eagle,
Titodutta, Wbm1058, Aellio26, Ziiiziii, Paweł Ziemian, David.moreno72, JYBot, Cwobeel, Michael Anon, Burakbe, Frosty, SteenthIWbot,
B3Vmax, Reatlas, Almeria.raul, Trigga556557, Ugog Nizdast, Spyglasses, Johnathanboy89, MischiefMaker42, JaconaFrere, Pete mech
eng, Jadlerstein, Monkbot, Shaon24, Raytuzio, Quaisaq, Huch393011, Mario Castelán Castro, Sarr Cat, Voiceinthecrowd, Amiselman,
Brennenbunnell, KasparBot, Sro23, Ks-M9, Winterysteppe, Eshan.bbsc, RobbieIanMorrison, Kelapshock, Kalengi-iran and Anonymous:
242
• RLC circuit Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RLC_circuit?oldid=767558610 Contributors: Waveguy, Heron, Patrick, Glenn, Reddi,
Omegatron, Tonsofpcs, Giftlite, Wolfkeeper, Jorend, ILUsion~enwiki, Rich Farmbrough, Sam Derbyshire, MisterSheik, CanisRufus,
Hooperbloob, Wtshymanski, RJFJR, Gene Nygaard, Alai, BillC, Jeff3000, Tabletop, Isnow, Eyreland, Pfalstad, Marudubshinki, Msiddalin-
gaiah, Graham87, BD2412, Arabani, Klassykittychick, HappyCamper, Erkcan, Gsp, Arnero, Alfred Centauri, Fresheneesz, Alphachimp,
Bgwhite, EricCHill, YurikBot, Bamgooly, BOT-Superzerocool, Light current, KNfLrPnKNsT, Rdrosson, SmackBot, Sagie, Chris the
speller, Bluebot, AhmedHan, Metacomet, DHN-bot~enwiki, Gruzd, Alexxauw, Derek R Bullamore, Ryouko, Kbwikipedia, Doodle77,
Sammy1339, DJIndica, HeroTsai, Stufam, Aleator, Aleenf1, ErikHK~enwiki, Profjohn, Tawkerbot2, Chetvorno, Kurtan~enwiki, Dumb-
BOT, Jrgetsin, Optimist on the run, Thijs!bot, Siwiak, JAnDbot, CosineKitty, Lidnariq, Bubba hotep, First Harmonic, Scumbagoldhag,
Woutput, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Kar.ma, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Mlewis000, Bestproofreader, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah,
The Original Wildbear, Caster23, Tsi43318, Ilyushka88, Pinin~enwiki, Spinningspark, Monty845, LordEniac, Kbrose, Robket, Minor-
Contributor, Czap42, ClueBot, Wolfch, Thegeneralguy, Green Heart 1985, Excirial, VTBushyTail, Thingg, Hmskye, Crowsnest, Gaganodi,
Golddaddy, Mifter, Addbot, Mathieu Perrin, Redheylin, Nocal, Isaac0124, SpecNe, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, UltraMagnus, Amirobot, Eric-
Wester, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Rudolf.hellmuth, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Phluid61, Neurolysis, Shcha, Xqbot, Mnmngb, Glider-
Maven, Prari, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Krj373, Craig Pemberton, Kwiki, Jonesey95, Trappist the monk, Vrenator, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00,
Slon02, EmausBot, John of Reading, Dltwaddell, Ajraddatz, Christoffervi, ZéroBot, Trinidade, Ebrambot, Rohil309, Pianomaths, Gin-
ger Conspiracy, Tijfo098, Ariel1024, Teapeat, Rocketrod1960, AlleinStein, Kavya Manohar, ClueBot NG, Lightningphil, Snotbot, Muon,
Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Loriendrew, Klilidiplomus, V4711, Ajv39, Blegat, Sfgiants1995, WhiteHaired, Wamiq, LeoLei0306,
Monkbot, Paclogic, Bobbydazzlere, Jonesdc76, CAPTAIN RAJU, Spliotro, Ekim314, Bender the Bot, Imashreyash and Anonymous: 267
• Low-pass filter Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-pass_filter?oldid=760512757 Contributors: Mav, The Anome, Rjstott, Heron,
Patrick, JohnOwens, Lexor, David Martland, Glenn, Palfrey, Dysprosia, Furrykef, Omegatron, ThereIsNoSteve, Giftlite, DavidCary, Wolf-
keeper, BenFrantzDale, Bensaccount, Vadmium, LucasVB, Antandrus, BrianWilloughby, Moxfyre, Rfl, Rich Farmbrough, TedPavlic,
Mecanismo, ESkog, Teorth, Foobaz, Cavrdg, Hangjian, Hooperbloob, Dragoljub, Wtshymanski, Cburnett, Flying fish, Davidkazuhiro,
Pol098, Akavel~enwiki, Pfalstad, Torquil~enwiki, Mikm, Alfred Centauri, Kri, Krishnavedala, Borgx, PinothyJ, Toffile, Gaius Cornelius,
Brandon, Mikeblas, Searchme, Light current, Mickpc, Deville, Petri Krohn, LeonardoRob0t, Phil Holmes, RG2, Mejor Los Indios, EX-
onyte, KnightRider~enwiki, Mitchan, Steve carlson, Pgk, Niehaus~enwiki, ASarnat, Yamaguchi , Chris the speller, Nbarth, Royson-
Bobson, Zvar, Soundsop, IE, P.o.h, Elzair, Dog Eat Dog World, Minna Sora no Shita, Rogerbrent, Dicklyon, Kvng, Ss181292, Unmit-
igated Success, Myasuda, Paddles, Editor at Large, Epbr123, Sobreira, Bobblehead, Brichcja, Majorly, Danroa, Lovibond, Ekkanant,
JAnDbot, Xhienne, Drizzd~enwiki, Time3000, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Dics, Eus Kevin, Parijata, Kayau, MartinBot, Renski, Thir-
dright, RockMFR, Mange01, Slamedsilver, LLcopp, VolkovBot, Inductiveload, Ahmedsaieed, Spinningspark, Anoko moonlight, Kbrose,
Tetos~enwiki, Tugjob, Dp67, ClueBot, Binksternet, Brews ohare, Thingg, 7, Monstrim, Dusen189, Johnuniq, XLinkBot, Mm40, ZooFari,
Addbot, Howard Landman, Jojhutton, Redheylin, Parvejkhan, Nocal, Tide rolls, Gail, Legobot, Bdb112, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Floquen-
beam, Jim1138, B137, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xqbot, Armstrong1113149, Pontificalibus, Christopherley, RibotBOT, Rb88guy,
Hlovatt, GliderMaven, ICEAGE, Jonesey95, RedBot, Piandcompany, December21st2012Freak, Trappist the monk, The Utahraptor, Mg-
clapé, Astro89, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Dewritech, Catshome2000, Clusternote, Donner60, Zueignung, Teapeat, Dweymouth, ClueBot
NG, Satellizer, Widr, BG19bot, Varun varshney12, OceanEngineerRI, Kizzlebot, JYBot, Kroq-gar78, CsDix, Babitaarora, My name is not
dave, Quenhitran, Meteor sandwich yum, Monkbot, Andars97 and Anonymous: 243
• High-pass filter Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-pass_filter?oldid=744667829 Contributors: The Anome, Rjstott, Pierre-
Abbat, Lexor, Glenn, Charles Matthews, Omegatron, Eugene van der Pijll, ThereIsNoSteve, Tonsofpcs, BenFrantzDale, Vadmium,
Rfl, TedPavlic, Bobo192, Rbj, Foobaz, Hooperbloob, Dragoljub, RJFJR, Zawersh, Gene Nygaard, Bruce89, Thryduulf, Robert K S,
GregorB, Waldir, Pfalstad, Rjwilmsi, Lockley, Arnero, PinothyJ, Alynna Kasmira, Mikeblas, Attilios, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot,
Chris the speller, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, P.o.h, Elzair, Soumyasch, Dicklyon, Shaunwhite000, Shoez, Myasuda, Scoofy, Sobreira, Dalahäst,
Drizzd~enwiki, AndyBloch, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, Faizhaider, Baccyak4H, Katalaveno, Joerglwitsch, Ziounclesi, Spinningspark,
Kbrose, Tresiden, Fibo1123581321, Jojalozzo, Bekuletz, ClueBot, Binksternet, Estirabot, Gciriani, XLinkBot, Addbot, Jojhutton, Olli
Niemitalo, Download, Redheylin, Legobot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Amirobot, EnTerr, Gianno~enwiki, Citation bot, ShornAssociates, Arm-
strong1113149, RibotBOT, Mnmngb, Maitchy, Ll1324, JMS Old Al, Toriicelli, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, EmausBot, Xiutwel-0003, Chuis-
pastonBot, ClueBot NG, Rezabot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gfoltz9, AvocatoBot, ChrisGualtieri, Txnhockey3, CsDix, Babitaarora, The Herald,
Monkbot, BU Rob13, Shriniketh91, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 90
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Patrick, Angela, Nanobug, Glenn, Poor Yorick, BAxelrod, Emmjade, Guaka, Omegatron, ThereIsNoSteve, Giftlite, Sword~enwiki, Zowie,
Rfl, CALR, Billlion, Shanes, Hooperbloob, SidP, Cburnett, OwenX, Cbdorsett, Pfalstad, Zbxgscqf, Sango123, Ianthegecko, Arnero,
Antikon, DVdm, Martin Hinks, YurikBot, Splash, PinothyJ, Toffile, Brandon, Hakeem.gadi, Deville, KNfLrPnKNsT, LeonardoRob0t,
Poulpy, Machtzu, RG2, Henrikb4, Binarypower, Commander Keane bot, Oli Filth, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Clicketyclack, Robofish, Mofo-
mojo, Dicklyon, Tawkerbot2, Nalvage, Sobreira, AlienBlancmange, CosineKitty, Email4mobile, RisingStick, STBot, Mange01, Acalamari,
VolkovBot, Cuddlyable3, Inductiveload, Spinningspark, Benjwgarner, Dp67, Binksternet, PipepBot, ChrisHodgesUK, Johnuniq, Addbot,
Alexandra Goncharik, Redheylin, OlEnglish, B137, Citation bot, GrouchoBot, GliderMaven, Ebrambot, Lorem Ip, ClueBot NG, Rez-
abot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Flyguy53, Ankitd.elec, Chetan.meshram, Omegaoptical, Forestrf, CsDix, Ugog Nizdast, Blablabliam, Trackteur,
Wikigeek244, Joshua Mahesh Inayathullah, CAPTAIN RAJU, Bender the Bot, Wikishovel and Anonymous: 72
• P–n junction Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction?oldid=768407076 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Waveguy,
RTC, Dmd3e, Mac, Glenn, HolIgor, Auric, Wjbeaty, Ancheta Wis, Rafaelgr, Armandino, Mako098765, Abdull, Jfraser, Matt Britt, Foobaz,
Timl, Storm Rider, Eric Kvaalen, Keenan Pepper, Wtshymanski, Tebbb, Marudubshinki, Nanite, Amr Ramadan, Vegaswikian, LjL, Prgo,
7.1. TEXT 243

Alfred Centauri, Kolbasz, Tomer Ish Shalom, Chobot, YurikBot, Sceptre, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack, NawlinWiki, Bota47, Kkmur-
ray, Light current, Chaiken, Katieh5584, Attilios, SmackBot, Jacek Kendysz, Mauls, JAn Dudík, Bluebot, Pieter Kuiper, MalafayaBot,
Darth Panda, Apocryphite, Radagast83, Drphilharmonic, DMacks, Catani~enwiki, Vriullop, Intellectnfun, JorisvS, CyrilB, Vanished
user 8ij3r8jwefi, Dicklyon, Filelakeshoe, Chetvorno, SkyWalker, Rowellcf, Christian75, Maque~enwiki, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Elec-
tron9, Gerry Ashton, AntiVandalBot, Swpb, Email4mobile, Dukebody, Pentaquine, Kskowron, Gresszilla, TheNoise, MartinBot, Bissinger,
Glrx, CommonsDelinker, Mintz l, LordAnubisBOT, NewEnglandYankee, Cmichael, DorganBot, PowerWill500, VolkovBot, Larryisgood,
Scholzilla, Someguy1221, Lerdthenerd, Andy Dingley, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, SieBot, VVVBot, Delu 85, Pratik mallya, Nopetro, Wil-
son44691, Arjen Dijksman, Siyamraj, Anchor Link Bot, ClueBot, Brews ohare, Vboo-belarus, XLinkBot, Terry0051, MystBot, Zinger0,
Addbot, Mortense, Napy1kenobi~enwiki, ProperFraction, Download, Jamesrei, Shrikul joshi, ScAvenger, Cesaar, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Sen-
ator Palpatine, AnomieBOT, Choij, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Darcovian, DSisyphBot, Igorpark, Raffamaiden, Rickproser, Jangirke,
FrescoBot, Jc3s5h, BenzolBot, Kevin-Cox, I dream of horses, MJ94, SpaceFlight89, Lowrybob, Javaidphy, ‫علی ویکی‬, TheGrimReaper
NS, MrSnoot, Bhawani Gautam, EmausBot, Beatnik8983, Dewritech, Monterey Bay, TyA, Xiutwel-0003, Noophilic, ClueBot NG, Star-
shipenterprise, Jbolte, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Helloakshaypoddar, Metricopolus, Satishb.elec, Tarunselec, Ulidtko, Cyberbot
II, C susil, Aloysius314, IngenieroLoco, Rfassbind, Ginsuloft, TooOldMan, Mattkevmd, Jadecatz, Erprabhatjani, Kirasan5, Crystallized-
carbon, Vigneshdm1990, KasparBot, Hugo, Goodphy, Ankurg92, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 212
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Boldt, Sandos, Mudlock, Heron, RTC, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Ahoerstemeier, Kaeslin, Glenn, Stefan-S, Nikai, Dcoetzee, The
Anomebot, Maximus Rex, Omegatron, Josh Cherry, Jondel, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, DavidCary, Mat-C, MathKnight, Everyking,
Leonard G., Micru, Vadmium, Chowbok, Utcursch, Mako098765, Rich Farmbrough, TedPavlic, Pjacobi, Bender235, Kbh3rd, Plug-
wash, Sfahey, Bdieseldorff, Rgdboer, Bookofjude, Smalljim, Matt Britt, Hooperbloob, Alansohn, RobertStar20, Pion, Wtshymanski,
Dirac1933, Gene Nygaard, Capecodeph, Dan100, Kenyon, Unixxx, Kfitzner, Mário, Jftsang, Pink-isnt-well, Lincher, CPES, Graham87,
Yurik, Pharlap, Nanite, Snafflekid, Rjwilmsi, DonSiano, Lor772, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Arnero, Alfred Centauri, Nimur, Fresheneesz,
Physchim62, Jidan, Chobot, YurikBot, Borgx, Hairy Dude, Huw Powell, Cookie4869~enwiki, SpuriousQ, John2kx, Hydrargyrum, Zim-
bricchio, Shaddack, Teb728, Rohitbd, Justin Eiler, Steven Hepting, Dhollm, Searchme, Light current, Phil Holmes, Anclation~enwiki,
Allens, Thorney¿?, Tom Morris, Chowwinston, RTKfan, SmackBot, Pennywisdom2099, Gilliam, Chris the speller, DHN-bot~enwiki,
Darth Panda, Chendy, Trekphiler, Chlewbot, OrphanBot, Easwarno1, Jon Awbrey, Luís Felipe Braga, Rspanton, Ohconfucius, Pramod.s,
SashatoBot, JoshuaZ, CyrilB, Rogerbrent, Dicklyon, Onionmon, Pgadfor, Yves-Laurent, Pelotas, Quodfui, Xcentaur, Mikiemike, Cm-
drObot, Editor at Large, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Enter The Crypt, AuKNiFe, Frozenport, Bmunden, DmitTrix, Electron9,
Gerry Ashton, Widefox, Guy Macon, DarkAudit, Waerloeg, Squantmuts, Em3ryguy, MER-C, CosineKitty, Mccamant, VoABot II, Cat-
slash, Robcotton, LorenzoB, Matt B., Gwern, Jackson Peebles, Entner, Glrx, R'n'B, Gah4, DrKay, Dmillimono, PhirePhly, Kevin ayl-
ward, Rod57, Lone Skeptic, Iverson2, Tarotcards, Daniele.tampieri, Zedh, SidShakal, KylieTastic, Bonadea, Useight, Funandtrvl, Deor,
King Lopez, VolkovBot, ICE77, Rclocher3, Constant314, A4bot, Hqb, JayC, LeaveSleaves, Inductiveload, TelecomNut, Andy Dingley,
Spinningspark, AlleborgoBot, EmxBot, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, Daphreak, Jonnic1, Cwkmail, Jp314159, Flyer22 Reborn, Eigen-
pirate, Steven Crossin, Int21h, StaticGull, Anchor Link Bot, ImageRemovalBot, Sfan00 IMG, Elassint, ClueBot, H.E. Hall, Sabbah67,
MichaelVernonDavis, Mild Bill Hiccup, Somwk, Alkamid, Brews ohare, Maarschalk, 7, Addbot, Furiousgreencloud, Мыша, Jncraton,
MrOllie, Lightbot, Heinzelmann, Biezl, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Andreasmperu, Kamran engineer, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Ci-
phers, ^musaz, Kingpin13, Пика Пика, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Frankenpuppy, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Max adam, Gilo1969, Isheden,
Panagea, GrouchoBot, Prunesqualer, Javirosa, Sophus Bie, Dougofborg, FrescoBot, Luke831, Jc3s5h, Roman12345, Austria156, Adlerbot,
SpaceFlight89, Inderpeet singh, Lissajous, Vertpox, Aesthe, Extra999, MrSnoot, Qtipium, AndyHe829, EmausBot, John of Reading, Beat-
nik8983, Dltwaddell, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, Matthewbeckler, Traxs7, MigueldelosSantos, Dffgd, ChemMater, Sbmeirow, Kgsbot, Jberg-
ste, 28bot, Rocketrod1960, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Zelpld, Satellizer, Dywindel, Frietjes, Cntras, Widr, Mehtablocham, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Trunks ishida, Patwal.manish, CitationCleanerBot, Piet De Pauw, MrBill3, Pratyya Ghosh, Tkaret, Saileshpat,
Dexbot, Mogism, Manish cfc, Makecat-bot, Freshman404, Lightfoot54, Ndikumana, Michipedian, Jianhui67, Shipandreceive, Teerthram,
Arief Laksono, FourViolas, Dingsuntil, Dabao qian, Jawadekar298, GeneralizationsAreBad, KasparBot, Nave lessur, BU Rob13, Riku335,
Ramyakkk, Harmon758, InternetArchiveBot, RIT RAJARSHI, Postageispaid, Sabirnawaz, NgYShung, GreenC bot, Jafrul Hassan Angel,
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• Amplifier Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier?oldid=766337847 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Eloquence, Mav, Ray Van De
Walker, SimonP, Waveguy, Heron, Kku, Ixfd64, Delirium, Docu, Kingturtle, Glenn, Nikai, GRAHAMUK, Jengod, Ww, Wik, Jessel,
Maximus Rex, Omegatron, Bevo, Raul654, Lumos3, Friedo, RedWolf, Donreed, Dave Bass, Hcheney, David Gerard, Centrx, Giftlite,
DocWatson42, Lunkwill, DavidCary, Laudaka, Lupin, Vk2tds, Markus Kuhn, Jcobb, AJim, Maroux, Jason Quinn, Rchandra, Nayuki,
Wmahan, Chowbok, Sam Hocevar, Jcorgan, BrianWilloughby, Abdull, Rich Farmbrough, TedPavlic, Guanabot, Pmsyyz, Pt, Dennis Brown,
Meggar, Timl, Hooperbloob, Raymond, Watsonladd, Malo, Osmodiar, Wtshymanski, Twisp, Crosbiesmith, Woohookitty, Uncle G, Pol098,
Peter Beard, DaveApter, BD2412, FreplySpang, Snafflekid, Koavf, Amire80, Quiddity, Oblivious, Brighterorange, RobertG, Arnero, Mar-
gosbot~enwiki, Alfred Centauri, Kolbasz, Krishnavedala, 121a0012, Bgwhite, Ahpook, The Rambling Man, Nol Aders, Matt512, Epolk,
Bergsten, Chaser, Rohitbd, Bjf, Bou, Welsh, Howcheng, Thiseye, Dhollm, Speedevil, DeadEyeArrow, Searchme, Light current, Mattg2k4,
Deville, Kungfuadam, Mebden, Jer ome, Kf4bdy, Kimdino, SmackBot, Reedy, Unyoyega, Freestyle~enwiki, Daviddavid, Lindosland,
Anachronist, Chris the speller, Bluebot, TimBentley, Cadmium, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Papa November, Szidomingo, Sajendra, Orphan-
Bot, Seduisant, Evilspoons, SnappingTurtle, DMacks, Pilotguy, Bn, Shields020, J 1982, Breno, Minna Sora no Shita, CyrilB, Rogerbrent,
Dicklyon, 2006mba, Kvng, Politepunk, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent, Walton One, Mihitha, Yves-Laurent, Chetvorno, JohnTechnologist,
Xcentaur, CmdrObot, Chrumps, Nczempin, Lenilucho, Anoneditor, Doctormatt, Tubenutdave, Red Director, HermanFinster, Australian
audio guy, FredYork, Gionnico, Editor at Large, Enter The Crypt, Pjvpjv, Nick Number, Saimhe, Guy Macon, Mccartyp, Lovibond, CP-
Martin, Lbecque, Esmond.pitt, CombatWombat42, CosineKitty, TAnthony, MegX, Jahoe, Xoneca, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Askari Mark,
JNW, JamesBWatson, Faizhaider, MichaelSHoffman, The Real Marauder, Black Stripe, Ngwill, MartinBot, Sigmundg, Jim.henderson,
Anaxial, Nono64, Masisnr1, M samadi, DrKay, AntiSpamBot, SophieCat, Vspengen, Colorbow, Ale2006, Mlewis000, Funandtrvl, Joein-
wap, Meiskam, ICE77, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, The Original Wildbear, Zuperman~enwiki, Smcreator, Henrydask~enwiki, Anonymous
Dissident, Afluent Rider, Someguy1221, Monkey Bounce, Don4of4, Jackfork, Billinghurst, Kilmer-san, Dragonkillernz, Spinningspark, In-
ternetexploder, Biscuittin, Audioamp, Jokullmusic, Krawi, Kotabatubara, Hiddenfromview, Henry Delforn (old), Lightmouse, Nitram cero,
StaticGull, Hamiltondaniel, Denisarona, Asher196, Thinkingatoms, ClueBot, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, GeoffreyHale,
Jan1nad, Wysprgr2005, GreenSpigot, AnnArborRick, Niceguyedc, Blanchardb, Linan0827, Gtstricky, Brews ohare, Arjayay, Versus22,
Johnuniq, XLinkBot, Alexius08, Revancher, Srcloutier, Pedro magalhaes86, Addbot, Mortense, Olli Niemitalo, Fgnievinski, Avobert,
Yobot, Jordsan, Bestiasonica, Dleger, P1ayer, Sarukum, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, B137, Materialscientist, Citation bot, LilHelpa,
Justanothervisitor, Harikrishna69, Ubcule, Maitchy, Uusijani, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Gog182, Jc3s5h, Nickw2066, Nojiratz, Gdje je
nestala duša svijeta, Icontech, I dream of horses, TechnoDanny, Anooshg, Jujutacular, Hessamnia, Orenburg1, Theo10011, Minimac,
244 CHAPTER 7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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naacuna, Sweepy, My Chemistry romantic, Santoshjain000, G-dac, Mar11, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, PedantEngineer, Lou45654,
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WillWare, Malcolm Farmer, Heron, Edward, RTC, Michael Hardy, Mahjongg, Wapcaplet, Julesd, Glenn, Ghewgill, GRAHAMUK,
Bemoeial, Dysprosia, Andrewman327, Omegatron, Wernher, AnonMoos, AlexPlank, Hankwang, RedWolf, Donreed, Smither, Pengo,
Giftlite, DavidCary, Mintleaf~enwiki, Inkling, Ds13, CyborgTosser, Leonard G., Frencheigh, Rpyle731, Mboverload, Foobar, Mike R,
Aulis Eskola, DRE, Eranb, KeithTyler, Clemwang, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Adashiel, TedPavlic, ArnoldReinhold, Sn0wflake, ESkog, Plug-
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Atlant, Keenan Pepper, Wtmitchell, Wtshymanski, Gene Nygaard, Alai, DSatz, Unixxx, Weyes, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Pol098, Cb-
dorsett, CPES, Gimboid13, Cataclysm, Msiddalingaiah, Snafflekid, Bvankuik, Sjakkalle, Arabani, Alejo2083, Chris Pressey, Ground Zero,
Margosbot~enwiki, Efficacy, Alfred Centauri, RexNL, Enon, Fresheneesz, Srleffler, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Borgx, Gaius Cornelius, Ro-
hitbd, Synaptidude, Grafen, 48v, Sparkinark, TDogg310, Voidxor, Supten, DeadEyeArrow, Jeh, Elkman, Kkmurray, Searchme, Bakkster
Man, Light current, Super Rad!, Closedmouth, Mike1024, Mebden, Luk, Peranders, SmackBot, Igtorque, Thelukeeffect, Speight, Man
with two legs, Jwestbrook, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Lindosland, QEDquid, KD5TVI, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Oli Filth, EncMstr, Papa
November, DHN-bot~enwiki, FredStrauss, Audriusa, Royboycrashfan, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, LouScheffer, CanDo, TWINE006,
Henning Makholm, Evlekis, Bejnar, Ohconfucius, Missamo80, Archimerged, Awbliven, JohnWittle, Antireconciler, CyrilB, Mr. Ver-
non, Rogerbrent, Dicklyon, Novangelis, Kvng, Pgadfor, Yves-Laurent, Chetvorno, Phil Christs, JForget, Circuit dreamer, NickW557,
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fibre, Josemiotto, Editor at Large, Saintrain, Serych, Barticus88, Headbomb, Sunny sin2005, Electron9, Vasurak, Jonnie5, Nick Number,
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waj, Mårten Berglund, Sigmundg, Glrx, CommonsDelinker, Jascii, J.delanoy, Jcurie, Sakthivel30, Zen-in, Szzuk, SJP, Rumpelstiltskin223,
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gawa, Mild Bill Hiccup, Srinivasbt, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Brews ohare, Arjayay, Sldghmmr, La Pianista, Wstorr, Aitias, Johnuniq, SoxBot
III, Analogkidr, Salam32, Alexius08, ZooFari, Skonieczny, Gggh, Addbot, Mortense, Some jerk on the Internet, Olli Niemitalo, Thelefto-
rium, Sudeepa123, Ppj4, Download, Punkguitar, AnnaFrance, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Bruno gouveia rodrigues, Supav1nnie, Eng general,
OlEnglish, Pietrow, Zorrobot, RobertTanzi, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Annomination, AnomieBOT, Paulthomas2, Jim1138, Jack-
ieBot, Piano non troppo, LiuyuanChen, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Akilaa, Xqbot, Sellyme, XZeroBot, ‫دانقولا‬, Dprabhu, Maitchy, En-
dothermic, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Riventree, Ong saluri, Berrinkursun, Anitauky, Wikigayburgers, Roman12345, Vhann,
Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Hoo man, Ezhuttukari, Mikespedia, Abhishekchavan79, Æneas, Dinamik-bot,
Overjive, PleaseStand, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Teravolt, Breezeboy, EmausBot, John of Reading, Primefac, Kasper Meerts, Torturella,
Tawsifkhan, Solarra, Meht7860, Dcirovic, Fæ, East of Borschov, Aflafla1, Thine Antique Pen, Rcsprinter123, Sbmeirow, Peterh5322, L
Kensington, Danielop-NJITWILL, VictorianMutant, Petrb, Sudheerp99, ClueBot NG, Jaanus.kalde, This lousy T-shirt, Grottolese, Ul-
rich67, Muon, Iinvnt, Widr, Lain.cai, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Czar44, Tony Tan, SodaAnt, Minsbot, Analogueic, Yogesh-
warB, David.moreno72, Hghyux, MarinSwimmer, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, SD5bot, Dexbot, Jamesx12345, Leprof 7272, Visitor01,
Babitaarora, Sam Sailor, Monkbot, Pcrengnr, TerryAlex, MorganBEAST, AntonKrugerAtUiowa, Madphysics, 6965REHAN, Sopogupta,
KasparBot, “Chipotle” is NOT pronounced “chi-POL-tay"!, Sweepy, The Manic Puppeteer, Fyi2357, Feminist, Balaji balai, Kdeepakkk,
Colonel abrar, GreenC bot, Bytesock, Chaithanya Prabhu M, Cd dojo, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 530
• Boolean algebra (logic) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra?oldid=769129534 Contributors: William Avery, Michael
Hardy, Dan Koehl, Andrewa, Tacvek, Hyacinth, Tea2min, Thorwald, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, EmilJ, Coolcaesar, Gary, Wt-
mitchell, Oleg Alexandrov, Mindmatrix, Michiel Helvensteijn, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Pleiotrop3, Jrtayloriv, Rotsor, Wavelength, Hairy Dude,
Trovatore, MacMog, StuRat, Arthur Rubin, Caballero1967, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Incnis Mrsi, Gilliam, Tamfang, Lambiam, Wvbai-
ley, Khazar, Iridescent, Ghaly, Vaughan Pratt, CRGreathouse, CBM, Neelix, Gregbard, QuiteUnusual, Magioladitis, David Eppstein, Tony-
Brooke, Glrx, Pomte, BaseballDetective, Jmajeremy, Nwbeeson, Hurkyl, Izno, JohnBlackburne, Oshwah, Tavix, Jackfork, BotKung, Peri-
clesofAthens, CMBJ, SieBot, Waldhorn, Soler97, Jruderman, Francvs, Classicalecon, Bruceschuman, Auntof6, Cheerios69, Excirial, Hans
Adler, Hugo Herbelin, Johnuniq, Pgallert, Fluffernutter, Favonian, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Danielt998, Materialscientist, Ched, MetaNest,
Kivgaen, Pinethicket, Minusia, Oxonienses, Gamewizard71, Trappist the monk, ItsZippy, Diannaa, Rbaleksandar, Jmencisom, Winner 42,
Dcirovic, D.Lazard, Puffin, Tijfo098, SemanticMantis, LZ6387, ClueBot NG, LuluQ, Abecedarius, Delusion23, Jiri 1984, Calisthenis,
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manx122, Proxyma, Sofia karampataki, Muammar Gaddafi, Cerabot~enwiki, Fuebar, Telfordbuck, Ruby Murray, Rlwood1, Shevek1981,
Seppi333, The Rahul Jain, Matthew Kastor, LarsHugo, Happy Attack Dog, Abc 123 def 456, Trax support, Lich counter, Mathematical
Truth, Ksarnek, LukasMatt, Anjana Larka, Petr.savicky, Myra Gul, DiscantX, Striker0614, Masih.bist, KasparBot, Jamieddd, Da3mon,
MegaManiaZ, Bawb131, Prayasjain7, Striker0615, Integrvl, Fmadd, Pioniepl, Bender the Bot, Wikishovel and Anonymous: 147
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Winnberg, Derek Ross, MarXidad, The Anome, BenBaker, Jkominek, Mudlock, Heron, Stevertigo, Frecklefoot, RTC, Michael Hardy,
Chris-martin, Mahjongg, Dominus, SGBailey, Ixfd64, Karada, Mac, Glenn, Netsnipe, GRAHAMUK, Arteitle, Reddi, Dysprosia, Colin
Marquardt, Maximus Rex, Mrand, Furrykef, Omegatron, Jni, Sjorford, Robbot, Lord Kelvin, Pingveno, Bkell, Ianml, Paul Murray, Mush-
room, Ancheta Wis, Centrx, Giftlite, Andy, DavidCary, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Pashute, AJim, Andris, Espetkov, Vadmium, Lu-
casVB, Kaldari, CSTAR, Creidieki, Jlang, Kineox~enwiki, Mormegil, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Luzian~enwiki, Roo72, Lind-
sayH, SocratesJedi, ESkog, ZeroOne, Plugwash, Nabla, CanisRufus, Aecis, Diomidis Spinellis, Smalljim, La goutte de pluie, Hooperbloob,
Jumbuck, Guy Harris, Arthena, Blues-harp, Lectonar, Pion, Bantman, N313t3~enwiki, BRW, Wtshymanski, Rick Sidwell, Cburnett,
Deadworm222, Bonzo, Alai, Axeman89, LunaticFringe, Bookandcoffee, Dan100, Cipherswarm, Smark33021, Boothy443, Mindmatrix,
Jonathan de Boyne Pollard, Bkkbrad, VanFowler, Kglavin, Karmosin, The Nameless, V8rik, BD2412, Syndicate, ZanderSchubert, GOD,
7.1. TEXT 245

Bruce1ee, Ademkader, DoubleBlue, Firebug, Mirror Vax, Latka, Nihiltres, Ewlyahoocom, Swtpc6800, Fresheneesz, Vonkje, DVdm, Bg-
white, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Adam1213, RussBot, Akamad, Stephenb, Yyy, Robchurch, FreelanceWizard, Zwobot, Rohanmittal,
StuRat, Reyk, Urocyon, HereToHelp, Anclation~enwiki, Easter Monkey, SorryGuy, AMbroodEY, JDspeeder1, KNHaw, Adam outler,
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shine, Eassin, Tawkerbot2, DonkeyKong64, Drinibot, Circuit dreamer, Skoch3, Arnavion, Gregbard, Rajiv Beharie, Mblumber, Abhig-
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Capac, Mikaey, Muro Bot, ChrisHodgesUK, Wstorr, Aitias, Johnuniq, Apparition11, Maddie 2387, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Roxy the
dog, EastTN, Galzigler, Teslaton, Gggh, CalumH93, Addbot, M.nelson, CanadianLinuxUser, Favonian, Raspberryh, ElCansado, Tide
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7.2 Images
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• File:3Com_OfficeConnect_ADSL_Wireless_11g_Firewall_Router_2012-10-28-0869.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/c/ca/3Com_OfficeConnect_ADSL_Wireless_11g_Firewall_Router_2012-10-28-0869.jpg License: CC0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Slick
• File:3_Resistors.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/3_Resistors.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contribu-
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• File:4-Bit_PISO_Shift_Register.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/4-Bit_PISO_Shift_Register.png
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248 CHAPTER 7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:555_Monostable.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/555_Monostable.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: Own work Original artist: Inductiveload
• File:555_Pinout.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/555_Pinout.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
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• File:7400.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/7400.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original
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250 CHAPTER 7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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tributors: ? Original artist: ?
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• File:Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_(NPN).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Ebers-Moll_model_
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schematic_%28PNP%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
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Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
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tributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Electric_load_animation_2.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Electric_load_animation_2.gif Li-
cense: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chetvorno
• File:Electric_power_source_animation_2.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Electric_power_source_
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• File:Electromagnetism.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Electromagnetism.svg License: CC-BY-SA-
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• File:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_A.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Electronic_Amplifier_Class_
A.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: en:Image:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_A.png Original artist: GRAHAMUK with modifica-
tion of Yves-Laurent Allaert
• File:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_B_fixed.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Electronic_Amplifier_
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Original artist: Nitram cero at English Wikipedia
• File:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_C.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Electronic_Amplifier_Class_
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• File:Electronic_Amplifier_Push-pull.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Electronic_Amplifier_
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jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded 03-26-2013 from <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://books.
google.com/books?id=uEASAAAAIAAJ,<span>,&,</span>,pg=PA23'>Lee De Forest The Audion - Detector and Amplifier in Proc. of
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domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sbyrnes321
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DJIndica at en.wikipedia
252 CHAPTER 7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader (derived from other own (Creative Commons) work from uploader at
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commons/3/34/High-energy_capacitor_from_a_defibrillator_42_MFD_%40_5000_VDC.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work
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License: CC0 Contributors: Own work — based on File:San_Bartolome_Perulapia.jpg Original artist: Ll1324
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author provided. Vadmium assumed (based on copyright claims).
• File:Highvoltagetransmissionlines.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Highvoltagetransmissionlines.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Staplegunther (talk)David Jolley
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• File:HitachiJ100A.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/HitachiJ100A.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
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comparison.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: <a href='//validator.w3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='W3C'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28red%29.svg/88px-Invalid_SVG_1.1_
%28red%29.svg.png' width='88' height='30' style='vertical-align: top' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
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• File:Inside_of_a_Boss_Audio_DD3600_Class_D_mono_block_amp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
2/26/Inside_of_a_Boss_Audio_DD3600_Class_D_mono_block_amp.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: I
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254 CHAPTER 7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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256 CHAPTER 7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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258 CHAPTER 7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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7.2. IMAGES 259

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I (Nkendrick (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist:
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260 CHAPTER 7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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