Shae) Fundamental Dimensions and Units Dimension is a physical quantity, such as length, time, mass, or temperature, that makes it possible for us to communicate. For example, length is needed to describe how tall we are, or how wide, or how long a ‘00m is, To describe how cold or hot something is, we need a physical quantity or dimension that we refer 10.45 temperature. Time is another physical dimension ‘hat allows us to explain our surroundings and answer questions such as: "How old are you?” We also have learned that some things are more massive than other things, so there is a need for another physical dimen. Sion to describe that observation, 3.5,3,8,5,38, 3,8 7 a "S'S'S"S's's'e's"S LEARNING OBJECTIVES Lot Lot Lo Lot Lo» Fundamental Dimensions and Units: explain what they mean and give exa""P" Systems of Units: describe what syste of units represent and give examples of SI (metric), British, and US. Customary Units for length, time, mass, force. and temperature Unit Conversion and Dimensional Homogeneity: know how to convett data from the St units to British and US. Customary units (and vice versa) and ch for dimensional homogeneity in formu Significant Digits (Figures): explain, extent to which recoded or computed is dependable nat Components and Systems: describe ™ they mean and give examples Physical Laws and Observations: what they mean and give examples ate Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 6 Fundamental Dimensions and Units WHAT DO YOU THINK? HICAGO—William Holdorf's amusingly Conner reaction against the metric sys- tem (“A foolish U.S. push to go metric,” Voice, Jan. 3) illustrates the very American habit of flaring our individualism at the slightest provo- cation. People are understandably put off by the argument that we must go metric because every- one else has, but the truth is that we do benefit from adopting certain universal conventions. Like Arabic numerals and the English language, the metric system is convenient and powerful just by being so widespread. But that's only a circumstantial advantage. As Mr. Holdorf correctly implies, a foot is still exactly as accurate as a meter. Accuracy depends on our instruments and technique, not on our choice of units. What's the big deal, then? Is our govern- ment just trying to appease those foreigners? No. The metric system actually is better. Its units are systematically, uniformly, and therefore predict- ably divided in multiples of 10. In order to convert inches to feet to yards to rods to furlongs to miles, you must divide by 12, 3, 5.5, 40, and 8, respectively. To go from centimeters to decimeters to meters to decameters to hectometers to kilometers, you divide, respectively, by 10, 10, 10, 10, and 10. Which list of numbers would you rather memorize in school? Which would you prefer if your work required frequent measurements and conversions? In the metric system, all you ever do is add or delete zeros or move the deci- mal point around, whereas conversions with the English system usually need long division or a calculator. The metric system was tailored to our good old decimal-number system, which, for those 147 who find comfort in the anatomical implica- tions of feet and inches, is in turn a monument to that accident of evolution that gave us 10 fin- gers. For better or for worse, this has given us a familiarity with the number 10 and its multiples, which is why we use them as yardsticks (sorry!) in phrases like “parts per million,” “mortality rate per 1,000 live births,” and “30 percent.” Familiarity is the only thing that makes our sys- tem seem easier. The metric system looks hard to fathom (yikes!) only because we never get to pour a liter or lift a kilogram. In many countries where the commercial influence of the United States ensures frequent contact with our units, people have no problem buying sugar by the pound while using kilos for official and techni- cal matters. I agree with Mr. Holdorf: Scientifically, we are still in a league (cops!) of our own, and not going metric won't send us back to the Stone Age. | also agree that the public cannot—and should not—be forced to use it, which is why the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 merely encourages volun- tary conversion, But | think itis perfectly appro- priate for the government to gently prod its contractors and agencies into becoming familiar with the metric system. The American heart and soul are not at stake here. This is an issue of tidiness. The U. inch (ouch!) toward the metric system through gradual exposure. The government mig as well have some fun and adopt 2s » my favorite reason for going metric: It bi! character. ‘Manuel Sanchez, Chicago Tribune, February 17,1996 Peroicie anaatenecue eRe MUTE U ciclaliae Llels POMP RC Muce a Ce UMC aL ec aalioad Scanned with CamScanneroR 6 stares aed Tey, pt fundame Ta Al vv this chapter, We Will explain’ fundamental engineerin suchas tength and: tine, and their units, such as meter wet pir rake in engineering analysis and design, Ae an a stalent and later as practicing engineer, when pectorming an tit Cll find a eed 49 convert [rom one system OF Units 9 another, Wes vain the sey necessary KY comNETT IMF MAtION FON OMe ysem gyal it * dimension to another correctly. In this chapter, We will also emphasize the fact that you must af cod he apprapriate nits that yo with Your calculations, Moreover, wey seta hat is tant Dy an engine stent and 30 engineering i rally, we will explain that physical hws ate based on observa renee ill use mathematics 10 express oUF observations in the form y useful equations, Fundamental Dimensions and Units_ In this section, we will introduce you to the concepts of dimension and unit You have been using these concepts most of your life; here, in this chapter we will define them in a formal way, For example, when asked how tall you are, you may respond with “Lam 183 centimeters tall.” Or when asked what the expected outside air temperature today, you could answer with something like: “Today is going to be hot and reach 38°C.” ‘The evolution of the human intellect has taken shape over a period of thousands of years. Men and women all over the world observed and learned {rom their surroundings. They used the knowledge gained from their observa tions of nature to design, develop, test, and fabricate tools, shelter, weapons, water transportation, and the means to cultivate and produce more food Moreover, they realized that they needed only a few physical quantities (dimensions) to fully describe natural events and their SUMING surroundings. Dimension is a physical quantity, such as length ~SHnenaaeediae gg] time. mass, or temperature, that makes it possible for us t con ieee descr 1 example, the dimension of length was needed '@ te lescribe how tall, how long, or how wide something was. The peau that some things are heavier than other thine’ * deccribe eet another physical quantity (dimension) humans did not fully Hee servation: the concept of mass and weight. Eatlt correct distinction bows taMt the concept of gravity; consequent. the What is force? The enn ass and weight (which is a force) was made Later OF two objects ea push ees (OFM Of a force that represents the interaeto® he n between your ha When you push or pull on a vacuum cleans Inthis example the te ea a he vac clean i ealled fre im cleaner) by direct contact, Regn eee out hand) on other bod ct. Not all forces result from direct cont For examy ‘ample, gravitati this book avitational force iste 8¥3 feet above the pra ee cxerted by ect contact hold iat to gravitational once eit bs whet Lecaea? ee bat ational attractive force «Matis exerted by the earthy teen that exert om weet tance, een oak THe $oCEPIS OF mass and force ay est BY the cathy Beamon ee at . ree in much greater det ee We will disc in Chapters 9 and 10. Time wa fe was another in order to be ate tonsa 10 be able t dimensios © explain thee nO" that humans Is needed to understil™ Founding: ule it sur z nd answer questions st! Scanned with CamScanner6.1 Fundamental Dimensions and Units @ 149 6 80] 30 ofa as: “How old are you?” “How long does it take to go from here to there?” The response to these questions in those early days may have been something like this: “I am many moons old,” or “It takes a couple of moons to go from our village to the other village on the other side of the mountains.” Moreover, to describe how cold or hot something was, humans needed yet another physical quantity, or physical dimension, that we now refer to as temperature. Think about the important role of temperature in your everyday life in describing various states of things. Do you know the answer to some of these questions: What is your body temperature? What is your bedroom air temperature? What is the temperature of the water that you used this morning to take a shower? What is the temperature of the air inside your refrigerator that kept the milk cold overnight? What is the temperature of the air coming out of your hair dryer? Once you start thinking about the role of temperature in ‘quantifying what goes on in our surroundings, you realize that you could ask hundreds of similar questions. Temperature represents the level of molecular activity of a substance. The molecules of a substance at a high temperature are more active than at a lower temperature. Early humans relied on the sense of touch or vision to measure how cold ‘or how warm something was. In fact, we still rely on touch today. When you are planning to take a bath, you first turn the hot and cold water on and let the bathtub fill with water. Before you enter the tub, however, you first touch the water to feel how warm itis. Basically, you are using your sense of touch to get an indication of the temperature. Of course, using touch alone, you can't quantify the temperature of water accurately. You cannot say, for example, that the water is at 21°C. We will discuss the importance of temperature, its measurement, and enginecring concepts related to temperature in Chapter 11. Scanned with CamScanner150 CHAPTER 6 Fundamental Dimensions and Units eI vorld, we need seven Today, based on what we know about our phy ieee ve surround. fundamental dimensions 10 correctly express ourselves in our Milton ings. They are length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, anne substance, and luminous intensity. With the help of these base dimensions. we can derive all other necessary physical quantities that would allow us to describe how things work. . By now, you understand why we need to formally define physical variables using fundamental dimensions. The other important fact you need to realize is that early humans needed not only physical dimensions to describe their sur- roundings but also some way to scale or divide these physical dimensions. This, realization led to the concept of units. For example, time is considered a physi- cal dimension, but it can be divided into both small and large portions, such as seconds, minutes, hours, days, months. years, decades, centuries, millennia, and so on. Today, when someone asks you how old you are, you reply by say. ing, “I am 19 years old.” You don’t say that you are approximately 6939 days. 170.000 hours oF 12,000,000 seconds old~even though these statements may ies, we may say that they are 161 Kilometers aparts ve donee oe eit 161,000 meters apart. The point of these exteaplce ne sont oe) the cities are rer imples is that we use appropri- ate divisions of physical dimensions to keep numbers manageable. tee ye learned to create an appropriate scale for these fundamental dinar We have divide them properly so that we ean describe particular even ions and object, the thermal state of an object, or its inferaction with the bestaracir correctly, and to do so without much difficulty, ‘th the surroundings Scanned with CamScanner6.2) Systems of Units 151 Answer the following questions to test your understanding of the Preceding section, 1, Name at least four fundamental dimensions, What is the difference between a dimension and unit? 3. Name at least two units that you use every day. 4. What is the difference between mass and weight? Vocabulary—State the meaning of the following terms: Dimension _ Unit Mass ___ Temperature Lo? 6.2 Systems of Units In the previous section, we explained that a dimension or physical quantity such as time can be divided into small and large portions such as seconds, hours, and days. Today, throughout the world, there are several systems of units in use, among which are the /nternational System (abbreviated as Sl, from French Systéme international d'unités) or sometimes called metric units, the British Gravitational (BG), and the U.S. Customary units, Let us now examine these systems of units in greater detail. International System (SI) of Units We begin our discussion of systems of units with the International System (ST) of units, because SI is the most common system of units used in the world. The origin of the present day International System of units can be traced back to 1799 with meter and kilogram as the first two base units. By promot ing the use of the second as a base unit of time in 1832, Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), who was an important figure in mathematies and physics, inclu ing magnetism and astronomy, had a great impact in many 4 of science and engineeris Perera etn cen It was ot until 1946 that the Propose a Leite are eee deen a base unit for electrie current was aPpranen I 1 ose GNSS ieke Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPMY Irn, CGPM included ampere ele 3 on i ean GEa mote was added as a base unit by the Ua sie SARA Of SI base units is given in Table osal for the ampere Renters tesua al Pere cuore aalasts Eat Peers Clos Scanned with CamScanner152 CHAPTER 6 at Physical Quantity (Dimension) | Length Mass Time ‘Thermodynamic temperature Electric current Amount of substance Luminous intensity Fundamental Dimensions and Units Examples fijrsm-20m Range of height for most adults he kg-120kg Range of mass for most adults Fastest person can run 100 meters in approximately 10 seconds Ice water: 0° C or 273K Comfortable room temperature: 22° C or 295K 27 watts 120volts 0.225 amps Uranium 238 — One of the heaviest Gold 197 atoms known Silver 108 Copper 64 Calcium 40 ‘Aluminum — 27 Carbon 12. — Common carbon is Helium 4 used as a standard. Hydrogen 1 & Lightest atom b f | Acandle has tuminous intensity of approximately candela The SI Base Units we Name of SI Base Unit SI Symbol Meter bs Kilogram back Second < Kelvin K ‘Ampere A Mole mol | | | Candela ed | Listed here are formal defi ions of ba International des Measures) ‘The meter is the length of the path traveled by 8 time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second. it is equal to the mass of the ional prototype of the kilogram. ae ‘The kilogram is the unit of mass; Poids et Mesures. (Inte J € units as provided by the Bureau tational Office of Weights and fight in a vacuum during interna. Scanned with CamScanner6.2 Systems of Units 153 The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom. ‘The ampere is that constant current that, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in a vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 210” newton per meter of length. The kelvin, a unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water (a point at which ice, liquid water, and water vapor coexist). ‘The unit of Kelvin is related to the degree Celsius, according to K="C+273.16. The mole is the amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other par- ticles, or specified groups of such particles. ‘The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 54010" hertz and has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. You need not memorize the formal definitions of base units as provided by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM). From your everyday life experiences, you have a pretty good idea about some of them. For example, you know how short a time period a second is or how long a period a year is. However, you may need to develop a “feel” for some of the other base units. For example, how long is a meter? How tall are you? Under 2 meters or perhaps above 1.5 meters? Most adult people’s height is approximately between 1.6 meters and 2 meters. There are exceptions of course. What is your mass in kilograms? Developing a “feel” for units will make you a better engineer. For example, assume you are designing and siz- ing a new type of hand-held tool, and based on your stress calculation, you arrive at an average thickness of 1 meter. Having a “feel” for these units, you will be alarmed by the value of the thickness and realize that somewhere in your calculations you must have made a mistake. We will discuss in detail the role of the base units and other derived units in the upcoming chapters in this book. Let us now turn our attention to the SI units for temperature. Most of you have seen a thermometer, a graduated glass rod that is filled with mer- cury. On the Celsius scale, which is a SI unit, under standard atmospheric conditions, the value zero was arbitrarily assigned to the temperature at which water freezes, and the value of 100 was assigned to the temperature at which water boils. It is important for you to understand that the nun i i e sign a value of pers were assigned arbitrarily: had someone decided to assign a value & and a value of 1000 to boi water, 100 to the ice water temperature ° ae would have had a very different type of temperature seale todar’ Tt Ui h Gravitation syste te under as you see in Figure 6.1, in the Brit on syste ot U.S. Customary system of units, on a Fahrenheit temper Te pcezes standard atmospheric conditions, the temperature oT ater boils i is assigned a value of 32, and the temperature 2 assigned a value of 212. Scanned with CamScanner154 CHAPTER 6 Fundamental Dimensions and Units 100 100 degre Celsius ~ 212 degree Fatrenn 100 te 7 0 =D aogee Cetus : Boling Water © Srey Dente oes utero obo} Tsp Ce OMEN et eve uence Dineen erent Cee as ae Because both the Celsius and the Fahrenheit scales are arbitrarily defined, scientists recognized a need for a better temperature scale. ‘This need led to the definition of an absolute scale, the Kelvin and Rankine scales, which are based on the behavior of an ideal gas, and that at zero absolute temperature all molecular activities stop. We will discuss this concept in much greater detail in Chapter 11. For now, itis important for you to know that in SI, the unit of tem- perature is degree Celsius (°C) or in terms of absolute temperature kelvin (K). The relationship between the degree Celsius and kelvin is given by: temperature (K) = temperature (°C) +273 also adapted the I units. Over the The General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960 first series of prefixes and symbols of decimal multiples of S| years, the list has been extended to include those listed in Table 6.2. When studying Table 6.2, note that nano (10-*), micro (10-*), centi (10), kilo (10°), mega (10°), giga (10°), and tera (10%) are examples of decimal multiples and prefixes used with SI units. You already use some of these multiples and Prefixes in your daily conversations. Examples include millimeter, centimeter, kilometer, milligram, megabytes, gigabytes, and terabytes, The units for other physical quantities such as 5 energy, or power used in engineering calculations can be derived from the base (fundamental) units, For example, the unit for force is the newton. It is derived from Newton's second law of motion. One newton is defined as a magnitude of a force that, when applied to 1 kilogram of mass, an Will accelerate the mass at a rate of 1 meter per second squared eis (ows), That is: 1N = (1 kg)(I m/s?). As a well-educated engi- heer, itis important to know the difference between mass and weight. As we mentioned previously, the weight of an object is the force that is exerted on the mass of the object by the carth’s gravity and is based on the universal law of gravitational Peed, force, pressure, sea prefixes Scanned with CamScanner6.2. Systems of Units 155 1,090,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 19 sis aia 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 10" ane iM 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 10 a im 1,000,000,000, =10" os 1,000,000, conn 3 me me retatesetsectthd tera T 1,000,000,000 = 10° giga 6 1,000,000 = mega M 1000 kilo. k ns hecto h deka da deci d centi c milli m 0,000,001 = 10-* ‘micro H 0.000000001 = 10° nano 1 0.000,000,000,001 = 10" pico Pp 0.000,000,000,000,001 = 10"* femto f 0.000,000,000,000,000,001 = 10-* atto a 0,000,000,000,000,000,000,001 = 10 zepto z 0,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,001 = 10 yocto y attraction. The following mathematical relationship shows the relationship among the weight of an object, its mass, and the acceleration due to gravity. weight = (mass) (accelaration due to gravity) cE This is a good place to say a few words about accel- komiagis >) tation due to Earth’s gravity, which has am approxi- DB GatAe Hs wntermetem ) mate value of 9.8 nvs'. To better understand what 2 WSiit ae grou this value represents, consider a situation where you let go of something from the rooftop of a tall building. If you were to express your observation, you will note the following, At the instant the object is released, i has a zero speed. The speed of the object will then increase by 9.8 mvs each second after you release resulting in speeds of 9.8 nv after 1 second, 19.6 nie after 2 seconds, and 29.4 mis after 3 seconds. ane St on. Moreover, when an object changes speed. WO is accelerating. Weight is equal to an eau that we must exert to prevent the nest ane ating. You know this from your dally Scanned with CamScanner156 CHAPTER 6 = Fundamental Dimensions and Units example, when you are holding on to a suitcase above ground. you feel the force that your hand has to apply to prevent the suitcase from falling to the ground and thus prevent it from accelerating. ; : “Examples of commonly derived SI units used by engineers are shown in Table 6.3. The physical quantities shown in Table 6.3 will be discussed in detail in the following chapters of this book. Starting in Chapter 7, we will discuss their physical meaning, their significance and relevance in engineer- ing. and their use in engineering analysis. Examples of Derived Units in Engineering Expression in Terms of Physical Quantity Name of SI Unit Symbol for SI Unit Base Units Acceleration mis? Angle radian rad Angular acceleration rad/s? Angular velocity rad/s Area ~ Density kg/m? Energy, work, heat joule N-morkg-m?/s? Force newton N kg - m/s? Frequency hertz Hz s Impulse N-sorkg-m/s Moment or torque N-morkg-m?/s? Momentum kg: m/s basso watt Ww J/sorN «mm/s orkg-m?/s? Pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m? orkg/m:s? Velocity m/s Volume: m Electric charge coulomb c Ass Electric potential volt v 4/Corm?-kg/(s? A?) Electric resistance ohm Q W/Aorm? -kg/(s? -A?) Electric conductance siemens s VQ ors? .A2/(m? -kg) Electric capacitance farad F Nors* 2/(m? -kg) Magnetic flux density tesla T V--s/mm? orkg/(s?-A) Magnetic flux weber Wb V-sorm? -kg/(s? -a) | Inductance henry 4 Vesa ms Absorbed dose of radiation gray Gy J/kg orm?/st at Scanned with CamScanner6.2, Systems of Units 157 esate situation wherein an exploration vehicle that has a mass of Mare tath on Earth (gravity, ag = 9:8 m/s" )issent to the Moon and planet Minen 0 exblore their surfaces. What isthe mass ofthe vehicle on the Moon. Where acceleration due to gravity is 1.6 mvs", and the planet Mars, where the acceleration due to gravity is 3.7 m/s"? What is the weight of the vehicle on the Earth, Moon, and Mars? : : The mass of the vehicle is 250 kg on the Moon and on the planet Mars as well. The mass of the vehicle is always 250 kg, regardless of where it is located. The mass represents the matter that makes up the vehicle, and since that does not change, the mass remains constant. However, the weight of the Vehicle varies depending on the gravitational pull of the location. On Earth, the vehicle will have a weight of weight, jan = (250 (28 2) 2450.N s Whereas on the Moon and Mars, the weights of the vehicle are weight, = (250 kg)(16 2)- 400 N z weight... = (250 re)(37 2 925N So as you can sce, the vehicle will weigh the least on the surface of the moon and would require the least amount of effort to lift it off the ground when necessary. British Gravitational System of Units In the British Gravitational (BG) system of units, the unit of length is a foot (fd), which is equal to 0.3048 meter; the unit of time is a second (s); and the unit of force is a pound (Ib), which is equal to 4.448 newton. Note that in the BG system, a pound force is considered a base or primary unit and the unit of mass, the s/ug is derived from Newton's second law. When one slug is subjected to one pound force, it will accelerate at a rate of 1 foot per second squared (ft/s*). That is, 1 Ib =(1 slug)(1 ft/s?). In the British Gravitational system, the unit of temperature (T) is expressed in degree Fahrenheit (F) br in terms of absolute temperature degree Rankine (“R). The relationship tween the degree Fahrenheit and degree Rankine is given by bel TER) = TPF) +460 cea “the relationship between degree Fahrenbeit and degree Celsius is given by (T(r) 32] ca 210°C) 2 cet ‘And the relationship between the degree Rankine andthe Kelvin is TER Tie 3k) {We will explore these relationships further in Chapter Ul Scanned with CamScannerFundamental Dimensions and Units USS. Customary System of Units cers still use the U.S. 158 CHAPTER 6 of Customary syste Which is equal to 0.3048 meter; the unit is cqual to 0.453592 kg: and the unit of ary system, the unit of foree is pound ht of an object having a mass of 1 Ibm ve certain location, where acceleration due to gravity is 32.2 ft/s? One pound force is equal to 4.448 newton (N). Because the pound force Is por delied formally using Newton's second law and instead is defined at a specific loca- tion, a correction factor must be used in formulas when using U.S. Customary units, The units of temperature in the U.S. Customary system are identical to the BG system, which we discussed earlier, that is degree F hrenheit (°F) or in terms of absolute temperature degree Rankine (°R). ; Finally, by comparing the units of mass in the BG system (that is one slug) to the U.S. system pound mass, we note I slug ~ 32.2 Ibm. For those of us who might be slightly massive (overweight), it might be tempting to express our mass in slugs rather than in pound mass or kilogram. For example, a person who has a mass of 150 Ibm or 68 kg would sound skinny if he were instead to express his mass as 4.6 slugs. Note that 150 Ibm = 68 kg = 4.6 slugs, and therefore, he is telling the truth about his mass! So you don’t have to lie about your mass; knowledge of units can bring about instant results without any exercise or diet. (See Example 6.4.) one atacabip MONE magoiudes of various SI and U.S. Customary unis ae depicted in Figure 2. When examining Figure 6.2, note that slightly larger than 3 feet, I kilogram is slightly larger than 2 pounds, and every 10° C difference is equal to 18 °F difference. In the United States, most engin units, The unit of length is a foot (10. of mass is a pound mass (Ibm), which time is a second (5). In the U.S. Custon force (Ibt) and 1 Ibf is defined as the wei + pound t+ im) en boa a | 104 | | 50 | 122 60 | 140 70 | 158 80 | 176 90 | i94 100 | Bia} Eo The relationships am e long magnitudes of variou Sland US. Customary unite oot mary units, Scanned with CamScanner6.2. Systems of Units 159 Examples of SI and U.S. Customary units used in our everyday lives are shown in Tables 6.4 Examples of SI Unit Usage Camera film Medication dose such as Sports: swimming Running Automobile engine capacity Light bulbs Electric consumption Radio broadcasting signal frequencies Police, fire signal frequencies Global positioning system signals nd 6.5, respectively. Examples of SI Units in Everyday use SI Units Used 35mm 100 mg, 250mg, or 500mg 100 m breaststroke or butterfly stroke 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 5000 m, and so on 2.2 L (liter), 3.8L, and so on 60 W, 100 W, or 150 W_ kWh (kilowatt-hour) 88-108 MHz (FM broadcast band) 0.54-1.6 MHz (AM broadcast band) 153-159 MHz 1575.42 MHz and 1227.60 MHz Examples of U.S. Customary Units in Everyday use Examples of U.S. Customary Unit Usage Fuel tank capacity Sports (length of a football field) Power capacity of an automobile [Distance between two cities ‘As shown in Table 6.4, a common SI unit for to 1000 cm! or 0.264 gallon (1 liter ~ 44 gallon), 1 cubic meter (| 7.48 gallons (1 f° 1 mass of | kilogram, and a gallon o! 8.3 pounds. These are good numbers to The watt (W) and horsepower (hp) and kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a SI unit of enerey. in Chapter 13 after we explain the power. The units of frequency are commonly has respectively. these uni 1000 liters 7.5 gallons ), US. Customary Units Used 20 gallons or 2.67 ft (1 ft? = 7.48 gallons) 100 yd or 300 ft 150 hp or 82500 Ib ft/s (1 hp = 550 tb ft/s) 100 miles (1 mile = 5280 ft) member! are units of power in We ferent forms expressed in ki volume is liter, which is equal and 1000 liters is equal to m'), Also, note that 1 cubic foot is is also worth noting that a liter f water has a mass of appro’ ‘of water imately st and US. will discuss of energy and jlohertz (kH2), Scanned with CamScanner160 CHAPTER 6 106.3 fundamental Dimensions and Units ee , sents the numbet seahertz (MHz), or gigahertz (GHz). Frequency Tepe me reer ads: For example, the alternating eleetTie tr A Ie ceed per second (60 hertz). Alternating current concept in greater trie charge that periodically reverses. We will discuss detail in Chapter 12 when we discuss electricity. ing of the “Answer the following questions to test your understanding of preceding section. 2 1. What are the two most common systems of units? 2. What are the base SI units? 3. Name at least three prefixes and symbols of decimal multiple of Sl units. 4, What are the units of mass and weight in U.S.? 5. What do we mean by absolute zero temperature? 6. What are the units of mass and weight in BGS? Vocabulary—State the meaning of the following terms: Absolute Zero Temperature Rankine Temperature Scale Kelvin Temperature Scale One Slug Unit Conversion and Di i Homogeneny imensional Some of you may ; ¥y know that not too long ago NAS, Mars Climate Orbiter because two groups of enprrewot & spacecralt called Hay pepaeter sineers working on the proj- transfer of infor- “8 Meter and SA, the information. © Scanned with CamScanner161 exchanged by tween the teams was critical to the maneuvers required to place the spacecraft is . in the proper Mars ot v6 mission is given in Fleurs 62 bit. An overview of the Mars polar lander L |. Launch + Delta 7425 Entry, escent, Landing 1V. + Arrival December 3, 1999 + Lands in Martian spring at sanded Operations + Launched January 3,199 + Fourtrajectory-correction + Jetson emis stage: 16 degrees South latitude, + Launch mass: S74 kilograms mancuvers (TCM): ste-___mcroprobes separate from 195 degrees West ‘adjustment maneuver cruise age longitude 768, 195W) September 1, 1990 «Hypersonic entry + 90day landed mission sonineeny STEM Gt Pynctedet + Meteorology, imaging, he propulive landing soil analysis, trenching even math erase 7 acca lege + Data relay via Mars + Neatsimuttancous tacking” landing site ‘Climate Orbiter, Mars with Mars Climate Orbiter Global Surveyor. or direct- for Mars Global Surveyor to-Eanh high-gain antenna daring approach PRICES oe noe vision crewes Courtesy of NASA Unit Conversion ‘As you can see, as engineering students and later as practicing engince's ven performing analysis, You will find a need to convert from one system nite to another. [tis very important for you at this stage in your eve" or earn to convert information from one system of units to another cor Iris also important for you to understand and to remember to show all you" eTeulations with proper units. This point cannot be emphasized enoush Caiways show the appropriate units that go, with your calculations. The Nays jon factors for the fundamental and derived dimensions ‘commonly conversion qin engineering are shown in Table 6.6. Detailed conor’! encountered. given on the back endpapers of this book. Examples @ 2.6.3, tales at a fhe ne tat ou need 0 ake cme am an of units to another. Scanned with CamScanner' 162 CHAPTER 6 Dimension SI Length meter (rm) Time second (5) Mass kilogram (kg) Force newton (N) IN=(1 19)(13) Temperature degree Celsius (°C) or kelvin (K) K= °C + 273.15 Work, Energy joule (J) = (1 N)(I m) Power wate) = toute kw = 1000 w rived or secondary dimension Fundamental dimension Fundam systems of Units and Convers! n Factors system of Units BG foot (ft) second (s) slugs’ Vib =(1 sug (14 degree Fahrenheit CF) or degree Rankine (CR) ‘R= °F + 45967 bf ft = (1 bf ft) Commonly written as ft- Ibf Ibf-ft_ _ (1 IbF)(I FD Tsecond Second ~ Tsecond ental Dimensions and Units Conversion Factors U.S. Customary 1 ft = 0.3048 m foot (ft) 1m = 3.2808 ft second (s) 1 Ibm = 0.4536 kg 1 kg = 2.2046 Ibm 1 slug = 322 Ibm pound mass (Ibm) ‘One pound mass” 1 N= 224.8096 -3 Ibf = 4448N weighs one pound yd force at sea level degree Fahrenheit (F) c= BF - 32] ‘or degree Rankine (°R) oN R= *F + 45967 Ceca = 5% k=3R “n= 3k IbF- ft = (1 HbA ft) 14 = 0.7375 ft- bf 1 ft- Ibf = 1.3558) 1 Btu = 778.17 ft Ibf Ibf-ft _ (UIbAIAY awe Sit second 1 second mae s Thp = 550 ftlbf s hp = 0.7457 kW (ote une Sl and BG systems, the relationship between pound force and pound mass isnot defined ‘ ote a temperature value expressed in Kreads kelvin nt degree Kelvin Seton ele onic vcore What is the equivalent value of T Rankine, and kelvins? To convert the value of temy Equation (6.4) and substitute the And to convert the result to degrees Rankine, 9 T(°F) 50° C in degrees Fahrenheit, degrees perature from Celsius to Fahrenheit, we use Value of 50 for the temperature (°C) variable as o 9 T(°C)+ 32. = =(50)+32 = 122° F we use Equation (6,3), so T(R)= T (°F) + 460 = 122 + 460 = 582° R Scanned with CamScanner6.3 Unit Conversion and Dimensional Homogeneity 463 Finally, to covert the value of T = 50° C to kelvin, we use Equation (6.1) or Table 6.6: T(K)=7 (°C) +273 = (50) +273 = 323 K Ei A person who is 6 feet and 3 inches tall and weighs 185 pound force (Ibf) is driving a car at a speed of 65 miles per hour over a distance of 25 miles between two cities. The outside air temperature is 80° F. Let us convert all of the values given in this example from U.S. Customary units to SI units. The steps to convert the person’s height from feet and inches to meters and centimeters are explained next. or height = (1.905 m)| 1006) 5s im 1, Start by converting the inch value into feet by realizing that 1 foot is equal to 12 inches. The expression conveys the same fact, except in when you write in fraction form and multiply it by the “3 in.” as shown: GB in f }: the inch units in the numerator and denominator cancel in. out, and the 3 in. value is now represented in feet, Add the results of step 1 10 6 ft. (0.3048 m . 3. Multiply the results of step 2 by [=a]. because 1 ft is equal to 0.3048 m, and the foot units in the numerator and denominator can- cel out. This step leads to the person’s height, expressed in meters, as [sorrel Te). 4. To convert the result from meters to centimeters, we multiply 1.905 (2 cm lam meter in the numerator and denominator. }. because I meter is equal to 100 em, and this step cancels out the To convert the person's weight from pound force to newtons is 4.448 N 1 bf 822.8.N = (185 10 Scanned with CamScanner64 CHAPTER 6 Fundamental Dimensions ana une ; +s weight, we multiply the 185 Ibt valoe by equal to 4.448 newtons (N). This lea te (avind denominator canceling out and the ws, as (185 ¥F)(4.448 NII ABE). ites per hour to kilometers per 5, To convert the person’s we (4.448 N/I Ibf), because 1 Ibf is pound force units in the numerato person's weight being expressed in newto! To convert the speed of the car from mi hour, use Tepe — stiles [= ft) 0.3048 | Lkm 10468 hr |{tmile Tt )11000 m r 5 miles/h to km/h, we start by convert- Toconvert the artromé 6. Toconvert the speed of the car from 105780 feet, we ing the 65 miles value to feet; knowing that 1 mile is et i 280 ft ft multiply the 65 miles by 5280. Thus, (os smbee S280 8) (0655280), ‘This step cancels out the miles units in the numerator and denom and result in the speed value being represented in feet per hour (ft/h). 7. Next, multiply the results of step 6 by (0.3048 m/I ft) , because 1 foot is equal to 0.3048 meters. This step cancels out the feet units in the numerator and miles )(5280 £-)(0.3048 m denominator and leads to (6s ae I i fe = J- 104,607 mv/br, 8. To convert the result of step 7 from m/h to km/h, we note that 1 kilometer jinator . 1km is equal to 1000 meters, and multipl {105,607 =) eae tocancel out ‘ ste ad wr) (1000 a the meter unit in the numerator and denominator. The speed of the car is now expressed in kilometers per hour (km/hr). To convert the distance traveled between two cities from miles to kilome- ters, use steps similar to these discussed previously. wp = = “(5280 ft)/0.3048 m)(_1 km distance = (25 miles)|>28° 82 _Lkm_)_ Tmite IT | F000 m | = 40-2 km 9. Convert the miles to feet by multiplying (25nites)( $280 ft Tamile 10. Convert the feet to meters by (25anites (280-4 (0.3048 m Tamite Te) 11. Convert the meters to kilometers by (25 mites) 280 03048 1 km 1 mile lft 1000 -m-)- To convert the air temy 0 perature from degre it i substitute for 7(°F) the value 80 in Bauionea) tee Page oS TCC) = Strcer)- 32] T(°C) = 3[80~32}=26.7°c Scanned with CamScanner5.3 Unit Conversion and Dim 6 and Dimensional Homogeneity 165 ‘ou don’t have to lie about your weight! For those of us who might be slightly mnt oF even overweight, it might be more appealing to express our mass in 150 pan father than in pound mass. For example, a person who has a mass of this pen nemass (Ibm) would sound skinny if he/she were instead to convert Value and express his/her mass in kilograms (kg). 1k Ibm kg 22 tome (150 Ibm)} (so sen |= 68 ie To convert the mass from pound mass (Ibm) to kilogram (kg), we note that AD 1 kg is equal to 2.2 Ibm. To obtain the result in kilogram we multiplied the 150 Ibm by the conversion factor aaa . which reads 1 kg is equal to 5 . 2 Ibm 2.2 Ibm. This step cancels out the pound-mass units in the numerator and denominator as shown. As you can sce from the result, 150 Ibm is equal to 68 kg: therefore, he or she is telling the truth about his or her mass! So you don't have to lie about your mass; knowledge of units can bring about instant results without any exercise or diet! For the following problems, use the conversion factors given on the front and back end covers of this book. (a) Convert the given value of area A from cm? to m?. Note A= 100 em A= 100 cm? A= (100 em! (| 01m? (b) Convert the given value of volume V from mm tom’. Note V = 1000 mm* Vv =100 mm* Im _/ 1000 mm (c) Convert the given value of atmospheric pressure P from N/m* to Ibfin#* | | 7 =(100 mm? (5 =10%m! | | | | | | | | | P=105N/m? P= {io Xi Ms | oem = 145 Ibt/in? m?)\ 4.448 N Lin. (a) Convert the given value of the density of water p from kg/m? to Ibmvft'. 1p =1000 kg/m? ~frogy ke ){ 1 tbm (1m) _ 62.5 tbm/tt? o-[to1 85 ere “| 328 ft Scanned with CamScanner166 CHAPTER 6 Fundamental Dimensions and Units Dimensional Homogeneity at you need tO understand is that all formulas { be dimensionally homogeneous. What do 2 Can you, say, add someone § height ‘and his body temperature of 37°C: 1! What would be the result of such nportant concept th used in en; analysis mus! we mean by dimensionally homogeneous who is 2 m tall to his weight of 100 ke that is, 2 + 100 + 37 = 139? Of course not a calculation? Therefore, if we were to use the formula L able Lon the left-hand side of the equation hat the variables a, b, and ¢ on the right-hand side dimensions of length. Otherwise, i dimensions such as length, weight, a tively, the given formula would not would be like adding someone's heig! temperature (Figure 6.4)! Example 6.6 homogeneity of dimensions in an engine Another ineerinj 1+ b+c, in which the vari- a dimension of length, then ‘of equation should also have { variables a, b, and ¢ had nd temperature, respec be homogeneous, which ht to his weight and body shows how to check for ering formula. Allformulas used in engineering Paiasuiiads st iasrenrily Glomlss(sitets ry (a) When a constant load is appli is applied to a bar with 4 constant cross secti ion, as shown in Figure 6.5, the am 5, amount i deflect can be determined from the relates son of Ger wil ERRUEERRW ic of cee sor poncgewon ee aE d (a) (by {@) The bar in Example 6, 6 trough a sold material.) Neat wanster Scanned with CamScanneryo 167 3 Unit Conversion and Dimensional Homogencity where d= end deflection of the bar in meter (m) P= applied load in newton (N) length of the bar in meter (m) Toss-sectional area of the bar (m?) 1odulus of elasticity of the material What are the units for modulus of elasticity? For Equation (6.7) to be dimensionally homogeneous, the units on the left- hand side of the equation must equal the units on the right-hand side. This equality requires the modulus of elasticity to have the units of N/m?, as PL (N)(m) 4B GE d Solving for the units of £ leads to N/m? (called newton per squared meter or force per unit area). (b) The heat transfer rate through a solid material is governed by Fourier’s law: heat transfer rate k= thermal conductivity of the solid material in watts per meter degree Celsius, Wim + °C A rea in m? T, ~ T, = temperature difference, °C L = thickness of the material, m What is the appropriate unit for the heat transfer rate q? Substituting for the units of k, A, T,, T,, and L in Equation 6.8, we have couche Melon Ww mC. From this, you can see that the appropriate SI unit for the heat transfer rate the watt Numerical versus Symbolic Solutions When you take your engineering classes, you need to be aware of two impor- tant things: (1) understanding the basic concepts and principles associated with that class and (2) how to apply them to solve real physical problems (situations). In order to gain an understanding of the basic concepts, you need to study carefully the statements of governing laws and the derivations of engineering formulas and their limitations. After you have studied the underlying concepts, you then need to apply them to physical situations by solving problems. After Studying a certain concept initially, you may think that you completely under- stand the concept, but itis through the application of the concept (by doing the homework problems) that you really can test your understanding. = Moreover, homework problems in engineering typically require either a numerical or a symbolic solution, For problems that require numerical Scanned with CamScannerntal Dimensions and Units the steps and 168 CHAPTER 6 Fundame'! © solution, solution, . In contrast, in the smb be m patituted with the final answer are presented with va a es hat og ihe ference y. The following examp! al and symbolic solutions: aA et that can be lifted by the yd s Nf s in Figure 6.6. a tenes tp amon Figure ev and area is explained in detail in Chapter 10. At this time, understanding these relationships. The purpose of this exa demonstrate the difference between a numerical and a symboli fhe concepts that are used to solve this problem are F, ="8> 5 = (ASAD where F denotes force, m is mass, gis acceleration due to gravity (g=9.81 m/s*), and A represents area. necessar} between numer ip among force, pressur don't worry about imple is to solution. T! Numerical Solution We start by making use of the given data and substituting them into appropri- ate equations. ‘m, g = (100 kg)(9.81 m/s*) = 981 N (0.15 my Fins wy et N= 8829 N = 8829 N =(m, kg)(9.81 nvs?) = m, = 900 kg Symbolic Solution For this problem, we could stai relates F, to F is problem, we rt with the equati thea sieaplify the vimilar quantiles such as rand ¢ inthe aan tena anner: Rp= 15cm The hydraulic system of Examp ple 6,2, Scanned with CamScanner64 Significant Digits (Figures) 169 Of i g fens this approach is preferred over the direct substitution of values into the uation right away, because it allows us to change a value of a variable such the OF the areas and sce what happens to the result. For example, using Sho embolic approach, we can see clearly that if m, is increased to a value of 00 kg, then m, changes to 1800 ke. Before y(t) CLT} 106.4 Significant Digits (Figures) Answer the following questions to test your understanding of the Preceding section, 1. Whyis it important to know how to convert from one system of units to another? 2. What do we mean by dimensional homogeneity? Give an example. 3. Show the steps that you would take to convert your height from feet and inches to meters and centimeters. 4. Show the steps that you would take to convert your weight from pound-force to Newtons. Vocabulary—State the meaning of the following terms: Dimensional Homogeneity. Unit Conversion Engineers make measurements and carry out calculations. Engineers then record the results of measurements and calculations using numbers. Significant digits (figures) represent and convey the extent to which recorded or computed data is dependable. For example, consider the instruments shown in Figure 67, We are interested in measuring the temperature of room air using a therm ter, the dimensions of a credit card using an engineering ruler, and the pres of a fluid in a line using the pressure gage shown. As you can see fir) t examples, the measurement readings fall between the smallest scale di cach instrument. In order to take the guess work out of the reading, sistency, we record the measurement to one half of the smallest scale «! of the measuring instrument. One half of the smallest scale division common! js called the least count of the measuring instrument. For example, referring Figure 6.7, it should be clear that the least count for the thermometer is 1 (the smallest division is 2°C). forthe ruler is 0.05 mm and for the pressure e: js 0.5 mm of water. Therefore, using the given thermometer, it would be incor rect to record the air temperature as 21.8° C and later use this value to carts Sut other calculations. Instead, it should be recorded as 22 + 1° C. This way you are telling the reader or the user of your measurement that the temperate ding falls between 21°C and 23°C. Note the correct way of reconing the dependability of a measurement using the + sign and the least count value, Scanned with CamScanner170 CHAPTER 6 PRETEEN ores oF ecorded measurements Significant digits (figui nd Units Tundamental Dimensions a” . 7 opresel convey the icant digits (figures) repre a iicate digits extent to which recorded or computed data is dependal ete tie wimbers zero through nine. However, when zeros are used (0 show the position of a decimal point, they are not considered significant digh i oF example, each of the following numbers 175, 25.5, 1.85, and 0.00125 has three int digits. Note the zeros in number (0.00125 are not considered to be significant digits, since they are used to show the position of the decimal point. As another example, the number of significant digits for the number 1500 is not clear, It could be interpreted as having two, three, or four significant digits based on what the role of the zeros is. In this case, if the number 1500 was expressed by 1.5 x 10", 15 x 10°, or 0.015 x 10°, it would be clear that it has two significant digits, By expressing the number using the power of ten, we can make its accuracy more As stated earlier, sign Gicererenmtknen) clear. However, if the number was initially expressed as 1500.0, aes then it has four significant digits and, this would imply that the accuracy of the number is known to 1/10000, Addition and Subtraction Rules When adding or subtracti result of the calculation should be recorded such that the last gAlticnnt dig in the result is determined by the position of the last column of digits comme ‘oall of the numbers being added or subtracted. For example pre 152.47+ or 132.853 - 9 5 156.37 127853 (Your calculator will display.) 1564 128 (However, the result should be recorded this way.) ‘The numbers 152.47 and 3.9 have fi 47 and 3.9 have five and two sj The nun 2a © significant digits, respective Since the nag Nese two numbers, the calculator will deel ee FesPeetively i column after the decimal point is commen) | oo-37: however. the result should be recorded as 156.1 *Sonimon to these numbers, Multiplication and Divisior m Rules Wiy iplyi the n en multiph ividi Significant aint Calculation should be recorded aint of dividing numbers. its given by any of the queer" With the least number of era FS used in the calculation. For Scanned with CamScanner f |65 Components and Systems sd 10° 6.5 Bea iieetadrcs Sa cunaels 152.47 x or 152.47 + 39 39 594.633 39,0948717949 (Your calculator will display.) 5.9 x 10° 390 (However, the result should be recorded this way.) In this example, the number 152.47 has five significant digits, and the number 3.9 has two significant digits. Therefore, the result of the calculations should be recorded with two significant digits, because the number 3.9 used in the calculations has the least significant digits. Finally, it is worth noting that in many engineering calculations it may be sufficient to record the results of a calculation to a fewer number of significant digits than obtained following the rules explained previously. In this book, ‘we present the results of example problems with two or three decimal points. Components and Systems 7 Every engineered product is made of components. Let us start with a simple example to demonstrate what we mean by an engineering system and its components. Most of us own a winter coat, which can be looked at as a system. First, the coat serves a purpose. Its primary function is to offer additional insulation for our bodies so that our body heat does not escape as quickly and as freely as it would without protective covering. The coat may be divided into smaller components: the fabric comprising the main body of the coat, insulating material, a liner, threads, zipper(s), and but- tons. Moreover, each component may be further subdivided into smaller components. For example, the main body of the jacket may be divided into sleeves, collar, pockets, the chest section, and the back section (see Figure 6.8). Each component serves a purpose: The pockets were designed to hold things, the sleeves cover our arms, and so on. The main function of the zipper is to allow us to open and close the front of the jacket freely It too consists of smaller components. Think once more about the overall purpose of the coat and the function of each component. A well-designed coat not only looks appealing to the eyes but also has functional pockets and keeps us warm during the winter. Engineering systems are similar to a winter coat. Any given eng product or engineering system can be divided into smaller, more man able subsystems, and each subsystem can be further divided into smaller and smaller components. The components ‘of a well-designed engineering system should function and fit well together so that the primary purpo of the product is attained. Let us consider another common example The primary function of a car is to move us from one place to another in @ re Eonable amount of time. The car must provide a comfortable area for us to ‘sit within, Furthermore, it must shelter us and provide some protection from the outside elements, such as harsh weather and harmful objects outside. The automobile consists of thousands of parts. When viewed in its entirety, itis a complicated system ‘Thousands of engineers have contributed to the design, develop ment, testing, and supervision of the manufacture of an uty mobile. These include electrical engineers, electronic engineers, necred Scanned with CamScannerns and Units tz eMapreR 6 Fundamental Dimensio ni material PA siple system and its components combustion engineers, materials engineers, aerodynamics experts, vibration and control experts, air-conditioning specialists, manufacturing engincers, and industrial engineers. : ‘When viewed as a system, the car may be divided into major subsystems or units, such as electrical, body, chassis, power train, and air condition- ing (see Figure 6.9). Each major component can be further subdivided into smaller subsystems and their components. For example, the main body of the car consists of doors, hinges, locks, windows, and so on. The windows are controlled by mechanisms that are activated by hand or motors. And the electrical system of a car consists of a battery, a starter, an alternator, wiring, lights, switches, radio, microprocessors, and so on. The ca system consists of components such as a fan, an evaporator, and a condenser, r’s air-conditioning : ducts, diffusers, a compressor, Again, each of these components can be Wiper motor 3 system Engine Scanned with CamScanner6.6 Physical Laws and Obsery 10° 6.6 ‘ations 173 Reece into yet smaller components. For example, the fan consists of TeainPeller, a motor, and a casing. From these examples, it should be clear lat, in order to understand a system, we must first fully understand the role and function of its components. _,, During the next four or five years, you will take a number of engineering classes that will focus on specific topics. You may take a statics class, which deals with the equilibrium of objects at rest. You will learn about the role of external forces, internal forces, reaction forces, and their interactions. Later, you will learn the underlying concepts and equilibrium conditions for design- ing parts. You will also learn about other physical laws, principles, mathemat- ies, and correlations that will allow you to analyze, design, develop, and test various components that make up a system, It is imperative that during the next four or five years you fully understand these laws and principles so that you can design components that fit well together and work in harmony to fulfill the ultimate goal of a given system. Thus, you can see the importance of learning the fundamentals. If you don’t, you are likely to design poor com- Ponents that, when put together, will result in an even poorer system! Answer the following questions to test your understanding of the preceding section. 1. What is the difference between a component and a system? 2. What are the major components of a building? How would you define major components for a supermarket? 4. What are the major components of a bicycle? Vocabulary—State the meaning of the following terms: Acomponent A system Physical Laws and Observations ‘As stated earlier, engineers apply physical and chemical laws and principles along with mathematics to design, develop, test, and mass-produce products fand services that we use in our everyday lives. The key concepts that you need to keep in the back of your mind are the physical and chemical laws and principles and mathematics. ; Having had a high school education, you have a pretty good idea of what we mean by mathematics, But what do we mean by physical laws? Well, the niverse, including the earth that we live on, was created a certain way. There are differing opinions as to the origin of the universe. Was it put together God(s). of did it start with a big bang? We won't get into that discussion here, Bur we have learned through observation and by the collective effort of those Scanned with CamScanner174 CHAPTER 6 4 units rental Dimensions and run iration attraction a) vow ee SavaeretSSINY y ve erly understood - For example, if you let go of before us that things work a certa , . That is resthin that your are holding in your hand, it wil fall to the ground: TAs an observation that we all agree upon, We can use words to explain Ow! & ‘ons or use another language, such as mathematics, to express OUF a ines. ir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) formulated that observation into ra useful mat! \e- matical expression that we know as the universal law of gravitational attraction. ‘An important point to remember is that the physical laws are based on obser. vations. Moreover, we use mathematics and basic physical quantities to express our observations in the form of a law. Even so, to this day, we may not fully under- stand why nature works the way it does. We just know it works. There are physi- cists who spend their lives trying to understand on a more fundamental basis why nature behaves the way it does. Some engineers may focus on investigating the fundamentals, but most engineers use fundamental laws to design things. As another example, when you place some hot object in contact with a cold object, the hot object cools down while the cold object warms up until they both reach an equilibrium temperature somewhere between the two temperatures. From your everyday experience, you know that the cold object does not get colder while the hot object gets hotter! Why is that? Well, itis just the way things work in nature! ‘The second law of thermodynamics which is based on this observation, simply states that heat flows sy i ously from a high-temperature region to a low-temperature resinn Tho oct with the higher temperature (more energet ‘ature region. The object r ‘getic) transfers some of it the low-temperature (less energetic) object. When ita energy to glass of warm soda, the soda cools down while the ee eos ie cubes in a ally melts away. You may call this “sharing resources.” Unie pe ee eae: eople do not follow this la af .” Unfortunately, we as peop! is law closely when it comes to social issues. To better understa . consider another or young brothers and sisters. If u pl ‘ room that j the child play with the toys for a while, and then See ee ore fet lew minutes, you would find toys scattered all over v s er the room in a di: W Poe ind to i : in a disorderly way, x certain direction ia fe These tn ene P ane qcnetlneeden iat, {Wo examples demonstrate th, ae ad ha . hermodynamics. Things in nature work i certain direction iS aes in : Y themselves. n way in nature. Scanned with CamScanner6.6. Physical Laws and Observation 175 Engineers are also good bookkee; wi ta US With a checking neeconekeokeePets: What do we mean by this? Any of In order to aveld raga Knows the importance of accurate record keeping. of payments a eas, most of us keep track of the transactions in terms instantly what the balana deposits (credits). Good bookkeepers can tell you the recorded bel ance i their accounts. They know they need to add to the balance anulinee Whenever they deposit some money and subtract from else, need seat every withdrawal from the account. Engineers, lke everyone a checking eee? ack of their accounts. Moreover, similar to bookkeeping When ance account, engineers keep track of (bookkeep) physical quantities Tra tntlyzing an engineering problem. — | ; are na teak, understand this concept, consider the air inside a car tire. there capreeks the mass of air inside the tire remains constant. This sa statement Tey king the conservation of mass, which is based on our observations. Ifthe ire develops a leak, then you know from your experience that the amount of air within the tire will decrease until you have a flat tire. Furthermore, you know the air that escaped from the tire was not destroyed; it simply beeame Part of the surrounding atmosphere. The conservation of mass statement is Similar to a bookkeeping method that allows us to account for what happens to the mass in an engineering problem. What happens if we try to pump some air into the tire that has a hole? Well, it all depends on the size of the hole and the pressure and flow rate of the pressurized air available to us. If the hole is small, we may be able to inflate the tire temporarily. Or the hole may be so large that the same amount of air that we put into the tire comes right back out. To completely describe all possible situations pertaining to this tire problem, we can express the conservation of mass as the rate at which air enters the tire minus the rate at which the air leaves the tire should be equal to the rate of accumulation or depletion of air inside the tire. Of course, we will use the physical quantity mass along with mathematics to express this statement. We will discuss the conservation of mass in more detail in Chapter 9. ‘There are other physical laws based on our observations that Tae wwe use to analyze engineering problems. Conservation of energy RRO Ca PAR EnMeaeen | is another good example. It is again similar to a bookkeeping B5}| method that allows us to keep track of various forms of energy and ciichog acre Ont ue Leura . i how they may change from one form to another. We will spend ‘uit more time discussing the conservation of energy in Chapter 13. Another important law that all of you have heard about is Newton's second law of motion. If you place a book on a smooth table and push it hard enough, it will move. This is simply the way things work. Newton Observed this and formulated his observation into what we call Newton's second law of motion. This is not to say that other people had not made this simple observation before, but Newton took ita few steps further. He noticed that as he increased the mass of the object being pushed, while keeping the magnitude of the force constant (pushing with the same effort), the object did hot move as quickly. Moreover, he noticed that there was a direct relationship ven the push, the mass of the object being pushed, and the acceleration eee bject. He also noticed that there was a ditect relationship between the oon ove the force and the direction of the acceleration. Newton expressed wince vations using mathematics, but simply expressed, this law states that tis ose force is equal to mass times acceleration. You will have the oppor Stake hysics classes that will allow you to study and explore Newton’. ey i ww of tenia further. Some of you may even take a dynamics class that second lav greater detail on motion and forces and their relationship, Don’, bt om af the main idea: Physical laws are based on observations Scanned with CamScannerntal Dimensions and Units 176 CHAPTER 6 == Fundame ~/ N. (his experiment has > ¢ sure made me Hive en Another important idea to keep in mind is that a physical law may not fully describe all possible situations. Statements of physical Inws have limita- tions because we may not fully understand how nature works; thus, we may to account for all variables that can affect the behavior of things within our natural world, Some natural laws are stated in a particular way to keep the mathematical expressions describing the observations simple. Often, we resort to experimental work dealing with specific engineering applications. For example, to better understand the aerodynamics of a car, we place it inside a wind tunnel to measure the drag force acting on the car. We may represent our experimental findings in the form of a chart or a correlation that can be used for design purposes over a predetermined range. The main difference between laws and other forms of experimental findings is that the laws represent the results of a much broader observation of nature, and almost everything that we know in our physical word obeys thes laws. The engineering correlations, . apply over a very limited and specific range of variables. Answer the following questions to test your understanding of the preceding section. 1. What do we mean by a physical law and what are they based on? 2. Give two examples of physical laws, 3. In your own words, describe the conservation of mass _ Vocabulary—State the meaning of the following terms: Physical Law. Correlation Scanned with CamScanner66 Physical Laws and Observations 77 Leaming Engineering Fundamental Concepts and Design Variables from Fundamental Dimensions eee peels In Chapters 7 through 12, we will focus on teaching You stub of the énainaesiog fsndansatal that yoy will see over and over in \¢ form or other during your college years. Please try to study these con- cepts carefully and understand them completely. Unfortunately, today, many students graduate without a good grasp of these fundamental concepts— concepts that every engineer, regardless of his or her area of specialization, should know. We will focus on an innovative way to teach some of the engi- neering fundamental concepts using fundamental dimensions. Moreover, we will explain them in a way that could be easily grasped at a freshman level. As we explained previously, from the observation of our surroundings, we have learned that we need only a few physical quantities (fundamental dimensions) to describe events and our surroundings. With the help of these fundamental dimensions, we can then define or derive engineering variables that are commonly used in analysis and design. As you will sec in the following chapters, there are many engineering design variables that are related to these fundamental dimensions (quantities). As we also discussed and emphasized previously, we do need not only physical dimensions to describe our surround- ings, but we also need some way to scale or divide these physical dimensions. For example, time is considered to be a physical dimension, but it can be divided into both small and large portions (such as seconds, minutes, hours, and so on). To become a successful engineer, you must first fully understand these funda- mentals. Then it is important for you to know how these variables are measured, approximated, calculated, or used in engineering analysis and design. A sum- mary of fundamental dimensions and their relationship to engineering variables is given in Table 67. After you understand these concepts, we will explain the concepts of energy and power in Chapter 13. Study this table carefully. Fundamental Dimensions and How They Are Used in Defining Variables that Are Used in Engineering Analysis and Design | | Fundamental Chapter Dimension 7 a 9 Length (L) Time (t) ‘Mass (M) Related Engineering Variables Radian (L/L) Area (l) Yohues (0) Area mania strain (L/L) of inertia (L") ‘Angular speed (1/t) ue el rate (L/t) ‘Angular acceleration (1/t?) rate (2/t) Linear speed (L/t) Linear acceleration (L/t?) Mass flow rate (M/t) Density (M/L), Momentum (ML/t) Specific volume e/m) | Kinetic energy (ME/t?) | Continved Scanned with CamScanneri. Fundamental nits pimensions and UI in Defining aa Se ey Are Used (Continued) tat Dimensions and How They A'S COST Design PTT Fundamen i are used in Engineering ae Variables that __ ee as gs pindicnent i iables Fundamental petated Engineering Vat Chapter Dimension 7 fic weight : Moment (LF) Pressure (F/L?) ee 2 eo Ma obaie stress (F/U) fork, Modulus of Le elasticity (F/L) Power(FL/t) Modulus of rigidity (F/12) Volume thermal " Temperature Linear thermal en | m ‘expansion (L/LT) (P/ET), | Specific heat (FL/MT) 2 Electric Current Charge (/t) Current density 0 we) LO! Fundamental Dimensions and Units By now, you should understand the importance of fundamental dimensions in everyday life and why, as good future engineers, you should develop a good grasp of them. As people, we have realized that we need only a few physical dimensions ‘or quantities to describe our surroundings and daily events. For example, we need a length dimension to describe how tall, how long, or how wide something is. Time is another physical dimension that we need to answer questions such as: “How old are you?” or “How long it takes to go from here to there.” You should also know that today, based ‘on what we know about our world, we need seven fundamental dimensions to correctly express our observations in our surroundings. They are length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, amount of substance, and luminous intensity. The other important concept that you should know is that not only do we need to define these physical dimensions to describe our surroundings but that we also need to devise some way to scale or divide them into units. For example, the dimension time can be divided into both small and large portions, such as seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years, etc. LO? Systems of Units world, 1a). You should also have these units represent, For example, how much a much a kilogram is or what a meter Scanned with CamScannerkey Terms represents. The SE units also make use ives and symbols of de a kilo, ete of series al multiples such You also should be familiar with British Gravie tutional units such as slugs. The U.S, Customary systems of units is used only in the United States You should be familiar with formal definitions for the units of length (feet), time (second), mass (pound-mass). temperature (degree Rankine or degree Fahrenheit), electric current (ampere), amount of substance (mole), and luminous intensity (candela). You also should have a good feel for what these units represent 10° Unit Conversion and Dimensional Homogeneity You should know how to convert values from one system of units to another. For example, you should be able to convert SI data, such as meter, kilogram, or kelvin, to U.S. Customary units of feet, pound-mass, and Rankine, and vice versa. You should know what we mean when we say an equation must be dimensionally homogeneous. For example, you already know that you cannot add someone's height who is 2 meters tall to his ht of 100 kg and his body temperature of 37°C; that is, 2+ 100 + 37 = 1392 What would be the result of such a calculation? Therefore, if you were to use the formula L= a+ b+e. in which the variable L on the left-hand side of the equation has a dimension of length, then the Variables a, 6, and ¢ on the right-hand side of equation should also have dimensions of length. Common sense! ae ear OE OUTER MGS aa Ampere 153 Giga 154 Candela 153 Kelrin 158 Celsius. 153 Parad Centi 154 Se Component 172 a Dimension 146 as Fahrenheit 153 se Foot 157 a legs Mole 153 179 LO Significant Digits (Figures) As we explained in this chapter, engineers make measurements and carry out calculations. Engineers then record the results of measurements and calculations using numbers. Significant digits (figures) represent and convey the extent to which recorded or computed data is dependable. LO* Components and Systems You should be able to explain what is meant by a system and its component and give examples. For example, every product that you own or will purchase some day is considered a system and is made of components. The next time you purchase a product think of it in terms of a system and its components and be mindful of the entire life cycle of the product. Could the components of the system be recycled and/or used for another purpose? LO* Physical Laws and Observations You should realize that physical laws are based fon observation and experimentation, We have learned through observation and by the collective effort of those before us that things work a certain way in nature, For example, if you let go of something that you are holding in your hand, it will fall to the ground. That is an observation that we all agree upon. We can use words to explain our observations or use another language, such as mathematics and formulas, to express our findings. Sir Isaac Newton and many other scientists formulated their observations into useful mathematical expressions that we now can use to design various things. Nano 154 Physical Law 173 Pound Force 157 Pound Mass 158 Rankine 154 Second 153 system 171 Tera 154 Unit 150 Scanned with CamScanner