Chapter-I

2 Outline

Communication?
Telecommunication?
Network?
Telecommunication Network?
History and evolution of telecommunication
network?
3 Communication?
 Communication is the sharing of information or messages between two or more
entities.
 Elements of a Communication System
➢ Source - the originator of the message, whether it is a person or machine.
➢ Transmitter - the equipment that modifies the message (either data or voice) into
the form required for transmission.
➢ Communications channel - the means of carrying the signal from the source to the
destination.
➢ Transmission media - may be physical, like a copper wire or fiber optic cable, or
atmospheric, like radio waves.
➢ Receiver - is the device that captures the message from the communications
channel and converts it into a form that the person or machine at the destination
can understand.
➢ Destination - the person or machine to whom the message is directed.
4 Block diagram for communication system

 Flow of Messages
➢ Simplex
➢ Half-duplex communication
➢ Full-duplex communication
 Telecommunication
5

 Communication that spans a distance.

 Telecommunications has been defined as a technology concerned with
communicating from a distance or
 The transmission of signals over long distance, such as by telegraph,
radio or television.
 It includes mechanical communication and electrical communication.
6 Con…

 Voice telecommunication - using electrical signals to transmit human

voice across a distance, such as telephones and radio broadcasts.

 Video telecommunication - electrically-based transmission of moving

pictures and sound across a distance.

 Data telecommunication - the use of electrical signals to exchange

encoded information between computerized devices across a distance.
7 Significance of Telecommunications
 Telecommunications services have an essential impact on the development of a
community.
 The operations of a modern community are highly dependent on telecommunications.
Some examples of services that depend on telecommunications:
✓ Aviation, booking of tickets;
✓ Banking, automatic teller machines, telebanking;
✓ Sales, wholesale and order handling;
✓ Credit card payments at gasoline stations;
✓ Booking of hotel rooms by travel agencies;
✓ Material purchasing by industry;
✓ Government operations, such as taxation
8 Network
A Computer network consists of communications media,
devices, and software needed to connect two or more
computer systems or devices.
Computer networks are essential to modern organizations
for many reasons.
➢First, networked computer systems enable organizations to
be more flexible and adaptable to meet rapidly changing
business conditions.
9
Con…

➢ Second, networks enable companies to share hardware,

computer applications, and databases across the organization.
➢ Third, networks make it possible for geographically dispersed
employees and workgroups to share documents, ideas,
opinions, and creative insights, encouraging teamwork,
innovation, and more efficient and effective interactions.
➢ Finally, the network is increasingly the link between
businesses and between businesses and their customers.
10 LAN
 A local area network connects two or more communicating devices
within the same building.
 A LAN allows a large number of users to share corporate resources
,such as storage devices, printers, programs, and data files.
 Network have Topology and Protocols.
➢ The topology of a network is the physical layout and connectivity of
a network.
➢ Specific protocols, or rules of communications, are often used on
specific topologies,
11
Con…
➢ Protocol refers to the rules by
which data communications
take place over these
channels

➢ There are five basic network

topologies: star, bus, ring,
hierarchical, and hybrid
12 WAN

 Wireless local area networks (WLANs). WLAN technologies provide

LAN connectivity over short distances
 Are long-haul, broadband networks covering wide geographic
areas.
13 Evolution of Telecommunication

umbrella
14 Telegraphy

 Samuel Morse (1844) and William thomson (1855)

➢ from the two Greek words: Tele means “far” and graphene meaning “writing”.
➢ So telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages via some signaling
technology.
➢ It requires messages to be converted to a code, which is known to both sender and
receiver.
15 Morse Telegraph
 Samuel Finely Breese Morse (1791 – 1872) Painter , Inventor.
16 Sequences of operations

 When a finger presses the key, electricity flows from the battery through the wires
and causes an impulse to flash to the electromagnet at the receiving end.
➢ The impulse causes a burst of magnetism that causes two pieces of iron to be
attracted to each other and make a click.
➢ If the operator depresses and releases the key quickly, a short click is produced,
a “dot”.
➢ If the operator holds down the key for a count of about three , a longer click is
produced, a “dash”.
➢ Each letter of the alphabet is assigned its own configuration of dots and dashes.
17 Con…

 International Morse codes

18 Standardization

❖ Communication networks are designed to serve a wide variety of users who are using
equipment from many different vendors.
❖ Standards are necessary to achieve interoperability, compatibility, and required
performance in a cost effective manner.
❖ Open standards are needed to enable the interconnection of systems, equipment, and
networks from different manufacturers, vendors, and operators.
❖ Example International Telecommunication Union (ITU), American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).
19 Telecommunication Network

 An overall telecommunications network defined as a long

distance communication and interconnected via networks.
20

any doubt and comment

???
welcome
 Chapter-II

Basics of Telecom Networks

22 Outline

 Introduction
 Technology of communication
 Operation of a Conventional Telephone
 Signaling between Exchange and Telephone
 Telephone Numbering
 23 INTRODUCTION

▪ The basic purpose of a telecommunications network is to transmit user

information in any form to another user of the network.
▪ These users of public networks, for example, a telephone network, are called
subscribers.
▪ User information may take many forms, such as voice or data, and subscribers
may use different access network technologies to access the network, for
example, fixed or cellular telephones.
24 Technology of communication

There are three technologies needed for communication through the network.
➢Transmission,
➢Switching, And
➢Signaling.
25 Transmission

Transmission is the process of transporting information between end points of a

system or a network.
Transmission systems use different media for information transfer from one point
to another such as:
➢ Copper cables, such as those used in LANs and telephone
subscriber lines;
➢ Optical fiber cables, such as high-data-rate transmission in
telecommunications networks;
➢ Radio waves, such as cellular telephones and satellite
transmission;
➢ Free-space optics, such as infrared remote controllers.
26 Switching
 In the very beginning of the history of telephony all telephones connected to
each other by cables.
 However, as the number of telephones grew, it was necessary to switch
signals from one wire to another.
 Now software-controlled digital exchanges developed.
27 Functions of switching system
 Identify: The local switching center must react to a calling signal from calling
subscriber and must be able to receive information to identify the required
destination terminal.
 Addressing: The switching system must be able to identify the called subscriber
from the input information (train of pulses or multiple frequency). The address may
be in same local center or some other exchange.
 Finding and path setup: Once the calling subscriber destination is identified and
the called subscriber is available, an accept signal is passed to the switching system
and calling subscriber. Based on the availability, suitable path will be selected.
 Busy testing: If the number dialed by the calling subscriber is wrong or the called
subscriber is busy or the terminal may be free but no response, a switching system
has to pass a corresponding voice message or busy tone after waiting for some time.
28 Con…
 Supervision: Once the path is setup between calling and called subscriber, it
should be supervised in order to detect answer and clear down conditions and
recording billing information.
 Clear down: When the established call is completed, the path setup should be
disconnected. By clear signal, the switching system must disconnect the path
setup between calling and called subscriber.
 Billing: A switching system should have a mechanism to meter to count the
number of units made during the conversation. This information and if any
should be sent to the calling subscriber.
29 Con…
 Modern exchanges usually have quite a large capacity—tens of thousands
subscribers—and thousands of them may have calls ongoing at the same
time.
30 Signaling
Signaling is the mechanism that allows network entities (customer premises or network
switches) to establish, maintain, and terminate sessions in a network.
Some examples of signaling examples on subscriber lines are:

➢ Off-hook condition: The exchange notices that the subscriber has raised the
telephone hook (dc loop is connected) and gives a dial tone to the subscriber.
➢ Dial: The subscriber dials digits and they are received by the exchange.
➢ On-hook condition: The exchange notices that the subscriber has finished the call
(subscriber loop is disconnected), clears the connection, and stops billing.
31 Operation of a Conventional Telephone

 Home telephone receives the electrical power from the local exchange via two
copper wires.
 This subscriber line, which carries speech signals as well, is a twisted pair
called a local loop.
32 Microphone
 When we raise the hook of a telephone, the on/off hook switch
is closed and current starts flowing on the subscriber loop
through the microphone that is connected to the subscriber
loop.
 The microphone converts acoustic energy to electrical energy.
 When sound waves pressed the carbon grains more tightly,
loop resistance decreased and current slightly increased.
 The variable air pressure generated a variable alternating
current to the subscriber loop.
 This variable current contained voice information.
33 Earphone
 Alternating current, generated by the microphone, is converted
back into voice at the other end of the connection.
 The earphone has a diaphragm with a piece of magnet inside a
coil.
 The coil is supplied by alternating current produced by the
microphone at the remote end of the connection.
 The current generates a variable magnetic field that moves the
diaphragm that produces sound waves close to the original
sound at the transmitting end.
34 Signaling between Exchange and Telephone

Telephone exchanges supply dc voltage to subscriber loops, and telephone

sets use this supplied voltage for operation.
Setup and Release of a Call
➢ Each telephone has a switch that indicates an on- or off-hook condition.
➢ When the hook is raised, the switch is closed and an approximately 50 mA
of current starts flowing. This is detected by a relay giving information to
the control unit in the exchange.
➢ The control unit is an efficient and reliable computer (or a set of computers)
in the telephone exchange, It activates signaling circuits, which then
receive dialed digits from subscriber A.
35 Con…
➢ When the call is being routed to subscriber B, the telephone
exchange supplies to the subscriber loop a ringing voltage and the
bell of subscriber B’s telephone starts ringing.
➢ The ringing voltage is often about 70V ac with a 25-Hz frequency,
which is high enough to activate the bell on any telephone.
➢ The ringing voltage is switched off immediately when an off-hook
condition is detected on the loop of subscriber B, and then an end-
to-end speech circuit is connected and the conversation may start.
36 Con…
37 General procedure from originating CPE to terminating CPE

Originating Terminating
Originating Switching Switching Terminating
CPE Office Office CPE

Idle
1
Off-hook
2
Dial Tone
3
Dialed Digits
4
Off-hook
5
Off-hook (wink)
6
On-hook (wink)
7
Dialed Digits
8 9
10 Audible Ring Ringing

Answer 12 Off-hook 11
13 Disconnect
38 Telephone Numbering
An international telephone connection from any telephone to any other telephone is made
possible by unique identification of each subscriber socket in the world.
 International Prefix:-used for international calls, may differ from country to
country.
 Country Code:-one to four numbers that define the country of called subscriber, are
not needed for national calls because their purpose is to make the subscriber
identification unique in the world.
 Trunk Code, Trunk Prefix, or Area Code:-defines the area inside the country
where the call is to be routed. In the case of cellular service, the trunk code is used to
identify the home network of the subscriber instead of the location.
 Subscriber Number:-is a unique identification of the subscriber inside a geographical
area
 Operator Numbers:-a subscriber will need to dial additional digits to select a service
provider
39 Con…
40 QUISE(10%)

If we have subscriber A and subscriber B, if subscriber A want to call for

subscriber B and when subscriber A is off hook condition at that time subscriber
B was off hook what will be going on
1. Subscriber A
2. Exchange
3. The local loop
4. Billing
5. Ring tone and ring signal
41
42
Chapter-III

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43 outline

 PSTN
 Mobile to land call
 Land to mobile call
 Theory of traffic engineering
44 PSTN
PSTN is the worldwide collection of interconnected public
telephone network that was designed primarily for
analog telephone.
It is Circuit switching network.
A dedicated circuit is established for the duration of a
telephone call.
It uses signaling number 7.SS7 as a signaling protocol.
➢In telecommunication signaling is used for
controlling communication
➢SS7 is used to set up and terminate a telephone call
45 Con…
Major Components of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN):
Switching Offices
Transmission facilities
Customer Premise Equipment (CPE)
46

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47

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48

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 Con…
50

Switching Trunks Switching

Line Office Office Line

Special
Service
Circuit
51 Introduction to channels on network
 Signaling information sent to the mobile is on the Forward
Control Channel (FCC).
 Signaling information sent to the cell site is on
the Reverse Control Channel (RCC).
 There is also a Forward Voice Channel (FVC) for voice
communication and a Reverse Voice Channel (RVC).
52 CONTROL CHANNEL FUNCTIONS

 Each carrier (non-wireline, wireline) have several channels

allocated for control purposes. One of these channels is assigned to
each cell site. A control channel is on the air 24 hours a day, 365
days a year.
 The control channel actually combines three functions into one
channel:
➢ Control Information (Signaling)
➢ Paging
➢ Access
 This is done to reduce the number of channel needed for control
purposes to a minimum.
53 Forward Control Channel (FOCC)

❖ The information that is continuously transmitted is on the Forward

Control Channel (FOCC).
❖ Continuous transmission is needed here because the mobile phone
monitors the level of the received FOCC to determine when they
approach the edge of the cell and needs to be passed to an adjacent
cell base station.
❖ There are three types of messages that are multiplexed in this
channel:
54 Con…

These are messages that are intended for all mobiles.

Information in this message includes:-
Overhead Messages ➢ The cellular system's SID(System Identification Number),
➢ Combined paging and access channel information,
➢ Subscriber registration information.

These messages contain information for a specific mobile.

Mobile Control ➢ This includes paging data,
Messages ➢ Voice channel assignment,
➢ Power level, or other commands that cause a mobile to respond.

➢ These are messages that are transmitted when there are no other messages to
be transmitted on the FOCC.
Control Filler Messages ➢ This maintains the mobile's synchronization to the Overhead Message Train.
➢ This message can also be used to tell the mobiles what power level to use
when accessing the system on the Reverse Control Channel.
55 Con…

FCC Call setup

RCC
Base Mobile
station station
FVC
In call
RVC management
56 Mobile to land line communication
57 Con…
58 Call Termination Flow Chart
59 Land to Mobile Call
60 Theory of traffic Engineering

❑ How to accommodate a large number of users in a limited radio spectrum?

❑ Sharing a fixed and small number of channels among a large and random user
community.
❑ Each user demands access from a pool of channel infrequently & at random times
✓ A channel is allocated on a per call basis and a channel is returned to the pool up on
termination of a call
✓ So a dedicated channel for each user is not required

✓ If “U” be number of users and “C” be number of channels, for any c < u, possibility of more
requests than channels
❑ Trunking exploits statistical behavior of users so that a fixed number of channels
accommodate a large, random user.

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61 TRUNKING
 When a user request service and if all channels occupied
1. The user is blocked or denied access to the system
2. In some systems a queue may be used to hold the requesting users until
a channel becomes available.
Up on termination of a call the previously occupied channel immediately
returned to the pool.
To handle a given capacity at a specific grade of service requires
Trunking and queuing theory .
62
63
64
65
 Modeling of Traffic Flows
66

 In telecommunications, calls being handled by a switching system are

referred to as traffic.
➢ Analogous to road way traffic. Must know how many lanes are
needed, but with little waste.

 The job of a traffic engineer is to balance the trade-off between cost and
service.
➢ Must be able to handle traffic sufficiently during busy hours.
➢ Designs based on historic data.
➢ how many trunks are enough?
67
Principles Governing Network Design
 Efficiency is defined as the percent of time the
server is working (carrying traffic) as opposed to
waiting for a call.
➢ This is also known as occupancy.

 For a given load, the more the servers, the less

blocked or held calls but costy.

 The rate at which traffic arrives is seldom(not

often) uniform.
68
Principles of Network Design

More servers provide good service, but at an excessive cost.

Too few servers , both service and cost deteriorate,

resulting in loss of customers and decreased agent
productivity.
The analyst’s job is to reach an optimum balance between
costs and service.
69 Classification of Networks

Networks can be classified as Loss Systems, or

Delay Systems.
❖Loss systems :-calls are blocked or rejected without
being served.
✓Service is measured by the % of calls blocked.

❖Delay systems :-are queued calls

✓Service is measured by % of calls that are delayed within a
certain time interval.
70
Classification of Networks

To administer a telecommunications system, 3

variables are required:
o Grade of Service (GoS)
o Traffic load
o Quantity of servers
71
Classification of Networks

 Grade of Service ( GoS ) refers to the % of calls that encounter

blockage.
 As a business objective, must determine amount of blockage that can be
tolerated.
➢If the GoS is too high (zero blockage), many circuits will be
underutilized.
➢Too low means too many busy signals encountered.
➢Most business situations call for between 1% and 5%
blockage.
72 Classification of Networks
Traffic Load is the amount of traffic during busy hour.
Busy Hour –
The Average Busy Hour (ABH) is the average of the busy hour over
a several day period.

Used to determine the capacity needs.

If the busy hour of each day varies, the average is called the
Average Bouncing Busy Hour (ABBH).
73 Classification of Networks

Busy Hour
❖At the busy hour, more blockage will occur,
➢ It is not feasible to design circuits to handle the absolute peaks.
➢ Therefore, some blockage is expected.

❖If some seasons have busier times than others, the study
should be taken then.
➢ Between the holidays or registration week at a college.

❖A common definition for seasonal busy hour is the average

amount of traffic during the 10 highest days of the year.
74 Classification of Networks

 Traffic Load can be distinguished between Offered load vs

Carried load.
❖Carried Load is what is shown on Billing Reports
➢Talk time.
❖Offered Load also includes setup times.
➢Talk Time + Setup Time
➢Call setup time is the time used for signaling and
ringing, as the circuit is occupied during that time, but
no billing is recorded.
75 Classification of Networks
 The Traffic Load is the amount of traffic during busy hour.
 Once engineers know the Traffic Load and the required
service level (amount of acceptable blockage, also called GoS),
the number of circuits required could be found by looking at
a traffic design table.
There are several type of traffic design tables, for specific
characteristics.
76
Traffic Design Tables

 3 types of tables are used, depending on the given situation.

Each table uses a different distribution theorem
❖Erlang A table and assumes Block Calls Held (BCH), which
assumes that callers immediately redial upon receiving a
busy.
❖Erlang B table and assumes Block calls Cleared (BCC),
which assumes the caller either waits longer to redial or
does not redial.
❖Erlang C table and assumes Block called Delayed (BCD), in
which the calls are queued until a circuit becomes available.
77

For k event
78 Con…
79
 Traffic Usage is measured in CCS or Erlang.
❖Erlang equals 1 hour of traffic usage.
➢Can be converted to minutes by multiplying by 60.
❖CCS (Centi* Call Seconds) is used for smaller increments
of measurement.
➢1 CCS is worth 100 seconds.
➢C is the Roman Numeral for 100
 1 Erlang=60 minutes=3600 seconds=36 CCS, 1 CCS=1.67
minutes.
 Knowing desired GoS and traffic load, the number of circuits
is found using traffic tables.
Example: using the first type of table, we state that 1% blocking is
acceptable, and 4 Erlangs of traffic are measured during the
ABBH, 10 trunks are needed. If 5% blocking is acceptable, only
8 trunks are needed.

80
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84 Con…
 Sources of traffic usage information
85

Many PBX systems provide traffic usage data.

Most LEC(local exchange carrier)s can perform a
busy study on selected trunk groups.
❖shows the number of items that callers attempted and
encountered a busy.
❖If no busies are logged, too many trunks have been
assigned.
Call Accounting System – a PC connected to a
SMDR (Station Messaging Detail Record) port of
the switch provides info.
❖No call setup time info is provided in this report.
 Uses of Traffic Modeling
86

 There are two main uses for Traffic Modeling:

❖Performance Analysis
o Concerned with questions such as delay, throughput,
packet loss.
❖Network Engineering and Management:
o Concerned with questions such as capacity planning,
traffic engineering, anomaly detection.
87

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 Chapter -IV
Introduction to digital telecom signaling and applications
overview of SDH, PDH, SONET and ATM
89 Transmission mode
➢ Data transmissions may be either asynchronous or synchronous.
➢ In an asynchronous transmission, only one character is transmitted or received at a time.
➢ During transmission, there is start bit and followed by a stop bit that lets the receiving
device know where a character begins and ends.
➢ Asynchronous transmission is inherently inefficient due to the additional overhead
required for start and stop bits, and the idle time between transmissions.
➢ It is generally used only for relatively low-speed data transmission.
➢ In synchronous transmission, a group of characters is sent over a communications
link in a continuous bit stream, while data transfer is controlled by a timing signal
initiated by the sending device.
➢ The sender and receiver must be in perfect synchronization to avoid the loss or gain of
bits.
➢ Synchronous transmission is generally used for transmitting large volumes of data at high
speeds.
 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
90
 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
91
 ITU-T Recommendation G.702 defines a time-multiplex structure based on
64 Kbit/s channels for the basic bit rates of 2.048 Mbit/s in E1 and 1.544
Mbit/s in T1.
 The conversion of voice signals into digital code was always performed at a
sampling rate of 8 kHz.
 The analog signal is sampled at intervals of 125 µs, which according to
Nyquist is sufficient to digitize all the information contained in a 4 kHz
voice channel.
 Because every measured value is coded in 8 bits, the voice channel is
transmitted at 64 Kbit/s.
 The T1 Interface (Carrying DS1 Signals)
92

 The North American standard defines a primary rate of 1.544 Mbit/s

called T1.
 This provides for the transmission of 24 channels at 64 Kbit/s per
channel.
 Note that “T1” (Transmission level 1) describes the electrical signal,
independent of the frame structure.
 “DS1” (Digital Signal level 1) defines the frame structure carried within
T1.
 In practice, the terms tend to be used interchangeably, although strictly
speaking the physical interface should be called “T1”.
 DS1 signals from T1 interfaces can be multiplexed to higher rate signals
(DS2, DS3) etc.
 Con…
93
 Each DS1 frame is 192 bits long (24 x 8 bits).
 The addition of 1 bit for frame alignment yields a total of 1.544 Mbit/s (193 bits
x 8 kHz).
 The pattern for frame alignment consists of 6 bits (101010), which are spread
out over six frames because each frame carries only one alignment bit.
 The alignment bit is also used to identify the frames containing signaling bits, by
means of another 6-bit pattern (001110).
 The alignment bit changes between framing and signal framing, so that each of
the two patterns is completed once in every 12 frames.
 A multi-frame sequence of 2,316 bits (12 frames of 193 bits) containing both
complete alignment patterns is also referred to as a super-frame.
94 Con…

DS1 super frame structure

 The E1 Interface
95

 The E1 system is based on a frame structure of 32 x 8 bit “timeslots” (that is, a

total of 256 bits); the timeslots are numbered 0 to 31.
 Like the DS1 frame, the E1 frame repeats every 125 µs; this creates a signal of 2.048
Mbit/s (256 bits x 8 kHz).
 Because each 8-bit timeslot is repeated at a rate of 8 kHz, it is able to carry a 64
Kbit/s channel.

E1 frame
DS-1 frame in T1 and E1
 Con…
97
 Timeslot 0 alternates a frame alignment signal (FAS), containing an alignment
bit pattern, with a “Not Frame Alignment” signal (NFAS), containing error
management information.
 Timeslot 16 was originally designed to carry signaling information, such as
telephone numbers dialed.
 This leaves 30 payload timeslots (1 to 15, 17 to 31) available in the so-called PCM-
30 system. In a PCM-30 system, Timeslot 16 of each frame carries signaling
information for two payload channels (4 bits each)
98 The SONET OC-1 Interface

 The first hierarchical level in SONET is the Synchronous Transport Signal 1

(STS-1).
 This is an 810-byte frame that is transmitted at 51.84 Mbit/s and, when
transmitted over an optical interface, the resulting signal is known as Optical
Carrier 1 (OC-1).
 STS-1 can also exist as an electrical interface, which is called Electrical
Carrier 1 (EC-1), although this term is rarely used.
 The transmission time of a STS-1 frame corresponds to the 125 µs pulse code
modulation (PCM) sampling interval;
 Each byte in the SONET signal thus represents a bandwidth of 64 Kbit/s.
 The frame is divided into nine sub-frames of 90 bytes each
 Con…
99

STS-1 Transport Overhead (TOH) and Path Overhead (POH)

100 Con…
 The first 3 bytes of each sub-frame comprise 3 bytes of the 27 (that is, 9 x 3) byte Transport
Overhead (TOH).
 The remaining 87 bytes of each sub-frame are occupied by 87 bytes of the 783 (that is, 9 x 87)
byte Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE).
 The 27 TOH bytes control the transport of user data between neighboring network nodes, and
contain information required for the transport section.
 The TOH is divided into two parts, the Section Overhead and the Line Overhead.
 The TOH bytes A1, A2, J0/Z0, B1, E1, F1 and D1 through D3 comprise the Section Overhead,
 And bytes H1, H2, H3, B2, K1, K2, D4 through D12, S1/Z1, M0, E2 form the Line Overhead.
101 Con…
 The SPE, also a structure of 783 bytes, is located in the 9 x 87 byte Envelope
Capacity (frame payload area). The first column of this is occupied by the POH
and a further two columns (30 and 59) are reserved for “fixed stuff”. This leaves
84 columns of “Payload Capacity” for carrying user traffic.

STS-1 frame
Equipment Components
Power distribution box

◼ Equipment's Components
include： Backplane
⚫ Power distribution box
⚫ Sub rack
◼ Board area
◼ Back plane
◼ Fan plug-in box
◼ Dustproof unit Interface
boards area

Processing
board area
Fan plug-in box

Dustproof unit
 Comparing SDH and SONET
115

 The main difference between SDH and SONET is that SONET generally uses the
VC-3 virtual container for data transmission, while SDH transports user data for
the most part in VC-4 containers.
 This is because the existing North American PDH hierarchy, especially the third
hierarchical layer, DS3 (44.736 Mbit/s), is better suited for transport in a VC-3
than in a VC-4.
 Furthermore, SONET has the extra STS-1 level with a bit rate of 51.84 Mbit/s that
can transport exactly one VC-3 and is thus ideal for transporting DS3 streams.
116
117 Con…

FAN

SVRI: Interface/bridging card SA SV SV SV SV SV SV

S S S S S S O O S S N
I RI RI RI RI RI RI
SVR: Service Processing card V V V V V V C C V V C
R R R R R R S S R R P

PWR PWR
118 Introduction of Slots

Cable Outlet Area FAN Units FAN Units

S O O N
A C C C
I S S P
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11 12 17

PWR PWR

Interface card area: from L1 to L6;

Processing card area: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12
123
 Chapter -V
Introduction to Digital Subscriber Line
DSL, ADSL. HDSL, SDSL and VDSL
 Digital Subscriber Line(DSL)
125  DSL (digital subscriber line) is a technology for bringing high
bandwidth information to home and small businesses over
ordinary copper telephone lines.
 Digital subscriber line (DSL) technology transforms an ordinary
telephone line into a broadband communications link, much like
adding express LAN’S to an existing highway.
 DSL refers to different variations of DSL like ADSL,SDSL,VDSL…
 The term is a general term applied to a variety of different
technologies used to achieve ‘broadband’ or high speed digital
transmission.
 All DSL technology can be subdivided into one of two types:
✓ SDSL (symmetric digital subscriber line) and
✓ ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line)
126 Con…
The prime difference between SDSL and ADSL is
the speed of transmission in the downstream and
upstream direction.
 In SDSL the transmission rate in downstream and upstream directions is
the same (i.e. symmetric).
 In ADSL, the downstream rate of transmission is greater than the
upstream bitrate (i.e. asymmetric).
127
Technologies of XDSL
❑SDSL – Symmetrical DSL
✓ Unlike ADSL, the bandwidth partitioning is symmetrical
✓ More suitable for businesses
❑HDSL – High-bit-rate DSL
❖ HDSL reaches data rates up to 2Mbps without repeaters over
3.6km distance
❖ 2 TP wires for full-duplex communication
❑VDSL – Very-high-bit-rate DSL
➢ Similar to ADSL, but uses coaxial, fiber-optic, or TP for higher
rates over short distances (300-1800m)
➢ 50-55Mbps downstream, 1.5-2.5 Mbps upstream
128
129 Con…
 ADSL
130 In ADSL the total available capacity of the high speed digital
subscriber line is split asymmetrically between downstream
and upstream directions of transmission.
There is a much higher bitrate made available for
downstream transmission – at the expense of the upstream
transmission rate.
The advantage of this is that to get more information in
downstream (e.g. delivery of webpages, software downloads
etc.).
ADSL is a technology used to provide a digital high-speed
internet access line over a normal 2-wire telephone line.
ADSL internet access line sharing the same 2-wire
connection to the public network.
131
con…
➢Narrower bandwidth for upstream transmission.
➢ Near-end crosstalk is reduced by partial or full
separation of the upstream and downstream frequency
bands.
➢Simultaneous transport of POTS and data is achieved by
transmitting data in a frequency band above voice
telephony.
➢Use of advanced transmission techniques (trellis coding,
Reed-Solomon codes with interleaving, and DMT
modulation).
132 ADSL Equipment
133 Operation of ADSL
134 Con…

 To keep the telephone/ISDN and ADSL services apart, high

frequency filters or splitters are used.
 At the customer’s premises, the splitting device is called simply a
DSL splitter or DSL filter.
 DSL REFERENCE MODEL
135
136 DSLAM based
137 Possible bandwidth division
Channel 0: Voice
Channels 1-5: Idle to separate voice and data
Channels 6-30: 1 control and 24 data
➢24 channels using 4KHz each with QAM
24 x 4000 x 15 = 1.44Mbps max upstream
Channels 31-255: 1 control and 224 data
➢224 channels using 4KHz each with QAM
224 x 4000 x 15 = 13.4Mbps max downstream
Actual rates:
➢Upstream: 64Kbps-1Mbps
➢Downstream: 500Kbps-8Mbps
138 Digital division technique
139
140
141
 Factor for consideration choosing your ADSL supplier
142
Downstream bitrate
Upstream bitrate
Fast Path
Geographical service coverage
Monthly charges for connection
Data volume charges – flat rate?
Quality of Service (QOS)
Forced release every 24 hours?
DSL modem choice and price
etc
143 SDSL
 SDSL stands for ‘symmetric digital subscriber line’.
An SDSL line provides for transport of digital data
simultaneously in both directions across the line.
the same bitrate being available in both directions (thus
‘symmetric’).
SDSL connections typically allow transmission of up to 6
Mbit/s in both directions, but usually require a 4-wire
connection (equivalent to two standard telephone lines).
SDSL service is typically more expensive than ADSL.
Packet Switched Networks
OSI and IP models:
145 INTRODUCTION
➢There are three types of switching used in PSTN
network.
➢Those are circuit switching , message and packet
switching
➢Circuit switching was designed for voice communication.
➢ Circuit switching creates dedicated links that are well
suited to this type of connection.
➢The circuit switching also limits the flexibility and not
suitable for connecting variety of digital devices.
 Con…
146 ➢For More efficient utilization(make practical and effective use)
of the network greater control channel bandwidth and
high call processing capacities required.
➢But the circuit switching not providing these
capabilities.
➢Message switching overcomes the limitations of
circuits switching.
➢This switching stores the incoming messages into a
computer memory and forward it to the destination
when available, This causes delay in switching.
➢ The packet switching overcomes all the limitations of
message and circuit switching.
➢Thus it is highly suitable for the data communication
 Packet Switching Principles
147
➢The DataStream originating at the source is divided
into packets of fixed or variable size.
➢The data communication system typically have burst
traffic. Thus, the time interval between consecutive
packets may vary, depending on the burstiness of the
data stream.
➢A typical upper bound on packet length is 512 octets
(bytes). Each packet contains a portion of the user’s
data plus some control information.
➢As the bits in a packet arrive at a switch or router,
they are read into a buffer.
➢ When the entire packet is stored, the switch routes
the packet over one of its out going links.
 ➢The packet remains queued in its buffer until the
148 outgoing link becomes idle( in use, having no purpose).
➢This technique is called store and forward technique
➢Depends on the path availability the packet P1 choses
the path as station A–C–E– H.
➢Similarly the packet P2 choses the path as station B–
C–D–G. In each station, the packets are stored in a
buffer and forwarded to the next station after the
availability.
149
Routing(searching) Control
➢In Packet switching messages are broken into packets
and sends one at a time to the network.
➢Routing control decides how the network will handle
the stream of packets as it attempts to route them
through the network and deliver them to the intended
destination.
➢The routing decision is determined in one of two ways.
They are

i. Datagram and
ii.Virtual circuit.
 DATAGRAM
150 ➢In datagram, each packet within a stream is independently routed.
➢A routing table stored in the router (switch) specifies the
outgoing link for each destination.
➢The table may be static or it may be periodically updated.
➢In the second case, the routing depends on the router’s
estimate of the shortest path to the destination.
➢Since the estimate may change with time, consecutive packets
may be routed over different links.
➢Therefore each packet must contain bits denoting the source
and destination. Thus may be a significant overhead.
 Con…
151
➢The circled one are called the switching nodes whose
purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move the
data from node to node until they reach the destination.
➢The squared one are called the stations. The stations may
be computers, terminals, telephones or other.
➢Station A is assumed to send three packets of message
namely P1, P2 and P3 .
➢At first, A transmits these packets to node 1. Node 1 makes
decision on routing of these packets.
152 Con…
➢Node 1 finds node 4 as shortest compared to node 3.
➢Thus it passes p1 and p2 to node 4.
➢ Accidently, if node 4 is not accessible, node 1 finds
node 3 as shortest and sends packet P3 to node 3.
153 Con…
➢Node 3 and 4 sends its received messages to the destination C
through node 6.
➢It is shown that the order of the packet is changed due to the
different routing of the packets.
➢Thus in datagram, it is the responsibility of destination station
to reorder the packets in proper sequence.
➢ Also if a packet crashes in a switching node, the destination C
may not receive, all packets.
➢In such a case also, it is the responsibility of station C to recover
the lost packet.
154 Advantage of datagram switching over circuit switching

➢It achieves higher link utilization when the traffic is burst.

➢No dedicated path required
155
Virtual circuit
➢ In virtual circuit, a fixed route is selected before any data is
transmitted in a call setup phase similar to circuit switched
network.
➢ All packets belonging to the same data stream follow this fixed
route called a virtual circuit.
➢Packet must now contain a virtual circuit identifier.
➢This bit string is usually shorter than the source and destination
address identifiers needed for datagram.
➢ Once the virtual circuit is established, the message is
transmitted in packets.
156 Con…
➢ suppose that station B has two messages to send to the destination D.
➢ First B sends a control packet referred as call-request packet to node 2,
requesting logical connection to D.
➢ Node 2 decides to route the request and the subsequent message packets
through node 3 and 4 to destination D.

➢ If D prepared to accept the connection, it

sends a call-accept packet to node 4.
➢ Node 4 sends the call-accept packet to B
through node 3 and 2.
➢ Because the route is fixed for the duration of
the logical connection, it is somewhat similar
to a circuit switching network and is referred
to as a virtual circuit.
157 Advantage of virtual circuit

➢All packets follow the same route

➢They reach the destination in the same order
➢There is no need of re ordering work for destination
station
➢Error control
➢Packets transit/traverse rapidly
➢Source and destination identifiers are short bits.
158
Packet format
➢The format of a packet switching may
vary rom network to network
➢Generally packets have header
includes all related control
information.
1. Header. It contains sub fields in addition to the
necessary address fields.
a. Op code. It designates/show whether the
packet is a message (text) packet or control
packet.
b. A sequence number (Seq) to reassemble
messages at the destination node, detect
faults and facilitates recovery procedures.
c. Byte count. Used to indicate the length of a
packet.
2. Data
3. CRC The cyclic redundancy checks (CRC)
159
X-25
➢ X-25 is an ITU standard, well known and most widely used protocol
established in 1976.
➢ The standard specifies an interface between a host system and a packet
switching network.
➢ X-25 standard for packet switching is a lower three layer equivalent of
the OSI model, physical layer, a link layer, and packet layer.
➢ The data link layer of X-25 is link access procedure balanced (LAPB) using
high level data link control (HDLC).
➢ HDLC is a bit oriented protocol based on the synchronous data link
protocol (SDLC) established by IBM for Synchronous Network
Architecture (SNA) networks
160 X-25 interface

➢ The physical layer deals with the physical

interface station and switching node with X-25
➢ At packet layer, data are transmitted as
packets over virtual circuits.
➢ The link layer provides for the reliable transfer
of data across the physical link by transmitting
the data as a sequence of frames
➢ The link layer standard is known as LAPB
161 HDLC FORMAT
 The opening flag and closing flag are made up of 8 bit
information.
 Packets are delimited by a starting and an ending flag
(01111110).
 The address field is typically 8 bits long, but can be
extended in increments of 8 bits.
 Control I/S/ or U : Control information consists of 8 bits
of data describing the type of HDLC frame.
 Information (I). Used to transfer data across the link at a
rate determined by the receiver and with error detection
and correction.
 Supervisory (S). Used to determine the ready state of the
devices receiver is ready (RR), receiver is not ready (RNR)
or reject (REJ).
 Unnumbered (U). Used to dictate parameters, such as set
modes, disconnect and so on.
 Con…
162
Packet information : The packet information consists of GFI, LGN and LCN.
➢General format identifier (GFI). 4 bit of information that describes
how the data in the packet is being used, from/to an end user,
from/to a device controlling the end user device and so on.
➢Logical channel group number (LGN). 4 bits of information that
describe the grouping of channels.
➢Logical channel number (LCN). 8 bit of information of the actual
channel being used. Theoretical number of logical channels
available is 2048.
➢Packet type identifier (PTI). It is an 8 bit sequence that describers
the type of packet being sent across the network. six types of
packets are used in X-25 switching network.
➢They are call request, call accept, clear request, interrupt request,
reset request and restart request.
➢Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). The 16 bit sequence is used for
error detection and/or correction.
 163 OSI MODEL

➢The ISO developed OSI for networking.

➢An open system is a set of protocols that allows two computers to communicate
with each other regardless of their design, manufacturer or CPU type.
➢The concept of an open system approach to networking allows any device or
system operating with any protocol to communicate with another device or
system using its own protocol.
 OSI layer specifications
164
165 TCP/IP
➢Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) was developed to create LANs and also for
internetworking multiple LAN’s.
➢Data sharing and broadcasting are prominent features of
LAN technology.
➢An organization may create different LANs with different
protocols.
➢These networks are connected together by an internal
gateway, in turn connected to the external gateway of
the internet.
➢TCP/IP protocol is used to communicate among nodes.
➢Today these protocols are the primary building blocks for
the Internet.
 TCP/IP Reference Model
166  TCP/IP architecture is a four layer stack that deals with the equivalent seven
layer architecture of OSI.
Application level : Some of the internet
applications are SMTP, FTP, Telnet, HTTP, DNS,
TFTP, SNMP.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for
E-mail. It is used for transferring messages between
two hosts.
Telnet :-It enables one computer to
establish a connection to another computer.
File transfer protocol (FTP) is an internet standard
for file transfer.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an
advanced file retrieval program that
can access distributed and linked documents on the
web.
DNS. Domain Name System (DNS) is used to identify and locate computers connected
to the internet.
SNMP. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by the network
administrator to detect problem in the network such as router and gateway.
167 Con…

Transport Level Protocols : This layer consists of

➢ User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and
➢Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
Datagram Protocol (UDP) It provides unreliable service between hosts.

UDP accepts information from the application layer and adds a source port, destination
port, UDP length and UDP checksum.
168 Con…

❑The IP protocol adds its header to the packet received from UDP and passes to LLC.
❑The LLC generates 802.2 Frame and passes to MAC layer.
❑ MAC adds its own header and transfers the frame to the physical layer for
transmission.
169 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
:
✓The transmission control protocol (TCP) is a transport layer that
carries application layer packets and services between two users.
✓In TCP, connection between users is established before
transmitting information.
✓TCP assigns a sequence number to each packet.
✓The receiving end checks the sequence number of all packets to
ensure that they are received.
✓When the receiving end gets a packet, it sends acknowledgment.
✓If the sending node does not receive an acknowledgement within
a given period of time, if retransmits the previous packet.
 TCP header
170

RST. It resets the connection.  Source and destination.

SYN. used to establish a connection in combination  Sequence number.
with the acknowledge (ACK) bit.  Acknowledgment number.
SYN = 1, ACK = 0 is a connection request and
 Data offset. it indicates how much the
SYN = 1, ACK = 1 is a connection acknowledgement. beginning of the data is offset by the
FIN. The FIN flag set to ‘1’ indicates that the incoming header.
packet is the last packet.  URG. informs the receiver to find the
WIN. The window specifies the number of data bytes urgent
the sender is willing to accept. data indicated by URG.
CHK. checksum is 16 bit long. It is used for error  ACK. Acknowledge flag bit is set to ‘1’
detection in TCP header and data field. to represent that the
acknowledgement number is valid.
OPT. It is called option field
URG = 0 = end of option list  PSH. This field set to ‘1’ means that the
receiver should push the data to an
1 = no operation application as soon as possible.
2 = maximum segment size
171 IP PACKET FORMAT

 The function of IP is a packet delivery with unreliable and connectionless service

 IP delivers message packets within the same network or within the
interconnected networks .
 The IPV4 address size is 32 bits =4 billion users
 The later version IPV6 has the address size of 128 bits.
172 In IP packet delivery
 There is no acknowledgement from the destination to
source.
 There is no physical connection between the source
and destination.
 IP datagrams can arrive at the destination out of
order.
173

 Ethernet was invented by Xerox Corporation in 1972.

 Ethernet is the most commonly used LAN technology today
 Ethernet still enjoys continued popularity and growth, Some
of the reasons are :
1.Least expensive
2.It is fast enough for the vast majority of applications in use
3.It continue to keep pace with other LAN technologies
4.Its various standards supporting a wide variety of media
5.Sufficiently defined standards
6.Ethernet is considered to be the most user friendly.
174 Ethernet Reference Model.
 The IEEE developed the standards for Ethernet in 1984.
 It is called IEEE 802.3 and uses bus topology.
 The Ethernet system consists of three basic elements

1. The physical media used to carry signals,

2. A set of rules, embedded in each Ethernet interface and
3. The Ethernet frame that consists of bits used to carry data, control
and address information.

✓ Each station in the network consists of Network Interface Card (NIC).

✓ This card is connected to the Ethernet cable via a transceiver cable.
✓ The NIC is also called as Ethernet controller
175 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) reference model.

The data link layer is divided into two sublayers. They are :
1. Logical link control (LLC) and
2. Media Access control (MAC)
176 LLC layer
❖The LLC layer is designed to establish a
logical connection between source and
destination.
❖The IEEE standard for LLC is IEEE 802.2

responsibility of LLC layer

i. stablishing and terminating a
communication link LLC1/LLC2
ii. Supplying a frame format for the pay load
iii. detecting and correcting errors and
iv. Maintaining control over the traffic flow
177 FRAME Format of LLC(IEEE 802.2)

 Destination Service Access Point (DSAP) and Source Service Access Point (SSAP)
defines the location of the end points in communication link for either
connection oriented or connectionless service
 The control field identifies the frame type
 If the LLC frame is used to encapsulate, a higher level protocol within the pay
load field, 802.2 provides for a means, known as the sub network assess protocol
(SNAP),to identify the protocol
178 MAC layer
❖The function of MAC is to access the network.
❖It defines, how different stations can access the transmission medium.
❖The MAC uses CSMA/CD protocol.
❖ In an Ethernet network, each station uses CSMA/CD protocol to access
the network in order to transmit information.
179 Working principle of CSMA/CD:
1. If a station wants to transmit, the station senses the channel.
2. If the channel is busy, it continues the sensing of the channel. When the
channel becomes idle, the station starts transmit data.
3. After sending data, the station senses for the collision, as there is a possibility
that two station may send data at the same time.
4. If the collision detected, the station which detected first sends a jamming code
(32bits) on the bus, in order to indicate the other station that there is a
collision on the bus.
5. If no collision, transmission completed.
6. The two stations, which enveloped in collision, wait according to back-off
algorithm.
Back off algorithm is a method used to generate waiting time for stations that
were involved in collision.
180 FRAME Format of MAC

 The preamble provides signal synchronization.

 preamble and start Frame Delimiter (SFD) Synchronize the receiver
 Frame check sequence (FCS) is used to detect errors and corrupted
information during transmission. IEEE uses CRC-32 for error detection.

181 Ethernet Media
 The Ethernet network uses four different media.
 They are 10 Base 5,10 Base 2, 10 Base T and 10 Base-F.
 10 Base 5 (Thick Net). It uses 10 Mbps Ethernet media with base
band signaling with maximum segment lengths of 500 meters.
 10 Base 2 (Thin Net). It uses 10 Mbps Ethernet media with
maximum segment lengths of 185 m, The maximum length of a
network cable is 925 meters with four repeaters
 10 Base T. It uses 10 Mbps 22 to 26 AWG twisted pair cable
(unshielded) instead of coaxial cable, A maximum segment length
of 100 meter is supported.
The transceiver is built into NIC.
 10 Base F. It uses 10 Mbps Ethernet media over fiber optic cable.
182 Token Bus and Token Ring Networking
The Ethernet system has two main disadvantages.
1. This system may not be suitable for a high traffic if excessive number of collisions are
anticipated.
2. Due to number of retransmission, reduced throughput and delay increased.
The alternative for the Ethernet system are Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) and Token Ring
(802.5)

The token bus combines features of Ethernet and

Token ring to provide a deterministic delay under heavy loads without causing collisions.
Token ring is a powerful LAN technology that is designed to handle heavy loads.
183 TOKEN BUS NETWORKING (IEEE 802.4)
The Token bus system operates on a bus topology and
is suitable for industry, factory automation and
process control
A token is a short message that specifies the station
currently using the network and the next station that
access after the current station finish its work.
The token is passed from station to station in
descending order and it is not necessary for all the
stations on the bus to be active at all times.
 The procedure for transmit a data by a computer are.
184 ➢The computer has to wait for the token.
➢Once it possess the token, it can add its traffic to the data stream.
➢It then includes the successors address and passes the token.
➢ After passing the token, the sending computer monitors, whether
the successor receives the token or not.
➢If the successor had data, it sends in data stream and passes to the
next successor.
➢If it does not have any data to communicate, it simply modify the
successor station address.
➢Similarly the token passes to each station and reaches the original
station which sends message.
185
Con…
➢The computer checks whether the data reached or not.
➢Then if it has any data, it transfers to the destination, otherwise
the token is passed to the successor address.
➢As the designated system may not be active, the information sent
to this computer may be kept in queue.
➢After three continuous attempt, the source station removes the
message meant for destination.
➢This technology has not been widely used because of its delayed
property
186 TOKEN RING NETWORKING (IEEE 802.5)
➢Token ring network was introduced in 1985, at a data rate of 4 Mbs
and 1989 with a data rate of 16 Mbps by IBM for local area network.
➢The main difference of token ring over token bus is that tokens and
messages are passed around the ring to each station in the ring in a
fixed sequence.
➢Token ring technology consists of a ring station and a transmission
medium.
➢A token ring network uses a wiring concentrator device called Multi-
station Access Unit (MAU).
➢Physically, token ring is a star topology and electrically it is a ring
topology.
187 Con…
188
 Any station wants to send messages follow the procedures
189 1. The station seize/hold the token. The token is a three byte frame
circulating around the network.
2. Once the station possesses/holds the token, it inserts information into
the token and transmits the frame on the ring.
3. The next station checks the destination address of the frame. If not
matches, pass it to the next station. If the address matches, it performs
the following function
I. The destination station copies the message and sets the last two bits
of the frame to inform the source that the frame was copied and the
frame is retransmitted. Via fame status.
II. The frame circulates on the ring until it reaches the source. Once it
reaches the source, the source removes the frame from the ring.
III.The source releases the token by changing the Token Bit (T bit) to
one.
 Token Frame format. The token is a three byte frame.
190

 Start Delimiter (SD). It is set to JK0JK000.

 J and K are non-data bits. They are violated Differential Manchester coding.
 The purpose of this pattern is to keep the SD byte (or ED type) from
repeating in the information field of token ring frame.
 End of Delimiter (ED). It is set to JK1JK10E. E is always set to zero,
 If any station detects an error, it will set E to 1.
 Access control byte (AC). It contains three priority bits (PPP or more), a
token bit (T), monitor bit (M) and remaining reserved bits.
 The priority bits varies 000 through 111.
 If token bit T = 0, data is in token or if T = 1, no data in token. The Monitor
Bit (M) is used to prevent frames from circulating onto the ring.
 IEEE 802.5 Frame format
191
  SD, AC and ED fields are already described.
192  FC field is the Frame control (FC). In FC field, FF bits indicate the frame type.
 FF = 00 indicates MAC Frame, FF = 01 indicates LLC frame, and FF = 10 and 11
meant for reserved.
 RR set to 00 and they are reserved bits. ZZZZ = 0000 means a normal buffer and
ZZZZ = 0001 indicates express buffer.
 DA and SA are destination and source address fields respectively. DA uses the
same address format of 802.3.
 Routing information (RI) is optional.
 information field (IF) contains a MAC frame, the frame is called the MAC protocol
data unit.
 If IF field contains an LLC frame, the field is called LLC protocol unit (LPDU).
 FCS is frame check sequence for error detection and Frame Status field (FS) have
the field of 1 byte.
193 ASSIGNMENT
 Write some of the link between access and dense level of SDH
 Write about ATM and compare it with SONET and SD
 Write about DWDM and compare with CDWDM
 Write about CDWM and compare it with FDD
 Write about ad hoc and too write some algorithms
 Write about Li-Fi and camper it with Wi-Fi technology
194

THANK YOU HAVE A NICE SUMMER

NO ONE IS only A TEACHER NO ONE is only A STUDENT

WE ALL ARE STUDENTS

Having B+ ,not about grade rather

Holding and acting positive attitude.

“The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet.”