Chapter 2 Units, Dimensional Analysis, and Estimation

2.1 International System of Units ................................................................................ 3

2.1.1 Definition of the second..................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Definition of the meter....................................................................................... 7
2.1.3 Definition of the kilogram ................................................................................. 9
Example 2.1.3.1 Definition of the kilogram in terms of the SI constants................. 10
2.1.4 Definition of the ampere .................................................................................. 11
Example 2.1.4.1 Ampere .......................................................................................... 12
2.1.5 Definition of the kelvin.................................................................................... 12
2.1.5.1 Example Kelvin ............................................................................................ 12
2.1.6 Definition of the mole...................................................................................... 13
Example 2.1.6.1 Mole............................................................................................... 13
2.1.7 Radians............................................................................................................. 14
Example 2.1.7.1 Parsec............................................................................................. 16
2.1.8 Steradians......................................................................................................... 17
2.1.9 Definition of the candela.................................................................................. 17
Example 2.1.9.1 Candela .......................................................................................... 17
2.2 Dimensions of Commonly Encountered Quantities........................................... 19
2.2.1 Dimensions of Fundamental Constants ........................................................... 21
Example 2.2.1.1 Dimension of the Universal Gravitation Constant G ................... 21
Example 2.2.1.2 Dimensions of Coulomb’s constant 1/ 4πε 0 ................................. 21
Example 2.2.1.3 Dimensions of the Planck constant................................................ 22
2.3 Dimensional Analysis............................................................................................ 23
Example 2.3.1 Period of a Pendulum........................................................................ 23
Example 2.3.3 Planck Length ................................................................................... 24
Example 2.3.3 Fine Structure Constant .................................................................... 26
Example 2.3.4 Rydberg constant .............................................................................. 27
2.4 Order of Magnitude Estimates - Fermi Problems ............................................. 28
Methodology for Estimation Problems..................................................................... 29

1
Example 2.4.1 Fermi’s Problem Piano Tuners ......................................................... 29
Example 2.4.1 One Kilometer Line of Pennies ........................................................ 29
Example 2.4.3 Estimation of Mass of Water on Surface of Earth............................ 30
Example 2.4.4 Lao-Tzu’s Last Breath ...................................................................... 32
Example 2.4.5 Representation of the exponential function ...................................... 34

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 Chapter 2 Units, Dimensional Analysis, and Estimation
But we must not forget that all things in the world are connected with one
another and depend on one another, and that we ourselves and all our thoughts
are also a part of nature. It is utterly beyond our power to measure the changes
of things by time. Quite the contrary, time is an abstraction, at which we arrive
by means of the change of things; made because we are not restricted to any one
definite measure, all being interconnected. A motion is termed uniform in which
equal increments of space described correspond to equal increments of space
described by some motion with which we form a comparison, as the rotation of
the earth. A motion may, with respect to another motion, be uniform. But the
question whether a motion is in itself uniform, is senseless. With just as little
justice, also, may we speak of an “absolute time” --- of a time independent of
change. This absolute time can be measured by comparison with no motion; it
has therefore neither a practical nor a scientific value; and no one is justified in
saying that he knows aught about it. It is an idle metaphysical conception.1

Ernst Mach

2.1 International System of Units

The system of units most commonly used throughout science and technology today is
the Système International (SI). The seven base quantities and their corresponding base
units, are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Base Units

Base Quantity Base Unit

Time second (s)
Length meter (m)
Mass kilogram (kg)
Electric Current ampere (A)
Temperature kelvin (K)
Amount of Substance mole (mol)
Luminous Intensity candela (cd)

Many physical quantities are then derived from the base quantities by a set of algebraic
relations defining the physical relation between these quantities. Mechanics is based on
just the first three of these quantities, the second, the meter, and the kilogram, MKS or

1
E. Mach, The Science of Mechanics, translated by Thomas J. McCormack, Open Court
Publishing Company, La Salle, Illinois, 1960, p. 273.

3
meter-kilogram-second system. An alternative metric system, still widely used, is the
CGS system (centimeter-gram-second).

Example: Derived units for velocity, acceleration, force, energy, and power

Velocity is defined to be the rate of change of position with respect to time and
therefore has the derived SI unit m ⋅s−1 . Acceleration is defined to be the rate of
velocity with respect to time and therefore has the derived SI unit m ⋅s −2 . The newton,
symbol N , is the derived SI unit for force which is equal to the product of mass with
acceleration. Therefore force has the derived SI unit kg ⋅ m ⋅s −2 . The joule, symbol J , is
the derived SI unit for energy which is equal to the product of force with distance.
Therefore the derived SI unit for energy is kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s−2 . The watt, symbol W , is the
derived SI unit for power which is equal to the rate of change of energy with respect to
time. Therefore the derived SI unit for power is kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s−3 .

The base quantities were originally determined by experiment with uncertainties in their
values. Gradually the base units were no longer defined by physical prototypes like the
standard kilogram or standard meter bar but were defined by asset of constants. As of
May 20, 2019, all the base SI units are now defined in terms of seven constants shown
in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Defining Constants

Quantity Symbol Numerical Value SI Units

Cesium hyperfine Δν Cs
frequency
9 192 631 770 s −1
Speed of light in 299 792 458
vacuum
c m ⋅s−1
Planck constant h 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1
Elementary charge e 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 A ⋅s
Boltzmann constant k 1.380 649 × 10−23 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −2 ⋅ K −1
Avogadro constant NA 6.022 140 76 × 1023 mol
Luminous efficacy of a
defined visible radiation
Kcd 683 cd ⋅sr ⋅ kg −1 ⋅ m −2 ⋅s3

4
The International Committee for Weights and Measures describes practical methods
(mises en practique) for “realizing” a unit”.2 This means a method for the
establishment of the value and associated uncertainty of a quantity of the same kind as
the unit that is consistent with the definition of the unit. Any method that is traceable to
the seven constants could be used.

The future definition of a unit does not imply any particular experiment for its practical
realization. Any method capable of deriving an amount of base quantity value traceable
to the set of seven reference constants could, in principle, be used. A primary method
for realizing each unit is one that achieves the best precision and lowest uncertainty.

In what follows, the exact language for the definitions of the constants and SI base units
is used. The definitions specify the exact numerical value of each constant when its
value is expressed in the corresponding SI unit. By fixing the exact numerical value the
unit becomes defined, since the product of the numerical value and the unit has to
equal the value of the constant, which is postulated to be invariant. The seven constants
are chosen in such a way that any unit of the SI can be written either through a defining
constant itself or through products or quotients of defining constants.3

2.1.1 Definition of the second

Isaac Newton, in the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (“Mathematical

Principles of Natural Philosophy”), distinguished between time as duration and an
absolute concept of time,

“Absolute true and mathematical time, of itself and from its own nature,
flows equably without relation to anything external, and by another
name is called duration: relative, apparent, and common time, is some
sensible and external (whether accurate or unequable) measure of
duration by means of motion, which is commonly used instead of true
time; such as an hour, a day, a month, a year. ”4.

Before 1960, the second was defined as the fraction 1/ 86400 of the mean solar
day, which varied due to slight changes in the earth rotation and so this was not a good
definition. The development of clocks based on atomic oscillations allowed measures of
timing with accuracy on the order of 1 part in 1014 , corresponding to errors of less than
one microsecond (one millionth of a second) per year. Given the incredible accuracy of

2
https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/mises-en-pratique/
3
https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/base-units.html
4
Isaac Newton. Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Translated by Andrew
Motte (1729). Revised by Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1934. p. 6.

5
this measurement, and clear evidence that the best available timekeepers were atomic in
nature, the second [s] was defined in 1967 by the International Committee on Weights
and Measures as a certain number of cycles of electromagnetic radiation emitted by
cesium (or caesium) atoms as they make transitions between two designated quantum
states:

The second, symbol s , is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the

fixed numerical value of the cesium frequency Δν Cs , the unperturbed
ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the cesium 133 atom to
be 9 192 631 770 when expressed in the unit Hz , which is equal to s −1 . 5

The second is equal to the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels F = 4 and
F = 3 of the ground state 6s1/2 of the cesium 133 atom.
F =5
6p3/2 F =4
F =3
excited state
F =2
8.52124 nm
wavelength
of D 2 transition
line
F=4

6s1/2 9 192 631 770 Hz

ground state F=3

Figure: Energy levels of Cesium atom, showing the hyperfine transition between the
two hyperfine levels F = 4 and F = 3 of the ground state 6s1/2 and the wavelength of
D 2 line corresponding to the fine structure doublet transition 6s1/2 → 6p3/2 .

The hyperfine frequency is exactly defined to be

Δν Cs = 9 192 631 770 Hz = 9 192 631 770 s −1 (2.1)

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Therefore the unit second is equal to

9 192 631 770

1s = . (2.2)
Δν Cs

A primary method to “realize” a second, the unit of time, with the highest accuracy
involves certain national metrology laboratories that design primary frequency
standards. The primary frequency standards aim at exactly realizing the SI second using
the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133
atom, and for which corrections with respect to all known systematic shifts due to a
variety of physical phenomena (gravitation is especially problematic in correcting for its
effect) have been applied to best knowledge. The accuracy order of the best primary
frequency standards that define the SI second approaches 1 part in 1016 .

The invention of the optical frequency comb made it possible to increase the “tic rate”
of an atomic clock by a factor of one thousand or more, opening the way to replacing
the cesium frequency standard by an optical frequency standard with uncertainty at the
level of 1 part in 1018 , using an atom such as strontium or ytterbium, or an ion such as
ytterbium or aluminum. 6

2.1.2 Definition of the meter

The meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the arc from the Equator to the
North Pole along the meridian passing through Paris. In 1889 the meter was redefined
in terms of the international prototype meter by the 1st Conférence Générale des Poids
et Mèsures (CGPM). The prototype meter was a platinum bar with an etched length
scale to aid in calibration and ease of comparison, preserved near Paris. The accuracy of
the bar was limited to one part in 107 . Effects of temperature and pressure needed to be
precisely calibrated as well as the mounting in order to ensure that the bar was straight.

In 1960 the CGPM introduced a microscopic reference by defining the meter as the
length equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to
the transition between the levels 2p10 and 5d 5 of the krypton 86 atom. This definition
of the meter depended on a particular radiation and cannot be realized to better than 4
parts in 109 .

6
Andrew D. Ludlow, Martin M. Boyd, Jun Ye, E. Peik, and P. O. Schmidt, Rev. Mod. Phys. 87, 637

7
In 1983 the 17th CGPM defined the speed of light as a constant and the meter was
redefined in terms of the distance that light traveled in 1/ 299 792 458 of a second.

The meter, symbol m , is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the

fixed numerical speed of light in vacuum c to be 299 792 458 when
expressed in the unit m ⋅s−1 , where the second is defined in terms of the
cesium frequency Δν Cs . 7

The definition of the speed of light states that

c = 299 792 458 m ⋅s−1 (2.3)

The meter is therefore defined by

c
1m = ⋅1 s (2.4)
299 792 458

The second is defined by Eq. (2.2). Therefore Eq. (2.4) becomes

c 9 192 631 770 c

1m = ⋅ = 30.663 314 9 (2.5)
299 792 458 Δν Cs Δν Cs

This new definition, opens the way to major improvements in the precision with which
the meter can be realized using laser wavelength and frequency measurement
techniques. It is worth noting that the new definition has only become practicable with
the development of techniques for the measurement of frequencies of electromagnetic
radiations in the visible and near infrared. These can now be measured directly in terms
of the frequency of the cesium standard which is used in the definition of the second.”8

2.1.2.1 Worked Example: Krypton Frequency Transition

The experimental value for frequency of the transition between the levels 2p10 and
86
5d 5 of the Kr is equal to f = 494886516.5 MHz . Using the definition of the speed of

7
https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-mep/SI-App2-metre.pdf
8
1. “Documents concerning the New Definition of the Metre”, Metrologia 19 (1984) 163. DOI:
10.1088/0026-1394/19/4/004

8
light, c = 299 792 458 m ⋅s−1 , (i) calculate the wavelength corresponding to this
transition, (ii) How does this frequency compare to the frequency derived from the
wavelength λ Kr = (1/ 1650763.73) m in the 1960 definition of the meter?

c 299 792 458 m ⋅s −1

Answer: (i) λ = = = 605780210.2 fm
f 494886516.5 MHz

(ii) In the 1960 definition, the wavelength was equal to λ Kr = (1/ 1650763.73) m . Using
c = 299 792 458 m ⋅s−1 . The frequency is then

c 299 792 458 m ⋅s−1

f Kr = = = 494886516.2 MHz .
λ Kr 605780210.6 fm

2.1.3 Definition of the kilogram

The kilogram was the last base unit in the International System of Units (SI) that
was replaced in Nov 18, 2018 by a new definition in terms of the constants. The old
kilogram was a physical artifact, known as the “International Prototype of the Standard
Kilogram.” George Matthey (of Johnson Matthey) made the prototype in 1879 in the
form of a cylinder, 39 mm high and 39 mm in diameter, consisting of an alloy of 90 %
platinum and 10 % iridium. The international prototype is kept in the Bureau
International des Poids et Mèsures (BIPM) at Sevres, France, under conditions specified
by the 1st Conférence Générale des Poids et Mèsures (CGPM) in 1889 when it
sanctioned the prototype and declared “This prototype shall henceforth be considered to
be the unit of mass.” It is stored at atmospheric pressure in a specially designed triple
bell-jar. The prototype is kept in a vault with six official copies.

The 3rd Conférence Générale des Poids et Mèsures CGPM (1901), in a declaration
intended to end the ambiguity in popular usage concerning the word “weight”
confirmed that: the kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the
international prototype of the kilogram. As of Nov 18, 2018, the kilogram is now
defined as follows:

The kilogram, symbol kg , is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the

fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015 × 10−34
when expressed in the unit J ⋅s , which is equal to kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s−1 where the
meter and second are defined in terms of c and Δν Cs .

9
 Thus the Planck constant h is exactly h = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 J ⋅s . This
numerical value of h defines the unit joule second in the SI and, in
combination with the SI second and meter, defines the kilogram. The
numerical value of h given in the definition of the kilogram has ensured
the continuity of the unit of mass with the previous definition of the
kilogram.9

Example 2.1.3.1 Definition of the kilogram in terms of the SI constants

Find an expression for the unit kilogram in terms of the defining constants h , c
and Δν Cs .

Answer: The Planck constant is exactly defined as

h = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 J ⋅s = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1 (2.6)

Therefore the kilogram is defined to be

h
1 kg = −34
⋅ m −2 ⋅s1 (2.7)
6.626 070 15 × 10

Using the definitions of the second (Eq. (2.2) and meter (Eq. (2.5)), Eq. (2.7) becomes

2
h ⎛ c ⎞ Δν Cs
1 kg = ⋅ m −2 ⋅s1 ⋅ ⎜ 30.663 314 9 ⎟ ⋅ (2.8)
6.626 070 15 × 10 −34
⎝ Δν Cs ⎠ 9 192 631 770
Therefore
hΔν Cs
1 kg = 1.4755214 × 1040 (2.9)
c2

Realizing the kilogram requires practical methods that are describes in an article in
Physics Today by Wolfgang Ketterle (MIT) and Alan Jamison (Institute for Quantum
Computing at the University of Waterloo).10 They begin by using the above definition
to count photons and then describe a series of more practical methods.

The internal energy E of an object is proportional to the rest mass according to

E = mc2 , (2.10)

9
https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-mep/SI-App2-kilogram.pdf
10
https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4472

10
where c is the speed of the light. The energy of a light particle (photon) is proportional
to the frequency of oscillation of the monochromatic classical wave associated to the
photon,
hc
E = hf = , (2.11)
λ

where h is Planck’s constant. The photon is a massless particle but we can define an
effective mass by equating Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11),

mc 2 = hf , (2.12)
yielding an effective mass
hf
m= . (2.13)
c2

The mass equivalence of a photon emitted due to the hyperfine transition between two
hyperfine ground states of cesium-133 atoms with frequency f = Δν Cs is then

hΔν Cs (6.62607015 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s-1 )(9192631770 s −1 )

m= =
c2 (2.99792458 × 108 m ⋅s-1 )2 (2.14)
= 6.77726531× 10−41 kg

The number N of photons, emitted due to the hyperfine transition between two
hyperfine ground states of cesium-133 atoms, needed in order for their total mass to
equal one kilogram is then
1
N= −41
= 1.4755214 × 1040 (2.15)
6.77726531× 10

One kilogram is now equal to the mass of 1.4755214 × 1040 photons at the cesium
hyperfine frequency.
hΔν Cs
1 kg = 1.4755214 × 1040 (2.16)
c2

2.1.4 Definition of the ampere

The ampere, symbol A , is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by

taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be

11
 1.602176634 × 10−19 when expressed in the unit C , which is equal to A ⋅s ,
where the second is defined in terms of Δν Cs . 11

Example 2.1.4.1 Ampere

Find an expression for the unit ampere in terms of the defining constants e and
Δν Cs .

Answer: The exact definition of the elementary charge is

e = 1.602176634 × 10−19 C = 1.602176634 × 10−19 A ⋅s . (2.17)

Therefore the unit ampere is defined to be

e e Δν Cs
1A = −19
⋅(1 s)−1 = −19
⋅ (2.18)
1.602176634 × 10 1.602176634 × 10 9 192 631 770
Hence
1 A = 6.789687 × 108 eΔν Cs (2.19)

2.1.5 Definition of the kelvin

The kelvin, symbol K , is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is

defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k
to be 1.380649 × 10−23 when expressed in the unit J ⋅ K −1 , which is equal
to kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −2 K −1 , where the kilogram, meter and second are defined in
terms of h , c and Δν Cs .

This definition implies the exact relation k = 1.380649 × 10−23 J ⋅ K −1 . Its

effect is that one kelvin is equal to the change of thermodynamic
temperature T that results in a change of thermal energy kT by
1.380649 × 10−23 J . 12

2.1.5.1 Example Kelvin

11
https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/base-units.html
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https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/base-units.html

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Find an expression for the unit kelvin in terms of the defining constants k , h , c and
Δν Cs .

Answer: The Boltzmann constant is exactly

k = 1.380649 × 10−23 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −2 ⋅ K −1 (2.20)

Therefore the unit kelvin is defined as

1.380649 × 10−23
1K = ⋅ kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s−2 (2.21)
k

Using our above definitions for the kilogram, meter and second, Eq. (2.21)
becomes

⎛ 1.380649 × 10−23 ⎞ ⎛ hΔν Cs ⎞

1K = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ 1.4755214 × 1040 ⎟
⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ c2 ⎠
2 −2
(2.22)
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ 9 192 631 770 ⎞
⋅ ⎜ 30.663 314 9 ⋅
⎝ Δν Cs ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Δν Cs ⎟
⎠

One kelvin is then equal to

hΔν Cs
1 K = 2.266 665 265 (2.23)
k

2.1.6 Definition of the mole

The mole, symbol mol , is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole contains
exactly 6.02214076 × 1023 elementary entities. This number is the fixed
numerical value of the Avogadro constant, N A , when expressed in the unit
mol−1 and is called the Avogadro number.

The amount of substance, symbol n , of a system is a measure of the number of

specified elementary entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule,
an ion, an electron, any other particle or specified group of particles. 13

Example 2.1.6.1 Mole

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13
Find an expression for the unit mole in terms of the defining constant N A .

Answer:

The Avogadro number is exactly defined as

N A = 6.02214076 × 1023 mol−1 (2.24)

Therefore, 1 mole is given by the expression:

1
1 mol = 6.02214076 × 1023 (2.25)
NA

2.1.7 Radians

Consider the triangle drawn in Figure 2.1. The basic trigonometric functions of an angle
θ in a right-angled triangle ONB are sin(θ ) = y / r , cos(θ ) = x / r , and tan(θ ) = y / x .

P
B
r
y s
O
x N A X
Figure 2.1 Trigonometric relations

It is very important to become familiar with using the measure of the angle θ
itself as expressed in radians [rad]. Let θ be the angle between two straight lines OX
and OP . Draw a circle of radius r centered at O . The lines OP and OX cut the
circle at the points A and B where OA = OB = r . Denote the length of the arc AB
by s , then the radian measure of θ is given by

θ = s/r, (2.26)

and the ratio is the same for circles of any radii centered at O -- just as the ratios y / r
and y / x are the same for all right triangles with the angle θ at O . As θ
approaches 360 , s approaches the complete circumference 2π r of the circle, so that
360 = 2π rad .

14
 tan( )
/2

1.0

sin( )
0
/2

Figure 2.2 Radians compared to trigonometric functions.

Let’s compare the behavior of sin(θ ) , tan(θ ) and θ itself for small angles.
One can see from Figure 2.1 that s / r > y / r . It is less obvious that y / x > θ . It is very
instructive to plot sin(θ ) , tan(θ ) , and θ as functions of θ [rad] between 0 and π / 2
on the same graph (see Figure 2.2). For small θ , the values of all three functions are
almost equal. But how small is “small”? An acceptable condition is for θ << 1 in
radians.

We can show this with a few examples. Recall that 360 = 2π rad , 57.3 = 1 rad , so an
angle 6 ≅ (6 )(2π rad / 360o ) ≅ 0.1 rad when expressed in radians. In Table 2.2 we
compare the value of θ (measured in radians) with sin(θ ) , tan(θ ) , (θ − sin θ ) / θ , and
(θ − tan θ ) / θ , for θ = 0.1 rad , 0.2 rad , 0.5 rad , and 1.0 rad .

15
 Table 2.3 Small Angle Approximation

θ [rad] θ [deg] sin(θ ) tan(θ ) (θ − sin θ ) / θ (θ − tan θ ) / θ

0.1 5.72958 0.09983 0.10033 0.00167 -0.00335
0.2 11.45916 0.19867 0.20271 0.00665 -0.01355
0.5 28.64789 0.47943 0.54630 0.04115 -0.09260
1.0 57.29578 0.84147 1.55741 0.15853 -0.55741

The values for (θ − sin θ ) / θ , and (θ − tan θ ) / θ , for θ = 0.2 rad are less than ±1.4% .
Provided that θ is not too large, the approximation that

sin(θ ) ! tan(θ ) ! θ , (2.27)

called the small angle approximation, can be used almost interchangeably, within
some small percentage error. This is the basis of many useful approximations in
physics calculations.

Example 2.1.7.1 Parsec

A standard astronomical unit is the parsec . Consider two objects that are separated by a
distance of one astronomical unit, 1AU = 1.50 × 1011 m , which is the mean distance
between the earth and sun. (One astronomical unit is roughly equivalent to eight light
minutes, 1AU = 8.3light-minutes .) One parsec is the distance at which one
astronomical unit subtends an angle θ = 1 arcsecond = (1/ 3600) degree .

Suppose is a spacecraft is located in a space a distance 1 parsec from the Sun as shown
in Figure 2.3. How far is the spacecraft in terms of light years and meters?

Earth
1 arcsecond
1 AU

Sun spacecraft

1 parsec

Figure 2.3 Example 2.1.7.1

Because one arc second corresponds to a very small angle, one parsec is therefore equal
to distance divided by angle, hence

16
 (1 AU) ⎛ 1.50 × 1011 m ⎞
1pc = = (2.06 × 105 AU) ⎜ ⎟ = 3.09 × 1016 m
(1/3600) ⎝ 1 AU ⎠
. (2.28)
⎛ 1ly ⎞
= (3.09 × 10 m) ⎜
16
= 3.26 ly
⎝ 9.46 × 10 m ⎟⎠
15

2.1.8 Steradians

The steradian [sr] is the unit of solid angle that, having its vertex in the center of a
sphere, cuts off an area of the surface of the sphere equal to that of a square with sides
of length equal to the radius of the sphere. The conventional symbol for steradian
measure is Ω , the uppercase Greek letter “Omega.” The total solid angle Ωsph of a
sphere is then found by dividing the surface area of the sphere by the square of the
radius,

Ωsph = 4π r 2 / r 2 = 4π (2.29)

This result is independent of the radius of the sphere.

2.1.9 Definition of the candela

The candela, symbol cd , is the SI unit of luminous intensity in a given

direction. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the
luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 × 1012 Hz , K cd , to be 683 when expressed in the unit 1 m ⋅ W −1 ,
which is equal to cd ⋅sr ⋅ W −1 or cd ⋅sr ⋅ kg −1 ⋅ m −2 ⋅s3 where the
kilogram, meter and second are defined in terms of h , c and Δν Cs .

The candela is the SI base unit for the photometric quantity luminous
intensity. The definition of the candela is based on the SI defining constant
Kcd which links the photometric units to the corresponding radiometric
units14

Example 2.1.9.1 Candela

Find an expression for the unit candela in terms of the defining constants ,
h , and Δν Cs .

14
https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/base-units.html

17
Answer: One candela expressed in terms of the defining constants by inverting K cd ,
the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz . Starting
with
K cd = 683 cd ⋅sr ⋅ kg −1 ⋅ m −2 ⋅s3 ,
we have that
K
1 cd = cd sr −1 ⋅ kg ⋅ m −2 ⋅s−3
683

substituting the units kg , m , and s by their corresponding expressions in terms of the

defining constants:
K
1 cd = cd sr −1 ⋅ kg ⋅ m −2 ⋅s−3
683
2 −3
K ⎛ hΔν Cs ⎞ ⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ 9 192 631 770 ⎞
1 cd = cd ⎜ 1.4755214 × 1040 ⎟⎜ 30.6633149 ⋅
683 ⎝ c2 ⎠ ⎝ Δν Cs ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Δν Cs ⎟
⎠
(1.4755214 × 1040 )(30.6633149)2 (9 192 631 770)−3
1 cd = K cd hΔν Cs 2
683
10
1 cd = 2.614830 × 10 K cd hΔν Cs 2

The effect of this definition is that one candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz
and has a radiant intensity in that direction of (1/ 683)W ⋅sr −1 .15

15
https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/base-units.html

18
2.2 Dimensions of Commonly Encountered Quantities

Introduction

Many physical quantities are derived from the base quantities by a set of algebraic
relations defining the physical relation between these quantities. We shall refer to the
dimension of the base quantity by the quantity itself, for example

dim (length) ≡ length ≡ L, dim (mass) ≡ mass ≡ M, dim (time) ≡ time ≡ T. (2.1)

The dimension of a derived quantity is written as a power of the dimensions of the base
quantities. For example velocity is a derived quantity and the dimension is given by the
relationship
dim velocity = (length)/(time) = L ⋅ T-1 . (2.2)

where L ≡ length , T ≡ time . Force is also a derived quantity and has dimension

(mass)(dim velocity)
dim force = . (2.3)
(time)

where M ≡ mass . We can also express force in terms of mass, length, and time by the
relationship
(mass)(length)
dim force = = M ⋅ L ⋅ T-2 . (2.4)
(time)2

The derived dimension of kinetic energy is

dim kineticenergy = (mass)(dim velocity)2 , (2.5)

which in terms of mass, length, and time is

(mass)(length)2
dim kineticenergy = 2
= M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-2 . (2.6)
(time)

The derived dimension of work is

dim work = (dim force)(length) , (2.7)

which in terms of our fundamental dimensions is

19
 (mass)(length)2
dim work = 2
= M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-2 . (2.8)
(time)

So work and kinetic energy have the same dimensions. Power is defined to be the rate
of change in time of work so the dimensions are

dim work (dim force)(length) (mass)(length)2

dim power = = = 3
= M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-3 .(2.9)
time time (time)

In Table 2.4 we include the derived dimensions of some common mechanical quantities
in terms of mass, length, and time.

Table 2.4 Dimensions of Some Common Mechanical Quantities

M ≡ mass , L ≡ length , T ≡ time

Quantity Dimension MKS unit

Angle dimensionless Dimensionless = radian
Solid Angle dimensionless Dimensionless = sterradian
Area L2 m2
Volume L3 m3
Frequency T-1 s −1 = hertz = Hz
Velocity L ⋅ T-1 m ⋅ s −1
Acceleration L ⋅ T-2 m ⋅ s −2
Angular Velocity T-1 rad ⋅ s −1
Angular Acceleration T-2 rad ⋅ s −2
Density M ⋅ L-3 kg ⋅ m −3
Momentum M ⋅ L ⋅ T-1 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s −1
Angular Momentum M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-1 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −1
Force M ⋅ L ⋅ T-2 kg ⋅m ⋅s−2 = newton = N
Work, Energy M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-2 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −2 = joule = J
Torque M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-2 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −2
Power M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-3 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −3 = watt = W
Pressure M ⋅ L-1 ⋅ T-2 kg ⋅ m −1 ⋅ s −2 = pascal= Pa

20
2.2.1 Dimensions of Fundamental Constants

A number of fundamental constants appear in the fundamental laws of physics. The

values of these constants depend on the choice of units. We denote the dimension of a
quantity * by square brackets ⎡⎣*⎤⎦ : for example the dimension of frequency is denoted
by ⎡⎣ f ⎤⎦ and is equal to
⎡⎣ f ⎤⎦ = 1/ (time) .

In what follows all constants will be given in SI units.

Example 2.2.1.1 Dimension of the Universal Gravitation Constant G

Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation describes the gravitational force

between two bodies with masses, m1 and m2 . This force points along the line
connecting the bodies, is attractive, and its magnitude is proportional to the inverse
square of the distance, r1,2 , between the bodies.
! mm
F = G 1 22 ,
r1,2

where G = 6.6742(10) × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg -2 . The dimensions of the Universal Gravitation

Constant G are then
( length)
3

⎡⎣G ⎤⎦ = .
( mass)(time)
2

Example 2.2.1.2 Dimensions of Coulomb’s constant 1/ 4πε 0

Coulomb’s Law describes the electric force between two charged bodies q1 and
q2 , separated by a distance r1,2 . The fundamental charge has magnitude
e = 1.602176634 × 10−19 C . The magnitude of the force exerted on an electron with
charge q1 = −e due to the interaction between and electron and a proton with charge
q2 = e is given by,
! 1 e2
F1,2 = .
4πε 0 r1,2 2
The vacuum permittivity is defined as

21
 1
ε0 = ,
µ0 c 2

where the speed of light c = 2.99792458 × 108 m ⋅s-1 , in the new definitions of SI units,
the vacuum permeability is experimentally determined with a value
µ0 = 1.25663706212(19) × 10−6 N ⋅C−2 ⋅s 2 .
(Note that before the new definitions of units, µ0 = 4π × 10−7 N ⋅C−2 ⋅s 2 ).

Therefore ε 0 = 8.8541878128(13) × 10−12 N -1 ⋅ m -2 ⋅C2 . Note that

1/ 4πε 0 = 8.9875517923× 109 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅C-2 . Therefore the dimensions of
( force)(length)2
[1/ 4πε 0 ] = .
(charge)2

Example 2.2.1.3 Dimensions of the Planck constant

The internal energy of an object is proportional to the rest mass according to

E = mc 2 .

The energy of a light particle (photon) is proportional to the frequency of oscillation of

the monochromatic classical wave associated to the photon,

hc
E = hf = ,
λ

where Planck’s constant is defined to be exactly h = 6.62607015 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s-1 . The

dimensions of Planck’s constant can be determined from the relation

h= E/ f .

The dimension of energy can be determined form the relation E = mc 2 :

(mass)(length)2
⎡⎣ E ⎤⎦ = .
(time)2

The dimension of Planck’s constant is therefore

( mass)( length)
2

⎡⎣ h⎤⎦ = ( energy )( time ) = .

(time)

22
2.3 Dimensional Analysis

There are many phenomena in nature that can be explained by simple relationships
between the observed phenomena.

Example 2.3.1 Period of a Pendulum

Consider a simple pendulum consisting of a massive bob suspended from a fixed point
by a string. Let T denote the time interval (period of the pendulum) that it takes the bob
to complete one cycle of oscillation. How does the period of the simple pendulum
depend on the quantities that define the pendulum and the quantities that determine the
motion?

Solution: What possible quantities are involved? The length of the pendulum l , the
mass of the pendulum bob m , the gravitational acceleration g , and the angular
amplitude of the bob θ 0 are all possible quantities that may enter into a relationship for
the period of the swing. Have we included every possible quantity? We can never be
sure but let’s first work with this set and if we need more than we will have to think
harder! Our problem is then to find a function f such that

T = f (l,m, g,θ 0 ) (2.10)

We first make a list of the dimensions of our quantities as shown in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 Dimensions of Quantities Relevant to the Period of Pendulum

Name of Quantity Symbol Dimensional Formula

Time of swing t T
Length of pendulum l L
Mass of pendulum m M
Gravitational acceleration g L ⋅ T-2
Angular amplitude of swing θ0 No dimension

Our first observation is that the mass of the bob cannot enter into our
relationship, as our final quantity has no dimensions of mass and no other quantity has
dimensions of mass. Let’s focus on the length of the string and the gravitational
acceleration. In order to eliminate length, these quantities must divide each other when
appearing in some functional relation for the period T . If we choose the combination
l / g , the dimensions are

23
 length
dim[l / g] = 2
= (time)2 (2.11)
length/(time)

It appears that the time of swing may proportional to the square root of this ratio. Thus
we have a candidate formula
1/2
⎛l⎞
T ⎜ ⎟ . (2.12)
⎝ g⎠

(in the above expression, the symbol “  ” represents a proportionality, not an

approximation). Because the angular amplitude θ 0 is dimensionless, it may or may not
appear. We can account for this by introducing some function y(θ 0 ) into our
relationship, which is beyond the limits of this type of analysis. The period is then

1/2
⎛l⎞
T = y(θ 0 ) ⎜ ⎟ . (2.13)
⎝ g⎠

We shall discover later on that y(θ 0 ) is nearly independent of the angular amplitude θ 0
for very small amplitudes and is equal to y(θ 0 ) = 2π ,

1/2
⎛l⎞
T = 2π ⎜ ⎟
⎝ g⎠

Example 2.3.3 Planck Length

Suppose the Universal Gravitational Constant is fixed at G = 6.6742 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg -2

and the Cesium hyperfine frequency is removed as a fundamental constant. The set of
defining constants are now:

Table 2.2a Defining Constants

Quantity Symbol Numerical Value SI Units

Gravitational constant G 6.6742 × 10 −11
N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg -2
Speed of light in 299 792 458
vacuum
c m ⋅s−1
Planck constant h 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1

24
Physicists often use ! = h / 2π = 1.05457182 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1 instead of the Planck
constant.

(a) Using dimensional analysis, find a combination of the defining constants ! , c ,

and G , that has the dimensions of length, called the Planck length, l p .

(b) What is the value of the Planck length, l p ?

(c) Find an expression for the unit meter in terms of the defining constants ! , c ,
and G .

Answer:
a a a3
(a) Let l p = c 1 ! 2 G such that [l p ] = L has the dimensions of length. Therefore in order
for the dimensions to match

L = (L ⋅ T-1 ) a1 (M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-1 ) a2 (L3 ⋅ T-2 ⋅ M −1 ) a3 = La1+2a2 +3a3 ⋅ M a2 −a3 ⋅ T-a1−a2 −2a3

Therefore we have three conditions

1 = a1 + 2a2 + 3a3
0 = a2 − a3
0 = −a1 − a2 − 2a3

We can solve these equations and find that

a2 = a3 = 1/ 2
a1 = −3a3 = −3 / 2
Thus the combination
G!
l p = c −3/2 !1/2G1/2 =
c3
has the dimensions of length.

(b) The magnitude of the Planck length unit in SI units is

12 12
⎛ !G ⎞ ⎛ (1.05457182 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1 )(6.6742 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg -2 ) ⎞
lp = ⎜ 3 ⎟ =⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ (2.99792458 × 108 m ⋅s-1 )3
= 1.61624 × 10−35 m

25
(c) Because l p = 1.61624 × 10−35 m . Therefore
12
lp ⎛ !G ⎞
1m = = 6.18719 × 10 ⎜ 3 ⎟ 34
.
−35
1.61624 × 10 m ⎝ c ⎠

Example 2.3.3 Fine Structure Constant

(a) What combination of constants h , c , e , and ε 0 gives a dimensionless quantity?

Hint: Let γ = h 1 c 2 e 3 ε 0
a a a a4
and find a1 ,a2 ,a3 , and a4 such that [γ ] is dimensionless.

Answer:
Let γ = h 1 c 2 e 3 ε 0
a a a a4
such that [γ ] is dimensionless. This means that

γ = (kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s-1 ) a1 (m ⋅s-1 ) a2 (C) a3 (kg −1 ⋅s 2 ⋅ m −3 ⋅C2 ) a4

must has no units. Therefore

a1 − a4 = 0
2a1 + a2 − 3a4 = 0
−a1 − a2 + 2a4 = 0
a3 + 2a4 = 0

We can solve these equations and find that

a1 = a2 = a4
a3 = −2a1
The smallest integer solution for a positive value of a1 is given by
a1 = a2 = a4 = 1
a3 = −2
Therefore
hcε 0
γ =
e2
(b) Fine structure constant

Define β = (h / 2π )c(4πε 0 ) / e2 . Find the value of the fine structure constant α given
by

26
 1 e2 µ ce2
α= = = 0 .
β 2ε 0 ch 2h
Answer:
1
α!
137

Example 2.3.4 Rydberg constant

The Rydberg constant is named after a Swedish physicist Johannes Rydberg. It

corresponds to the wavenumber (inverse wavelength) of the lowest-energy photon that
can ionize an atom from its ground state. It’s expressed as RH for the hydrogen atom
and as R∞ for any atom whose nucleus is infinitely heavier than a single orbiting
electron.

According to the CODATA16, the value of the Rydberg constant for heavy atoms is:

2π 2 me e4
R∞ = = 10 973 731.568 160 m −1
( 4πε )
2 3
0
hc

where me = 9.109 383 7015 × 10−31 kg is the rest mass of the electron, is the
elementary charge, ε 0 is the permittivity of free space, h is the Planck constant, and c
is the speed of light in vacuum.

In atomic physics, the Rydberg unit of energy, Ry , describes the energy of the photon
with a wavenumber equal to , thus corresponding to the ionization energy of the
hydrogen atom. It’s expressed as follows:

2π 2 me e4 1
Ry = hcR∞ = = (mec 2 )α 2
( 4πε )
2
0
h2 2

Find the numerical value of the Rydberg unit of energy.

Answer: The exact value, provided by the CODATA, is:

16
https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?ryd

27
 me e4
Ry = = 2.179 872 3611035 × 10−18 J
8ε 0 h
2 2
,
Ry =13.605 693122 994 eV

2.4 Order of Magnitude Estimates - Fermi Problems

Counting is the first mathematical skill we learn. We came to use this skill by
distinguishing elements into groups of similar objects, but counting becomes
problematic when our desired objects are not easily identified, or there are too many to
count. Rather than spending a huge amount of effort to attempt an exact count, we can
try to estimate the number of objects. For example, we can try to estimate the total
number of grains of sand contained in a bucket of sand. Because we can see individual
grains of sand, we expect the number to be very large but finite. Sometimes we can try
to estimate a number, which we are fairly sure but not certain is finite, such as the
number of particles in the universe.

We can also assign numbers to quantities that carry dimensions, such as mass,
length, time, or charge, which may be difficult to measure exactly. We may be
interested in estimating the mass of the air inside a room, or the length of telephone
wire in the United States, or the amount of time that we have slept in our lives. We
choose some set of units, such as kilograms, miles, hours, and coulombs, and then we
can attempt to estimate the number with respect to our standard quantity.

Often we are interested in estimating quantities such as speed, force, energy, or

power. We may want to estimate our natural walking speed, or the force of wind acting
against a bicycle rider, or the total energy consumption of a country, or the electrical
power necessary to operate a university. All of these quantities have no exact, well-
defined value; they instead lie within some range of values.

When we make these types of estimates, we should be satisfied if our estimate is

reasonably close to the middle of the range of possible values. But what does
“reasonably close” mean? Once again, this depends on what quantities we are
estimating. If we are describing a quantity that has a very large number associated with
it, then an estimate within an order of magnitude should be satisfactory. The number of
molecules in a breath of air is close to 1022 ; an estimate anywhere between 1021 and
1023 molecules is close enough. If we are trying to win a contest by estimating the
number of marbles in a glass container, we cannot be so imprecise; we must hope that
our estimate is within 1% of the real quantity. These types of estimations are called
Fermi problems. The technique is named after the physicist Enrico Fermi, who was
famous for making these sorts of “back of the envelope” calculations.

28
Methodology for Estimation Problems

Estimating is a skill that improves with practice. Here are two guiding principles that
may help you get started.

(1) You must identify a set of quantities that can be estimated or calculated.

(2) You must establish an approximate or exact relationship between these

quantities and the quantity to be estimated in the problem.

Estimations may be characterized by a precise relationship between an estimated

quantity and the quantity of interest in the problem. When we estimate, we are drawing
upon what we know. But different people are more familiar with certain things than
others. If you are basing your estimate on a fact that you already know, the accuracy of
your estimate will depend on the accuracy of your previous knowledge. When there is
no precise relationship between estimated quantities and the quantity to be estimated in
the problem, then the accuracy of the result will depend on the type of relationships you
decide upon. There are often many approaches to an estimation problem leading to a
reasonably accurate estimate. So use your creativity and imagination!

Example 2.4.1 Fermi’s Problem Piano Tuners

A famous type of estimation problem is named after the physicist Enrico Fermi. One of
his favorite examples was estimating the number of piano tuners in Chicago with the
only given information the population of Chicago which at the time was approximately
3 million people.

Solution: Our estimate will be based on how many individual living units there are in
Chicago. Assume that on average 5 people live together. Then there are 600,000 living
units. Assume that one in ten living units has a piano, which amounts to 60,000 pianos.
Suppose a piano tuner can tune three pianos a day. If a tuner works a 50 week year, five
days a week, then each tuner can tune 750 pianos per year. Therefore there is an need
for 60,000 / 750 = 80 , so we estimate there are 100 piano tuners in Chicago.

Example 2.4.1 One Kilometer Line of Pennies

In this example our goal is to estimate the number of pennies needed to mark off 1
kilometer.

Solution: The first step is to consider what type of quantity is being estimated. In this
example we are estimating a dimensionless scalar quantity, the number of pennies. We

29
can now give a precise relationship for the number of pennies needed to mark off 1
kilometer
totaldistance
# of pennies = . (2.14)
diameter of penny

We can estimate a penny to be approximately 2 centimeters wide. Therefore the number

of pennies is
totaldistance (1 km)
# of pennies= =
length of a penny (2 cm)(1 km / 105 cm) (2.15)
= 50,000 pennies = 5 × 104 pennies.

When applying numbers to relationships we must be careful to convert units

whenever necessary. How accurate is this estimation? If you measure the size of a
penny, you will find out that the width is 1.9 cm , so our estimate was accurate to within
5%. This accuracy was fortuitous. Suppose we estimated the length of a penny to be 1
cm. Then our estimate for the total number of pennies would be within a factor of 2, a
margin of error we can live with for this type of problem.

Example 2.4.3 Estimation of Mass of Water on Surface of Earth

Estimate the mass of the water on the surface of the Earth.

Solution: In this example we are estimating mass, a quantity that is a fundamental in SI

units, and is measured in kg. We start by approximating that the amount of water on
Earth is approximately equal to the amount of water in all the oceans. Initially we will
try to estimate two quantities: the density of water and the volume of water contained in
the oceans. Then the relationship we want is

mass = (density)(volume) . (2.16)

One of the hardest aspects of estimation problems is to decide which relationship

applies. One way to check your work is to check dimensions. Density has dimensions of
mass/volume, so our relationship is correct dimensionally.

The density of fresh water is ρ = 1.0 g ⋅cm −3 ; the density of seawater is slightly
higher, but the difference won’t matter for this estimate. You could estimate this density
by estimating how much mass is contained in a one-liter bottle of water. (The density of
water is a point of reference for all density problems. Suppose we need to estimate the
density of iron. If we compare iron to water, we might estimate that iron is 5 to 10 times
denser than water. The actual density of iron is ρiron = 7.8 g ⋅ cm -3 ).

30
 Because there is no precise relationship, estimating the volume of water in the
oceans is much harder. Let’s model the volume occupied by the oceans as if the water
completely covers the earth, forming a spherical shell of radius RE and thickness d
(Figure 2.4, which is decidedly not to scale), where RE is the radius of the earth and d
is the average depth of the ocean. The volume of that spherical shell is

volume ≅ 4π Rearth
2
d. (2.17)

RE

Figure 2.4 A model for estimating the mass of the water on the surface of the Earth.

We also estimate that the oceans cover about 75% of the surface of the earth. So we can
refine our estimate that the volume of the oceans is

volume ≅ (0.75)(4π RE 2 d) . (2.18)

We therefore have two more quantities to estimate, the average depth of the ocean,
which we can estimate as d ≅ 1km , and the radius of the earth, which is
approximately RE ≅ 6 × 103 km . (The quantity that you may remember is the
circumference of the earth, about 25,000 miles . Historically the circumference of the
earth was defined to be 4 × 107 m ). The radius RE and the circumference s are exactly
related by
s = 2π RE . (2.19)
Thus

RE =
s
=
( )(
2.5 × 104 mi 1.6 km ⋅ mi-1 )
= 6.4 × 103 km (2.20)
2π 2π

We will use RE ≅ 6 × 103 km ; additional accuracy is not necessary for this problem,
since the ocean depth estimate is clearly less accurate. In fact, the factor of 75% is not

31
needed, but included more or less from habit. Altogether, our estimate for the mass of
the oceans is
mass = (density)(volume) ≅ ρ (0.75)(4π RE 2 d)
⎛ 1g ⎞ ⎛ 1 kg ⎞ ⎛ (105 cm)3 ⎞
mass ≅ ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ (0.75)(4π )(6 × 103 km)2 (1km) (2.21)
⎝ cm ⎠ ⎝ 10 g ⎠ ⎝ (1 km)3 ⎟⎠
mass ≅ 3× 1020 kg ≅ 1020 kg.

An interesting question is what is the origin of this water?

Example 2.4.4 Lao-Tzu’s Last Breath

What is the probability that none of the molecules in your next breath were in the last
breath of Lao-Tzu (b. 551 B.C.E.), author of the Tao Te Ching, who expired in 471
B.C.E.?

Answer: We begin by making a few notational definitions.

Let N be the number of molecules in a breath.

Let p be the probability that one molecule in your next breath was contained in Lao-
Tzu’s last breath.

Let q = 1 − p be the probability that one molecule in your next breath was not
contained in Lao-Tzu’s last breath.

The probability P that none of the molecules in your next breath were contained in
Lao-Tzu’s last breath is therefore
P = q N = (1− p ) .
N
(2.22)

We would like to estimate the number of molecules, N , in a breath, and the

probability, p , that one molecule in your next breath was also contained in Lao-Tzu’s
last breath. We shall estimate the number of molecules in one breath by first estimating
the volume Vbreath of one breath, and then converting this to moles, m , at STP (Standard
Temperature and Pressure). I estimate that the volume of one breath is approximately 1
L. At STP, one mole of an ideal gas (which is a good approximation for the actual
properties of air) occupies 22.4 L, so the number of moles of air in one breath is

Vbreath 1L
m≅ ≅ ≅ 4 ×10−2 mole . (2.23)
22.4 L mole 22.4 L mole

Then we calculate the number of molecules, N , in one breath to be

32
 N = N Am ≅ ( 6 ×1023 molecules mole )( 4 ×10−2 mole ) ≅ 3×1022 molecules (2.24)

where N A ≅ 6 × 1023 molecules mole is the Avogadro constant.

We shall estimate the probability p as the ratio of the volume of a breath to the volume
of the atmosphere:
volume of one breath Vbreath
p≅ = . (2.25)
volume of atmosphere Vatmo

In order to estimate the volume Vatmo of the earth’s atmosphere, let’s assume that the
atmosphere is a uniform spherical shell of thickness t and radius r ; this is the same
model used for the volume of the oceans in another example. Then the volume of the
shell is approximately
Vatmo ≅ 4π r 2t . (2.26)

We need to make two estimations. Let’s suppose:

1) the thickness of the shell is approximately t ≅ 10 km = 104 m ;

2) the radius r = Re , the radius of the earth, which we estimate as
Re ≅ 6 × 103 km = 6 × 106 m .

Note that we have t = Re , a necessary condition for using the spherical shell
approximation as given above. Then our estimate for the volume of the earth’s
atmosphere is

Vatmo ≅ 4π r 2t = 4π ( 6×106 m ) (104 m ) = 4×1018 m3 .

2
(2.27)

We estimated the volume of one breath as 1 L ; let’s convert this to cubic meters:

⎞ ⎜⎛ (1×10 m ) ⎞⎟
−2 3
⎛ 1L
Vbreath ≅1L = ⎜ 3 ⎟
=1×10−3 m3 . (2.28)
3
⎜
⎝ 1×10 cm ⎠ ⎝ 1cm
3
⎟
⎠

So the probability that one specific molecule in your next breath was contained in Lao-
Tzu’s last breath is estimated as

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 volume of one breath Vbreath 1×10−3 m3
p≅ = ≅ 18 3
≅ 1×10−21 . (2.29)
volume of atmosphere Vatmo 4×10 m

The probability, q = 1 − p , that one specific molecule in your next breath was not
contained in Lao-Tzu’s last breath, is essentially one:

q = 1− p ≅ 1−10−21 . (2.30)

The total probability P that none of the molecules in your next breath were
contained in Lao-Tzu’s last breath is then

P = q N = (1− p ) ≅ (1−10−21 )
N 3×1022
, (2.31)
or alternately,
3×1022
⎛ 3×101 ⎞
P = q N = (1− p ) ≅ (1−10 )
22
N −21 3×10
= ⎜1− 22 ⎟
. (2.32)
⎝ 3×10 ⎠

To simplify the calculation, we can now use a representation for the exponential
function (see Example 2.4.4. for a proof of this result),

N
−x ⎛ x⎞
e = lim ⎜ 1− ⎟ . (2.33)
N →∞
⎝ N⎠
Thus
3×1022
⎛ 3× 101 ⎞ 1
P ≅ ⎜ 1− ≅ e−3×10 = 1× 10−13 ≅ 0 . (2.34)
⎝ 3× 10 ⎟⎠
22

So the probability P is nearly zero that none of the molecules in your next breath were
contained in Lao-Tzu’s last breath. From this, we see that it is certain that at least one
molecule of air you inhale was in Lao-Tzu’s last gasp.

Note one key assumption that we make in this problem: in 2500 years, the
atmosphere has re-circulated to the point that Lao-Tzu’s final exhalation is equally
distributed throughout the world. Recently, a 3 − km ice core sample had been drilled
from the Antarctic ice sheet. What is the probability that an air bubble in the ice at the
bottom of the sample contains an atom in Lao-Tzu’s final exhalation?

Example 2.4.5 Representation of the exponential function

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Show that
N
⎛ a⎞
lim ⎜ 1− ⎟ = e− a (3.35)
N→∞ ⎝ N⎠

Proof: Let’s begin by proving that

ln(1− ay)
lim = −a (3.36)
y→0 y

This is an indetermine form so we apply the Taylor formula to the numerator

1
ln(1− ay) = −ay − (ay)2 + O( y 3 ) (3.37)
2
Then

1
ln(1− ay) −ay − (ay)2 + O( y 3 )
lim = lim 2 = −a (3.38)
y→0 y y→0 y

Define bx for all b > 0 raised to any real number x by

bx = e x ln b (3.39)

Let b = ln(1− ay) and ln(1− ay)1/ y = e(1/ y )ln(1−ay ) . Thus

lim ln(1− ay)1/ y = exp(lim((1/ y)ln(1− ay)) = e− a (3.40)

y→0 x→0

Let y = 1/ N . Then
a N
lim ln(1− ) = e− a (3.41)
N→∞ N

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8.01 Classical Mechanics

Spring 2022

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