Table of Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3
Theory ........................................................................................................................................................... 3
Aim ................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Variables ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
Constant variable ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Independent variable ................................................................................................................................ 4
Dependent variable................................................................................................................................... 4
Hypothesis..................................................................................................................................................... 4
Apparatus/Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Experimental Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 5
Results ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
Table 1: Experimental Data Steel .............................................................................................................. 7
Table 2: Experimental Data Brass ............................................................................................................. 8
Table 3: Experimental Data Aluminium .................................................................................................... 9
Questions from lab brief ............................................................................................................................. 10
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 16
Reference list .............................................................................................................................................. 17
Introduction
Currently, the entire world produces 800 million tons of steel for various uses and around 40% of
it comes from recycled steel. Steel is arguably the most versatile material for construction as it is
strong in both tension and compression. It is also easily formable and its quality is uniform. The
idea of putting steel in concrete to produce reinforced concrete has been revolutionary in increasing
its versatility.

Theory
The flexural Young’s Modulus is a measurement of a material’s stiffness against bending and is
usually measured by applying force perpendicular to the long edge of the sample. When a sample
is bending while a load is applied at one point on top of it, the top side undergoes compressive
deformation while the underside undergoes tensile deformation. Thus, the flexural Young’s
Modulus is suitable for materials with uniform properties in all directions. In this experiment we
will determine the flexural Young’s Modulus of various metallic materials by using the 1-point
beam bending equation,
𝑷𝒍𝟑
𝜹=
𝟒𝟖𝑬𝑰𝒙𝒙
Aim
• Determine the flexural stiffness of different metallic materials by using a 1-point beam
bending test.
• To study the relationship between deflection and load applied to a simply supported beam.

Variables
Constant variable
o Position of the weights
o Dimensions of the flat beams

Independent variable
o Material of the beams
o Mass of the weights used (100, 400, 500, 900g)

Dependent variable
o Displacement of the beam
o Flexural Young’s Modulus of the beam

Hypothesis
The lower the displacement of the beam, the higher its flexural Young’s Modulus.

Apparatus/Materials
Vernier caliper

Ruler

Dial gauge

Weights (100,400,500,900g)

Weight hanger

Beams (Steel, Brass, Aluminium)

1. Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 1 above.

2. Make sure the dial gauge is at the midspan of each beam.

3. Measure the width and depth of the beams’ cross section using the vernier caliper.

4. Make sure the dial gauge spindle is in contact with flat surface and needle set to zero before
applying the weights.

5. Hang the weight hanger carefully under the beam.

6. Hang the 100g weight under the midspan of the beam as shown in Figure 2, then measure and
record the displacement of the beam of each weight increment. (400g, 500g, 900g)
7. Repeat step 4 to 6 for the other beams.
Results
Table 1: Experimental Data Steel
Increment Number Weight Added Per Position Displacement (mm)
(N)
1 0.981 0
2 4.905 0.015
3 9.810 0.045
4 18.639 0.088
Graph of Load vs Displacement

Steel
20
18
16
14
12
Load (N)

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Displacement (mm)

Graph 1
Table 2: Experimental Data Brass
Increment Number Weight Added Per Position Displacement (mm)
(N)
1 0.981 0
2 4.905 0.033
3 9.810 0.057
4 18.639 0.19
Graph of Load vs Displacement

Brass
20
18
16
14
Loaad (N)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Displacement (mm)

Graph 2
Table 3: Experimental Data Aluminium
Increment Number Weight Added Per Position Displacement (mm)
(N)
1 0.981 0.011
2 4.905 0.050
3 9.810 0.150
4 18.639 2.460
Graph of Load vs Displacement

Aluminium
20
18
16
14
12
Load (N)

10
8
6
4
2
0
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Displacement (mm)

Graph 3
Questions from lab brief
1) Draw the beam’s cross section below and, without disturbing the beam, measure the
dimensions and thickness of the specimen.

2) What is the distance of the neutral axis from the beam’s upper surface?

Steel Aluminium Brass

3) Determine the 2nd moment of area of the cross-section along the beam’s neutral axis

𝒃𝒉𝟑
𝑰𝒙𝒙 =
𝟏𝟐

Where: b= width, h= depth

Steel (mm4) Aluminium (mm4) Brass (mm4)

4) Carefully add weights to the beam at the places indicated on the beams upper surface.
After each increment record the number indicated on the dial gauge and convert to
displacement as appropriate in Table 1.

The table and data collected for the beams are recorded in the “result” section above.
5) On a separate piece of paper plot a graph of load versus deflection for all the materials in
the same graph and attach it to this report. What does the graph tell you about the behaviour
of the beam over the load range applied?

Graph of load against deflection

20

15
Load (N)

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Deflection (mm)

Steel Aluminium Brass

Graph 4

For steel, the deflection observed over the different load applied (100, 400, 500, 900g) went
from 0mm to 0.088mm. Deflection of the brass beam starts at 0mm as well, but ended up
with 0.19mm, then the aluminium beam which deflected the most, went up to 2.46mm.
From the graph, it is shown that the higher the load, the higher the displacement of the
beam. Furthermore, it can be deduced that steel beam is the stiffest, while aluminium is the
least stiff beam. This shows that steel can withstand a higher load than the rest of the beam
before exceeding its yield point. Aluminium on the other hand, appears to be a more
flexible material and brass is in between.
6) Using structural mechanics determine the peak bending moment applied to the beam at a
load of 100N per location (ignore the weight of the beam itself). Hint first draw the beam
arrangement:

7) Using the following 1-point beam bending equation estimate the flexural stiffness (Young’s
Modulus) of the beam at the load given in (6) above (i.e. at the appropriate displacement):

𝑷𝒍𝟑
𝜹=
𝟒𝟖𝑬𝑰𝒙𝒙

Where: P = load, l = length, E = Flexural modulus, I = 2nd moment of area about the neutral axis

• Assume the material of the beam is steel

𝑃 = 100𝑁

𝑙 = 500𝑚𝑚

𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 134.37𝑚𝑚4

𝛿 = 10𝑚𝑚

𝑃𝑙3
Rearranging 𝛿 = 48𝐸𝐼 to make E the subject:
𝑥𝑥

𝑃𝑙 3
𝐸=
48𝛿𝐼𝑥𝑥

100(5003 )
𝐸=
48(134.37)(9.7)

𝑁
= 199799.65
𝑚𝑚2

= 199.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

Flexural Young’s Modulus = 199.8 GPa

The flexural Young’s Modulus is a measure of a materials resistance to bending when a force is
applied while the Tensile Young’s Modulus is a measure of a materials flexibility under tensile
load. Generally, most material behave differently under tensile or compressive force, so the
flexural and tensile Young’s Modulus would be different as well. But in this experiment, the
materials used perform similarly under both type of stresses. Thus, the flexural and tensile
Young’s Modulus would be the same.

9) Using the following equation determine the peak elastic normal stress on the outer fibres
of the beam for the load given in (6) above:

𝑴 𝝈𝒙
=
𝑰 𝒚

Where M= Peak bending moment, I= 2nd moment of area, 𝝈𝒙 = tensile stress, y= depth of
neutral axis.

Beam material= steel

𝑀𝑦
Rearranging the equation gives: 𝜎𝑥 = 𝐼

Where: M= 12500 Nmm

I= 134.37mm4

y= 2.16mm

12500(2.32)
Tensile Stress, 𝝈𝒙 (N/mm2) = 134.37

=215.82 N/mm2

Beam material= brass

12500(2.16)
Tensile Stress, 𝝈𝒙 (N/mm2)= 120.93

=223.27 N/mm2
Beam material= aluminium

12500(1.95)
Tensile Stress, 𝝈𝒙 (N/mm2)= 88.3

=276.05 N/mm2

10) Using a standard value for the Young’s Modulus of mild steel estimate the stiffness
ratio of brass and aluminium to the mild steel, i.e. stiffness ratio= copper/steel

Standard value of E of mild steel= 210 kN/mm2

Brass

Estimated 𝛿 = 22.21𝑚𝑚

Using the following equation to determine the stiffness of Brass beam:

𝑃𝑙 3
𝐸=
48𝛿𝐼𝑥𝑥

Where: P= 100N, l= 500mm, 𝛿= 22.21mm, Ixx = 120.93mm4

100(5003 )
𝐸=
48(120.93)(22.21)

𝐸 = 96958.56𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

= 97𝐺𝑃𝑎

97
Stiffness ratio: 199.8 = 0.49
Aluminium

Estimated 𝛿 = 42.13𝑚𝑚

Using the following equation to determine the stiffness of Aluminium beam:

𝑃𝑙 3
𝐸=
48𝛿𝐼𝑥𝑥

Where: P= 100N, l= 500mm, 𝛿= 42.13mm, Ixx = 88.3mm4

100(5003 )
𝐸=
48(88.3)(42.13)

𝐸 = 70003N/mm2

𝐸 = 70𝐺𝑃𝑎

70
Stiffness ratio: 199.8 = 0.35

11) What does this stiffness ratio tell you about the probable deformation behaviour of a
structure built from copper, brass and aluminium when compared to one built of steel
when the same live load is added to the structure?

As the stiffness ratio of both brass and aluminium with steel is very low, it is obvious that a
building built from copper, brass and aluminium would deform significantly compared to a
building built from steel material. Due to a low yield point, these materials could enter the plastic
region very quickly or in the worst case fracture could occur.

Conclusion
In short, steel beam has the least deformation (0.088mm) compared to brass and aluminium
(0.19, 2.46mm respectively). After calculation, it is determined that steel has the highest flexural
Young’s Modulus (199.8 GPa), aluminium having the lowest (70 GPa) and brass in the middle
(97 GPa). Hence, the hypothesis is correct.
Reference list
TRENCHLESSPEDIA (2021) Flexural Modulus. Available at:
https://www.trenchlesspedia.com/definition/2684/flexural-
modulus#:~:text=The%20flexural%20modulus%20of%20a,long%20edge%20of%20the%20sample.

(Accessed: 25th March 2022)