Inductive and Deductive

Reasoning
 INDUCTIVE
REASONING
Ø is the process of reaching a general conclusion by
examining specific examples.
Ø Reasoning that a rule or statement is true
because specific cases are true.
Ø Is arriving at a conclusion on the basis of
principle facts that can guide you to the
conclusion.
Ø Also can be called an educated guess.
Ø It suggests the truth about a statement but
does not directly prove the statement.
Ø This type of reasoning is mainly based on
Example 1

• Use inductive reasoning to predict the next

number in each of the following lists
a. 3,6,9,12,15
b. 1,3,6,10,15
c. 5,10,15,20,25
d. 2,5,10,17,26
Example 2
Find the next item in the sequence:
1. September, August. July, . . .

2. 4, 8, 12, 16, . . .

3. . . .

4. 1,1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . . .
Answers:
Find the next item in the sequence:
1. September, August. July, . . .
June
2. 4, 8, 12, 16, . . .
20
3. . . .

4. 1,1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . . .
13 this is called the Fibonacci
sequence
 • Example
• Inductive Reasoning- is a
reasoning that a rule or
statement is true because • Complete the
specific cases are true. conjecture:
The product of an odd
• Conjecture is a statement and even number is
believed true based on Even?
inductive reasoning.
To do this, we consider
some examples:
(2)(3) = 6 ; (4)(7) =
28 ; (2)(5)=10
 Counterexamples
Just because a pattern holds true for a few cases,
it does not mean the pattern will continue. When
you use inductive reasoning, you have no
guarantee that your conclusion is correct. A
statement is a true statement provided that it is
true in all cases. If you can find one case for which
a statement is not true, called a counterexample,
then the statement is a false statement.
Counterexample
If a conjecture is true, it Example:
must be true for every case. Find a counterexample to
Just one example for which the conjecture that all
the conjecture is false will students who take
disapprove it. Geometry are 10th graders.

A counterexample is a case Most of the students in our

that proves a conjecture class are taking Geometry
false. but are not 10th graders.
To be a counterexample,
the first part must be true,
and the second part must
be false.
To use inductive reasoning:
1. Look for a pattern
2. Make a conjecture.
3. Prove the conjecture or find a counterexample.
Examples:
Show that each conjectures is false by giving a
counterexample.
1. The product of any two numbers is greater than
the numbers themselves.
(-1)(5) = -5
2. Two complimentary angles are not congruent.

45º and 45º

Sometimes we can use inductive reasoning to solve a problem that does not appear
to have a pattern.

Example: Find the sum of the first 20 odd numbers.

1 1 1²
1+3 4 2²
1+3+5 9 3²
1+3+5+7 16 4²

Sum of first 20 odd numbers? 20² = 400

 Deductive reasoning
• It is the process of using logic Inductive reasoning uses
to draw conclusions from specific cases and
given facts, definitions, and observations to form
properties. conclusions about general
ones (circumstantial
• Deductive Reasoning is the evidences).
process of reaching a
conclusion by applying
general assumptions, Deductive reasoning uses
procedures, or principles. facts about general cases to
form conclusions about
specific cases. (direct
evidence).
Examples:
decide whether each conclusions uses inductive or deductive reasoning.

1. Police arrest a person for 2. Gunpowder residue tests

robbery when they find him show that a suspect had fired a
in possession of stolen gun recently.
merchandise.

Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

Mathematical Pattern
 Inductive Reasoning
• is a reasoning that is based on patterns you observe.
If you observe a pattern in a sequence, you can use
inductive reasoning to decide the next successive
terms of the sequence.

• A conclusion you reach using inductive reasoning is

called a conjecture . Examining several specific
situations to arrive at a conjecture is called inductive
reasoning.
Illustrations:
If the sum 5∙6
of the first consecutive integers from 1
to 5 is given by = 15, and the sum from 1 through 6
6∙7 2
is = 21,  then what is the sum of the first consecutive
2
positive integers from 1 through 7?
7∙8
1+2+…+7= = 28
2
We generalize the indicated pattern by using a formula
for the sum of the first n consecutive positive integers
from 1 through n as
�∙ �+1
1+2+…+�=
2
Another very simple pattern involving numerical
relationships is found in ordinary multiplication
table.
1 × 9 = 9                 6 × 9 = 54
2 × 9 = 18                 7 × 9 = 63
3 × 9 = 27                8 × 9 = 72
4 × 9 = 36                 9 × 9 = 81
5 × 9 = 45               10 × 9 = 90

• Notice the increasing consecutive integers in the

first digits of the products and in the same
manner the decreasing order of the second digits
of the product
• The pattern of adding after multiplying by 9
generates a sequence of numbers 9, 9, 9… in the
sum of the digits of the products. It is called the
pattern of 9
Example 1: 9×1−1=8
Given the mathematical pattern:
9 × 21 − 1 = 188
9 × 321 − 1 = 2888
9 × 43211 − 1 = 38888

a. What is the next problem and the answer

in the sequence?
9 × 54321 − 1 = 488888
b. Use the pattern to predict the answer to
9 × 987654321 − 1.
9 × 987654321 − 1 = 8888888888
Example 2:
11 × 11 = 121
Given the mathematical pattern:
111 × 111 = 12321
1111 × 1111 = 1234321

a. What is the next problem and the answer

in the sequence?
11111 × 11111 = 123454321
b. Describe the pattern.
The pattern gives products of consecutive
positive integers in increasing and decreasing
order.
Sequence and
Series
Sequences
• The word sequence(or “progression”, in
British English) means an order in which one
thing follows another in succession.
• A sequence is a function whose domain is a
set of positive integers. The function values,
or terms, of the sequence are written as
a1, a2, a3,……….an
Rather than using function notation,
sequences are usually written with subscript
(or index) notation, asubscript.
• A sequence containing finite number of
terms is called a finite sequence.

• A sequence is called infinite, if it is not a

finite sequence.

• Sometimes a pattern in the sequence can be

obtained and the sequence can be written
using a general term. For example, each
term has x,2 x 2 ,3 x 3 ,4 x 4 ,5 x 5 ,6 x 6 ....

each term has the same exponent and

n
an  na
coefficient. We can write this sequence
as ,n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 6, …. ,
Finding the Sequence, Given the General
Term
Example Find the first four (n=1, 2, 3,
4)terms of the sequences, given the general
form.
an  2n  1 (  1) n
1. n 3. a n 
(  1) n2
2. a n 
n 1

Answer: 1 1 1
 1, , ,
1. 1, 3, 5, 7 3. 4 9 16
1 1 1 1
 , , ,
2. 2 3 4 5
Finding the General Term, Given Several Terms of the Sequence

Example Find the general term of the sequence,

given the first five terms.
1 1 1 1
1. 1, , , , ...
4 9 16 25
2. -1, 4,
-9, 16,
1 1-25…1 1
, , , ,
1
...
3. 2 4 6 8 10

1
Answer: a n  2 an 
  1 n
n 2n
1. n 2
3.
a n  (  1) n
Recursion Formula
• Another way to define a sequence is
recursively, or using a recursion formula.
The first few terms are listed, and the
recursion formula determines the
remaining terms based on previous terms..
• For example, the famous Fibonacci
sequence is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,
55, 89,….
• We can define the Fibonacci sequence
using a general term:
a 1  1, a 2  1, and a n  a n  2  a n 1 n3
Using a Recursion Formula to Find a Sequence
Example Find the first four terms of the sequence:
a1=2 and an=2an-1 - 1, n≥2

Solution:
Series
• Given the infinite sequence a1,a2,a3,…..an,…..
the sum of all of the terms in the infinite
sequence is called an infinite series and is
denoted bya  a  a  ..... a  .....
1 2 3 n

and the sum of only the first n terms is called

a finite series, or nth partial sum and is denote
by
S n  a1  a 2  a 3  .....  a n
• The capital Greek letter Σ (sigma) is use to represent a
sum(series).
For example, the sum of the first five terms of the sequence
1, 4, 9, 16, 25,……n can be represented using
sigma(summation) notation.
5

 n
n 1
2
 (1) 2
 ( 2 ) 2
 ( 3) 2
 ( 4 ) 2
 ( 5 ) 2

 1  4  9  16  25
This is read “ the sum of n2 as n goes from 1 to 5”. The letter
n is called the index of summation.
Writing a Series using Sigma
Notation
Example Write the following series
using sigma notation.
1 1 1 1
1. 1  1     2.
2 6 24 120
8+27+64+125+….
Evaluating a Finite Series
Example Evaluate the following
series.
4

 ( 2i  1)
1. i 0
5

2.  (
n 1
 1) n
n

Answer:
4

1.

i 0
( 2i  1)  25

2.
 (
n 1
 1) n
n  3
The arithmetic mean of n terms is
a n  a n 1  ...  a 2  a1
n
Example:
1. Given the sequence 1,-4,-9…., list the
next three terms and write a formula for
the nth term.
2. In the arithmetic sequence -9,-2,5,..,
which term is 131?
3. If the 6th term of an arithmetic
progression is 8 and the 11th term is -2,
 POLYA’S RULE IN
PROBLEM SOLVING
Polya: “The Father of Problem Solving”
• George Pólya was a
Hungarian mathematician.
• He made fundamental
contributions to combinatorics,
number theory, numerical
analysis and probability theory.
He is also noted for his work
in heuristics and mathematics
Heuristics
• Heuristic (Greek: "find" or "discover")
refers to experience-based techniques for
problem solving, learning, and discovery
that gives a solution which is not
guaranteed to be optimal.
• Where an exhaustive search is impractical,
heuristic methods are used to speed up
the process of finding a satisfactory
solution via mental shortcuts.
• Examples of this method include using a
rule of thumb, an educated guess, an
intuitive judgment, stereotyping, or 3
Polya's Problem Solving Techniques
• In 1945 George Polya published
the book How To Solve It which
quickly became his most prized
publication.
• It sold over one million copies
and has been translated into
17 languages.
• In this book he identifies four
basic principles of problem
1. Understand the problem
• Do you understand all the words
used in stating the problem?
• What are you asked to find or show?
• Can you restate the problem in your
own words?
• Can you think of a picture or
diagram that might help you
understand the problem?
• Is there enough information to 5
2. Devise a plan
• There are many reasonable
ways to solve problems.
• The skill lies in choosing an
appropriate strategy.
• This best learned by solving
many problems. You will find
choosing a strategy increasingly
easy.
• (You are going to create a list 6
3. Carry out the plan
• This step is usually easier than
devising the plan. In general, all
you need is care and patience,
given that you have the
necessary skills.
• Persist with the plan that you
have chosen.
• If it continues not to work
discard it and choose another.
Don't be misled, this is how 7
4. Look back

• Much can be gained by taking

the time to reflect and look
back at what you have done,
what worked, and what didn't.
• Doing this will enable you to
predict what strategy to use to
solve future problems. 8
9
10
Problem Solving Strategies
• Guess and check
• Use a model
• Look for a
pattern • Consider special
cases
• Make an orderly
list • Work backwards
• Draw a picture • Use direct
reasoning
• Eliminate
possibilities • Use a formula
• Solve a simpler • Solve an
problem equation 11
PROBLEM SOLVING
EXAMPLES
 Learning
Objectives:

• identify the different steps in

problem solving
• students will identify the
different steps using Polya’s rule
• improve the skills and abilities
of the student in solving
PHRASE, SENTENCES IN MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
MATHEMATICS is full of symbols and notations, precisely so, the
language of mathematics depends so much on them. Problems stated
in words have translated into mathematical symbols before they can
be solved
The word exceed means “is larger than”

EXAMPLE

7 exceeds 5 by 2 7=5+2
 EXAMPLES
A. The difference between -8 and 4.
SOLUTION:
It is convenient to write the numbers in the order they are
given when “difference between” is used.
(-8) – 4 = -12

B. 4 less than -6.

SOLUTION:
Be careful with he order here. 4 must be taken from -6.
(-6) – 4 = -10
 When 6 is added to four times a number, the result is 50. Find the
number.
6 + 4n = 50
MORE EXAMPLES 4n = 44
n = 11

The sum of a number and 9 is multiplied by -2 and the answer is -8.

Find the number

-2(n + 9) = -8
-2n – 18 = -8
-2n = 10
n = -5
MORE EXAMPLES
On an algebra test, the highest grade was 42 points higher than the lowest grade.
The sum of the two grades was 138. Find the lowest grade.
H + L = 138 (Equation 1)

H = L+ 42 (substitute this value on Equation 1)

(L + 42) + L = 138
2L+ 42 = 138
2L = 96
L = 48 (the lowest grade is 48)
MORE EXAMPLES

At the end of the day, a pharmacist counted and found she has 4/3 as many
prescriptions for antibiotics as she did for tranquilizers. She had 84
prescriptions for the two types of drugs. How many prescriptions did she have
for tranquilizers?
4
t + t = 84 Let t = number of tranquilizer prescriptions
3
7
t = 84
3
7t = 3(84)
t=6
EXAMPLES
1. How many people can be seated in 6 square tables lined up straight end to end.
Solution : Using Polya’s 4-step rule.

STEP 1: Illustrate by starting with 1 table, 2 tables, etc. and

we count the number of seats as illustrated.

1 table 4 seats

2 tables 6 seats SUM = 2(n + 1)

3 tables 8 seats
STEP 2: Examine the result and tabulate them in a table. The results form a sequence of consecutive
positive even integers.

NO. OF TABLES SEATING CAPACITY

1 4
2 6
3 8
4 10

STEP 3: We can easily set a formula based on the pattern. Using the formula 2n + 2 based on the observed pattern.
We have the number of seating capacity with n tables as 2n + 2. for 6 tables
we have:
2(6) + 2 = 14 (seating capacity)

STEP 4: We check the results by the pattern of even numbers or by the

diagram of tables. Check by using the formula 2(n + 1) , for n = 6
 EXAMPLE

2. A carpenter and a helper worked for a certain project. A carpenter is paid P800 and a helper P500 for each day of work.
Together they earned a sum of P15,000 for 24 days in a work. How many days did the carpenter work
Solution : We apply the Polya’s 4-step rule.
STEP 1: List the unknown and the given data:
Let x = the number of hours that the carpenter work
24 = number of days worked by the carpenter and the helper
P15,000 total amount earned

STEP 2: Make a guess based on the total wage. As indicated in the table, closer to P15,000 is the number of hours worked
by the carpenter than the number of hours worked by the helper:
NO. OF HOURS NO. OF HOURS TOTAL AMOUNT EARNED
(CARPENTER) (HELPER)
4 20 4(P800) + 20(P500) = P13,200
6 18 6(P800) + 18(P500) = P13,800 CLOSER TO P15,000

20 4 20(P800) + 4(P500) = P18,000

18 6 18(P800) + 6(P500) = P17,400
STEP 3: Use formula based on the total wage. From the equation

Wage earned by the Carpenter + wage earned by the Helper = Total wage
800x + 500( 24 - x ) = 15,000 Let x be the unknown
800x - 500x + 12,000 = 15,000
300x = 15,000 - 12,000
300x = 3,000
x = 10 Total no. hours worked by the
carpenter
STEP 4: Look Back
Check the total wage by substituting the x = 10 in the equation

800x + 500( 24 - x ) = 15,000

800(10) + 500( 24 - 10 ) = 15,000
8000 + 500(14) = 15,000
15,000 = 15,000
 EXAMPLE
3. A parking lot has motorcycles and cars. How many motorcycles and cars are there in a parking lot with
13 vehicles and 40 tires.
Solution : We apply the Polya’s 4-step rule.
STEP 1: We start with the number of motors and relate it to the number of tires. Since there are 13
vehicles, we give the following possibilities:
1 motorcycle and 12 cars = 50 tires
12 motorcycles and 1 car = 28 tires NO. OF MOTORCYCLES NO. OF CARS NO. OF TIRES
2 motorcycles and 10 car = 48 tires 1 12 50

11 motorcycles and 2 car = 30 tires 12 1 28

2 11 48
STEP 2: Organize the information and form a table 11 2 30
3 10 46
10 3 32
STEP 3: In the results, as the number of motorcycles increases the number of tires decreases; as the number of
motorcycles decreases the number of tires increases. Solution may also be obtained by a guess of a pattern.
Notice particular pattern is indicated the table. Thus, without computing we have the following table based on
the pattern.

NO. OF MOTORCYCLES NO. OF CARS NO. OF TIRES

1 12 50
2 11 48
3 10 46
4 9 44
5 8 42
6 7 40

STEP 4: Look Back

We have a total of 40 tires, we have 6 numbers of motorcycles and 7 numbers of cars, check with
the total number of vehicles (13)
RECREATIONAL MATHEMATICS
Recreational mathematics is mathematics carried out for recreation (entertainment) rather than as a
strictly research and application-based professional activity. Although it is not necessarily limited to being
an endeavor for amateurs, it often involves mathematical puzzles and games.
EXAMPLE 1
An ant is at the foot of a flight of ten steps. Every day it will climb
up three steps and climb back down two steps. When will it reach
the top?
Answer:
Since the ant climbs 3 steps for each day and back for 2 steps,
then 1 step is reached for each day. On the 7 th day, the ant
reaches the top making 3 steps. Thus, the ant reaches the top 8
days. The solution is based on pattern.
 EXAMPLE 2
If 3 cats can kill 3 rats in 3 minutes, how long will it take 100 cats to kill 100 rats
Answer:
Since it takes 3 minutes for each 3 cats to kill each rat, then it also takes 3 minutes for
each 100 cats to kill each rat.

EXAMPLE 3
ARCHEOLOGY PUZZLE. Twenty-three divided by seven is, of course, not equal to
two. You are required to move one of the 3 wedges from the left to a new
position to the right and make equation correct to form a π

Answer:
If you take one of the top wedges and place it over the wedges on the
right, you will have the symbol of pi. Now the equation reads 22/7 = π
BASIC PROPERTIES
OF SETS
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
BASIC OF SETS 2
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
DEFINITION OF SET
THE BASIC PROPERTIES
OF SETS 3
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
BASIC PROPERTIES
OF SETS 4
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
THE BASIC PROPERTIES
OF SETS 5
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD