The F u n d a m e n t a l s

o f V r & w i n g
LEONARDO
COLLECTION i

PUBLISHED BY

VINCIANA
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
' t H ' i * ^ ^d l( J\ ltC C & )

THE LEONARDO Scries is designed to give every reader a chance to pictures become heiroglyphics, ancestors to writing. It was less than
master the fundamentals of drawing and painting. These funda­ four thousand years ago that the ancestor language to Ei1 glish,
mentals are part knowledge and part skill. The knowledge is of theo­ Phoenician, was first written so that its symbols represented sounds.
ry and technique, and the skills have to do with mastery of expres­ This is why languages whose letter arrangements represent the
sion w ith media. If the reader's goal is to become a more knowledge­ sounds of the spoken language are called "phonetic"; it tells us how
able viewer of drawing and painting, then it is necessary to read for recent our written language is compared to communication in pic­
understanding, study the examples included here, and apply that tures, and it suggests that drawing is fundamental to language.
understanding to the appreciation of other drawing and painting. If
this is your goal, then you are in good company, because some of the
finest critics, collectors and people who best appreciate drawing and
painting begin with understanding the elements, relations and prin­
ciples of design that are discussed here.
It is convenient to think of the elements of design as those which
are easiest to test, such as line, shape, form, color and texture.
Relations between these elements include such observations as ten­
sion and compression, balance and movement, which are more diffi­
cult to test scientifically. At the extreme end of what we can study
are principles such as form following function, but all of these are
necessary concepts to appreciating drawing and painting, and these
are a matter of knowing things about art technically and historically.
The LEONARDO Series, by itself, can go a long way toward developing
the kind of understanding one needs to appreciate much drawing
and painting. It is an important first step for an adult interested in
learning about art.
Making art requires more than knowledge of theory and tech­ Here we show a bison fro m the A lta m ira p ic to ria l group. To h ig h lig h t its it has
nique, although these are necessary. Doing drawing and painting, been re d ra w n in black a n il w h ite (thereby e lim in a tin g the color o f the original).
making art, requires mastery of expression with media. The idea of
expression will be discussed later, but it is fairly easy to understand Our language changes as new words are created to express new
what is meant by basic skill with media: the ability to draw, paint ideas, and patterns of communication change as we learn more
and otherwise express ideas, feelings or states of mind at will. about getting ideas across in words. Drawing, too, changes as differ­
Learning to draw is natural. It should be at least as easy to learn ent arguments develop and new discoveries are made. A period in
to interpret drawing, and to appreciate it. Before learning to write, our history when great changes took place in drawing as a result of
most children have done hundreds of drawings, discussed them with new learning is called the Renaissance. The techniques of perspec­
others, and used drawings to communicate feelings, ideas, attitudes tive. composition, modeling and rendering developed then are the
and experiences. core of classical drawing instruction.
We do not know why some people stop learning to draw, even An age comparable to the Renaissance in the sweeping change of
though they start off with every opportunity. It may have something drawing as a result of new knowledge and new arguments is our
to do with the fact that we seem to be a very literal, word oriented own. This century has added and reacted to Renaissance values and
society, and that our communication media discourage learning to techniques, but it is only by thoroughly understanding those values
express things visually through drawing. Fortunately, it seems that and techniques that the additions and reactions can be grasped,
motivated people continue to learn without interruption in our soci­ accepted or rejected. Therefore, the information in the LEONARDO
ety, and that we can profitably return to develop our drawing ability Series is history, and it only demands application to understand and
at any time in our lives. It is much more difficult to learn an entirely become skilled with the techniques included here.
new language as an adult than it is to learn to draw. Becoming skilled in drawing is very much like becoming skilled at
People like Leonardo and Picasso certainly had highly developed anything else. It requires ability and work. One of the most destruc­
skills quite early. Other noted artists became known only after they tive ideas in the way of learning to draw is that of "talent". This mis
were mature. The LEONARDO Series is created to give the student of used word is at the head of a crippling myth that f requently pre­
drawing an advantage available to one old enough to read. The word vents people from doing their best, because they are made afraid to
and picture presentation of design and technique information can learn. You do not need "talent" to learn to draw any more than you
be used by anyone who can read and see with understanding to need "talent" to learn to drive a car, write a letter or use a sewing
avoid errors that might prevent learning to draw. machine. So, too, should learning to draw be as natural as learning to
The oldest known drawings are in caves protected from the w rite a letter, and equally as useful. If the word "talent" has any
weather. They are around fifteen thousand years old, and are in meaning at all, it refers to the ability of some people to perform
places as Altamira, Spain, and Lascaux (Dordogne), Eranee. If one beyond what seems possible, and such people are found everywhere,
human generation measures twenty years f rom the birth of a par­ not just in art. The top sub atomic physicists in the world, the great
ent to the birth of a child, then those paintings were done about est painters, race car drivers and so on are 'talented".
seven hundred and fifty generations ago. If the reader of the LEONARDO Series neither touches a pencil nor
People sometimes confuse evolutionary time with historical draws a line, that person will still profit from the experience. There
time, and imagine that the people who did those cave paintings were are two ends to communication: transmitting information, and
not yet human. I bis is an error. The painters of the Lascaux and receiving it. Reading and looking at these enjoyable books with
Altamira cave murals were as human as we are, and, like most peo­ understanding will permit the reader to better understand drawing
ple, they were better at some things than others. when it is seen, and to better receive visual information, lor every
Even though we know that those people fifteen thousand years artist who makes drawings there must be hundreds or thousands
ago made pictures, we have no idea what their language was like, and who understand them, otherwise the artist is drawing only for the
we can assume that they did not write in our sense of the word at all artist, and this is not communication. It is entirely legitimate to read
In some caves there are traced outlines of adult human's hands (not and keep these books in order to improve your appreciation of draw­
monkeys paws), and right over them are the outlines of children's ing whether or not you have any interest in learning to draw
hands. Our "great grandparents' many generations ago taught and Whether or not you plan to schedule drawing practice on the
loved their children as we do now, and they had the wisdom to teach basis of the points that follow, or read with understanding and
them to draw. appreciation of the following clear words and pictures, the LEONAR
The first writing was done in "pictographs," pictures of things, DO Series will help you grow in appreciation and expression through
and "ideographs', pictures of ideas. The skull and crossbones is an the ancient art of drawing. Along with hunting, gathering, and tool
example of an 'ideograph", because, although it is a picture of bones, making, drawing is among the most ancient of traditions, and it is
it means "danger". Put together in meaningful arrangements these well worth the effort it takes to understand, and of create drawing
2
EYESIGHT AND PERCEPTION
The eye only does part of the job of seeing. It takes in light and turns it the body. The eye and brain, and the nervous system to which they'are
into something the brain can use. The rest of seeing happens in the brain, connected, are parts of the body. It is lucky that artists can do their work
and in the final analysis perception involves the ‘mind’, which is different without answering the question ‘what is mind] or ‘how do we know?'In
from the eye or brain. For example, your mind is what tells you to turn philosophy this enormous question is called epistemology. Our eyes select
your head away from something, or when to look. If your mind tells you what we see in many ways. First by where our mind tells us to look, and
to turn your head aivay from something that you don't want to see, then next in what we are willing to accept (as when we see something so
there is no direct way you can visually perceive it. There is an important unusual we can’t believe that we see it), and then in the fact that they are
philosophical question about whether the mind is part of, or not part of designed to see only part of the light that comes to them. We can't see the

kind of light that anx ray machine puts out, nor the radiation of a 'radio' interesting things to study. We have two eyes. Nature didn't just decide to
station, because our eyes don't work that way. To make matters more give us a spare. If you look at your finger ten inches from your nose, and
interesting, we not only see things that are there, but sometimes we see close one eye after the other you can see the finger jump from left to
things that are not there, even if iw* are not insane and hallucinating. right. That means when we look with both eyes open were seeing from
When we dream, we see things that are not there, and we can remember two directions at once, and seeing in three dimensions (length, width, and
or imagine things and the way they look when they are not around. The depth). This is called 'binocular' (two eyed) vision, and it helps us to locate
fact that artists can do so much with visual perception, when science has things in space. This is part of the way we can judge the distance and vol
so many unanswered questions, makes visual perception anil art very ume of things.

CONJUNCTIVA
THE OBJECT OF PERCEPTION
The object of perception is anything which makes up, physically, the on the basis of its specific form, its own "tension", or an interplay of sever­
world in which we live, a world of shapes occupying space and reflecting al tensions, as shown by the arrows (3), and the dynamics of these invisi­
light. Everything -men, plants, animals, utensils etc. -has a certain shape ble forces is also a distinguishing item. Another item is "value", which
and for the purposes of the picture, the "shape" is the first important item means tones of grey, that is the gradation of intensity from white to
to be considered (I). The second item is the composition", that is the rela­ black (4). Then we must consider "light", which can be direct or diffuse,
tionship o f position and dimensions between the various shapes (2). strong or weak and which also has its own precise direction (5). Finally we
When we take a kettle, a bowl, a bottle, a glass and an apple, and we have "space" (6), which is the part shown or the totality of an environment
arrange them in a certain way on the table and so define a group, then that our composition brings to life.
we have a composition. Each element of such a group has and maintains,

\ .
FORM LINE STROKE
By the word 'form', we wish to define the exterior outlined shape of every­
thing which takes up space, excluding for the moment all the other
meanings with which the some word is used, both literal and metaphori­
cal. This exterior aspect can be of a single object (the form of the object),
or of a group of objects (configuration); but it must be borne in mind that
we can only speak of real and proper' configuration’ if the group is orga­
M sbswri
nized and has an order o f its own. The most im portant elementary
means for the drawing of forms is the line'.

The line is made by a certain type of "stroke] which can have a variety of
characteristics such as soft, hard, jagged, broken, etc. lo r blocking in,
chiaroscuro effects etc., the stroke can be multiplied in an infinite variety
o f arrangements. In this way we will get sections o f parallel strokes,
hatching strokes crossed at right or diagonal angles, areas which are
almost merged together and areas where the strokes are separated
from each other. All this can be with strokes which are delicate or inci­
sive, slender or thick, according to our wishes, depending on the results
we want to obtain.

To draw the forms, the line first defines the outline, putting a precise limit
between the form and the space surrounding it, or between form and
form, and it sketches only the minimum information necessary about
what is inside the form to clarify the form itself.
5
Shape is the two-dimensional object, and form is the appearance of the third dimension, depth.
Examining the regular division of shapes and forms helps us to observe something about how
space can be divided and subdivided.
 CIRCLE AND SPHERE
Simple two-dimensional shapes like the circle have
their three-dimensional equivalents, like the sphere.
The circle can he divided by cutting it into equal
wedges with radii, lines from the center to the "rim.
To divide the sphere, it has to be cut in the depth
dimension in just the same way, with every radius
meeting in the center, and being equally spaced
around the outside.

CYLINDER AND CONE

Both the cylinder and the cone are threedimensional. Hie cylinder can be seen as the rotation of a rec­
tangle, and the cone as the rotation of a triangle. They both have circular bases, andean therefore be cut
in the dimensions of length and width just the way a circle is. One method of division in depth would be to
cut concentric vertical slices beginnning at each base.

EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE
The two dimensional equilateral triangle, so called
because every side is the same length, ( tin be equally
subdivided in several interesting ways. As above,
which does not yield equal modules, or as to the
right, which does.
 RECTANGLE
We conclude this rapid reference to the internal structure of sim­
ple geometric forms with the rectangle, which is one of the most
interesting. If we center a series of rectangles on two perpendicu­
lar straight lines acting as medians, we observe that their diago­
nals never coincide: as we pass gradually from the tall, narrow rec­
tangle to the lower, wider one, they give the impression of opening
continually wider, and finally tending to coincide with the com­
mon horizontal median. If then our eye retraces its path, we see
the diagonals gradually closing towards the vertical median.
Likewise, the vertical median continues to get shorter while the
horizontal median gets longer, and vice versa. It seems obvious
that the rectangle, although based on the same internal structure
as the square, has in addition its own ‘mobility’ which makes it -
especially in the figurative sense -a dynamic form.

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FIG . 1 FIG. 3
D D
CONSTRUCTION 01 SIM PLE FORMS
Because the geometry of space division is often used as the basis for composition in art and design, it is
important to have a grasp of these fundamentals. Here is shown the construction of regular polygons
drawn inside a circle and of two types of ellipses, with ruler and compass.
FIG. I -The square is obtained by joining points A-B. BC, C-l), DA, which are the points of intersection on
the circle of the t wo diameters perpendicular to each other
I'Ki. 2- The side E-F of the equilateral triangle is nothing more than the parallel of the diameter AC. pass
ing through the middle of the radius 0-1); the other two sides are obtained by joining points Fundi with B.
FIG. 3 -Flitting the point of the compass on point F which divides radius O A in two. an arc is drawn from
F-B which bisects diameter A C at /', then, putting the point on B. an arc is drawn from B F bisecting the
circle at G. The segment with the straight line B G represents the side of the pentagon, and to have its
baseit is sufficient to repeat the aforesaid side from G 11, III. IK, Kli.
FIG. A For the hexagon, point the compass on I), with an opening equal to radius I) O, anil bisect the circle
at I', and at II. then repeat the operation, putting the point on B and bisecting at Fundi7. The hexagon is
FIG. 4 the result ofjoining I) with F. F with F. I'w ith B, B with G, G with I land 11with I).
FIG. 5 -Extending the sides of the equilateral triangle as in the figure, put the compass point on land, with
the compass open from Fi. make the arc FA; then put the point on 2 and with the compass open from/ A.
make the arc A-B, then put tlw point on J with the compass open from I B for the arc B C, and once more
on I with the compass open from FC for the arc C-l) and so on.
FIG. 6 Proceed as for the spiral based on the triangle, pointing the com/uiss on I, opening it from l A for the
arc A-A, on 2, opening it from 2 A for the arc A-B. on i. opening it from I B for the arc B Candsoonat will.

a
ENLARGEMENTS
The modular structure of square and rectan­
gle can be used to create grids that aid in
enlarging and reducing drawings and designs.
This is also called ‘scaling’. A grid drawn over
the original is drawn proportionately larger or
smaller on a blank surface. By closely observ­
ing and transferring the small parts o f the
drawing in each module to the new drawing,
the proportions of the whole can be preserved.
Naturally, the more drawing skill one has, the
less one needs to divide the grid into small
pieces. The pieces can be larger and larger as a
person develops skill until it is either the edges
of the drawing surface that are used for refer­
ence, or until one can use an imaginary grid
and the relationships o f shapes within the
drawing for coordinates.
FIGURE/GROUND
Some of the characteristics of composition have to do with such things as
figure/ground relationships, negative and positive space, visual lines of
force, and so on. These characteristics have more to do with perception
than with what is literal in the picture. In the above drawing, we tend to
attach more importance to the boats as a grouping of shapes than to the
background, and therefore tend to separate the figures of the boats from
the background in our minds. The composition itself is an illusion of
space because we look at the boats, supposedly nearest us. first, then at
the bridge in the middleground, and last our eyes are led into the distance
by the perspective of the buildings in the background Above and right we
see the same drawing changed to emphasize first the figures of the boats,
anti then the background. Naturally, once the viewer has made note of
this, the overall structure of the picture begins to fall into place. The
boats, as shapes, point toward the left, but the eye is redirected Into the
drawing by the arching curve of the bridge, which is then caught by the
vertical elements of tower and buildings. However, we must remember
that the figure and background always Interact and cannot be separated
except for this sort of analysis.
10
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
The meaning of the terms positive and negative is related to photography
hat in painting and drawing they also have a more specific reference.
While ivc’ show here an almost photographic negative reversal of the light
and dark elements in this sketch we also refer by 'positive' to the image of
the object shown (in this case the sailboat) and by 'negative' to the space
around the object (the water, land, sky. etc.).

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FUEL AND EM PTY

Tull and empty can have different meanings. In general,
we consider the figures we see in the sketch above as 'full '

in the second sketch as empty' in as much as they have

hollow, concave forms or ones drawn with a thin line. The
concept concerns also the clustering together or disper­
sion of forms In a similar composition space.
REDUCTION TO SIM PLE FORM S
One method for beginning drawing mentioned on page 5 is to define the carefully follow actual contours at once. This involves roughly approximat­
outlines of what you are to draw, and then draw the contours which ing the geometric shape that is nearest the one you are trying to draw, or
describe important differences between areas. A helpful method which just simplifying what you see into contour line. The left hand drawing in
can prevent one from getting too lost in details of complicated contours is each pair below simplifies the drawing into two dimensional shapes, while
to turn the shapes you draw into geometric shapes rather than try to each of those on the right suggests the three dimensional forms.

12
COM POSITION AND SPACE
Composition involves the arrangement in an apparent space of visual ele­ Knowing this permits the artist to have an impression of a whole that
ments. Such elements are never completely independent of one another will he the total composition, before being concerned with the smaller
and relate to one another visually. Each such element takes up space, carves elements of that composition.
out its own territory, and groupings of them have their own identity.
ACTUAL SPACE AND GEOMETRIC SPACE
The illusion of space is an important concept for an artist to understand the bottom of the page, the artist must learn to control the illusion of
For our purposes we mean by this not the space o f "outer space" but foreground, middleground and background by the use of lines, overlap­
rather the field-of-action as represented on the rectangular (usually) sur­ ping, focus, etc. The upper sketches of geometric forms illustrate the illu­
face on which the artist draws or paints. In a literal scenic picture as at sion of three dimensions of objects, geometric or abstract forms.
THE FIELD OF INTERACTING FORCES
Within our concept of geometric space we need to understand a field of location of this coming together of all these elements and their conse­
interacting forces in which each element is taken not on its own but as a quent effect upon one another and thus upon the total picture that we
function of all the others. This space is the place in which the forms with call the field of interacting forces. What we are doing is controlling the
their precise characteristics of contained tension, value, and light and fields of force which attract, repel, push and put the eye back and forth at
shade are arranged in a given way to create the composition. It is the any time between things that it sees.
VOLUM E PERSPECTIVE CHIAROSCURO
In real space, everything three-dimensional we see has real volume: length, breadth, and
height. It is our job as artists to create the illusion of these three dimensions on a two-
dimensional surface. Perspective and chiaroscuro (light and shade) move the eye into and
around a form which is itself an illusion. Volume five of this Leonardo series is wholly
devoted to perspective and shadow. Since this is an important and detailed subject and
because an understanding of perspective is such a practical tool for the artist, we refer the
reader to this volume.

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Likewise important, in order to give plasticity and relief

to the elements of a composition, is chiaroscuro, which
can be soft and delicate in an atmosphere of half lights
and penumbra, but can also reach effects of great force
and drama in full light, with very dense and clear pro­
jection of shadow. The effective distribution o f high­
light and shadow is the key to chiaroscuro.

16
LIGHT
Light is a fundamental element of a drawing which defines all possible nection between chiaroscuro and light. Light, as a term, means both the
spatial relationships (full and empty, light and dark, contrast, etc.). We can degree of illumination and the sources of direction of that illumination. It
consider it to modulate form in a picture and also understand that the is defined in many ways by highlights, by cast shadows, and by the clarity
forms that are shown themselves modulate light. There is an obvious con­ of definition and the contrast of value with which the forms are defined.
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LIGHT
In this illustration, the drawings on the left of each similar pair are drawn on the right, however, are drawn as though they are illuminated under
as though seen under an unusually flat-lit situation and although we see strong oblique lighting as a main source, and so are richly modeled. The
by their geometry that the shapes are supposed to be three-dimensional, darkness and lightness of the grey is known as its value.
their even illumination deprives us of shadow information. The drawings

IB
 To say color and to say fightis die tame thing, at w illbe if (nitrated fafer which we can pface individualpersonalities, setting in refiep the efementt
on thttpage. B utto understand what thit meant to thepainter, it w ill which they have in common; and controversies'have afwayt arisen between
be enough to toy thathe carriet outha work by meant op cotor, that die various trendt. The mostimportantoppotition, however, it diat which
cofor it hit tpeci/fic meant op expretuon whatever mat/ be the technique took pface in die second hafp op the fa tt century, with the impressionist
he met. The worfd in which we five hat an infinite variety opftrm i, a ff revolution, and which markeda tharp turning-pointin whatwas meant
o/jthem alwayt coveredin countfett cotort; and die cfote connection between by color. On thit tubject, through tack optpace, we wouldreper the reader
shapes and cofort pretented to lit by reality it pound by us in a ft the to our vofume no. 25 S tiff L(fie, which afto thews what it said about
hittory of, painting Op courte, die manner op interpreting and retofving cefer and cefert in ether numbert; and inttead we w iffattemptto expfain
thit connection varies in detaifprom artittto artitt, and more in generaf here whatis cefer as a naturalphenomenon, thatis die cefor-fightidentity.
termi prom age to age. There have always been schools and 'trends"in

Ip we observea smallbeam op lightgoing dirough

a prism, we see die ‘spectrum' appear; we also
see die splittmg-up ep lightinto a series op colors,
which go prom red to violet, passing through
orange, yellow, green, and blue.

We tee"the external world andperceive

‘

colors and shapes by means op die eyes,

which behave exactly like a camera the
iris acts as a diaphragm and the crystalline
lens as an adaptable lens (objective), the
retina as a film onto which is projected
the image inverted and then righted once
again. Then the image is carried to the
brain by the optic nerve, where the
mysteriousprocess fakes place which comes
to light as 'vision".

Ught is nothing more than the visible p/art op

electromagnetic radiation, which gees prom the
longestradio warn to the ultras/tortX orgamma
rays or cosmic rays. Wavelengths between 6X7 and
397 microns (thousandths op mm), make up the
spectrum and are visible as colors. Colors therepore
are a property op light, and when we say thata
given surfiace is red, we mean that it repiects the
wavelength op red and absorbs a ll the others. To
observe colors (the human eye can distinguish
thousands) means discovering the pascinating play
op light on the things op this world.
 Ifi we choose and isolate red, yellow and blue firm the solar spectrum, we shallget the three
primary colors; they are fiundamental, became they can give, when mixed correctly, a ll other
celery The mixing a valid net only optically but alio materially with a ll type,f ofi colon
generally med by painters. By mixing red andyellow we obtain orange, firm yellow and blue
wegetgreen and firm red and blue weget violet three importantsecondary colon each ofi
which O' complementary to the primary color excluded firom the mixture. In a painting, the
juxtaposition ofia primary and iti completnentary (fior example, red andgreen) makei the two
colon ‘throb ’ in a strange way, ai ifi they were trying to mix withoutsucceeding when mixed
together, they in fiact ‘calm down in a sort ofigrey Even the mixture ofi the three primary
'

colon in equalparti givesgrey Howeverproceeding in the schematic combinations illustrated

on tha page, we obtain the tertiary colors; we can go aheadai we wish, always with new colors
to consider as “pure ’. Pure colon are those which are the resultofimixing one or two primary
colors and tfwir derivatives, excluding the thirdprimary and its derivativei, impure colon are
thoie madefirom two ofitheprirnry colors and a little ofithe third To Single outa progressive
series ofimixtures which w illalwaysgivepure colon, the chromatic circle, an example ofi which
wegive in reducedsize on die oppositepage, w illbe usefiul. In this circle a ll the colors arepure
and the union ofi contiguous colon always produces new colors which are pure likewise.

+ +

—
+

+ —
J u tiai fight can be split up into varim wavelengthi (or colon), id the absolutely no color to iee, ifi we look through the piecei ofiglaa. On
coton can hep ut together again, that a added together a lt a t once or the other fiand, practical/ a ll the coton uied by painteri are examples
partly. We coutd iay, to he cfear, rfiatthe addition oficolon tends towards ofiiubtractive synthesis, because diey are m de up ofisubstances “refitecUng ’
white, white taking coton away leads towards black, as s/iown in the a given cetor, widi the exctuaon or reduction to the minimum ofi “absorbent"
two -synthesa schemes ofiprimary coton whic/t we show here. We can make substances. As fior btack and white mentionedabove, it w illbe usefiutto
a test, fior exampte fior additive synthesis, by putting redglass on top ofi remember thiatthey are not coton but die sum and absence respectively
btueglass: we w itt see tfiat die resulting color (magenta) a appreaably ofi a lt the colors. Besides, in nature absolute black and absolute white
lighter dian either red or btue. Ifi then weput a lt threeprim ry colors are very rare; and it is advisable that they should be used as little as
on top ofi each odier with the addition ofiyellow glass, there w itt be possible in painting also.
Here wegive a tabic showing (he colors which conic firom mixing (wo these combinations are repeated on one side and on the other ofi the
colors in qua (parti, beginning wi(h a series ofitwelve. The remitting co(or diagona( which starts firom the top (fit w/tife (he 12 cotors which stand
a found, as in (he multiplication tables, a((he meeting-pointofi(he vertical on the diagonalitselfiarc (he same as the co(ors started with. The origina(
and (he horizontalrefierring to the two co(on (o be mixed. The square] ofi the table was in watercolor but it is obvious (hat this scheme is va(id
consideredare 12x12=144, butthe efifiective combinations are 66; in fiact, fior any (type ofi co(ors one migh(wan(to use.
 LIGHT SOURCE
Two types of light sources are important for the artist; the light falling upon the
subject matter being drawn or painted and the illumination on the actual canvas or
board or other material on which the artist works. Light on the subject generally
depends on an invisible source which stands outside the picture: to the left, to the
right, behind the observer (as is shown here below), or in any other position includ­
ing the front, that is, facing the light. The choice of one type of light source or anoth­
er is open, but it must always be made in relation to the results which we want to
obtain: plastic relief with volumes which stand out and sharp contrasts, or a tonal
atmosphere based on soft and harmonious parts, or something which is to be
found more or less between one or the other. /Is an artist works, the best position for
someone who is drawing on a more or less inclined surface is when the light comes
from high up on the left with an inclination of 45': in this case, in fact, the shadow
cast by the hand always leaves free the part of the drawing which is being blocked
out at the time. It is well to remember this if working in an enclosed room with
strong direct light or in the open with the sun; while it is much less important in
indirect light or when the sky is overcast.

•>>£

In a naturalistic scene us the building shown here you must

remember that because the light source is the sun, the time of
day and its consequent meanings, moods, romantic allusions,
etc. can also be implied or conveyed
 CHIAROSCURO
TECHNIQUES
Chiaroscuro can be achieved in
a large number of ways which
are all different, and all allow­
able where they satisfy a mini­
mum of stylistic coherence and
are not, as is commonly said,
"messy". A good rule is that of
never completely blending the
strokes in shading and tracts,
using the fingers or stumps;
the latter should be avoided in
any case. If the firs t o f the
examples shown here is
observed well, it w ill be seen
that the hatching is so careful­
ly blended that on first sight it
is almost indistinguishable,

w fjttsk and yet we can, for the greater

part at least, still make out the
direction o f the stroke. The
wii.V-W
m rn m >
',.i;,..<-C*>*'--'ij(*v''*«•«C
other drawings (looking from
left to right and from top to
bottom ) present uniform ly
diagonal hatching, crossed
hatching in groups, vertical
hatching in bands of strokes,
pointillist hatching and finally
coarse and rath er granular
hatching.
ATM OSPHERIC PERSPECTIVE
Now let us look for a while at this tree landscape, divided by a stream of here, the artist has cleverly gauged the range of greys and lessened -as
ivoter which goes away towards the horizon. To give the feeling of depth, he (gradually) goes away from the foreground in depth -the incisiveness
as well as the correct construction due to the linear perspective, there is of the stroke. Taking atmospheric perspective into account means, in
something further, and that is atmospheric perspective. Leonardo called brief, giving the feeling of the air which circulates between each of the
it aerial perspective", and for him it was the variation of the density and perspective planes.
color of the air, according to the variation of distance. Not having color

21
COM POSITION SUM M ARY
Above left we see the drawing on the opposite page developed only as to suggest their relative values of color, but with no reference to shade or
lines, the shapes and forms suggested only in contour. Above right is that shadow. Below right we see (his same composition With the shades and
same composition with only light and shade, lacking gradation to effec­ shadows modeled to describe the forms, but without the tonal informa­
tively describe the forms. Below left the shapes have been filled with tone tion which would distinguish the forms'relative values.
DEVELOPED COM POSITION
In this drawing we have all four kinds of information summarized on the
preceding page: contour, light and shade, tone and modeling. To under­
stand composition, however, we must also examine how elements are
arranged in a field, and explore the available choices and judgements.
EQUILIBRIUM ANI) DISEQUILIBRIUM SYM M ETRY AND ASYM M ETRY
Equilibrium means the state of rest or stability. In a composition with A symmetrical composition consists of approximately equal balance of
only one dominant element the degree of equilibrium depends on its elements on either side o f a vertical or horizontal axis or both.
position in the space. If there are several objects competing for domi­ Symmetry usually results in a formal composition. Asymmetry relies for
nance, then their degree of equilibrium will depend both on their posi­ its balance upon an unequal distribution of the size or location of visual
tions in the space, and on their relative positions with respect to one elements and arrives at visual harmony without the use of a "mirror
another. Balance is a simpler term for equilibrium, like children on a see­ image" composition.
saw. It should be said that disequilibrium may still be utilized if it works in
the totality of the whole.

Z'iU'S

24
W EIGHT
Weight is the force exercised by a body (or a group of bodies) on what acts equilibrium come to us from physics, and, of course, hold true in the field
as its support, because of the earth's force of gravity. Weight and equilibri­ of composition too, but it must not be forgotten that this field is one of
um are often closely connected, because equilibrium can also be defined appearance, visual representations, not reality. Visually, for example, the
as an ‘equalling of weight"; weight is also related to mass, that is the quan­ weight of a bunch of flowers like the one sketched below, is much greater
tity of material contained in a body. The concepts of weight, mass and than the weight of the same flowers in reality.

r
REVERSED IMAGE
It would appear that an image reversed from left to right or vice versa (mirror image), ought to
appear identical and so have the same effect on us; however, it is not so. Apart from its first impact
with the image, the eye usually lends to "read"it from left to right, as it does with writing, so that in
the first subject below, for instance, the imagination seeks to enlarge the picture beyond the limit
cropping off llie flowers, the shadow and the base while in the second, the minor image, the cropping
is a precise starting point and nothing else. The first is more "evocative" than the second.
THE CROPPING OF THE PICTURE
The word cropping comes from the terminology used in photographic meaning of the choice of the limits of the picture. In the subject on this
technique and means as much the choice of the shot with the exclusion of page, the four different croppings are seen for the difference in effect they
what is not of interest, as the actual cropping of a frame to reduce it to can produce.
the essentials. The first meaning holds true in painting and drawing -the

26
COM POSITIONAL PLANS
Space, form, light, value (tones of grey), chiaroscuro, volume, and then infinite number of solutions, and it is not possible to describe even a part
equilibrium and disequilibrium, symmetry, weight etc.... all this, and of them. What we can do is give some examples of still life, marking on
more besides, comes together to create a composition, and is a sum of ele­ top of them a few lines which show, in a general way, the constructive
ments which are always present. The placing in space of the forms and plan, and give a short explanatory comment 011 each.
the relative configuration of all the other elements clearly gives rise to an

1) Reversed Tplan, centralized bilateral

symmetry. The figure, which is initially
static, acquires an upward movement
from the background.
2) Bilateral symmetry obtained with a U
plan, where the background is almost flat
and accentuates the central division
between the bottle and the lamp.
3) Pyramid plan, in which the light asym­
metry of the left is compensated by the
obliqueness of the sharp edge of the light
of the background. A feeling of peace and
concentration.
4) L plan, decisively asymmetric, which
immediately gives an idea of movement.
The empty obscurity of the background
seems to draw the candlestick and the
book towards it.
5) Diagonal plan, dynamic in itself in spite
of the evident fixedness of an apparently
accident a I cotnposit ioij.
6) Q u ad rip artite sym m etry. /I static
arrangement as far as the figure is con­
cerned, while the background moves with
radially diverging light and shadows.

27
 B p l-'5v’I S l l
t o ?

STATIC COM POSITIONS

The question of the static or dynamic property of a composition is rather anced in mass, volume and chiaroscuro, on a basis of perfect bilateral
complex, as can be understood easily, in as much as it is the result of symmetry; there is also the physical equilibrium (that is the perfect stabil­
many pre-existing causes which cannot be singled out easily. The equa­ ity) of the objects taken one by one, and there is a well balanced distribu­
tion 'equilibrium-static state’is certainly valid, but only as a general rule. tion of light and shadows. They are, therefore, static compositions. Now
Look at the three compositions on this page, which appear very well bal­ look at the opposite page.

m m

28
DYNAMIC COM POSITIONS
llere we have repeated the three previous subjects, varying the placement because of the sliding of the figure group to the right side, the second
of the elements and the perspective, and in this way we have moved on to because of the lively rearrangement of the flowers, the third because of
asymmetric compositions, where the evidence of tension has taken the moving to an angled view. Nevertheless it is essential to note that classifi­
place o f equilibrium. Now these compositions are dynamic: the first, cation never has an absolute value.

29
 N,f ; *>*•'

TENSION AND COM PRESSION

,»'•iV %.-!f
Tension is the strain of things palling apart. New
m

a s s p . The lines of tension are the cables that strain

' ••'^V. £■
'^;*V fV'Vr "'"" ’' between the high pilings and the weight of the
*S
i er of those same forces. Old stone bridges push
their weight, stone after stone, into one another
SSS^^fX-'-S- •■
>"*•■
'4,: •' ' ■
■
-•1-;K- 'Ji /fev. and eventually into the ground. The lines of force
are often visible in the arched openings between
the load bearing stones. Since the artist is an illu­
if ® !! sionist, a drawing is also a set of illusions often
sion and compression. Where visual forces are
fefii; »ri7TH'Vi-(v v--
m strung out against one another, there is tension,
xM k
H- and where those forces crush into one another,
)rf',
W/
*i '; '• -* j*5» there is compression. In the drawing of the street
c'£T4 ’C
• 'i{ r musician to the left there are many tensions and
\ ’v H compressions. Some of the major ones are: l)per
if f £/jYr spective -2) directions within the figure -S) ten­
r5t*:‘ sion and contrast between dark and light mass­
es -4) relation of figure to ground.

•1V*vv’W
■H". \j»V>
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:W
r-'jfMZ ,
,1 X *a
■^ | ' k'/'V
««■
r-'< K r \ .

}.••U'.'t/* •jl '. ; i •'*'v X'?*/- 'tjTwt ' >?

i ilsaS hi rv- <,'■'. *§&• ■
. ,h

'•4$0W k *:*r. *
h
ai; w i m?xt-.'*
h yA*.'
^ r: *
V Ji ‘S^
® ,£H ---- ’“ -&
--- 3= p ■*...

30
ELEMENTS OF TENSION AND COM PRESSION
The elements of design all interact with one another along this dimension flexes of forces you attend to, the tensions and compressions change
of tension and compression. Line, shape, form, color, texture all contrast in according to 1) the line-2) the form -3) the composition -4) the light,
this way. Depending on how you look at a work, and which shifting com-

31
M OVEM ENT
The purpose of the person who makes use of tensions to make a dynamic drawing. It divides movement into a well-accentuated rhythmic series
composition is to give the illusion of movement. But there is another way where the succession of movements (the frames to be projected) is out­
also, borrowed from the technique of the cinema, which achieves surpris­ lined on a surface with a modular structure: that is, the changes are calcu­
ing results. It involves the use of "sequence", an example of which we give lated on a modular scheme which acts as an invisible support to the sur­
below in a series of six moving drawings; the last is only the superimposi­ rounding drawing. Of course, movement implies direction and the artist
tion of the previous ones. Sequence, as you know, is the basis of animated controls both at the same time as he or she makes the eye follow along.
e x p r e s s io n
Practical examples of expression are given in the drawings below. Each tonal graduation, etc. Clearly, individual sensitivity to these differences
of the three subjects has been dealt with in a different expressive man­ determines the choices that an artist makes, and thus, the techniques
ner, marked by the formal use of light or violent chiaroscuro, continuous that are used. The goal of these choices is to better convey some of the dif­
or broken strokes, close or spaced hatching, soft or harshly contrasted ferences of mood, feeling, and impact that the drawing can have.
// 6 U L J b C \tv\ w a r n ■J' A ! •I

EXPRESSION
The drawings shown below suggest that an artist, with some practice that you first approach the drawing of 'real" things in a craftsman-like
and control of technique, may lend to his or her drawings a great deal of manner to learn to control the elements in a drawing. You will then be
emotional content. Indeed, the way that an artist perceives the world able to better control the "expressiveness" ofyour interpretations of these
around him can be an individual and highly personal observation that is things when you are no longer a beginner.
reflected in the nature of the works of art that are produced. We suggest
 FIN A L C O M M E N T

In the brief space of one volume we have condensed many dif­ it is not easy to say where this elusive boundary lies, but because
ferent concepts, all of which go to make up the ground work on which the problem is not of paramount importance for us to answer, it is
we may take our first steps in drawing, with some knowledge of the better and more important for us to work than to seek to define.
subject. We have concentrated on the main aspects of the subject Everything must begin with the sketch. Sketching means draw­
and have left out other less critical aspects. We have, for example, ing a preliminary or provisional form, usually in summary and dia­
mentioned the eye as the organ of vision, but we have left out the grammatic; sketching should be practiced from the beginning by
mechanics of vision, or the phenomenon of optical illusion; we have someone who wishes to master the art of drawing. An artist begins
said little on the subject of perspective because the entire volume 5 with a simplification and then goes on to painstakingly add other
is dedicated to it, and so on. Other subjects, such as geometrical con details, each equally precise, until the work is complete.
structions are included in spite of their seeming lack of interest to stu­ . The sketch includes the idea of composition, the relationship
dents or beginners anxious to make "creative" pictures right away. of equilibrium between the parts, proportions, the cropping of the
Further clarification of our original subject, that of line, would subject, and it is evident that bearing in mind these elements leads
seem useful to have at the end of the volume. We have said that the to initial simplification of forms, causing details to be left aside. The
line is only an abstraction in that seen in this way, it represents the concept of pictures based on sketches is implicit in various parts of
means of expression in drawing (rather than in painting). the material which we have contemplated so far, and it will be devel­
One problem an artist encounters in painting is that of defining oped further in volumes 2 and 3, where we will also illustrate the
where the separating line is between drawing and painting. This way to make use of very simple and practical schemes.
may include clear, linear outlines, outlines f illed in with flat tones, Whatever system the beginner finally adopts for his or her per­
tangles of lines with blobs of color, etc. sonal use, he should remember that it is only valid if it really serves
There are some very fine figures by Toulouse-Lautrec sketched its purpose: that is, if it familiarizes him or her w ith synthesis, to
out in sanguine and continued with clear pictorial feeling, with col take and render - from reality -the essential and characteristic
ored chalks; these are considered to be drawings. There are also oil traits, and to neglect details. Everyone knows that sometimes a
paintings (good examples would be the more refined "naive" paintings) good sketch, drawn casually hut with a sure hand, is more evoca­
which bear a very strong resemblance to colored drawings. In short, tive (and so more valid) than the finished work.

American 1'dition Edited by. Dr. Carleton Palmer, I’ll. I).,

Research Director ISAI.TA

ORDER OF SUCCESSION OE TH E LEONARDO COLLECTION

THE FUNDAMENTALS 10 NUDES 23 FLOWERS 36 I I IE ANIMALS

OF DRAWING Vol. I 11 THE HORSE AND MAN 24 STILLL1FE OEM. MEHEUT
2
ME FUNDAMENTALS
'I
12 ANIMALS 25 STILLLIFE 37 CALLIGRAPHY
OF DRAWING Vol. II 13 ANIMALS 26 STILLLIFE 38 CARTOONSAND
3 T\ IE FUNDAMENTALS 14"VENETIAN SCENERIES 27 SEASCAPES HUMOROUS DRAWING
OF DRAWING Vol. Ill 15 LANDSCAPES 28 BIRDS 39 CARICATURES
4 ANATOMY 16 LANDSCAPES 29 Cl IARACTERISTIC FACES 40 DECORATIVE PATTERNS
5 PERSPECTIVE AND 17 LANDSCAPES 30 DANCERS 41 STILLLIFE
THEORIES OF SHADOWS IH LANDSCAPES 31 PORTRAITS
6 HORSES 19 LANDSCAPES 32 PORTRAITS
7 NUDES 20 FLOWERS 33 THE BASICS OF COMICS Vol. I
8 NUDES 21 FLOWERS 34 THE BASICS OF COMICS Vol. II
9 NUDES 35 T1 IE BASICS OF COMICS Vol. Ill
22 FLOWERS

Till: LEONARDO COI.I.I'CTION IHJHI.ISI III) BY VINC'IANA

Via V, I’oppa, 14 20144 Milano U.ily Tel. 02/4<).tU306 •lax 02/4H.00.U75
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hy VINC'IANA 11)11KK i: S AS
All rights reserved.
Reprodtit lion In any form whatsoever oft lie text, drawings,
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Printed in Italy
 The Fundamentals
o f "Drawing
The Fundamentala
o f "Drawing
A n a to m t - Perspective
and Theories o f Shade
, Calligraphy

The Basics. i if- C&rtooncand

of Comics of Comics of Comics If?Caricatures

WPortraits*1 WPortraits
MHMk vdstnjctirec/itektrv*body £ N u d e s, % N u d e s £ N u d e s, ( Varners30
mm&

& The Horse,

and Man *r Animals I Animals The Anim ate
o f M . U c 'h e u t

“Decorative I Flowers Flowers >I0i*-LFlowers22 |[Flow ers

Pattern. !g

V en etian
Sccneric I landscapes

_ S till Life ■■
Still Life ^9 Still Life I S till Life

9 78888 72000