TE 301 MECHANISMS

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CONTENT OF COURSE

 Chapter 1: Introduction to mechanism

 Chapter 2: Position Analysis
 Chapter 3: Velocity Analysis
 Chapter 4: Acceleration Analysis
 Chapter 5: Gear Trains

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MECHANISM

 Introduction
 Kinematic and kinetics
 Basic consepts
 Degree of freedom
 Linkage transformation

CHAPTER 2: POSITION ANALYSIS

 Introduction
 Position and displacement
 Translation, rotation and complex motion
 Complex numbers as vectors
 Graphical position analysis
 Numerical position analysis
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CHAPTER 3: VELOCITY ANALYSIS
 Introduction
 Definition of velocity
 Velocity analysis by relative motion
 Velocity analysis by analytical method

CHAPTER 4: ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

 Introduction
 Definition of acceleration
 Acceleration analysis by relative motion
 Acceleration analysis by analytical method

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 CHAPTER 5: GEAR TRAINS
 Introduction
 Simple gear trains
 Compoun gear trains

THE MAIN COURSE MATERIAL

 Mechanims, Prof. Dr. Eres SÖYLEMEZ

 ME 301 Introduction ot Mechanims, Prof. Dr. Eres SÖYLEMEZ,

ODTÜ, Açık Ders Malzemeleri

 Design of machinery: An introduction to synthesis and analysis

of mechanism and machines, Robert L. Norton.

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTİN TO MECHANİSM
 The aim of mechanisms study is to determine the general
motion principles which are common to all machinery and to
describe the general synthesis and analysis techniques that can be
applied for the design of machinery.

 A machine may be defined as a combination of resistant bodies so

arranged that by their means the mechanical forces of nature can
be compelled to do work accompanied by certain determinate
motion.

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 Notice that in the above definition we are only concerned with the
mechanical machines. The definition does not include electrical or
heat machines.

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 The main characteristics of a mechanical machine is that:
 There is force (or torque) accompanied with motion,
 Some exceptions to this characteristics are mechanical calculating
machines, mechanical watches, indicating instruments, etc.

 In these types there is no actual work output. The work input is

dissipated as heat due to friction within the system.

 A mechanism may be defined as a group of rigid bodies

connected to each other by rigid kinematic pairs (joints) to
transmit force and motion.

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 A machine structure is constructed to perform a particular task,
such as a sewing machine, a packaging machine.

 A mechanism is considered to be more general. It is an isolated

group of rigid bodies through the study of which we can understand
the basic structure of any machine and can design machines that
are not in existence.

 A machine may also involve a number of mechanisms and certain

elements that are not rigid (although resistant).

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 For example, in a machine we may have hydraulic drives, springs,
dashpots, flexible elements, etc. which are not considered as
bodies that can be included in a mechanism.

 Some Examples of Mechanisms from Everyday Life:

Back-Hoe -Loader (HİDROMEK)

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Internal Combustion Engines

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DEFINATION OF KINETICS AND KINEMATICS

 Kinematics can be defined as the study of motion without

regarding forces.

 One principle aim of the kinematic is to create the desired

motion of the subject mechanical parts and then
mathematically compute the position, velocities and
acceleration of the other mechanical parts in a mechanism.

Kinematics

• The study of motion without regard to

force

Kinetics

• The study of forces on systems in motion.

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BASİC CONCEPTS-1
Kinematic pair (joint)
 The main characteristics of a mechanism is not the rigid bodies (links)
but the kinematic pairs that join these rigid bodies. It is this idea that
has lent itself to modern mechanisms study.

 Kinematic element (node), is that part of a rigid body which is used

to connect it to another rigid body such that the relative motion
between the two rigid bodies can occur.

 Kinematic pair (or simply joint) is the joining of two kinematic

elements. The types of kinematic pairs and their distribution within the
mechanism determine the main characteristics of a mechanism.

Node
Link

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CLASSIFICATION OF KINEMATIC PAIRS:
 Kinematic pairs may be classified in several different forms, we shall
use more than one type of classification.

 Closed Kinematic pairs are those in which the contact between the
kinematic elements is maintained within all possible positions of a
mechanism. Figure on the left shows a closed kinematic pair

 Open kinematic pair is one whose pairing and unpairing of its

kinematic elements that form the joint are controlled. In the Geneva
mechanism shown the contact between the pin and the slot is not
continuous.

Closed kinematic pair

Open kinematic pair 22
 In closed kinematic pairs;
 If the contact between the two kinematic elements is due to a
normal forces acting at the contacting surfaces, such pairs are force
closed kinematic pairs.

 If one of the kinematic elements envelopes the other and the

contact is due to the geometric shape than such joints are form
closed kinematic pairs.

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 Closed kinematic pairs are classified according to the type of
contact between the elements:

 Lower kinematic pairs are those in

which the contact between the two
elements is along a plane.

 Higher kinematic pairs are those

in which the contact between the
kinematic elements is along a line
or at a point.
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 The contact stresses created in higher kinematic pairs are usually
unfavourable.

 Therefore, especially for mechanisms that must transmit forces of

high magnitude (which are called power mechanisms), lower
kinematic pairs must be preferred.

 However, in certain applications higher kinematic pairs may be used

to reduce the number of parts in a mechanism.

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BASİC CONCEPTS-2
 Degree of Freedom
 Some of the classifications used in the previous page are important
in terms of force transmission or in terms of physical construction.

 However the most important characteristics of the kinematic pairs

is type of motion that may exist between the kinematic elements.

 Depending on the type of kinematic pair used, there will exist

different motion characteristics between the mating parts. Since
there are two rigid bodies connected by a kinematic pair, they will
have different relative motions with respect to each other
according to the type of the kinematic pair.

 The type of relative motion is the basic characteristics of that

kinematic pair. In order to classify this relative motion we have to
understand the degree of freedom concept.
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 The degree-freedom of space is the number of independent
parameters to define the position of a rigid body in that space.

 How many DOF does a body in three-space (3-D) have?

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 The first thing we must do is define a reference axis such as X,Y,Z
in the figure.

 One form of defining the position of the rigid body is that we may
arbitrarily select any three non-collinear points, (P1, P2, P3 ) and
determine their location with respect to the reference plane.

 Once the location of these points are known with respect to the
reference axis, the location of any other point can be determined
since the distance of the particular point we are considering from
P1, P2 and P3 is constant (rigid body).

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 For each one of the three points we have to define three
parameters (P1(x1, y1, z1), P2 (x2, y2, z2) ve P3 (x3, y3, z3)),
However, due to the rigid body concept we also have the following
three equations relating these parameters:

 We have nine parameters (xi, yi, zi : i =1,2,3) and three relations

among them. Therefore, if we define any six of these nine
parameters, the location of the rigid body is known. Therefore In
the general space the degree of freedom is six.

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  Degree of freedom of Planar Space: If the space that we
consider is a plane, then we only need 3 parameters. Different
forms of selecting these three parameters are shown below.

X
P2(x2,y2)

P1(x1,y1)
Y

 Hence, for spatial motion the degree-of freedom of space is 6 and

for planar motion the degree-of-freedom of space is 3.

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 The degree-of-freedom of a kinematic pair is defined as the
number of independent parameters that is required to
determine the relative position of one rigid body with
respect to the other connected by the kinematic pair.

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 If the degree-of-freedom of a kinematic pair is 6, there is no joint
involved.

 If the degree-of-freedom is 5, the kinematic pair must constrain

one of the freedoms of space. There is no joint that can constrain
the rotational degree-of-freedom while permitting the translational
freedom in all directions.

 We can constrain one of the translational freedoms. The joint thus

obtained is sphere between parallel planes.

 Methodically, all the possible kinematic pairs are shown in Table

I and Table II. Note that the shapes of the kinematic pairs shown
is of no importance. It is the degree-of-freedom and the type of
freedom that is important.

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 Basic Concepts-3
Link-Kinematic Chain
 If a rigid body contains at least two kinematic elements we shall
call it a link. A link is an rigid body which possesses at least two
nodes which are points for attachment to other links.

 One can classify links according to the number of kinematic

elements it contains. These are binary, ternary or quarternary, etc.

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 The kinematic dimensions of a link in a mechanism are those
dimensions which define the relative positions of the kinematic
elements on that link and when these dimensions are specified,
the link dimensions are known for motion analysis.

 These dimensions can be distances or angles

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 A joints (kinematic pairs) is a connection between two or more
links, which allows some motion, or potential motion, between the
connected links.

 The links connected to each other by kinematic pairs will form

a kinematic chain.

 If all the kinematic pairs are closed, than we have a closed

kinematic chain. If one of the kinematic pair is of open type, the
kinematic chain is an open kinematic chain.

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 Kinematic chain is an idealized representation of the mechanism structure. We
are not concerned with the dimensions of the links.

 A kinematic chain is defined as: an assemblage of links and joints,

interconnected in a way to provide a controlled output motion in response to a
supplied input motion.

 Each link is represented as a line or as a polygon and at each vertex we have a

kinematic element which joins with another element on another link. The
dimensions of the edges are not important.

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 If all the links forming a kinematic chain are in the same plane or in
parallel planes, the kinematic chain formed is said to be "Planar
kinematic chain ".

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 If all the points on all the links move on
concentric spheres than the kinematic chain
formed is "Spherical kinematic chain “.

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 If some of the links have a general spatial motion
than we have "Spatial kinematic chain“.

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 Joints may have one or more degrees of freedom. As an example,
consider a joint that combines two links and allows only angular
rotation of one link with respect to other link. These type joints are
known as full joints and they have one DOF.

 If a joint has two-freedom which simultaneously allow two

independent relative motions, namely translation and rotation,
between the joined links. This two-freedom joint is usually referred
to as a “half-joint”. The half joint is sometimes also called a roll-
siled joint because it allows both rolling and sliding

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3D DOF

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 Joints reduce the system DOF. As shown in Figure(a), two links are
not connected to each other and their DOF is 6.

 However, when these two links are joined by a revolute kinematic pair,
the remaining DOF is 4. The revolute joint removes two DOF of the
system.

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 When these links are joined by using half-joint pair, the remaining
DOF is 5. This means that the half-joint reduce 1 DOF of the system.

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 Lower pairs (first order joints) or full-joints have one degree of
freedom (only one motion can occur):

 Revolute (R): Also called a pin joint or a pivot, take care to ensure
that the axle member is firmly anchored in one link, and bearing
clearance is present in the other link , washers make great thrust
bearings, snap rings keep it all together.

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 A rolling contact joint also counts as a one-degree-of-freedom
revolute joint.

 Prismatic (P): Also called a slider or sliding joint, beware Saint-

Venant!

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 Helical (H): Also called a screw, beware of thread strength, friction
and efficiency

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 Ground: Any link or links that are fixed with respect to the
reference frame.

 Crank: A link which makes a complete revolution and is pivoted to

ground

 Rocker: A link which has oscillatory (back and forth) rotation and
pivoted to ground

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 Coupler: A link which has complex motion and is pivoted to ground

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 DEGREE OF FREEDOM OF MECHANISMS

 The concept of degree of freedom (DOF) is fundamental to both the

synthesis and analysis of mechanism. DOF also called the mobility of
a system can be defined as:

 the number of inputs which need to be provided in order to

create a predictable output

 Also:

 The number of independent coordinates required to define its

position.
X
P2(x2,y2)

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P1(x1,y1)
Y
 To determine the overall DOF of any mechanism, we must account
for the number of links and joints, and for the interaction among
them.

 The DOF of any assembly of links can be predicted from an

investigation of the Gruebler condition. The Gruebler’s equation:

M = 3L − 2 J − 3G

 Where:
 M= degree of freedom or mobility
 L = number of links
 J = number of joints
 G = number of grounded links

 Note that in any real mechanism, even if more than one link of the
kinematic chain is grounded, the net effect will be to create one
larger, higher-order ground link, as three can be only one ground
plane. Thus, G is always one, and Gruebler’s equation becomes:
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M = 3( L −1) − 2 J
 The value of J in equation must reflect the value of all joints in the
mechanism. That is, half joints count as ½ because they only
remove one DOF. İt is less confusing if we use Kutzbach’s
modification of Grubler’s equation in this form:

M = 3( L − 1) − 2 J1 − J 2
 Where:
 M= degree of freedom or mobility
 L = number of links
 J1 = number of 1 DOF (full) joints
 J2 = number of 2 DOF (half) joints

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Example Problem

M = 3(8 − 1) − 2 *10 − 0
M =1 61
Example Problem

Find the DOF of the mechanism

M = 3(6 −1) − 2*7 −1 = 0

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Example Problem
Find the DOF of the mechanism

J1=7
L=6
J2=0

M = 3( L − 1) − 2 J1 − J 2

M = 3(6 − 1) − 2  7
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M =1
Example Problem
Find the DOF of the mechanism

L=7
J1=9
J2=0

M = 3(7 − 1) − 2  9
M =0 64
Example Problem
Find the DOF of the mechanism

L=7
J1=8
J2=0

M = 3(7 − 1) − 2  8
M =2 65
Example Problem
Find the DOF of the mechanism

L=10
J1=13
J2=0

M = 3(7 − 1) − 2  8
M =2 66
Example Problem
Find the DOF of the mechanism

L=7
J1=8
J2=1

M = 3(7 − 1) − 2  8 − 1
M =1 67
Example Problem
Find the DOF of the mechanism

L=9
J1=11
J2=0

M = 3(9 − 1) − 2  11
M =2 68
DEGREE OF FREEDOM OF MECHANISMS (CONT)

 As seen from the previous examples, in order to determine the

degree-of-freedom of a mechanism one must determine

The number of links

The number of joints
The type of each joint

 When determining the number of links one must remember that

a link may be composed of several different parts. As long as there
is no relative motion between these parts the whole assembly must
be considered as one link.

 When determining the number of joints and the type of each

joint the number of contacts between the two bodies is not
important. 69
 Remember that there can be only one joint between two links. What is
important is the relative motion that is permitted between the two links.

 The shape of the kinematic elements, the material used is completely

unimportant.

 When designing the joints, depending on the

application and the available manufacturing
facilities, different ways of contact can be used. If
the load to be transmitted is of low magnitude, one
sided contact may be sufficient and the out-of plane
moment created may be negligible.

 Whereas in case of a mechanism working under

heavy load, a symmetric construction where the
contact is on both sides may be preferred. 70
Furthernore, the pin can be fixed to one link or can
be an integral part of one of the links or can be free.
 To increase the load carrying capacity there can be several contact
points between the two links.. Each contact point cannot be
treated as a different kinematic pair.

 There can be only one kinematic element between two links.

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 In the above spatial mechanism there are two contacts between links
links 4 and 5. One contacting pair of kinematic elements (bottom) will
permit 3 rotations and no translation, therefore is a spherical
joint(f=3); the other contacting pair (the top) will permit three
translations and 2 rotations, therefore it is a sphere between parallel
planes joint (f=5).

 However, there can be one joint between two links. Therefore one must
look at the relative motion that will be permitted between these two
links. First of all, the degree of freedom of this joint will not be greater
than the spherical joint (f=3). The contact that forms sphere between
parallel planes joint will constrain one of the rotations of the spherical
joint. Therefore two rotational freedoms will be permitted between
links 4 and 5 which is known as a slotted sphere joint

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 CONSTRAINED - UNCONSTRAINED MECHANISM

 Constrained mechanism" may mean two different things in

mechanisms literature:
1. It may refer to mechanisms in which F = 1.
2. It may refer to mechanisms whose degree-of-freedom may be
greater or equal to one, but the number of inputs (the number of
independent parameters) defined is equal to the degree-of
freedom.

 We may use either of the definitions, provided that we state

exactly what we mean. Both of the definitions have equal
significance as far as kinematics is concerned.

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 With "Unconstrained mechanisms", we mean those mechanisms with
more than one degree-of-freedom and the number of inputs defined is less
than the degree-of-freedom of the mechanism, but the motion is
constrained by the forces and dynamic characteristics of the system.

 A good example is the differential of a car where the rotation of the wheels
is governed by the moment acting on them. Due to this characteristics,
when taking a turn, the inner wheel rotates less than the outer wheel. This
unconstrained motion will create problems in icy conditions.

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 Above, two other examples for unconstrained mechanisms is given. One
of the fredoms of the mechanism is usually controlled by a continuous
motion. The other freedom is usually controlled by a spring and a key (not
shown in the above examples).

 The motion is governed by both the continuous input plus the force or
moment acting on the links under the spring force.

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 NUMBER SYNTHESIS

 The term number synthesis has been coined to mean the

determination of the nember and order of links and joints
necessary to produce motion of a particular DOF.

 Order in this context refers to the number of nodes per link that
is; Binary, ternary, quaternary, etc.

 The value of number synthesis is to allow the exhaustive

determination of all possible combinations of links which will yield
any chosen DOF.

 This then equips the designer with a definitive catalog of

potential linkages to solve a variety of motion control problems.

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 As an example, in this part, all possible links combinations for one
DOF will be derived.

 For simplicity we will assume that links will be connected with only
full rotating joints. Half joints, multiple joints and sliding joints will
be introduced later through linkage transformation.

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 LINKAGE TRASFORMATION
 The number synthesis techniques described above give the
designer a toolkit of basic linkages of particular DOF.

 If we now relax the arbitrary constrain which restricted us to only

revolute joints, we can transform these basic linkages to a wider
variety of mechanisms with even greater usefulness there are
several transformation techniques that we van apply to planar
kinematic chains.

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1. Revolute joints in anly loop can be replaced by prismatic
joints with no change in DOF of mechanism, provide that at
least two revolute joints remain in the loop.

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2. Any full joint can be replaced by a half joint, but this will
increase the DOF by one.

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3. Removal of a link will reduce the DOF by one

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4. The combination of rules 2 and 3 will keep the original DOF
unchanged.

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5. Any ternary or higher order link can be partially “shrunk” to a
lower order link by coalescing nodes. This will create a multiple
joint but will not change the DOF of the mechanism.

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6) Complete shrinkage of a higher order link is equivalent to its
removal. A multiple joint will be created and the DOF will be
reduced.

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 INVERSİON
 Kinematic inversion is the process of fixing different links in a
kinematic chain (or assuming any one of the links, other than the
fixed link as fixed).

 It is a good method of generating some new mechanisms and it is

very often used for the synthesis and analysis of the mechanisms
to determine the relative motion between the links.

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 THE GRASHOF CONDITION
 The fourbar linkages should be among the first solution to
motion control problems to be investigated.
 Rotatability is defined as the ability of at least one link in a
kinematic chain to make a full revolution with respect to the
other links and defines the chain as Class I, II or III.

 Revolvability refers to a specific link in a chain and indicates

that it is one of the links that can rotate.

 The Grashof Condition is a very simple relationship that

predicts the rotation behavior or rotatability of a
fourbar linkage’s inversions based only on the link
lengths.

 Let : length of shortest link = S

length of longest link = L
length of one remaining link = P 94
length of other remaining link = Q
 if : S + L ≤ P+ Q
the linkage is Grashof and at least one link will
be capable of making a full revolution with
respect to the ground plane.

This is also called a Class I kinematic chain.

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 if : S + L > P+ Q
 The linkage is non-Grashof and no link will
be capable of a complete revolution relative
to any other link.
 This is a Class II kinematic chain.

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 For the Class I case, (S + L < P + Q):
1. Ground (fixed) link is either link adjacent to the shortest and
you get a crank-rocker, in which the shortest link will fully
rotate and the other link pivoted to ground will oscillate.

2. Ground (fixed) link is the shortest link and you will get a
double-crank, in which both links pivoted to ground make
complete revolutions as does the coupler.

3. Ground (fixed) link is the link opposite the shortest and you
will get a Grashof double-rocker, in which both links
pivoted to ground oscillate and only the coupler makes a
full revolution.

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 For the Class II case, (S + L > P + Q): All inversions
will be triple-rockers in which no link can fully rotate.

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 Special Case Grashof / Class III kinematic chain (S
+L = P + Q) all inversions will be either double-cranks
or drag links

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 Special Case (Cont..): 4-Bar Kinematic Chains
(Case III: S + L = P + Q)
 Have “change points” twice per revolution of the
input crank when the links all become colinear.
 At these change points the output behavior will become
indeterminate. Hunt[18] calls these “uncertainty
configurations.”

 At these colinear positions, the linkage behavior is

unpredictable as it may assume either of two
configurations.

 Motion must be limited to avoid reaching the change points

or an additional, out-of-phase link provided to guarantee a
“carry through” of the change points.

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 The parallelogram and antiparallelogram
configurations of the special-case Grashof linkage.

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EXAMPLE 1
A Fourbar chain with the following link proportions, i.e., ℓ1,ℓ2,ℓ3,ℓ4

30 mm, 70 mm, 90 mm, and 120 mm. Determine the Barker’s

Classification and check for Grashof Condition.

S = 30 mm,
ℓ = 120 mm,
p = 70 mm, and
q = 90 mm

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 S+ℓ= 150 mm, p+q = 160 mm
 So, s+ℓ < p+q

Answers are:
A-The linkage is Grashof Fourbar.
B-Four Inversions are:

1. For ℓ1 = s (ground is the shortest) we have a crank-crank-

crank
2. For ℓ2 = s (input is the shortest) we have crank-rocker-rocker.
3. For ℓ3 = s (coupler is the shortest) we have a rocker-crank-
rocker.
4. For ℓ4 = s (Output is the shortest)
we have a rocker-rocker-crank.

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DO WE ALWAYS HAVE TO TARGET TO SATİSFY THE GRASHOF
CONDİTİON?

 There is nothing either bad or good about the Grashof

condition.

 Linkages of all three persuasions are equally useful in their

place.

 If, for example, your need is for a motor driven windshield

wiper linkage, you may want a non-special-case Grashof
crank-rocker linkage in order to have a rotating link for the
motor’s input, plus a special-case parallelogram stage to
couple the two sides together as described above

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CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANISMS
 According to Reuleaux, mechanisms are classified into six
basic types:
1. Screw Mechanisms

2. Wheel mechanisms (gear mechanisms or roller

mechanisms)

3. Cam mechanisms

4. Crank mechanisms (sometimes also called link

mechanisms)

5. Belt mechanisms

6. Ratchet and lock mechanisms (including Geneva drives). 106

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 This classification, although it has certain important merits,
does not really separate all the mechanisms that we see in
practice.

 We usually have mechanisms that include more than one of

the above six basic types. In terms of analysis of certain
basic types of mechanisms, the above classification proves
to be very useful.

 Other classifications may be made concerning the following

topological characteristics:

1. Degree-of-freedom of space of the mechanism (e.g.

spatial, spherical, planar, etc.)
2. Degree-of-freedom of the mechanism
3. Number of links in the mechanism
4. Number of joints in the mechanism 108

5. Types of joints in the mechanism

Motion Analysis of Mechanisms
 With motion analysis, we mean the analysis required to
determine:

 A) Relative position of any link or a point on a link with

respect to a reference frame which may be attached to a
moving link or the fixed link;

 B) The path traced by a point on a link in plane which is

attached to a moving link or the fixed link;

 C) The angular or linear displacement of a link or a point on

a link relative to the fixed link.

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