Tech Lab

Wednesday, 27 April 2016

Experiment 1: Study of Electronics Components

Resistors

          A resistor
is a component of an electrical circuit that resists the flow of electrical
current. A resistor has two terminals across which
electricity must pass, and is designed to drop the voltage of the current as it
flows from one terminal to the next. A resistor
is primarily
used to create and maintain a known safe current within an
electrical component.

                     Physical Structure                                                                                                                                                                  
                     Symbol

A. FIXED VALUE
RESISTOR       (Resistor Color
Code Chart)     

  

Band 1
Band 2

Band        
Band 3 Band 4

position position

Color
Multiplier Value Value Tolerance
No No
Options
Black  0 0 ×10°                                 ---
Brown 1 1 ×10¹ ± 1%
Red 2 2 ×10² ± 2%
Orange 3 3 ×10³ ---
Yellow 4 4                ×10 ----
Green 5 5               ×10 ± 0.5%
Blue 6 6               ×10 ± 0.25%
Violet 7 7 -- ± 0.1%
Gray 8 8
-- ± 0.05%
White 9 9
-- ----
None -- -- --            ± 20%
Silver -- -- × 0.1            ± 10%
Gold -- -- × 0.01            ± 5%

Example:- (Measurement process)  -Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band
gives the first digit.
The second band
gives the second digit.
The third band
indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth
band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor 

B.VARIABLE
RESISTOR  
      There are two types of variable resistors

1. Potentiometer
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Preset

                                                                                                                                

  Symbol

Variable resistors consist of a

resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which
moves along the track as you turn the spindle.
The track may be made from
carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low
resistances). The track is usually rotary but
straight track versions, usually
called sliders, are also available.

Variable resistors may be used as a potentiometer with all three

connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for
setting up circuits
which will not require further adjustment. Variable resistors are often called potentiometers
in books and
catalogues. They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track,  their physical size. The standard spindle
diameter is 6mm.

Physical Structure:

                                                                                                                     Potentiometer                                                                          
       Preset

Linear (LIN) track means

that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the wiper.
Logarithmic (LOG) track means
that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the track and rapidly at the
other end, so halfway along the
track is not half the total resistance!
This arrangement is used for volume (loudness) controls because the human ear has
a logarithmic response to
loudness so fine control (slow change) is required at
low volumes and coarser control (rapid change) at high volumes
Function :-Resistor has a lot of functions.  The
resistor has function of current limiting and voltage drop. when used with
other devices like
capacitors and inductors it can have a vast
variety of functions depending upon in which
configuration it is used.
Potentiometer are used for voltage diving
purpose.
Specification :-         1. Power
Rating (W)      2. Resistive Value (Ω  Value)
     The Resistor
Power Rating is sometimes called the Resistors
Wattage Rating and is
defined as the amount of heat that a
resistive element can
dissipate for an indefinite period of time without
degrading its performance. Every resistor has a maximum power
rating which is determined by
its physical size as generally, the greater its
surface area the more power it can dissipate safely into the ambient air or
into a heat sink

  Resistors are rated by

the value of their resistance ( Ω  Value)

CAPACITORS
  A capacitor is a passive
electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field.  In its
simplest form, a capacitor consists of
two conducting plates separated by an
insulating material called the dielectric.  Capacitance is directly
proportional to the surface areas of the
plates, and is inversely proportional
to the plates' separation. Capacitance also depends on the dielectric constant of the dielectric
material
separating the plates.

There
are two types of capacitor

Polarised (Electrolytic Capacitors

, Value Above 1uF )   

 Circuit Symbol                                                                                                                        Physical Structure

A type of capacitor in
which one plate is coated through electrolysis with an oxide to serve as the
dielectric, while the other plate is replaced by an
electrolyte. Electrolytic
capacitors can achieve very high capacitance (>1uF) with very small sizes,
but only act as capacitors as long as the current
flows in one direction.

 Measurement
Value:-- Its capacitance value(uF) and voltage level is given on the
surface 

B.Unpolarised (Non- Electrolytic) Small Value below 1uF)

Circuit Symbol                                                                                                                                                           Physical structure

It has no electrical polarization. So

any direction you can use or measure. 

Capacitor
Number Code(for non electrolytic)

A number code is often used on small

capacitors where printing is difficult:      
·        
the1st number is the 1st digit,
·        
the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
·        
the 3rd number is the number of zeros to
give the capacitance in pF.
·        
Ignore any letters - they just indicate
tolerance and voltage rating.
·        
If there is no third digit(only two
digit),then specified number is the capacitive value in pF
For
example:   102   means 1000pF = 1nF   (not
102pF!)
Three prefixes
(multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

µ means 10-6
(millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F
n means 10-9
(thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
p means 10-12
(million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Variable capacitors 
     1. Gang Capacitor       2.Trimmer Capacitor
Its maximum Value is given on the surface
1. Gang Capacitor:A combination of two or
more variable capacitors mounted on a common shaft to permit adjustment by a
single control.

Symbol                                                                                                                                          Physical Structure

2. Trimmer Capacitors:Trimmer
capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are
designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit
board and adjusted only
when the circuit is built. Trimmer capacitors are only available with
very small capacitances, normally less than 100pF
Symbol                                                                                                                                               Physical Structure

Specification
of capacitor
1.     
Voltage
Rating: All capacitors have a voltage rating. This tells you how
much voltage the dielectric (insulator) can withstand
before allowing DC to
pass between its plates
2.      Capacitor’s Rating:- The capacitance rating is
there because the energy stored in a capacitor is W = 1/2CV2, where
W is
the stored energy in joules, C is the capacitance rating in frards, and V
is the voltage on the cap. The cap's capacitance is a
necessary specification
because circuit design and performance hinge on having caps the correct value
for the configuration
of the circuit.

Function
:-    A
capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor is used with a resistor in a
timing circuit. It can also be used as a
filter, to block DC signals but pass
AC signals

DIODE

       When a P-type semiconductor are

diffuse  in a N-type semiconductor in
such a way that the contact surface is called diode.  A
diode is a specialized electronic component
with two electrodes called the anode
and the cathode. Most diodes
are made with
semiconductor materials such as silicon,
germanium, or selenium. The fundamental property of a diode is its tendency to
conduct
electric current in only one direction. When the
cathode is negatively charged relative to the anode at a voltage greater than a certain
minimum
called forward breakover, then
current flows through the diode. If the cathode is positive with respect to the
anode, is at the
same voltage as the anode, or is negative by an amount less
than the forward breakover voltage, then the diode does not conduct
current.
This is a simplistic view. The forward break over voltage is approximately six
tenths of a volt (0.6 V) for silicon
devices, 0.3
V for germanium devices, and 1 V for selenium devices.

Symbol

Type of diode
There
are many different types of diodes that are available for use in electronics
design. But most useful diodes in our laboratory are
A. PN
junction diode   B. Zener Diode       C. Light Emitting Diode(LED)
A. PN junction diode  :-  It is
also two type, one is Germanium diode (Ge) and other is Silicon diode(Si).
If we join a section of N-type
semiconductor material with a similar section of P-type semiconductor material,
we obtain a device
known as a PN JUNCTION. The diode is nothing more than a
two-element semiconductor device that makes use of the rectifying
properties of
a PN junction to convert alternating current into direct current by permitting
current flow in only one direction.
Testing
diodes:- (By using DMM(Digital Multimeter)
Set your meter to the diode test
mode. Connect the red meter lead to the one terminal of diode. Connect the
black meter lead to the
other terminal and then reverse the meter leads . If a
good diode will read a JUNCTION DROP voltage of between .25V and .7V in
one
direction (.3V for Ge diode and .7 for Si diode in forward break over voltage ).
And other direction will show open or overload
(OL).  If both the direction showing OL or showing same voltage, then the diode is faulty. Normally the
reverse break down voltage is
high in case of Si or Ge. So we cannot test the
reverse break down voltage  by DMM.
In Zener diode testing is similar
to the silicon diode testing.
Zener
diode :-
Zener diodes are used to maintain
a fixed voltage. They are designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable and
non-destructive way so that
they can be used in reverse to
maintain a fixed voltage across their terminals. The diagram shows how they are
connected, with a
resistor in series to limit the current
Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their
code and breakdown voltage which are printed on them. Zener diode codes begin
BZX... or BZY... Their breakdown voltage is printed with V in place of a
decimal point, so 4V7 means 4.7V for example.

Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum

power.

Light
Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
A light-emitting diode (LED) is
a semiconductor
device that emits visible light when an electric current
passes through it. The light is
not particularly bright, but in most
LEDs it is monochromatic, occurring at a single wavelength.
The output from an LED can range
from red (at a wavelength of approximately 700
nanometers) to blue-violet (about 400 nanometers). Some LEDs emit infrared (IR)
energy (830 nanometers or longer); such a device is known as an infrared-emitting
diode (IRED).

Typical values of forward

voltage are:

IR:
1.2 V, Red: 1.85 V, Yellow: 2 V, Green: 2.15 V. The new blue LEDs will be
somewhat higher (perhaps 3 V). These voltages are at reasonable
forward current. Depending
on the actual technology (i.e., compounds like GaAsP, GaP, GaAsP/GaP, GaAlAs,
etc.),

The
LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with
impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current
flows easily from the p-side, or anode,
to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction.
Charge-carriers—electrons and
holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with
different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level,
and
releases energy in the form of
a photon.

The wavelength of the

light emitted, and thus its color depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the
p-n junction. In
silicon or germanium diodes,
the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative
transition, which produces no optical emission,
because these are indirect band gap
materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies
corresponding
to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light

Diode
specifications characteristics and parameters

The
list below provides details of the various diode characteristics, and diode
parameters found in the datasheets and specifications
for diodes according to
their Number specified on the device surface.

Semiconductor
material:  
Forward
voltage drop (Vf):  
Peak
Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Maximum
forward current:  
Leakage
current
Junction
capacitance:  
Package
type

Maximum
Maximum
Diode Reverse
Current
Voltage
1N4001 1A 50V
1N4002 1A 100V
1N4007 1A 1000V
1N5401 3A 100V
1N5408 3A 1000V
 Technical
data for LEDs
The table below shows typical technical data for some 5mm diameter
round LEDs with diffused packages (plastic bodies). Only three columns are
important and these are shown in bold. Please see below for explanations of the
quantities.
IF
VF
VF
VR
Luminous
Viewing

Type Colour Wavelength

max. typ. max. max. intensity angle
Standard Red 30mA 1.7V 2.1V 5V 5mcd @ 10mA 60° 660nm
Standard Bright red 30mA 2.0V 2.5V 5V 80mcd @ 10mA 60° 625nm
Standard Yellow 30mA 2.1V 2.5V 5V 32mcd @ 10mA 60° 590nm
Standard Green 25mA 2.2V 2.5V 5V 32mcd @ 10mA 60° 565nm
High intensity Blue 30mA 4.5V 5.5V 5V 60mcd @ 20mA 50° 430nm
Super bright Red 30mA 1.85V 2.5V 5V 500mcd @ 20mA 60° 660nm
Low current Red 30mA 1.7V 2.0V 5V 5mcd @ 2mA 60° 625nm

IF max. Maximum forward current, forward just means with the LED
connected correctly.
VF typ. Typical forward voltage, VL in the LED resistor
calculation.

This is about 2V, except for blue and white LEDs for which it is about 4V.
VF max. Maximum forward voltage.
VR max. Maximum reverse voltage

You can ignore this for LEDs connected the correct way round.
Luminous intensity Brightness of the LED at the given current, mcd = millicandela.
Viewing angle Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60°, others emit a
narrower beam of about 30°.
Wavelength The peak wavelength of the light emitted, this determines the
colour of the LED.

nm = nanometre.

Bipolar Junction Transistor(BJT)

A transistor
is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic
signals and power. It is composed of a semiconductor
material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. The transistor is an
arrangement of semiconductor
materials that
share common physical boundaries. Materials most commonly used
are silicon, gallium-arsenide, and germanium, into which impurities have been
introduced by a process called “doping.

                                         Physical Structure                                                                                                                          Circuit

Symbol

There are two types of

standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols.
The n-p-n
junction transistor consists of two n-type semiconductors (called the
emitter and collector) separated by a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor
(called the base).
The p-n-p junction transistor, consisting
of a thin layer of n-type semiconductor lying between two p-type
semiconductors, works in the same
manner, except that all polarities are
reversed

The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).

Transistor Testing with a Digital multimeter

Set
a digital multimeter to diode test and Red lead is + terminal and black lead is
– terminal.

Note
down the transistor number which is specified on the device surface.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in
total):
The
base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode  and conduct one
way only.
The
base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
The
collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct
either way.
You
have to note the how much forward bias voltage from these six tests.
Then conclude that the transistor is PNP or NPN

The
diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are
reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure
can be used. 

Specification   
Structure This shows the type of transistor, NPN
or PNP. The polarities of the two types
are different

IC max. Maximum collector current.

VCE max. Maximum voltage across the

collector-emitter junction.
You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.

hFE This is the current gain

(strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed
minimum value is given because
the actual value varies from transistor to
transistor - even for those of the
same type! Note that current gain is just a
number so it has no units.
Ptot max. Maximum total power which can be
developed in the transistor, note that a
heat sink will be required to
achieve the maximum rating. This rating is
important for transistors
operating as amplifiers, the power is roughly IC ×
VCE.
Follow the device specification from
the  according to the device number.

NPN transistors
Category

Case
IC
VCE
hFE
Ptot
Possible

Code Structure (typical

style max. max. min. max. substitutes
use)
Audio,
BC107 NPN TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW low BC182 BC547
power
General
purpose, BC108C
BC108 NPN TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW
low BC183 BC548
power
General
purpose,
BC108C NPN TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW

low
power
Audio
(low
BC109 NPN TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW noise), BC184 BC549
low
power
General
purpose, BC107
BC182 NPN TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW
low BC182L
power
General
purpose,
BC182L NPN TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW BC107 BC182
low
power
Audio,
BC547B NPN TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW low BC107B
power
General
purpose,
BC548B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW BC108B
low
power
BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW Audio BC109
(low
 noise),
low
power
General
purpose,
2N3053 NPN TO39 700mA 40V 50 500mW BFY51
low
power
General
purpose,
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800mW BC639
medium
power
General
purpose,
BC639 NPN TO92A 1A 80V 40 800mW BFY51
medium
power
General
purpose,
TIP29A NPN TO220 1A 60V 40 30W

high
power
General
purpose, TIP31C
TIP31A NPN TO220 3A 60V 10 40W
high TIP41A
power
General
purpose, TIP31A
TIP31C NPN TO220 3A 100V 10 40W
high TIP41A
power
General
purpose,
TIP41A NPN TO220 6A 60V 15 65W

high
power
General
purpose,
2N3055 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W

high
power
Please note: the data in this
table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely
consistent!
Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your
supplier if you require precise data.
PNP transistors
Category

Case
IC
VCE
hFE
Ptot
Possible

Code Structure (typical

style max. max. min. max. substitutes
use)
Audio,
BC177 PNP TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW low BC477
power
General
purpose,
BC178 PNP TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW BC478
low
power
Audio
(low
BC179 PNP TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW noise),

low
power
Audio,
BC477 PNP TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW low BC177
power
General
purpose,
BC478 PNP TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW BC178
low
power
General
purpose,
TIP32A PNP TO220 3A 60V 25 40W TIP32C
high
power
General
purpose,
TIP32C PNP TO220 3A 100V 10 40W TIP32A
high
power
Please note: the data in this
table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely
consistent!
Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your
supplier if you require precise data.

Aditya Prasad
at
18:46:00

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