Discrete Structures

Lecture 18

Relations

Composite of relations
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. The powers Rn, n =
1,2,3,... is defined inductively by
• R1 = R and Rn+1 = Rn o R.

Examples
• R = {(1,2),(2,3),(2,4), (3,3)} is a relation on A = {1,2,3,4}.
• R 1 = R = {(1,2),(2,3),(2,4), (3,3)}
• R 2 = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (3,3)}
• R 3 = {(1,3), (2,3), (3,3)}
• R 4 = {(1,3), (2,3), (3,3)}
• R k = R 3, k > 3.

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Transitive relation
Definition (transitive relation): A relation R on a set A is called
transitive if
• [(a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ R] → (a,c) ∈ R for all a, b, c ∈ A.

• Example 1:
• Rdiv ={(a b), if a |b} on A = {1,2,3,4}
• Rdiv = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,2), (2,4), (3,3), (4,4)}
• Is Rdiv transitive?
• Answer: Yes.

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Connection to Rn
Theorem: The relation R on a set A is transitive if and only if
Rn ⊆ R for n = 1,2,3,... .

Proof: biconditional (if and only if)

Suppose Rn ⊆ R, for n =1,2,3,... .

• Let (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ R
• by the definition of R º R, (a,c) ∈ R º R ⊆ R →
• R is transitive.

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Connection to Rn
Theorem: The relation R on a set A is transitive if and only if Rn ⊆
R for n = 1,2,3,... .

Proof: biconditional (if and only if)

Suppose R is transitive. Show Rn ⊆ R, for n =1,2,3,... .
• Let P(n) : Rn ⊆ R. Math induction.
• Basis Step: P(1) says R1 = R so, R1 ⊆ R is true.
• Inductive Step: show P(n) → P(n+1)
• Want to show if Rn ⊆ R then Rn+1 ⊆ R.
• Let (a,b) ∈ Rn+1 then by the definition of Rn+1 = Rn { R there is
an element x ∈ A so that (a,x) ∈ R and (x,b) ∈ Rn ⊆ R (inductive
hypothesis). In addition to (a,x) ∈ R and (x,b) ∈ R, R is
transitive; so (a,b) ∈ R.
• Therefore, Rn+1 ⊆ R.
CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Representing binary relations with graphs

• We can graphically represent a binary relation R from A to B as
follows:
• if a R b then draw an arrow from a to b.
a→b
Example:
• Relation Rdiv (from previous lectures) on A={1,2,3,4}
• Rdiv = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,2), (2,4), (3,3), (4,4)}

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Representing relations on a set with digraphs
Definition: A directed graph or digraph consists of a set of
vertices (or nodes) together with a set E of ordered pairs of
elements of V valled edges (or arcs). The vertex a is called the
initial vertex of the edge (a,b) and vertex b is the terminal vertex
of this edge. An edge of the form (a,a) is called a loop.
Example
• Relation Rdiv ={(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,2), (2,4), (3,3), (4,4)}

1 1
digraph 1 3
2 2
3 3
2 4
4 4

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Closures of relations
• Let R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(3,2)} on A ={1 2 3}.
• Is this relation reflexive?
• Answer: ?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Closures of relations
• Let R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(3,2)} on A ={1 2 3}.
• Is this relation reflexive?
• Answer: No. Why?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Closures of relations
• Let R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(3,2)} on A ={1 2 3}.
• Is this relation reflexive?
• Answer: No. Why?
• (2,2) and (3,3) is not in R.

• The question is what is the minimal relation S ⊇ R that is

reflexive?
• How to make R reflexive with minimum number of additions?
• Answer: ?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Closures of relations
• Let R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(3,2)} on A ={1 2 3}.
• Is this relation reflexive?
• Answer: No. Why?
• (2,2) and (3,3) is not in R.

• The question is what is the minimal relation S ⊇ R that is

reflexive?
• How to make R reflexive with minimum number of additions?
• Answer: Add (2,2) and (3,3)
• Then S= {(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(3,2),(2,2),(3,3)}
• R⊆ S
• The minimal set S ⊇ R is called the reflexive closure of R

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Reflexive closure
The set S is called the reflexive closure of R if it:
– contains R
– has reflexive property
– is contained in every reflexive relation Q that contains R (R
⊆ Q) , that is S ⊆ Q

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Closures on relations
• Relations can have different properties:
• reflexive,
• symmetric
• transitive

• Because of that we can have:

• symmetric,
• reflexive and
• transitive
closure.

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Closures
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. A relation S on A with
property P is called the closure of R with respect to P if S is a
subset of every relation Q (S ⊆ Q) with property P that contains
R (R ⊆ Q).

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Closures
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. A relation S on A with
property P is called the closure of R with respect to P if S is a
subset of every relation Q (S ⊆ Q) with property P that contains
R (R ⊆ Q).

Example (symmetric closure):

• Assume R={(1,2),(1,3), (2,2)} on A={1,2,3}.
• What is the symmetric closure S of R?
• S=?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Closures
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. A relation S on A with
property P is called the closure of R with respect to P if S is a
subset of every relation Q (S ⊆ Q) with property P that contains
R (R ⊆ Q).

Example (symmetric closure):

• Assume R={(1,2),(1,3), (2,2)} on A={1,2,3}.
• What is the symmetric closure S of R?
• S = {(1,2),(1,3), (2,2)}  {(2,1), (3,1)}
= {(1,2),(1,3), (2,2),(2,1), (3,1)}

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Closures
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. A relation S on A with
property P is called the closure of R with respect to P if S is a
subset of every relation Q (S ⊆ Q) with property P that contains
R (R ⊆ Q).

• Example (transitive closure):

• Assume R={(1,2), (2,2), (2,3)} on A={1,2,3}.
• Is R transitive?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Closures
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. A relation S on A with
property P is called the closure of R with respect to P if S is a
subset of every relation Q (S ⊆ Q) with property P that contains
R (R ⊆ Q).

• Example (transitive closure):

• Assume R={(1,2), (2,2), (2,3)} on A={1,2,3}.
• Is R transitive? No.
• How to make it transitive?
• S=?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Closures
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. A relation S on A with
property P is called the closure of R with respect to P if S is a
subset of every relation Q (S ⊆ Q) with property P that contains
R (R ⊆ Q).

• Example (transitive closure):

• Assume R={(1,2), (2,2), (2,3)} on A={1,2,3}.
• Is R transitive? No.
• How to make it transitive?
• S = {(1,2), (2,2), (2,3)}  {(1,3)}
= {(1,2), (2,2), (2,3),(1,3)}
• S is the transitive closure of R

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Transitive closure
We can represent the relation on the graph. Finding a transitive
closure corresponds to finding all pairs of elements that are
connected with a directed path (or digraph).

Example:
Assume R={(1,2), (2,2), (2,3)} on A={1,2,3}.
Transitive closure S = {(1,2), (2,2), (2,3),(1,3)}.

R
1 3

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Transitive closure
We can represent the relation on the graph. Finding a transitive
closure corresponds to finding all pairs of elements that are
connected with a directed path (or digraph).

Example:
Assume R={(1,2), (2,2), (2,3)} on A={1,2,3}.
Transitive closure S = {(1,2), (2,2), (2,3),(1,3)}.

R
1 3

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Transitive closure
We can represent the relation on the graph. Finding a transitive
closure corresponds to finding all pairs of elements that are
connected with a directed path (or digraph).

Example:
Assume R={(1,2), (2,2), (2,3)} on A={1,2,3}.
Transitive closure S = {(1,2), (2,2), (2,3),(1,3)}.

R S
1 3 1 3

2 2

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Transitive closure
Theorem: Let R be a relation on a set A. There is a path of length
n from a to b if and only if (a,b)  Rn.
Proof (math induction):

a b
Path of length 1

a x b

Path of length 1 Path of length n

Path of length n+1

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Transitive closure
Theorem: Let R be a relation on a set A. There is a path of length
n from a to b if and only if (a,b)  Rn.
Proof (math induction):
• P(1): There is a path of length 1 from a to b if and only if (a,b) 
R1, by the definition of R.
• Show P(n) → P(n+1): Assume there is a path of length n from
a to b if and only if (a,b)  Rn → there is a path of length n+1
from a to b if and only if (a,b)  Rn+1.
• There is a path of length n+1 from a to b if and only if there
exists an x  A, such that (a,x)  R (a path of length 1) and (x,b)
 Rn is a path of length n from x to b.
a x b
Path of length n

• (x,b)  Rn holds due to P(n). Therefore, there is a path of length

n + 1 from a to b. This also implies that (a,b) Rn+1.
CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht
 Connectivity relation
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. The connectivity
relation R* consists of all pairs (a,b) such that there is a path (of
any length, i.e. 1 or 2 or 3 or ...) between a and b in R.
∞
R* = UR k

k =1

1 4
Example:
• A = {1,2,3,4} 2 3
• R = {(1,2),(1,4),(2,3),(3,4)}

Note: Rk consists of the pairs (a,b)* such that there is a path of

length k from a to b, it follows that R is the union of all the sets Rk

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Connectivity relation
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. The connectivity
relation R* consists of all pairs (a,b) such that there is a path (of
any length, ie. 1 or 2 or 3 or ...) between a and b in R.
∞
R* = UR k

k =1

1 4
Example:
• A = {1,2,3,4} 2 3
• R = {(1,2),(1,4),(2,3),(3,4)}
• R2 = ?
•

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Connectivity relation
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. The connectivity
relation R* consists of all pairs (a,b) such that there is a path (of
any length, ie. 1 or 2 or 3 or ...) between a and b in R.
∞
R* = UR k

k =1

1 4
Example:
• A = {1,2,3,4} 2 3
• R = {(1,2),(1,4),(2,3),(3,4)}
• R2 = {(1,3),(2,4)}
• R3 = ?
•

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Connectivity relation
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. The connectivity
relation R* consists of all pairs (a,b) such that there is a path (of
any length, ie. 1 or 2 or 3 or ...) between a and b in R.
∞
R* = UR k

k =1

1 4
Example:
• A = {1,2,3,4} 2 3
• R = {(1,2),(1,4),(2,3),(3,4)}
• R2 = {(1,3),(2,4)}
• R3 = {(1,4)}
• R4 = ?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Connectivity relation
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. The connectivity
relation R* consists of all pairs (a,b) such that there is a path (of
any length, ie. 1 or 2 or 3 or ...) between a and b in R.
∞
R* = UR k

k =1

Example: 1 4
• A = {1,2,3,4}
• R = {(1,2),(1,4),(2,3),(3,4)} 2 3
• R2 = {(1,3),(2,4)}
• R3 = {(1,4)}
• R4 = 
• ...
• R* = ?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Connectivity relation
Definition: Let R be a relation on a set A. The connectivity
relation R* consists of all pairs (a,b) such that there is a path (of
any length, ie. 1 or 2 or 3 or ...) between a and b in R.
∞
R* = UR k

k =1

Example: 1 4
• A = {1,2,3,4}
• R = {(1,2),(1,4),(2,3),(3,4)} 2 3
• R2 = {(1,3),(2,4)}
• R3 = {(1,4)}
• R4 = 
• ...
• R* = {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4),(3,4)}

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Transitivity closure and connectivity relation
Theorem: The transitive closure of a relation R equals the
connectivity relation R*.

Based on the following Lemma.

Lemma 1: Let A be a set with n elements, and R a relation on A.

If there is a path from a to b, then there exists a path of length
< n in between (a,b). Consequently:
n
R* = UR k

k =1

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Connectivity
Lemma 1: Let A be a set with n elements, and R a relation on A.
If there is a path from a to b, then there exists a path of length <
n in between (a,b). Consequently:
n
R* = UR k

k =1
Proof (intuition):
• There are at most n different elements we can visit on a path if
the path does not have loops

x0=a x1 x2 xm=b

• Loops may increase the length but the same node is visited more
than once

x0=a x1 x2 xm=b
CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht
 Connectivity
Lemma 1: Let A be a set with n elements, and R a relation on A.
If there is a path from a to b, then there exists a path of length <
n in between (a,b). Consequently:
n
R* = UR k

k =1
Proof (intuition):
• There are at most n different elements we can visit on a path if
the path does not have loops

x0=a x1 x2 xm=b

• Loops may increase the length but the same node is visited more
than once

x0=a x1 x2 xm=b
CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Equivalence relation
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence
relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Example: Let A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6} and

• R= {(a,b)| a,b  A, a  b mod 3} (a is congruent to b modulo 3)
Congruencies:
• 0 mod 3 = ?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Equivalence relation
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence
relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Example: Let A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6} and

• R= {(a,b)| a,b  A, a  b mod 3} (a is congruent to b modulo 3)
Congruencies:
• 0 mod 3 = 0 1 mod 3 = ?

Note: if and only if 3 divides a - b

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Equivalence relation
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence
relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Example: Let A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6} and

• R= {(a,b)| a,b  A, a  b mod 3} (a is congruent to b modulo 3)
Congruencies:
• 0 mod 3 = 0 1 mod 3 = 1 2 mod 3 = 2 3 mod 3 = ?

Note: if and only if 3 divides a - b

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Equivalence relation
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence
relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Example: Let A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6} and

• R= {(a,b)| a,b  A, a  b mod 3} (a is congruent to b modulo 3)
Congruencies:
• 0 mod 3 = 0 1 mod 3 = 1 2 mod 3 = 2 3 mod 3 = 0
• 4 mod 3 = ?

Note: if and only if 3 divides a - b

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Equivalence relation
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence
relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Example: Let A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6} and

• R= {(a,b)| a,b  A, a  b mod 3} (a is congruent to b modulo 3)
Congruencies:
• 0 mod 3 = 0 1 mod 3 = 1 2 mod 3 = 2 3 mod 3 = 0
• 4 mod 3 = 1 5 mod 3 = 2 6 mod 3 = 0
Relation R has the following pairs:
?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Equivalence relation
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence
relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Example: Let A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6} and

• R= {(a,b)| a,b  A, a  b mod 3} (a is congruent to b modulo 3)
Congruencies:
• 0 mod 3 = 0 1 mod 3 = 1 2 mod 3 = 2 3 mod 3 = 0
• 4 mod 3 = 1 5 mod 3 = 2 6 mod 3 = 0
Relation R has the following pairs:
• (0,0) (0,3), (3,0), (0,6), (6,0)
• (3,3), (3,6) (6,3), (6,6) (1,1),(1,4), (4,1), (4,4)
• (2,2), (2,5), (5,2), (5,5)

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Equivalence relation
• Relation R on A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6} has the following pairs:
(0,0) (0,3), (3,0), (0,6), (6,0)
(3,3), (3,6) (6,3), (6,6) (1,1),(1,4), (4,1), (4,4)
(2,2), (2,5), (5,2), (5,5)

• Is R reflexive?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Equivalence relation
• Relation R on A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6} has the following pairs:
(0,0) (0,3), (3,0), (0,6), (6,0)
(3,3), (3,6) (6,3), (6,6) (1,1),(1,4), (4,1), (4,4)
(2,2), (2,5), (5,2), (5,5)

• Is R reflexive? Yes.
• Is R symmetric?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Equivalence relation
• Relation R on A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6} has the following pairs:
(0,0) (0,3), (3,0), (0,6), (6,0)
(3,3), (3,6) (6,3), (6,6) (1,1),(1,4), (4,1), (4,4)
(2,2), (2,5), (5,2), (5,5)

• Is R reflexive? Yes.
• Is R symmetric? Yes.
• Is R transitive?
1 4

2 5

3 6

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Equivalence relation
• Relation R on A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6} has the following pairs:
(0,0) (0,3), (3,0), (0,6), (6,0)
(3,3), (3,6) (6,3), (6,6) (1,1),(1,4), (4,1), (4,4)
(2,2), (2,5), (5,2), (5,5)

• Is R reflexive? Yes.
• Is R symmetric? Yes.
• Is R transitive. Yes.
1 4

Then 2 5
• R is an equivalence relation. 3 6

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Equivalence class
Definition: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set { x
 A | a R x} is called the equivalence class of a, denoted by
[a]R or simply [a] when there is only one relation R. If b  [a]
then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.
Example:
• Assume R={(a,b) | a  b mod 3} for A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
• Pick an element a =0.
• [0]R = {0,3,6}
• Element 1: [1]R= ?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Equivalence class
Definition: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set { x
 A  a R x} is called the equivalence class of a, denoted by
[a]R or simply [a] when there is only one relation R. If b  [a]
then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.
Example:
• Assume R={(a,b) | a  b mod 3} for A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
• Pick an element a =0.
• [0]R = {0,3,6}
• Element 1: [1]R= {1,4}
• Element 2: [2]R= ?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Equivalence class
Definition: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set { x
 A  a R x} is called the equivalence class of a, denoted by
[a]R or simply [a] when there is only one relation R. If b  [a]
then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.
Example:
• Assume R={(a,b) | a  b mod 3} for A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
• Pick an element a =0.
• [0]R = {0,3,6}
• Element 1: [1]R= {1,4}
• Element 2: [2]R= {2,5}

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Equivalence class
Definition: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set { x
 A  a R x} is called the equivalence class of a, denoted by
[a]R or simply [a] when there is only one relation R. If b  [a]
then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.
Example:
• Assume R={(a,b) | a  b mod 3} for A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
• Pick an element a =0.
• [0]R = {0,3,6}
• Element 1: [1]R= {1,4}
• Element 2: [2]R= {2,5}
• Element 3: [3]R= ?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Equivalence class
Definition: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set { x
 A  a R x} is called the equivalence class of a, denoted by
[a]R or simply [a] when there is only one relation R. If b  [a]
then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.
Example:
• Assume R={(a,b) | a  b mod 3} for A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
• Pick an element a =0.
• [0]R = {0,3,6}
• Element 1: [1]R= {1,4}
• Element 2: [2]R= {2,5}
• Element 3: [3]R= {0,3,6}= [0]R = [6]R
• Element 4: [4]R= ?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Equivalence class
Definition: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set { x
 A | a R x} is called the equivalence class of a, denoted by
[a]R or simply [a] when there is only one relation R. If b  [a]
then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.
Example:
• Assume R={(a,b) | a  b mod 3} for A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
• Pick an element a =0.
• [0]R = {0,3,6}
• Element 1: [1]R= {1,4}
• Element 2: [2]R= {2,5}
• Element 3: [3]R= {0,3,6} = [0]R = [6]R
• Element 4: [4]R= {1,4} = [1]R
• Element 5: [5]R= ?

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Equivalence class
Definition: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set { x
 A  a R x} is called the equivalence class of a, denoted by
[a]R or simply [a] when there is only one relation R. If b  [a]
then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.
Example:
• Assume R={(a,b) | a  b mod 3} for A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
• Pick an element a =0.
• [0]R = {0,3,6}
• Element 1: [1]R= {1,4}
• Element 2: [2]R= {2,5}
• Element 3: [3]R= {0,3,6}= [0]R = [6]R
• Element 4: [4]R= {1,4} = [1]R
• Element 5: [5]R= {2,5} = [2]R

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

 Equivalence class
Definition: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set { x
 A  a R x} is called the equivalence class of a, denoted by
[a]R or simply [a] when there is only one relation R. If b  [a]
then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.
Example:
• Assume R={(a,b) | a  b mod 3} for A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
• Pick an element a =0.
• [0]R = {0,3,6}
• Element 1: [1]R= {1,4}
• Element 2: [2]R= {2,5}
• Element 3: [3]R= {0,3,6} = [0]R = [6]R
• Element 4: [4]R= {1,4} = [1]R
• Element 5: [5]R= {2,5} = [2]R

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht

Equivalence class
Example:
• Assume R={(a,b) | a  b mod 3} for A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}

Three different equivalence classes all together:

• [0]R = [3]R =[6]R = {0,3,6}
• [1]R= [4]R= {1,4}
• [2]R= [5]R= {2,5}

CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht