AASHTO Soil Classification 

Technical 
A soil classification system usually used for highway design and
construction.

Active earth pressure 

The horizontal stress exerted by a mass of soil on a retaining wall as the
wall moves away from the soil.
See the link to Retaining Walls for equations and calculations.

Active (Rankine) zone 

The area behind a retaining structure that is above the failure plane.

Activity 
The ratio of plasticity index to percent by weight of clay. This property is
correlated with the type of clay.

Adhesion 
The shear resistance between soil and a structure (e.g. steel, concrete or
timber piles; along a retaining wall)

Air-voids ratio 
The ratio of the volume of air to the total volume of a mass of soil.

Allowable bearing capacity 

The bearing pressure that can be allowed on a foundation soil, usually to
limit settlements. See the link to Bearing Capacity for equations and
calculations.

Alluvial soils 
Soils deposited in a valley or slightly graded area by transporting
sediments through a mountain river or streams.

American Association of State Highway Transportation

Officials' Classification System (AASHTO) 
A system of soil classification based on grain size, liquid limit and
plasticity of soils.

Angle of internal friction 

For a given soil, the angle on the graph of the shear stress and normal
effective stresses at which shear failure occurs. See the link to angle of
internal friction for various relationships.

Angle of repose 
The maximum angle, just before failure, of a slope composed of granular
material .

Angle of shearing resistance 

The ratio of effective shear and normal stresses mobilized at any state prior
to failure.

Angle of slip plane 

The angle referred to horizontal of a plane or other surface along which a
discontinuous slip or rupture may occur.

Angle of wall friction 

The angle of friction between soil and the surface of a retaining wall or
bottom side of a foundation.

Angular distortion 
The ratio between the relative deflection between two points in a
foundation and the distance between them.

Anisotropic 
A mass of soil having different properties in different directions. Primarily
refers to permeability or stress-strain characteristics.

Aquifer 
A stratum of soil with relatively high permeability; a water-bearing
stratum of rock or soil.

Artesian 
A condition that exists when the water table piezometric surface lies above
the ground level.

At-rest earth pressure 

The horizontal stress developed in a mass of soil loaded in conditions of
zero horizontal strain. The retaining wall neither moves away or towards
the soil. See the link to Retaining Walls for equations and calculations.

Atterberg Limits 
The water contents of a soil mass corresponding to the transition between a
solid, semi-solid, plastic solid or liquid. Laboratory test used to distinguish
the plasticity of clay and silt particles.

Axial strain 
Direct strain measured along an axis of a triaxial test sample.

Axial stress 
Total or effective stress (Both confining and vertical stresses combined)
acting along an axis of a triaxial test sample.

B
Bearing capacity
The ability of the underlying soil to support the foundation loads without
shear failure.

Bearing capacity factors 

Empirically derived factors used in a bearing capacity equation that
usually correlates with the angle of internal friction of the soil.
See Bearing Capacity Factors for various tables and relationships.

Bearing pressure 
The total stress transferred from the structure to the foundation, then to the
soil below the foundation. See the link to Bearing Capacity for equations
and calculations.

Bedrock 
Strong rock underlying surface deposits of soil and weathered rock.

Bentonite 
Sodium montmorillonite.

Borrow 
A site that is used to supply soils for earthwork construction (i.e. gravel
pit).

Boulders 
Soil particles over 12 inches (305 mm) in size.

Boussinesq equation 
An equation used to determine the increase in vertical pressure at a
particular depth that is caused by an application of a point load at a given
surface. See Boussinesq Theory for equations and calculations.

Braced excavation 
The use of bracing to laterally support the side-walls of temporary trenches
or cuts.

British Soil Classification System 

A system of soil classification based on size, consistency and structure.

Bulk density 
Soil density. The total mass of water and soil particles contained in a unit
volume of soil. (pcf).

Bulk unit weight 

The total weight of water and soil particles contained in a unit volume of
soil.

Buoyant Density 
Also, submerged density. Difference between the total density and the
density of water. Buoyant density = Soil density - Density of water.

C
Caisson 
A component of a particular foundation system.

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) 

A laboratory test that is used to determine the suitability of of a soil for use
as a subbase in a pavement section.

Capillary rise 
The height to which water will rise above the water table due to negative
pore water pressure or capillary action of the soil.
SeeCapillary information  in the settlement analysis and stress analysis
section for equations and calculations.

Capillary stresses 
Pore water pressures less than atmospheric values produced by surface
tension of pore water acting on the meniscus formed in void spaces
between soil particles.

Circular Footing
Isolated/ spread footing that is circular shaped. Usually a shallow footing.
See the link to Bearing Capacity for equations and calculations.

Clay 
Soil particles which are finer (smaller) than 0.002 mm in size.

Coarse-grained soils 
Soils with more than 50% by weight of grains retained on the #200 sieve
(0.075mm).

Cobbles 
Soil particles between 3 inches (76 mm) and 12 inches (305 mm) in size.

Coefficient of active earth pressure 

The ratio of the minimum horizontal effective stress of a soil to the vertical
effective stress at a single point in a soil mass retained by a retaining wall
as the wall moves away from the soil. See the link to Retaining Walls for
equations and calculations.

Coefficient of compressibility 
The ratio of void ratio difference to the effective pressure difference of two
different loadings during primary consolidation.

Coefficient of consolidation 
The rate of change of volume during primary consolidation. Units: ft²/day,
m²/s.

Coefficient of curvature 
Also curvature coefficient. A measure of the shape parameter obtained
from a grain size distribution curve. 
CD=(D30)2/D10D60.

Coefficient of earth pressure at rest 

The ratio of horizontal effective stress of a soil to the vertical effective
stress at a specific point in a soil mass behind a retaining wall when the
wall does not move (loaded in conditions of zero horizontal strain). See the
link to Retaining Walls for equations and calculations.

Coefficient of friction 
The ratio between the tangential force required to cause a body, such as a
foundation surface or a retaining wall, to slide along a plane and the
normal force between the body and the plane.

Coefficient of passive earth pressure 

The ratio of the maximum horizontal effective stress of a soil to the
vertical effective stress at a specific point in a soil mass behind a retaining
wall as the wall moves toward the soil. See the link to Retaining Walls for
equations and calculations.

Coefficient of permeability 
See hydraulic conductivity.

Coefficient of secondary consolidation 

The change in volumetric strain per a logarithmic cycle of time after
primary consolidation is complete.

Coefficient of uniformity 
Also uniformity coefficient. A measure of the slope of a grain size
distribution curve, and therefore the uniformity of the soil. 
Cu=D60/D10.

Cofferdam 
A temporary structure used to enclose a construction area, and prevent soil
or water from entering the construction area.

Cohesionless soils 
Granular soils (sand and gravel type) with values of cohesion close to zero.

Cohesive soils 
Clay type soils with angles of internal friction close to zero. Cohesion is
the force that holds together molecules or like particles within a substance.

Colluvial soils 
Soils deposited at the base of foot-hills via gravity or erosion.

Compaction 
Volume change in soils which air is expelled from the voids, but with the
water content remaining constant. Compaction may occur due to vibration,
and self-weight. In construction, compaction is achieved by rolling,
tamping or vibrating fill soils. See link relating to Compaction for
additional information, equations and calculations.

Compression index 
(Also, compressibility index) The logarithmic slope of the primary
consolidation curve. The slope of the normal compression line and critical
state line of the Casagrande Method of consolidation curves.
Compression Test 
The compression test is performed in the laboratory using a relatively
undisturbed ring sample. The sample is loaded with expected building
pressures to estimate the amount of compression the soil undergoes. The
sample is then inundated with water in order to measure additional
compression or swelling.

Cone resistance 
The resistance force divided by the end area of the cone tip, measured
during the cone penetration test.

Cone penetration test 

A penetration test in which a cone that has a 60º point is pushed into the
ground at a continuous rate. Resistance is measured by correlating the
depth penetrated with the force applied.

Confined aquifer 
An aquifer that is contained between two stratifications of low
permeability soil or rock.

Confined Compression Test 

See Consolidation Test

Consistency 
Water content of clay relative to the Atterberg limits.

Consistency index 
A measure of the relationship between the current water content and the
consistency limits.

Consistency limits 
See Atterberg limits.

Consolidation 
Volume change due to dissipation of excess pore pressure from static
loads.

Consolidation (settlement) 
The settlement of a foundation due to squeezing out of water from the
pores as the soil comes to equilibrium with the applied loads.

Consolidation test 
A laboratory test in which results are used to predict consolidation of a soil
under applied structural loads. Also known as confined compression tests
and oedometer tests.

Continuous footing 
Also see "Strip footing." A horizontally long footing supporting a wall.
Usually a shallow footing. See the link to Bearing Capacityfor publications
equations and calculations.

Coulomb earth pressure theory 

An earth pressure theory that includes friction between the soil and
retaining structure, and assumes that failure occurs along a flat plane
behind the retaining structure at an angle that is in part derived from the
angle of internal friction. See the link to Retaining Walls for equations and
calculations.

Coulomb's equation 
Named after Charles Augustin Coulomb, (1736-1806) An equation
relating the shear strength of soil to the normal effective stress on the
failure plane.

Counterfort walls 
Type of retaining wall that depends on tension ribs between the stem and
the heel in order to resist flexure and overturning.

Creep 
Time dependent deformations which occurs in soil at constant effective
stress without changes in volume and pore water pressure.

Critical circle 
In a slope stability analyses, the slip circle that corresponds to the lowest
factor of safety.

Critical ground slope angle 

The angle of the ground slope that corresponds to a factor of safety of 1.0
relative to the slope stability.

critical height 
The height of a slope that corresponds to a factor of safety of 1.0 relative
to slope failure.

Critical hydraulic gradient 

The hydraulic gradient at which effective stresses becomes zero. Upward
seepage.

Curvature coefficient 
See coefficient of curvature.

Cyclic stress ratio 

A numerical rating of the potential for liquefaction in sands.

D
Darcy's law 
(After H.P.G. Darcy, 1856) The formula used for laminar flow of water
through porous saturated soils. Velocity of flow = hydraulic conductivity
X hydraulic gradient.

Degree of consolidation 
The proportion of consolidation that has occurred after a given elapsed
time.

Degree of saturation 
The proportion of the volume of water to the total volume of voids of a
given mass of soil.

Density 
The ratio of the total mass to the total volume of a unit of soil. Usually
expressed as a unit weight where weight is interchanged with mass. 
Units: lbm/ft³, kg/m³.

Density index 
Also, relative density. The density of a granular soil relative to the
minimum and maximum densities achieved for that particular soil.

Density of soil grains 

The average density of the mineral or rock of which the soil particles are
composed.

Density of water 
The density of water will vary with temperature and pressure. Values used
for soils analysis are 62.4 lbm/ft³, 9.81 kN/m³ or 1000 kg/m³. A value of
64.0 lbm/ft³ is the value for sea water.

Depth factor 
One of the terms in the bearing capacity equation that relates to depth of
the foundation. The ratio between the depth of a slip circle below the top
of a slope and the height of the slope. See the link to Bearing Capacity for
publications, equations and calculations.

Desiccation 
The process of shrinkage or consolidation of the fine-grained soil produced
by increase of effective stresses in the grain skeleton accompanying the
development of capillary stresses in the pore water.

Deviator stress 
The difference between the axial and radial stresses of a triaxial test
sample.

Dewater 
Removal of water from a job site. Usually by pumping from excavations.

Differential settlement 
The vertical displacement due to settlement of one point in a foundation
with respect to another point of the foundation. SeeSettlement
analysis information  for further reading.

Direct shear test 

Laboratory test used to determine the relationship of shear strength to
consolidation stress. Strength characteristics that are estimated from this
test includes cohesion and angle of internal friction.

Direct strain 
The ratio of the change in length to the original length of a soil mass.

Downdrag 
Negative skin friction. Forces induced on deep foundations resulting from
downward movement of adjacent soil relative to the foundation element.

Drained loading 
Loading which is slow enough for the water to drain from the soil as the
total stresses increase. Pore pressure will not change, and volume will with
loading.

Drawdown 
The magnitude of the lowering of a water table, usually near a well being
pumped.

Dredging 
Removing soils from a sea, river or lake bed in order to deepen the
waterway for water travel.

Dry density 
The ratio of the mass of the solids (soil grains) to the total unit volume of
soil. Units: lbm/ft³, kg/m³.

Dry unit weight 

The weight of solids (soil grains) to the total unit volume of soil. Units
lb/ft³, kN/m³. See unit weight page for various tables and relationships.

Dynamic compaction 
The use of high-energy impact to densify loose granular soils.

E
Earth pressure 
The force per unit area exerted by soil on a retaining wall. See the link
to Retaining Walls for additional information, equations and calculations.

Earth pressure coefficients 

Coefficients used in determining earth pressure. Components may include
angle of internal friction, friction between the soil and wall face, angle of
the wall face, and angle of the sloping backfill.

Effective stress 
The portion of the total stress that is supported through grain-to-grain
contact of the soil. The stress in a soil mass that is effective in causing
volume changes and in mobilizing the shear strength arising from friction.
The difference between the total stress and the pore water pressure.
Effective stress = Total stress - Pore water pressure. See Effective
stress information  in the settlement analysis and stress analysis section for
equations and calculations.

Efficiency of a pile 
Also, pile efficiency. For a given pile in a group of piles, the ratio of the
average ultimate load in the group to the individual ultimate load on the
given pile.

Elastic deformation 
Deformation caused in a soil due to a change in loading, and the soil
recovers completely when the load is removed.

Embankment 
Usually referred to a 'built-up' section of soil (engineered fill) as for roads
or dams.

Engineering properties 
Engineering parameters of a soil such as permeability, shear strength and
consolidation. Different from index properties. See theLaboratory
Testing link for additional information concerning engineering properties
of the soil.

Engineered fill 
Soils used as fill, such as retaining wall backfill, foundation support, dams,
slopes, etc.. that are to be placed in accordance to engineered
specifications. These specifications may delineate soil grain-size,
plasticity, moisture, compaction, angularity, and many other index
properties depending on the application.

Eolian Soil 
Soil deposits that have been transported by wind.

Equipotential 
For a flow net, lines connecting points of equal total head. Equipotential
lines are usually drawn so that the interval, or equipotential drop, is
constant. Equipotentials intersect flow lines and impermeable boundaries
at right angles.

Equivalent fluid pressure 

Horizontal pressures of soil, or a combination of soil and water, which
increase linearly with depth and are equivalent to those that would be
produced by a heavy fluid of a selected unit weight.

Excess pore pressure 

That increment of pore water pressures greater than hydro-static values,
produced by consolidation stresses in compressible materials or by shear
strain; excess pore pressure is dissipated during consolidation.
Exit gradient 
The hydraulic gradient near an exposed surface through which seepage is
moving.

Expansive Clays 
Also, Reactive Clays. Clays that are sensitive to water, causing them to
swell or expand.

F
Factor of safety 
The ratio of a limiting value of a quantity to the design value of that
quantity. See Factor of Safety for typical values with relation to
geotechnical design.

Failure envelope 
For a given soil, the graph of the shear stress and normal effective stresses
at which shear failure occurs.

Fault 
A shear fracture in a rock mass along which movement has taken place.

Field density test 

Also In-place density test. Field testing that determines density of
compacted fill to verify that it meets specifications. Types of tests may
include sand cone, rubber balloon or nuclear densiometer.

Fine-grained soils 
Silt and clay soils. Soils containing particles smaller than No. 200 sieve or
0.075 mm in size according to the Unified Soil Classification System.

Fines content (fraction) 

Soil grains smaller than No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm), e.g. Clay and Silt.

Fissured clay 
A clay having an internal network of narrow cracks or separations, in
which the width and depth tends to increase upon drying.

Fissures 
Small cracks.

Flow line 
The path water will follow traveling from high head to low head in a
seepage flow analysis.

Flow net 
A graphical analysis of seepage flow in a mass of soil to estimate flow
quantities and pore pressures.

Flow quantity 
The total volume of water flowing in a seepage analysis.

Flow rate 
The ratio of total volume of water flowing to a particular unit of time.

Flow slide 
Shear failure in which a soil mass moves over a relatively long distance in
a fluid-like manner, occurring rapidly on flat slopes in loose, saturated,
uniform sands, or in highly sensitive clays.

Flow velocity 
The velocity of water flow through a soil.

Footing 
An enlargement at the base of a foundation that is designed to transmit
forces to the soil.

Foundation 
A component of an engineered structure that transmits the structure's
forces into the soil or rock that supports it. See the link
toFoundations or Bearing Capacity for foundation types, applications,
equations and calculations.

Founding depth 
The depth below the ground surface where the base of a foundation is
located.

Friction angle 
See angle of internal friction.

Friction pile 
A pile that derives the majority of its load bearing ability from the skin
friction between the soil and the pile. See the link to Bearing Capacity for
publications, equations and calculations.

Frost jacking 
A pile forced upward due to freezing ground moving upward or repeated
freeze-thaw events.

G
Geotextiles 
A synthetic fabric used to stabilize soils, retain soils, prevent the mixing of
dissimilar soils, provide a filtering function, pavement support, subgrade
reinforcement, drainage, erosion control and silt containment.
See Geosynthetics for additional information and publications.

Grading curve 
See grain size distribution curve.

Grain size distribution 

See particle size distribution.

Grain size distribution curve 

A curve drawn on a log scale to represent the distribution of particle sizes
in a soil. 

Gravity walls 
Retaining walls which depend upon their self weight to provide stability
against overturning and sliding; usually made of a high bulk structure. See
the link to Retaining Walls for equations and calculations.

H
Historical maximum stress 
See Pre-consolidation load.

Homogenous earth dam 

An earth dam whose embankment is formed of one soil type without a
systematic zoning of fill materials.

Homogenous soils 
A mass of soil where the soil is of one characteristic having the same
engineering and index properties.

Horizontal strain 
Strain measured in a horizontal direction.

Horizontal stress 
Total or effective stress acting in a horizontal direction.

Hveem's Resistance Value Test 

Laboratory test that evaluates the resistance of a re-molded soil sample to
be used in a pavement section. 

Hydraulic conductivity 
Also, coefficient of permeability. The constant average discharge velocity
of water passing through soil when the hydraulic gradient is equal to 1.0.
Clays are considered relatively impervious, while sands and gravels are
considered pervious.

Hydraulic gradient 
Between two points in a hydraulic flow: the difference in total head
(piezometric levels) divided by the length of the flow path (distance
between the two points).

Hydrometer test 
Laboratory test used to determine the amount and distribution of finer
particles of a soil sample. Fine soils are classified as silts and clays. (Soils
that pass the No. 200 sieve, or 0.075 mm).

Hydrostatic pore pressure 

Pore water pressures exerted under conditions of no groundwater flow
where the magnitude of pore pressures increase linearly with depth below
the ground surface.

I
Igneous 
Rocks that were once molten. Could be intrusive (ex. granite), or extrusive
(ex. basalt).
Illite 
A type of clay structure where potassium ions hold together a silica(x2)
and aluminum molecule.

Immediate settlement 
The settlement of a foundation occurring immediately upon loading.
See Immediate settlement information  in the settlement analysis and stress
analysis section for information, publications, equations and calculations.

Index properties 
Attributes of a soil such as moisture content, void ratio, specific gravity,
Atterberg limits and grain size distribution. Different from index
properties. See the Laboratory Testing link for additional
information concerning index properties of the soil.

In-place density test 

See field density test.

In-situ 
Undisturbed, existing field conditions.

Instrumentation 
Geotechnical instruments used to monitor conditions such as deformations,
pressures, loads, etc.. within the ground.

Isolated footing 
Also, spread or pad footing. A footing designed to support a structural load
from a single column. Usually a shallow foundation, and square or circular
in shape. See the link to Foundations or Bearing Capacity for foundation
types, applications, equations and calculations.

Isotropic 
A soil mass having essentially the same properties in all directions.
Primarily refers to permeability and stress-strain characteristics.

J
 
K
Kaolinite 
A repeated silca and aluminum molecule clay structure. White mineral.
Very little volume change when drying.

L
Leaching 
The removal of salts and soluble substances as water flows through a soil
medium. Leachate is the leached liquid from the soil, rich in minerals.

Liquefaction 
The sudden, large decrease of shear strength of cohesionless soil caused by
collapse of the soil structure, produced by small shear strains associated
with sudden but temporary increase of pore water pressure. Usually a
problem in submerged poorly graded sands within the upper 50 feet of
subgrade in earthquake prone environments. See the link to Earthquake
Engineering for liquefaction equations and calculations.

Liquid limit 
The water content above which the soil will flow like a liquid, but below
which it will have a plastic consistency.

Liquidity index 
A measure of the relationship between the current water content of a soil
and its consistency limits.

Log-spiral earth pressure theory 

An earth pressure theory that assumes that the failure surface is curved
behind a retaining structure. See the link to Retaining Wallsfor
publications, equations and calculations.

Long-term conditions 
Conditions in the ground where full consolidation has taken place and the
soils are fully-drained.

 
M
Machine foundation 
A foundation that receives regular or irregular vibratory loads that are
generated from rotating or impact machinery.

Mat foundation
Sometimes called a raft foundation. A structural slab utilized as a footing,
which usually encompasses the entire building footprint. Mat foundations
are advantageous on compressible soils because the building loads are
distributed over a large area. Mats may also provide additional resistance
to uplift. See the link to Foundations or Bearing Capacity for foundation
types, applications, equations and calculations.

Maximum dry density 

A soil property obtained in the laboratory from a Proctor test. Density of
soil at 100% compaction.

Mean normal stress 

The mean value of the three orthogonal stresses.

Metamorphic 
Igneous or sedimentary rock that has changed by heat and/or pressure.
Examples include quartz to quartzite, shale to slate, and limestone to
marble.

Micropile 
Piles with relatively small diameters.

Modified Proctor 
Laboratory test used to determine maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content of soils. Test results are used to estimate relative
compaction in the field. Soils are compacted in the laboratory in five
layers with a 10 pound hammer falling 18 inches.

Modulus of subgrade reaction 

Also, subgrade modulus. The ratio between the bearing pressure of a
foundation and the corresponding settlement at a given point. The slope of
the line in the loading range encountered by the soil in a plate bearing
value test. See the link to Modulus of subgrade reaction for typical values
relating to soil characteristics.
Mohr's circle 
A circle constructed in the triaxial test using the measured stresses
(principal stresses) in order to determine the stresses on the failure plane.

Moisture content 
See Water content. The ratio between the mass of water and the mass of
soil solids. 
w = (wet weight - dry weight) / dry weight.

Montmorillonite 
A clay structure that has a strong attraction to water. May swell 20x its
original volume when saturated. A repeating molecule structure of 2 silica
atoms and one aluminum.

N
N-Value 
Also, standard penetration resistance. The number of blows required to
drive a split-spoon sampler during a standard penetration test a distance of
12 inches (0.305 m) after the initial penetration of 6 inches (0.15 m).

Negative skin friction 

Forces induced on deep foundations resulting from downward movement
of adjacent soil relative to the foundation element.

Nominal bearing pressure 

Allowable bearing pressure for spread foundations on various soil types,
derived from experience which provides safety against shear failure or
excessive settlements.

Normal compression line 

The relationship between void ratio and the normal effective stress for soil
loaded beyond the current yield stress in an isotropic compression.

Normal force 
Force acting normal to the plane of reference. Units: lb, N.

Normalization 
Analysis of soil test data to compensate for different states of samples.

Normally consolidated soil 

Soil having a current state which lies on the normal compression line.

O
Oedometer Test 
See Consolidation Test

One-dimensional compression 
Compression taking place with zero radial and horizontal strain.

One-dimensional modulus 
The ratio of the change in vertical effective stress to the change in vertical
strain, when there is zero horizontal strain.

Open layer 
A layer or stratum of soil from which porewater may drain both upward
and downward into overlying and underlying permeable layers, thus
enabling two-way drainage.

Optimum moisture content 

The water content at which the maximum dry density of a soil is obtained
using a specific effort of compaction. Optimum moisture of a specific soil
is determined through a Proctor test.

Organic soils 
Earth comprised of organic material, peat, muskeg.

Overburden Soil 
Overlying soil of a desirable soil stratum.

Overburden pressure 
(Also overburden stress) The total or effective stress at a given depth due
to the weight of overlying soil or rock.

Overconsolidated soil 
A clayey soil carrying a higher load in the past. Soil having a current state
which lies inside the normal compression line

Overconsolidation ratio 
The ratio of maximum past pressure (preconsolidation pressure) to the
current effective stress.

Overturning 
Overturning failure is a result of excessive lateral earth pressures with
relation to retaining wall resistance thereby causing the retaining wall
system to topple or rotate (overturn).

P
Pad footing 
"See Isolated Footing."

Particle size characteristics 

Used in particle size analyses and grading specifications: stated as the
maximum particle size of a specified percentage (smallest) of the total
content of a soil graded by mass.
D10 = maximum size of the smallest 10% of the particle content (also
referred to as effective size)
D60 = maximum size of the smallest 60% of the particle content

Particle size distribution 

Soil particle sizes that are determined from a representative sample of soil
that is passed through a set of sieves of consecutively smaller openings.

Passive earth pressure 

The maximum horizontal stress exerted by a mass of soil on a retaining
surface as the surface moves toward the soil. See the link toRetaining
Walls for publications, equations and calculations.

Peak shear strength 

The maximum shear strength of a soil at a given normal effective stress
and water content.

Permeability 
A measure of continuous voids in a soil. The property which allows the
flow of water through a soil. See also coefficient of permeability. See the
link to Permeability for typical values relating to soil type.

pH value 
A measure of acidity or alkalinity of groundwater or soil water extract
based on the hydrogen ion content.

Pier 
A deep foundation component that is usually cast-in-place, instead of
driven, drilled or jetted as a pile.

Piezometer 
An instrument used to measure in-situ pore water pressures.

Piezometric surface 
An imaginary surface corresponding to the hydrostatic water level of a
confined body of groundwater.

Pile 
A slender member of a deep foundation system that is driven (hammered),
drilled or jetted into the ground. Piles are usually constructed of timber,
steel or pre-stressed reinforced concrete. See the link
to Foundations or Bearing Capacity for foundation types, applications,
equations and calculations.

Pile Driving Analyzer 

A method to compute average pile force and velocity by using wave
equation analysis with electronic measurements.

Pile efficiency 
See efficiency of a pile.

Pile spacing 
The distance from center to center of piles.

Piping 
The movement of soil particles as a result of unbalanced seepage forces
produced by percolating water. Piping leads to the development of boils or
erosion channels.

Plane strain 
A two-dimensional state of stress, where the out-of-plane strain (i.e. the
strain normal to the plane being considered) is zero. An example of a plane
strain situation would be on a cross-section through a long structure being
loaded in the x-y plane, such as an embankment dam.

Plastic deformation 
The distortion of soil resulting in a permanent and irrecoverable change in
shape or volume.

Plastic limit 
The moisture content in which a soil will have a plastic consistency.

Plastic strain 
Deformation of soil that is not recovered upon unloading.

Plasticity 
The property of a soil which allows it to deform continuously, usually a
mass of clay size particles.

Plasticity index 
The difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit of a soil mass.

Plate bearing value 

A field test that is performed on compacted soil that provides an indication
of shear strength pavement components.

Point-bearing capacity 
Also, tip resistance or point capacity. The bearing capacity at the bottom
tip of one member of a deep foundation system. See the link
to Foundations or Bearing Capacity for foundation types, applications,
equations and calculations.

Point-bearing pile 
A pile that derives the majority of its loadbearing ability from the support
of the soil layer beneath the tip of the pile.

Poisson's ratio 
(After Simeon Poisson 1781-1840) The ratio of the change in strain
perpendicular to the direction of loading to the change in strain caused in
the same direction.

Pore air pressure 

The pressure of air within the void space of a partially saturated soil.

Pore pressure 
Also, hydrostatic pressure. The pressure exerted by the fluid within the
pores or voids in a porous material; in saturated soil the pore pressure is
the pore water pressure. See Pore pressure information  in the settlement
analysis and stress analysis section for equations and calculations.
Pore pressure coefficient 
The ratio of the change in pore pressure to the change in deviator stress.

Pore pressure coefficient 

The ratio of the change in pore pressure to the change in isotropic stress in
undrained loading.

Pore pressure ratio 

At a given depth of soil, the ratio of the porewater pressure to the vertical
overburden pressure.

Pore space 
See porosity.

Pore water pressure 

See pore pressure.

Porosity 
Also, pore space. The ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume.
Expressed in %, or unitless.

Pre-consolidation load 
The maximum load ever imposed on a particular soil mass in its geological
history.

Preconsolidation pressure 
The maximum past pressure of a soil.

Pressure head 
The height of a column of water required to develop a given pressure at a
given point.

Pressure in tension crack 

The horizontal pressure exerted in a slope or against a retaining wall due to
hydrostatic water pressure in tension cracks.

Primary consolidation 
The long-term consolidation of a clay from the loss of water from the
voids due to a high pressure.

Principal strains 
The strains occurring in the directions of the principal axes of strain.

Principal stresses 
Normal stresses acting in the direction of principal axes of stress.

Proctor test 
Laboratory test used to determine maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content of soils. Test results are used to determine relative
density in the field using in-place density tests. Standard effort or Modified
effort may be used in the lab. See theLaboratory Testing link for additional
information concerning the Proctor test. 

Q
Quick sand 
The effective stresses within a mass of sand is zero.

R
R - Value 
The R-Value, or resistance value, of a soil is measured in a stabilometer
test, and is usually estimated for pavement design. The R-value is the
ability of a soil medium to resist lateral spreading due to an applied
vertical load, such as tire loads. A range of values are established from 0 to
100, where 0 is the resistance of water and 100 is the resistance of steel.
See the link to R-Values for typical values relating to soil type.

Radial stress 
In a triaxial sample, the total or effective stress acting perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis.

Radius of influence 
The outer radius from a well that has a depression of water pressure or
water table produced by pumping of a well.

Raft Foundation 
See mat foundation. A structural slab utilized as a footing, which usually
encompasses the entire building footprint. Raft foundations are
advantageous on compressible soils because the building loads are
distributed over a large area. Rafts may also provide additional resistance
to uplift. See the link to Foundations or Bearing Capacity for foundation
types, applications, equations and calculations.

Rankine earth pressure theory 

Earth pressure analysis that disregards friction between the wall and soil,
and assumes that failure occurs along a flat plane behind the retaining
structure at an angle that is derived from the angle of internal friction. See
the link to Retaining Walls for publications, equations and calculations.

Reactive clays 
"See Expansive Clays."

Recompression index 
The logarithmic slope recompression (reloading) line.

Relative deflection 
The deflection in a foundation due to settlement.

Relative compaction 
A minimum density specification usually designated as a percentage of the
maximum dry density.

Relative density 
Also, density index. The density of a granular soil relative to the minimum
and maximum densities achieved for that particular soil.

Remolded Swell Test 

Using the same equipment as the compression test, the soil sample is
remolded and compacted in order to achieve similar earthwork conditions
for the project's soils. The amount of swell can be measured after
inundating the soil sample with water after the applied loads have
stabilized.

Residual soils 
Soils that have been formed in place.

Resistance value 
See R-Value.

Response spectrum 
Information regarding frequency-dependent energy distribution of an
earthquake derived from the Fourier analysis.

Resultant force 
The single force or pressure that will produce the same effect as several
forces or pressures acting along a plane. Used for easier calculations, such
as analyzing earth pressures.

Retaining wall 
Walls, usually constructed of concrete or rock, that provides lateral
stability of the earth, thus preventing the soil from sloughing or slope
failure. See the link to Retaining Walls for publications, equations and
calculations.

S
Sand 
Particles that pass through a #4 sieve (4.75 mm), and retained on a #200
sieve (0.075 mm).

Sand cone test 

Apparatus used for measuring density of soil in the field.

Saturated density 
Density of soil when the voids are filled with water.

Secondary compression index 

The logarithmic slope of the secondary compression line.

Secondary consolidation 
The considerably decreased rate of consolidation following the completion
of primary consolidation. See consolidation information  in the settlement
analysis and stress analysis section for information, publications, equations
and calculations.

Sedimentary 
Soils formed by the deposition of fine-grained soil in water.

Seepage 
The flow of water through soil. See seepage for information and
publications.

Seepage force 
The force transmitted to a mass of soil due to the seepage of groundwater.

Seepage pressure 
The seepage force per unit volume.

Seepage velocity 
The average velocity at which groundwater flows through the pores of a
soil. The ratio of the volume flow rate to the average area of voids in a soil
cross-section.

Sensitivity 
A measure of the change in ultimate strength of clays between undisturbed
and disturbed samples.

Settlement 
The downward movement of soil, or the downward movement of a
foundation. See settlement information  in the settlement analysis and
stress analysis section for information, publications, equations and
calculations.

Shallow Foundation 
Refers to a foundation system that has a shallow founding depth relative to
the foundation width. These foundations usually include spread footings,
continuous footings and mats. See the link to Foundations or Bearing
Capacity for foundation types, applications, equations and calculations.

Shape factors 
Factors used in a general bearing capacity equation which provides an
adjustment relating to the footing geometry.

Shear modulus 
The ratio of the change in shear stress to the resulting change in shear
strain.

Shear strain 
The angular distortion or change in shape of a mass of soil.

Shear strength 
The maximum shear stress which a soil can sustain under a given set of
conditions. For clay, shear strength = cohesion. For sand, shear strength =
the product of effective stress and the tangent of the angle of internal
friction. See the Laboratory Testing link for additional
information concerning properties of the soil.

Shear stress 
The force per unit area acting tangentially to a given plane or surface.

Sheet pile 
Steel section panels that are driven into the ground to provide lateral
support.

Shrinkage index 
The difference between the plastic and shrinkage limits.

Shrinkage limit 
The water content corresponding to the transition between a brittle solid
and a semi-solid. The water content below which further reduction in
water content causes no further reduction in volume.

Sieve analysis test 

Soil particle sizes that are determined from a representative sample of soil
that is passed through a set of sieves of consecutively smaller openings.
See the Laboratory Testing link for additional information concerning
properties of the soil.

Site investigation 
Process of methodically observing, soil sampling and field testing in such
a manner that is based on proposed development and existing site
conditions. 

Skin-friction capacity 
Also, skin resistance or side resistance. The bearing capacity for the shaft
of one member of a deep foundation system. See the link to Bearing
Capacity for equations and calculations.

Skin friction stress 

The shear stress on the shaft of a pile, caisson or cone penetrometer.

Skin resistance 
See skin-friction capacity.

Sliding 
Sliding failure is a result of excessive lateral earth pressures with relation
to retaining wall resistance thereby causing the retaining wall system to
move away (slide) from the soil it retains.

Slurry 
A thick mixture of soil and water.

Soil classification 
Standardized classification schemes that delineates soil characteristics that
are important in determining soil behavior. See theLaboratory Testing link
for additional information concerning properties of the soil.

Soil Nailing 
Slope stabilization method that involves installing and usually grouting
closely spaced rebar in the soil or rock face.

Soil suction 
See capillary rise.

Specific gravity 
The ratio of the density of a body or a substance to the mass of an equal
volume of water. Unitless.

Spread footing
Also, isolated footing. A footing designed to support a structural load from
a single column. Usually a shallow foundation, and square or circular in
shape. See the link to Foundations or Bearing Capacity for foundation
types, applications, equations and calculations.

SPT
See Standard Penetration Test.

Square Footing
Isolated/ spread footing shaped as a square. Usually a shallow footing.

Standard Penetration Resistance

See N-value.

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

A field test that measures resistance of the soil to the penetration of a
standard split-spoon sampler that is driven 12 inches (0.3 m) with a 140-
pound (63.5 kg) hammer dropped from a height of 30 inches (0.76 m). The
N-value is derived from this test.
Standard Proctor 
See Proctor test.

Steady state pore pressure 

The pore water pressure at equilibrium when all excess pore pressures
have fully dissipated.

Stiffness 
Susceptibility to distortion or volume change under an applied load.

Strain 
A measure of the change in size or shape of a mass of soil relative to its
original size or shape.

Stress 
The intensity of force per unit area; normal stress is applied
perpendicularly to a surface or plane, shear stress is applied tangentially to
a surface or plane. See stress information  in the settlement analysis and
stress analysis section for information, publications, equations and
calculations.

Stress history 
The past history of loading and unloading of a soil mass.

Strip footing 
Also see "Continuous footing." A horizontally long footing supporting a
wall. Usually a shallow footing. See the link to Foundationsor Bearing
Capacity for foundation types, applications, equations and calculations.

Subgrade modulus 
See Modulus of subgrade reaction.

Submerged Density 
Also, buoyant density. Difference between the total density and the density
of water. Submerged density = Soil density - Density of water.

Surcharge 
An additional force applied at the exposed upper surface of a restrained
soil. See the Retaining wall link for additional information, equations and
calculations concerning surcharges.

Suspension 
A thin mixture of soil and water, whereas the soil particles are floating
within the water.

Swell
Increase in soil volume; volumetric expansion of particular soils due to
changes in water content.

Swelling index
The slope of the swelling (unloading) line.

T
Tailings 
Crushed rocks from mines after ore extraction.

Tension crack 
Cracks appearing at the surface of a soil mass, often adjacent to a retaining
wall or top of a failing slope.

Tension crack depth 

The depth of a tension crack from the ground surface to a depth at which
the horizontal effective stress is zero.

Tension pile 
Piles that are designed to resist upward forces.

Time factor 
A dimensionless quantity dependent on the degree of consolidation that is
used in primary consolidation analyses.

Tip resistance 
See point-bearing capacity.

Tolerable vibration
The level of vibration magnitude that a structure is designed. Structure
vibrations range from unnoticeable to persons to structural danger.

Total head 
The height of the free water surface above a given datum.

Total stress 
The stress acting on or within a soil mass due to surcharges, overlying
weight, etc. Total stress = effective stress + pore water pressure.
See stress information  in the settlement analysis and stress analysis
section for information, publications, equations and calculations.

Transport soil 
Soils that have formed, then moved to another place via wind, water,
glacier, etc...

Triaxial shear strain

A strain parameter used in the interpretation of triaxial stress test results.

Triaxial stress test

Laboratory tests such as the consolidated-drained (CD) test, consolidated-
undrained (CU) test and unconsolidated-undrained (UU) test that are used
to determine the soils' strength characteristics such as cohesion and angle
of internal friction.

U
Ultimate bearing capacity 
The bearing stress which would cause shear failure in the soil below a
foundation; dependent upon the shear strength of the soil, applied loads
and on the shape and depth of the foundation. See the link to Bearing
Capacity for equations and calculations.

Unconfined Compressive Strength Test 

Laboratory test similar to the unconsolidated-undrained test performed on
plastic soils, usually clay. From this test, the undrained shear stregth is
calculated as 1/2 of the unconfined compressive strength. Cohesion is
considered to be equal to the undrained shear strength.

Undrained shear strength 

(Also undrained strength) The shear strength of a saturated soil at a given
water content (or voids ratio, or specific volume) under loading conditions
where no drainage of pore water can take place. The undrained shear
strength of soil is independent of applied stresses and therefore can be
measured at any level of stress, provided the void ratio remains constant.
The undrained Mohr-Coulomb envelope will be horizontal.

Unified Soil Classification System 

Known as USCS. A system of soil classification based on grain size, liquid
limit and plasticity of soils.

Uniformity Coefficient 
See coefficient of uniformity.

Unit weight 
The ratio of the total weight of soil to the total volume of a unit of soil.
Units: lb/ft³, kN/m³. See the soil unit weight link for unit weight
relationships with soil type and density. .

Unit weight of water 

The weight of a unit volume of water;
62.4 lb/ft³, 9.81 kN/m³.

USCS
See the Unified Soil Classification System.

V
Vane shear test 
A field test used to measure the shear strength of a soil that is low-
strength, homogeneous and cohesive.

Varved clays 
Clays that are layered with fine and coarse varieties.

Vertical stress 
The total or effective stress acting vertically in a soil mass at a given depth
caused by the soil's own weight. See stress information  in the settlement
analysis and stress analysis section for information, publications, equations
and calculations.

Vibrodensification
The compaction (densification) of cohesionless soils by imparting wave
energy to the soil mass so as to rearrange soil particles relulting in less
voids in the overall mass. Such as using a vibratory roller.

Vibroflot
A crane suspended cylindrical penetrator with an opened water jet at the
tip and acts in conjunction with vibrations to dig a hole.

Vibroflotation
A method to densify granular soils using a vibroflot to dig a hole and then
backfilled with sand or gravel that is dumped in from the surface and
densified.

Visual Classification
A field test that is used to estimate soil characteristics such as the range of
particle sizes and plasticity.

Void ratio 
The ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids (soil grains).
Unitless

Volume of solids 
Volume of soil grains in a total soil volume.

Volume of voids 
Volume of air space in a total soil volume.

Volume of water 
Volume of water in a total soil volume.

Volumetric strain 
The ratio of the change in soil volume to the original soil volume.

W
Water content 
See Moisture content. The ratio between the mass of water and the mass of
soil solids. 
w = (wet weight - dry weight) / dry weight.

Water table 
The level in a body of soil at which the hydrostatic water pressure is zero.

Weight of soil grains 

The dry weight of soil grains in a mass of soil.
Weight of water 
The weight of water contained in the void space of a body of soil.

X
 

Y
Yield point 
The point at which the soil loading behavior changes from elastic to
inelastic.

Yield stress 
The stress at which yielding takes place in soils. The stress at which the
swelling-recompression line joins the normal compression line.

Z
Zero air voids curve 
The curve created by plotting dry densities of soils corresponding to
saturation at each water content.

Zoned earth dam 

An earth dam embankment zoned by the systematic distribution of soil
types according to their strength and permeability characteristics, usually
with a centrally impervious core and shells of coarser materials.

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