Unit 1: Introduction of Wireless Channel Cellular Network

Dr. S. V. Gaikwad
 Content
⚫ Objectives
⚫ Outcomes
⚫ Propagation models
⚫ Multipath propagation and Fading
⚫ Modelling of Wireless Channel
⚫ Channel estimation techniques
⚫ Diversity techniques
⚫ Receiver noise computation
⚫ Lab conduction

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 Objectives
To discuss
⚫ Propagation models and their importance in wireless communication
⚫ Multipath Fading and factors affecting different types of fading
⚫ Modelling of wireless channel
⚫ Channel estimation techniques and ways to mitigate multipath fading
⚫ Receiver noise computation

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 Outcome
After this session
⚫ The faculties are going to explain all the basic concepts of wireless communication
in an effective way to enhance the learning of students.

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 Free-space propagation geometry

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Power in terms of rms voltage of antenna and
resistance of antenna
 For direct path
 r  d 2
so that p o w e r received at a distance d
PtG r G t 2
r d  
 4  2 d 2 L

L =[ (4 πd ) 2
] = free space path loss , often expressed asanattenuation ∈decibles(dB)
λ
L p ( dB) free= 32.44+ 20log f + 20log d

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Ground Reflection Model
Problem
 Hata Model
⚫ Empirical formulation of the graphical data in the Okamura model.
Valid 150MHz to 1500MHz, Used for cellular systems

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 Multipath Propagation
Most mobile transmissions are characterized by these non-LOS conditions
⚫ Reflection
⚫ Diffraction
⚫ Refraction
⚫ Scattering

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 The most general case of signal reception, consisting of a direct path, a
reflected path, a scattered path, and a diffracted path.

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 Fading
■ To separate out fast fading from slow fading, the magnitude of the received signal is
averaged over a distance on the order of 10 m, and the result is referred to as the small-
area average or sector average
■ The rapid fluctuation in fast fading is a result of small movements of the transmitter,
receiver, and surrounding objects.
■ Fast fading is random, its statistical properties are used to determine system
performance.
■ For locations that are heavily shadowed by surrounding buildings, it is typically found
that a Rayleigh distribution approximates the probability density function (PDF)
■ For locations where there is one path making a dominant contribution to the received
signal, such as when the base station is visible to the mobile station (typically in the
indoor environment), the distribution function is typically found to be that of a Rician
distribution
Probability density function (PDF) is a statistical expression that defines a probability distribution
(the likelihood of an outcome) for a discrete random variable
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 Shadowing Effect
■ Because of shadowing by buildings and other objects, the average within
■ individual small areas also varies from one small area to the next in an apparently
random manner
■ In a moving vehicle, slow fading is observed over a longer time scale than fast fading.
■ Slow fading is the average of received signal power over large transmitter and receiver
separation distances.
■ A local mean is computed by averaging signal power over 5 to 40 wavelengths , or
separation distance between 40 to 80 fades (where a signal crosses a certain level)

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 Effect of Doppler Shift
■ Transmitter and Receiver in motion
■ Doppler Shift also causes Fading
■ In the mobile radio case, the fading and Doppler shift occur as a result of the
motion of the receiver through a spatially varying field
■ Doppler shift also results from the motion of the scattering of the radio waves
(e.g., cars, trucks, vegetation)
■ The effect of multipath propagation is to produce a received signal with an
amplitude that varies quite substantially with location
■ At UHF and higher frequencies, the motion of the scattering also causes fading
to occur even if the mobile station or handset is not in motion

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Propagation Characteristics In Mobile
Communications
■ Multipath Fading
■ Doppler Spread
■ Delay Spread
■ Path Loss
■ Co channel Interference
 Multipath Fading

Signal exhibits random fluctuations in signal level called fading.

Change of Electric Field Strength as a function of distance

from transmitter to mobile user will experience variation with time.

Fluctuations of 20dB within a distance of one wavelength

is common
 Major Categories of Fading

Small Scale Fading : Short-term fading

⚫ Could be 20-30 dB over a fraction of a wavelength.
⚫ Caused by the superposition or cancellation of multipath propagation signals, the speed of
the transmitter or receiver or the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
⚫ Rayleigh Fading: the Rayleigh distribution is a continuous probability distribution
for nonnegative-valued random variables.
⚫ Important for design of modulation format and transmitter / receiver design
⚫ Rapid Fluctuations of received signals in space

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 Major Categories of Fading
Large Scale Fading : Long-term
• Due to general terrain, density and height of buildings, vegetation
• Variation occurs over very large distances (100m to few K.m.)
• Mostly dependent on the distance from the transmitter to the receiver
also known as Large Scale Path Loss, Log-Normal Fading or Shadowing
• Important for predicting the coverage and availability of a particular
service
A log-normal distribution is a continuous distribution of random
variable y whose natural logarithm is normally distributed.
 Doppler Spread

■ Movement in a mobile causes the received frequency

to differ from the transmitted frequency due to the Doppler
shift resulting from its relative motion
■ Different multipath components yield different Doppler
shifts
■ Width of the Doppler shift is closely related to the rate of
fluctuations in the observed signal
 Delay Spread

■ Spreading of the signal in time due to the multiple and

delayed components of the same transmission
■ Delay spread ranges from 100ns in urban areas to 100s in
urban areas which restricts the maximum signal bandwidth
from 40 to 250 kHz
Inter-symbol Interference
Delay Spread
 Path Loss

■ Attenuation caused by the distance

■ Free space path loss is proportional to the second power of
the distance i.e distance power gradient is two
■ Indoor it is lower than two
■ Metal buildings it is up to six
■ Urban areas it is about four
 Path Loss

■ In mobile communication systems, the

interference due to other mobile units is a dominant
noise compared to the background and man made
noise

■ The SIR is the limiting factor for a mobile

communication system rather than the SNR
 Co Channel Interference
 One of the primary forms of
man-made signal
degradation associated with
digital radio, co channel
interference occurs when the
same carrier frequency reaches
the same receiver from two
separate transmitters

The signals that miss an intended user can

become interference for users on the same
frequency in the same or adjoining cells.
 Factors Affecting Small Scale Fading
 Multipath propagation.
 Speed of the mobile.
 Speed of the surrounding objects.
 Transmission bandwidth of the signal.

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 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
In order to compare different multipath channels we need parameters which
quantify the multipath channel, they are:

1. Delay spread
2. Coherence bandwidth
3. Doppler spread
4. Coherence time

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 Time Dispersion Parameters
 Mean excess delay
 RMS delay spread
 Excess delay spread

These parameters can be determined from a power delay profile.

Mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and is
defined by the equation .

  a k 2 k  P( )k k
  k
 h

 ak
2
 P( ) k
k h

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 ⚫ RMS delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of the power
delay profile and is defined by the equation

   2  ( ) 2

 a 2k  k2  P (  k )  k2
k k
2  
 a k2  P ( k )
k k

Typical values of rms delay spread are on the order of

microseconds in outdoor mobile radio channel and
on the order of nanoseconds in indoor radio channel
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 ⚫ Maximum Excess Delay (X dB): Defined as the time delay value after which
the multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum multipath energy (not
necesarily belonging to the first arriving component). It is also called excess delay
spread.
⚫ The maximum excess delay is defined as (x - 0), where 0 is the first arriving
signal and x is the maximum delay at which a multipath component is within X dB
of the strongest arriving multipath signal. The value of x is sometimes called the
excess delay spread of a power delay profile.

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 Coherence Bandwidth
 Used to Characterize multipath channel in frequency domain
 Statistical range of frequencies over which channel is flat
 Coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which two frequency components
have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.
 Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than Bc are affected quite differently by
the channel.
 If the frequency correlation function is above 0.9 then coherence bandwidth is given as
Bc≈ 1/50στ
 If correlation is above 0.5, then as Bc≈ 1/5στ (This is called 50% coherence bandwidth)
 τ is rms delay spread.

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 For a multipath channel, σ is given as 1.37ms.
The 50% coherence bandwidth is given as: 1/5σ = 146kHz.
This means that, for a good transmission from a transmitter to a receiver, the
range of transmission frequency (channel bandwidth) should not exceed
146kHz, so that all frequencies in this band experience the same channel
characteristics.
Equalizers are needed in order to use transmission frequencies that are
separated larger than this value.
This coherence bandwidth is enough for an AMPS channel (30kHz band
needed for a channel), but is not enough for a GSM channel (200kHz needed
per channel).
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 ⚫ Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth describe the time dispersive nature
of the channel in a local area.
⚫They don’t offer information about the time varying nature of the channel
caused by relative motion of transmitter and receiver.
⚫ Doppler Spread and Coherence time are parameters which describe the
time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale region.

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 Doppler Spread
⚫ Measure of spectral broadening caused by motion, the time rate of change of
the mobile radio channel, and is defined as the range of frequencies over
which the received Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero.
⚫ When a pure sinusoidal tone of frequency fc is transmitted the received signal
spectrum called the Doppler spectrum will have components in the range fc –
f d to fc + f d . (f d is Doppler shift)
⚫ Doppler spread, BD, is defined as the maximum Doppler shift: fm = v/λ

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 Coherence Time
⚫ Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel impulse
response is essentially invariant.
0.423
⚫ Coherence time is also defined as: TC  16f 
9
2
m
fm
⚫ Coherence time definition implies that two signals arriving with a time
separation greater than TC are affected differently by the channel.
⚫ Coherence time Tc is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to
characterize the time varying nature of the frequency dispersive-ness of the
channel in the time domain.

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 Types of Small Scale Fading

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 Doppler Shift

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 Modelling of Wireless Channel
⚫ The transmitted passband signal is given as

• ( (1)
⚫ The impulse response of LTI System which attenuates the signal by ai and delays by τi is
given by

(2)
⚫ Channel Impulse response of a multipath scattering based multipath channel is given as

(3)

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 ⚫ Since the wireless channel is modelled as a LTI system the received signal y(t) is a
convolution between transmitted signal and CIR
• (4)
From equation 3

• (5)

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 ⚫ The received signal in terms of baseband signal by using equation 1 is

(6)

⚫ The complex baseband equivalent of received signal y(t) is given as

(7)

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 ⚫ The received baseband signal consists of multiple delayed replicas of the
transmitted signal Sb(t)

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 ⚫ For narrowband channel approximation ( Flat fading Channel)

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 Channel Estimation Techniques
The wireless channel model is given as

The estimate of the received symbol corresponds to x(k) is given as

(Called as zero forcing receiver)

Pilot or training symbol based estimation

Consider transmission of L pilot symbols then received symbols for this given by

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 Due to presence of noise in a system y(k) # x(k) for any value of k, so h can be
estimated as a minimum value of cost function

This estimate of h gives minimum value of error function so called as Least square
estimate
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 To minimize the error function, differentiate the same and set equal to zero.

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 Degradation by AWGN Channel

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 Degradation by Fading

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 Need of Diversity
Mitigate slow flat fading?
 Increase the transmitted power
 Not power efficient technique
Alternative way  Diversity
 If one signal path undergoes a deep fade at
a particular point of time, another independent
path may have a strong signal
If probability of a deep fade in one channel is p,
then the probability for L channels is pL

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 Improvement with Diversity

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 Macroscopic & Microscopic Diversity
Base
Station
Macroscopic Diversity A

Mitigate effects of large scale fading Hill

Reception
or, shadowing by selecting a base station Reception from only A
from only B
which is not shadowed when others are
Base
Microscopic Diversity Station Hill Shadowed
Region
B
Mitigate effects of small scale fading or, multipath
Require two or more uncorrelated received signals,
with the same long-term fading experienced in those
signals

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 Diversity Types
Space Diversity
 Spatial separation between antennas, so that the diversity branches experience
uncorrelated fading
 More hardware/ antennas
•Receiver Diversity (SIMO)
Receiver Antenna separation λ/2
Transmitter Combiner

Receiver
•Transmit Diversity (MISO)
Transmitter  Antenna separation 10λ
Receiver
The total transmitted power is split among the
Combiner
Transmitter
antennas
 Open loop/ close loop (for 3G)
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 Diversity Types Continued..
Frequency Diversity
 Modulate the signal through L different carriers
 The separation between the carriers should be at least the coherent bandwidth, not
effective over frequency-flat channel
 Only one antenna is needed
 The total transmitted power is split among the carriers, not BW efficient

Path 1

Path 2

Transmitter f2 (path 2) Receiver

freq

f1 (path 1)

time

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 Time Diversity
 Each symbol is transmitted L times
 The interval between symbol repetitions should be at least the coherence time, not
effective over slow fading channel
 Only one antenna is needed
 Reduction in efficiency (effective data rate < real data rate)

Path 1

Path 2

t1 t2
Transmitter (path 1) (path 2) Receiver
freq

time

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  Polarization Diversity
 Angle Diversity
 Multipath Diversity
 Space-Time-Frequency Diversity

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 Diversity Combining

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 Diversity Facts

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 Receiver Noise Computation
Noise at receiver arises due to thermal effect, so called as thermal noise
Important at the receiver to determine SNR and BER
For a practical receiver the noise power is often greater than the thermal noise power
Noise Power = η0 x B (η0 is nose power spectral density (W/Hz),
B is the bandwidth)
Noise power spectral density (η0) = KTF
Where K= 1.38x 10-23 is Boltzmann Constant,T is the temperature in Kelvin, F is the noise
figure.
Thus Noise Power = KTBF (Thermal noise power multiplied by noise figure)
Noise temperature is the noise introduced by the receiver and its is given as
Te= (F-1) T0 (T0 is the room temperature)
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 ThankYou….

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