FLORENCIO L.

VARGAS COLLEGE, INC CC: CE 13

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 2nd Semester
Instructional Module AY2022-2023

,mnmEGREE Bachelor of Science in Civil YEAR LEVEL 3 MODULE 1

PROGRAM Engineering NUMBER
COURSE Hydraulics COURSE CE 13 CREDIT 5
TITLE CODE UNITS
TOPIC Basic Concepts and TIME 5 Hours/Week WEEK NO.
Properties of Fluids FRAME

Learning Objectives
After the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Definenj Hydraulics and explain its importance;
2. Understand the concept of Hydraulics and the properties of a fluid such as
pressure, temperature, modulus of elasticity, viscosity, and surface
tension; and
3. Solve problems pertaining to the basic principles and concepts of
Hydraulics.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Hydraulics, branch of science concerned with the practical applications of
fluids, primarily liquids, in motion. It is related to fluid mechanics which in large
part provides its theoretical foundation. Hydraulics deals with such matters as
the flow of liquids in pipes, rivers, and channels and their confinement by dams
and tanks. Some of its principles apply also to gases, usually in cases in which
variations in density are relatively small. Consequently, the scope of hydraulics
extends to such mechanical devices as fans and gas turbines and to pneumatic
control systems.

The term fluid mechanics generally refers to that branch of mechanics

which is concerned with the laws controlling the behavior of fluids (liquid and
gases) in the states of rest and motion. The three branches into which fluid
mechanics is subdivided are:

a) Fluid statics which is the study of fluids at rest,

b) Kinetics which deals with the geometry of fluid motion without
considering the forces causing that motion, and
c) Fluid dynamics which treat on the forces exerted by or upon fluids in
motion, including the relations between velocities and accelerations
involved in such fluid motion.

For two centuries, the study of fluid dynamics has been confined to that
branch of mathematics which deals on consideration of an ideal fluid
(frictionless, cohesionless, and inelastic) that is sometimes assumed to be
weightless. This mathematical approach, without consideration of the properties
of real fluids, produced results which are of limited value to the engineer. At the
start of the 19th century, engineers made use of experimental results and
complemented these with strict analytical reasoning that resulted in the
development of empirical formulas which supplied satisfactory solutions to
practical problems previously unanswered. Moreover, from this new approach it
has been determined that certain basic principles apply to all fluids; that fluids
have dissimilar behavior due to their differences in such physical properties as
Fluid Mechanics

density, viscosity, cohesion, and compressibility; and it is possible to analyze and

correlate the effects of these properties and arrive at a unified course of general
fluid motion known as fluid mechanics.

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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 2nd Semester
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1.2 DISTINCTION BETWEEN A SOLID AND A FLUID

The two states of matter as the solid and the fluid, the latter being commonly
divided into the liquid and gaseous states.
In a solid, the molecules are spaced closer than of a fluid and the
intermolecular attraction in a solid is sufficiently strong that it tends to retain its
form, unlike in a fluid. In a liquid, the intermolecular attraction is relatively weak,
while in gas the intermolecular attraction is very weak. This explains why liquids
move freely and why gases tend to fill completely any container in which they
are placed.
A better distinction between these states of matter may be made on the
basis of their behavior under various types of stress. A solid, when subjected to
tensiion, compression or shear stresses, may be deformed but may be restored
back to its original shape as long as the limit of elasticity is not exceeded. On the
other hand, although fluids posses elastic properties under a compressive force,
the application of a shear stress, however small, results in a permanent
deformation which gives way to the fluids’ characteristic ability to “flow”. Under
tensile stress, a fluid could support only up to the limit of cohesive forces
between the molecules. For practical purposes, it is assumed in engineering
applications that fluids are incapable of resisting direct tensile stress.
One important principle which may be derived from the inability of a fluid
to resist shear stress is that, when it is at rest, the fluid pressure acting on any
plane imaginary or real, passing through the fluids, is always normal to the plane.
Vapor, however, is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that the
gas is very near the liquid state. In dealing with gases or vapors it is necessary
to take into account the changes in volume, pressure and temperature since these
properties affect their molecular structures.

1.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Any characteristic of a system is called property. Some familiar properties are
pressure p, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to
include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of
elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity
and elevation.

FIGURE 1.1

Criteria to differentiate intensive

and extensive properties.

Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive

properties are those that are independent of the massof a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density. Extensive properties are thosewhose values
depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume V, and
total momentum are some examples of extensive properties. An easy way to
Fluid Mechanics

determine whether a property is intensive or extensive is to divide thesystem

into two equal parts with an imaginary partition, as shown in Fig. 1.1. Each part
will have the same value of intensive properties as the original system, but half
the value of the extensive properties.
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Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Some
examples of specific properties are specific volume (v = V/m) andspecific total
energy (e = E/m).

The properties of fluids which are fundamental in the study Fluid Mechanics as
well as Hydraulics are as follows:

A. Weight, W: the earth’s gravitational pull upon a body (known also as the
gravity force on the body). Newton (N) is the unit of measurement for the
gravity force in the SI system.

B. Mass, M: The quantitative measure of the amount of matter in a given

body. In the SI, kilogram (kg) is the unit of measurement used, which is a
base unit.

The basic relation between the weight and the mass of a body is

m = W/g (1.1)

or W = mg (1.1a)

where g = 9.81 m/s2, the acceleration of gravity at sea level.

The weight of a body varies directly as the amount of g which, at sea level,
from the equator to the poles, has an extreme variation of only one-half (1/2)
percent. On the other hand, the weight decreases with an increase in elevation
from sea level, and this change is approximately one-thirtieth (1/30) percent for
each kilometer increase in elevation. Generally, a change of weight with location
is neglected except for precise computations.

C. Specific Weight, 𝜸 (“gamma”): The weight of fluid in a unit volume, or

𝜸 = W/V (1.2)

Or W = 𝜸V (1.2a)

In the SI, the unit of measurement for 𝜸 is newton per cubic meter (N/m3).

D. Density, 𝝆 (“rho”): The density of a substance is the quantity of matter

contained in unit volume of the substance. That is,

𝒎
𝝆= (1.3)
𝑽
𝑾 𝜸
0r 𝝆= = (1.3a)
𝑽𝒈 𝒈

The unit of measurement used for 𝝆 is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3).

It must be noted that the specific weight and density of a fluid both
Fluid Mechanics

decrease with increase in temperature which causes the molecular activity and
spacing likewise increase. On the other hand, with the application of additional
pressure, which tends to increase the amount of molecules in the fluid, it is
possible to increase the specific weight and density of the fluid.
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More commonly, the specific weight of a gas is computed through the

combination of the Boyle’s and Charles’ Law, which gives

𝒑𝒈
𝜸 = 𝝆g = (1.4)
𝑹𝑻

Where p is the absolute pressure in pascals (Pa), R is the gas constant in N-m/kg-
K and T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin (K = ℃ + 273). For air, R = 28708
N-m/kg-K.

Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a

well-known substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and
is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard
substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which 𝜌H2O = 1000
kg/m3 and 𝛾H2O = 9.81 kN/m3). That is,

𝛒 𝛄
SG = = (1.5)
𝛒𝐒 𝛄𝐒

Note that the specific gravity of a substance is a dimensionless quantity and

substances with specific gravities less than 1 are lighter than water, and thus
they would float on water.
For gases, the standard substance or fluid is either air or hydrogen at
0℃ and under a pressure of 101.325 kPa. Air at this temperature and
pressure has 𝜸s = 12.7 N/m3 and 𝝆s = 1.29 kg/m3

E. Specific Volume, 𝝑: The volume per unit mass of fluid, or the reciprocal of
the density
𝐕 𝟏
𝝑= = (1.6)
𝐦 𝝆

In SI, 𝜗 is measured in cubic meter per kilogram (m3/kg).

F. Pressure, p: It is the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. In SI

system, the unit of pressure can be written as, N/m2 Expressed as

𝑭
p= (1.7)
𝑨
where p is the pressure (N/m2, kPa, psi), F is the normal force (N, lbf),
and A is the cross-sectional area (m2, ft2) perpendicular to the line of
force.
Standard atmospheric pressure:
1 atmosphere = 101.325 kPa
1 atmosphere = 14.7 psi
1 atmosphere = 29.92” Hg
1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg
1 atmosphere = 34 ft H2O
1 atmosphere = 760 torr
1 atmosphere = 1.0332 kgf/cm2
Fluid Mechanics

Special Pressure Conversions:

1 Bar = 100 kPa = 0.10 MPa
1mm Hg = 1 Torr

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Fluid Pressure or Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic Pressure or Fluid Gauge Pressure is the force exerted
by acolumn of fluid per unit area.

Figure 1.2
Hydrostatic Pressure of
a Column of Fluid

𝑭𝒈 𝒎𝒈
p= = (1.8)
𝑨 𝑨

But,
m = 𝜌V = 𝜌Ah

So that,
𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
p= = 𝜌gh
𝐴
p = 𝜸h (1.9)

where 𝛾 is the specific weight of the fluid (N/m3, lbf/ft3)

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of the barometric pressure or
atmospheric pressure and the gauge pressure.

pabs = pbaro + pg = patm + pg (1.10)

where pabs = absolute pressure, kPaa, psia; patm = atmospheric pressure,

kPa, psi; pbaro = barometric pressure, kPa, psi; and pg = gauge pressure,
kPag, psig.

Note that, positive sign (+) is used when the gauge pressure is greater than
atmospheric pressure or surrounding pressure of the system. Negative sign (-)
is used when the gauge pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. Negative
gauge pressure also called as vacuum pressure.

G. Temperature, T: It is the measure of hotness and coldness of a system. In

thermodynamic sense, it is the measure of internal energy of a system.
Many a times, the temperature is expressed in centigradescale (°C)
where the freezing and boiling point of water is taken as 0°C and 100°C,
respectively.

TK = t°C + 273.15 (1.11)

Fluid Mechanics

T°R = t°F + 459.67 (1.12)

It is common practice to round the constants 273.15 and 459.67 to 273 and 460,
respectively.
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1.4 PROPERTIES OF WATER

A. Specific Weight of Water

The specific weight of water depends on its temperature, “purity’, and
pressure under which exists. The maximum density, and thus specific weight,
of water occurs at a temperature of 4℃ and so at different temperatures the
specific weight is expectedly smaller. Table 1.1 gives the specific weight of
water under normal atmospheric pressure of 1o1.3 kPa and at various
temperature. Note that for ordinary ranges of temperature, the value of the
specific weight of water is approximately 9,810 N/m3. This value is normally
used in engineering problems. Salt water (or sea water) is heavier than fresh
water due to the impurities it contains, and for general computation purposes
the specific weight of sea water is taken as 10,100 N/m3 (10.1 kN/m3).

Table 1.1 SPECIFIC WEIGHT 𝛾 OF PURE WATER

Temperature (℃) Specific Weight Temperature (℃) Specific Weight
(kN/m3) (kN/m3)
0 9.805 40 9.730
5 9.807 50 9.689
10 9.804 60 9.642
15 9.798 70 9.589
20 9.789 80 9.530
30 9.764 100 9.399

B. Compressibility and Elasticity of Water

The compressibility of water or any other liquid varies inversely as its
volume modulus of elasticity, also known as bulk modulus, and is defined as

𝒅𝒑
Ev = -v( ) (1.13)
𝒅𝒗

where p is the unit pressure in Pa, v is the specific volume in m3/kg.

In SI units, the dimension of Ev is the same as that of p which is N/m2 or

Pa, since v/dv is dimensionless.

The bulk modulus at or near atmospheric pressure is the one that is of

interest in most engineering problems. It is one property of fluid which depends
on pressure and temperature. Table 1.2 shows some values of EV for water at
different pressures and temperatures. It will be observed that any given
temperature, EV increases with pressure.

TABLE 1.2 BULK MODULUS Ev OF WATER (MN/m2)

Pressure Temperature (℃)

(MPaa) 0 20 50 90 150
0.100 2010 2210 2290 2120
10.340 2070 2280 2360 2200 1710
Fluid Mechanics

31.030 2190 2400 2500 2330 1870

103.400 2620 2830 2940 2790 2410

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REMARK: Within ordianry ranges of pressure at any one temperature, the value
of Ev does not vary too much abd the following formula may be applied to
approximate its value,

∆𝐯 ∆𝐩
=-
𝐯𝟏 𝐄𝐯

∆𝐩
Or Ev = −𝐯𝟏 (∆𝐯) (1.13a)

where ∆p = p2 - p1, ∆v = v2 - v1, the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the extreme values
within the range considered. The value of Ev in equation(1.13a) gives only the
mean for this range.

1.5 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is that property of fluid which determines the amount of
resistance to shearing stress. All fluids possess viscosity so that when they are
in motion certain frictional phenomena are exhibited. Viscosity is basically due
to cohesion and interaction betwenn fluid molecules and, when there is motion,
these effects appears as shear stresses between moving layers.

Figure 1.3 shows a highly viscous fluid moving aling a solid boundary, with
the assumptions that:

(i) The fluid particles in contact with the boundary have no velocity,
and
(ii) Velocity increase at increasing distance from, and normal to, the
boundary.

Velocity
Profile

Solid Boundary

Figure 1.3 Velocity Profile: Fluid Flow Along Solid Boundary

The velocity profile (or velocity distribution) indicates the relative motion
between any two adjacent layers, 1 and 2, having the same elemental thickness
dy and velocities v1 and v2 respectively. The shearing stress, denoted by 𝝉 (“tau”),
Fluid Mechanics

has been observed experimentally to vary directly as the rate of change of

velocity along the direction normal to the direction of fluid motion, and so

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𝒅𝒗
𝝉 = k(𝒅𝒚)

Where the constant of variation k = 𝛍 (“mu”) is called as the coeficient of

viscosity (also known as the dynamic viscosity or absolute viscosity). Hence, the
general expression for intensity of viscoues shear is,

𝝉 = 𝛍 (𝒅𝒗
𝒅𝒚
) (1.14)

In the SI system, the unit measurement of 𝝉 is N/m2 or Pa, while 𝛍 is in

newton-second per square meter (N-s/m2) or pascal-second (Pa-s).

From experimental results, it has been shown that, with increasing

temperature, the viscosity of liquids decreases, while for gases, viscosity
increases. Pressure, however, has no evident effect on the viscosity of fluid
escept for very high pressures and in case of some mineral oils.

1.6 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

For reason of the continual appearance of the ratio of the viscosity to the
density, 𝛍/𝝆, in the study of fluid motion under steady state, this ratio has been
conveniently designated as ν (“nu”) and is called as the kinematic viscosity of
the fluid,
ν = 𝛍/𝝆 (1.15)

The unit of measurement of ν is square meter per second (m2/s).

Table 1.3 below gives the value of the dynamic and kinematic viscosities of water
at different temperatures.

TABLE 1.3 VALUES OF 𝜇 and v FOR PURE WATER

Temperature (℃) Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity

𝜇(x10-3 Pa-s) ν(x10-3 Pa-s)
0 1.781 1.785
10 1.307 1.309
20 1.002 1.003
30 0.798 0.800
40 0.653 0.658
50 0.547 0.553
60 0.466 0.474
70 0.404 0.413
80 0.354 0.364
90 0.315 0.326
100 0.282 0.294

1.7 SURFACE TENSION

Surface Tension, 𝝈 (“sigma”): When a liquid and gas or two immiscible
Fluid Mechanics

liquids are in contact, an unbalanced force is developed at the interface

stretched over the entire fluid mass. The intensity of molecular attraction
per unit length along any line in the surface is called as surface tension.
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𝝈 = F/L (1.16)

The magnitude of the surface tension, denoted as 𝝈, is the force in the

surface normal to a line of unit length drawn in the liquid surface so, the
unit measurement is in newton per meter (N/m).

Note that surface tension decreases with increasing temperature since it is

mainly dependent on the intermolecular cohesive forces.

TABLE 1.4 SURFACE TENSION 𝜎 OF WATER IN CONTACT WITH AIR

Temperature (℃) Surface Tension Temperature (℃) Surface Tension

(N/m) (N/m)
0 0.0756 60 0.0662
10 0.0742 70 0.0664
20 0.0728 80 0.0626
30 0.0712 90 0.0608
40 0.0696 100 0.0598
50 0.0679

Capillary Effect
Another interesting consequence of surface tension is the capillary effect, which
is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid.
Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called capillaries. The rise
of kerosene through a cotton wick inserted into the reservoir of a kerosene lamp
is due to this effect. The capillary effect is also partially responsible for the rise
of water to the top of tall trees. The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary
tube is called the meniscus.

It is commonly observed that water in a glass container curves up slightly at the

edges where it touches the glass surface; but the opposite occurs for mercury: it
curves down at the edges (Fig. 1.4). This effect is usually expressed by saying
that water wets the glass (by sticking to it) while mercury does not. The strength
of the capillary effect is quantifiedby the contact (or wetting) angle, defined as
the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface makes with the solid surface
at the pointof contact. In atmospheric air, the contact angle of water (and most
other organic liquids) with glass is nearly zero, 0° (Fig. 1.5). Therefore, the
surface tension force acts upward on water in a glass tube along the
circumference, tending to pull the water up. As a result, water rises in the tube
until the weight of the liquid in the tube above the liquid level of the reservoir
balances the surface tension force. The contact angle is 130° for mercury–glass
and 26° for kerosene–glass in air. Note that the contact angle, in general, is
different in different environments (such as another gas or liquid in place of air).
Fluid Mechanics

FIGURE 1.9
The contact angle for wetting and non-
wetting fluid
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FIGURE 1.5 The meniscus of colored FIGURE 1.6

water in a 4-mm-inner-diameter glass The capillary rise of water
tube. Notethat the edge of the meniscus and the capillary fall of
meets the wall of the capillary tube at a mercury in asmall-diameter
very small contact angle. glass tube.

The phenomenon of capillary effect can be explained microscopically

by considering cohesive forces (the forces between like molecules, such as
water and water) and adhesive forces (the forces between unlike
molecules, such as water and glass). The liquid molecules at the solid–
liquid interface is subjected to both cohesive forces by other liquid molecules
and adhesive forces by the molecules of the solid. The relative magnitudes
of these forces determine whether a liquid wets a solid surface or not.
Obviously, the water molecules are more strongly attracted to the glass
molecules than they are to other water molecules, and thus water tends to
rise along the glass surface. The opposite occurs for mercury, which causes
the liquid surface near the glass wall to be suppressed (Fig. 1.6).
The magnitude of the capillary rise in a circular tube can be
determined from a force balance on the cylindrical liquid column of height
h in the tube (Fig. 1.7). The bottom of the liquid column is at the same level
as the free surface of the reservoir, and thus the pressure there must be
atmospheric pressure. This balances the atmosphericpressure acting at the
top surface, and thus these two effects cancel each other.

FIGURE 1.7
The forces acting on a liquid column
that has risen in a tube due to the
capillary effect
Fluid Mechanics

The weight of the liquid column is approximately

W = mg = 𝝆Vg = 𝝆g(𝝅R2h)

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Equating the vertical component of the surface tension force to the

weight gives

W = Fsurface
𝜌g(𝜋R2h)) = 2𝜋R cos𝜃(𝜎s)

Solving for h gives the capillary rise to be,

𝟐𝝈𝒔 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
h= (R = constant) (1.17)
𝝆𝒈𝑹

This relation is also valid for non-wetting liquids (such as mercury in glass) and
gives the capillary drop. In this case 90° and thus cos𝜃, which makes h
negative. Therefore, a negative value of capillary rise corresponds to a capillary
drop (Fig. 1.6).

Note that the capillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube.
Therefore, the thinner the tube is, the greater the rise (or fall) of theliquid in the
tube. In practice, the capillary effect is usually negligible in tubes whose diameter
is greater than 1 cm. When pressure measurements are made using manometers
and barometers, it is important to use sufficiently large tubes to minimize the
capillary effect. The capillary rise is also inversely proportional to the density of
the liquid, as expected. Therefore, lighter liquids experience greater capillary rises.
Finally, it should be kept in mind that Eq. (1.17) is derived for constant-diameter
tubes and should not be used for tubes of variable cross section.

1.8 VAPOR PRESSURE

All liquids have a tendency to vaporize or to change from liquid state into
the gaseous state. This is due mainly to the continual projection of molecules into
the space above the liquid surface, and these gas molecules, if confined in a closed
space, are capable of exerting a pressure known as the liquid’s vapor pressure.
Vapor pressure is primarily dependent on the molecular activities of the
vaporized liquid; thus, it will increase with an increase in temperature.
For boiling point to be attained, the temperature of the liquid must be
raised to such a point that the vapor pressure developed will equal the pressure
exerted on the liquid. Simply stated, the boiling point of the liquid is dependent
on its temperature and pressure.

Table 1.5 shows a comparative value of the vapor pressure of some selected
liquids at 20℃.

Tabler 1.5 VAPOR PRESSURE AT 20℃

Liquid Vapor Pressure (Pa abs)
Mercury 0.0170
Kerosene 3,200
Water 2,340
Gasoline 55,000
Fluid Mechanics

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1.9 PROPERTIES OF AIR

Air is widely used in engineering applications. Mainly, air differs from a liquid
in terms of its specific weight and density which vary greatly with changes in
pressure and temperature. The gas follows the equation,

pv = RT or p = 𝝆RT (1.18)

or 𝝆 = p/RT (1.18a)

from which the specific weight of a gas may be computed as that of Equation
(1.4),

𝒑𝒈
𝜸 = 𝝆g =
𝑹𝑻

where p is the absolute pressure, v is the specific volume, T is the thermodynamic

(absolute) temperature, is the density, and R is the gas constant. The gas constant
R is different for each gas and is determined from R = 𝑅̅ /M, where 𝑅̅ is the
universal gas constant whose value is 𝑅̅ = 8.314 kJ/kmol·K = 1.986
Btu/lbmol·°R, and M is the molar mass (also called molecular weight) of the gas.

Table 1.6 gives the specific weight and density of air under different
temperatures.

Table 1.6 SPECIFIC WEIGHT AND DENSITY OF AIR

Temperature (℃) Density, 𝜌 (kg/m3) Specific Weight, 𝛾
(kN/m3)
0 1.293 12.68
10 1.248 12.24
20 1.205 11.82
30 1.165 11.43
40 1.128 11.06
60 1.060 10.40
80 1.000 9.81
100 0.946 9.28

NOTE: If gas is compressed or allowed to expand without loss of heat through

the walls of its container, the change in volume is said to be adiabatic and the
special pressure-volume relation is given as

pVk = constant (1.19)

or p1V1k = p2V2k (1.19a)

where p is the absolute pressure in pascal (Pa) and V is the volume/specific

volume in m3 or m3/kg. The esponent k depends on the molecular structure of the
gas and has a value of 1.40 for air, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

On the other hand, if the walls of the container absorb the heat of compression
Fluid Mechanics

or supply the heat lost due to expansion of the gas, the change in volume is said
to be isothermal. The pressure-volume relation is describe by the Boyle’s Law,

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pV = constant (1.20)

or p1V1 = p2V2 (1.20a)

As in liquids, the viscosity 𝜇 of gases changes with temperature and practically

unaffected by pressure. On the othe rhand, the kinematic viscosity v of gases
which depends on the density 𝜌 is affected by both the pressure and temperature.

Values of the viscosity 𝜇 of air at various temperatures are tabualted in Table 1.7.
From these values, the kinematice viscosity v cann be determined by equation
(1.15).

Table 1.7 DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF AIR

Temperature (℃) Viscosity 𝜇 (Pa-s x 10-5)
0 1.71
10 1.76
20 1.81
30 1.86
40 1.90
60 2.00
80 2.09
100 2.18

NOTE: Holman’s equation for 𝜇 of air is given as

𝝁 = 1.7169(10)-3(1 + 0.00275T – 0.00000034T2) (1.21)

where 𝝁 is in Pa-s and the air temperature T is in ℃.

1.10 SPECIFIC HEAT

It is the amount of energy required for a unit mass of a fluid for unit
rise in temperature. Since the pressure, temperature and density of a gas
are interrelated, the amount of heat required to raise the temperature from
T1 to T2 depends on whether the gas is allowed to expand during the process
so that the energy supplied is used in doing the work instead of raising the
temperature. For a given gas, two specific heats are defined corresponding
to the two extreme conditions of constant volume and constant pressure.

(a) Specific heat at constant volume (cv). Specific heat at constant

volume is the change of the molecular internal energy for a unit mass
or one mole of a substance per degree change of temperature with
the volume that remains constant from the initial state to the final
state.

(b) Specific heat at constant pressure (cp). Specific heat at

constant pressure is the change of enthalpy for a unit mass or
one mole substance per degree change of temperature between
Fluid Mechanics

two states without changing the pressure.

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The following relation holds good for the specific heat at constant volume
and constant pressure. For air: cp = 1.0062 KJ/kg.K; cv = 0.7186 KJ/kg. K

𝒌𝑹 𝑹
cp = cv + R; cp = ; cv = (1.22)
𝒌−𝟏 𝒌−𝟏

1.11 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Given: Ev = 2200 MPa for water

Observation: An increase in pressure of ∆p = 7 MPa, water is
compressed by 7/2200 at about 0.30 per cent of its
original volume v1.
Conclusion: Water is highly incompressible, although in reality it
is 100 times compressible than steel.

[In engineering problems, a value of Ev = 2070 MPa is used for water]

2. A fuel oil having a viscosity of 0.300 Pa-s flows through a circular

pipe 150 mm in diameter. At the center of the pipe the velocity is 1.20
m/s and decreases to a minimum value (zero) at the pipe wall. The
value of the velocity at any point in the cross-section a distance y
from the center is given by the equation

v = 63.4(r2 – y2)/𝜇

r being the radius of the pipe. Compute the shear stress at a point
midway the center and the wall (at y = 37.5 mm).

SOLUTION:
Substitute the radius r = 75 cm = 0.075 m and 𝜇 = 0.300 Pa-s into the given
equation,
v = 63.4(r2 – y2)/𝜇
v = 63.4[(0.075)2 – y2]/0.300
v = (0.356635 – 63.4y2)/ 0.300
v = 1.19 – 211.33y2
Fluid Mechanics

𝑑𝑣
So that, = -422.66y
𝑑𝑦

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where the negative sign (-) simply denotes that v is decreasing with an
increase in y.

Using Equation (1.13), you will find the value of the shear stress,
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦
𝑁.𝑠 𝑚/𝑠
𝜏 = (0.300 )(422.66)(0.0375)
𝑚2 𝑚
𝑁
𝜏 = 4.75 𝑚2 Ans.

NOTE: Poiseuille and Reynolds have developed a practical formula for the
determination of 𝜇 for water, that is

𝝁 = 1.78(10)-3(1 – 0.03368T + 0.00021T2)-1 Pa-s (1.23)

where T is the temperature of water in ℃.

3. Calculate the density, specific weight and specific volume of chlorine

gas at 25℃ and under a pressure of 600 kPa absolute. The gas
constant for chlorine is 117 N-m/kg-K.

SOLUTION:
Since pV = mRT,

The density of gas is

𝜌 = p/RT = (600 kN/m2)/[(0.117 kN-m/kg-K)(25 + 273)K]
𝜌 = 17.21 kg/m3

Solving for the specific weight,

𝛾 = 𝜌g = (17.21 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2) = 168.83 N/m3

Finally, the specific volume is

𝜗 = 1/ 𝜌 = 1/(17.21 kg/m3) = 0.058 m3/kg

4. (a) Develop a relationship between the surface tension in the surface of a

droplet of liquid and the pressure difference (∆p) between the inside and
outside surface of the droplet. Assume the droplet to have a spherical shape
or radius (R). (b) Same as (a) except that bubble is in place of the droplets.

SOLUTION:
(a) For the droplet of liquid,
F=T
∆pA = 𝜎L
∆p(𝜋R2) = 𝜎(2𝜋R)
F 2𝜎
∆p =
𝑅
𝟐𝝈
Fluid Mechanics

pi - p0 =
𝑹

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(b) For the bubble,

F = 2T
∆pA = 2(𝜎L)
∆p(𝜋R2) = 2[𝜎(2𝜋R)]
F 4𝜎
∆p =
𝑅
𝟒𝝈
pi - p0 =
𝑹

5. Determine the capillary rise/fall h in the figure shown below. Considering

a temperature within the system to be 20℃.

SOLUTION:
Consider the mass of water above the surface as a free body.

The forces on this mass are:

(i) The “lifting” force L due to surface tension 𝜎 along the
circumference 2𝜋r, acting at an angle of contact 𝜃 from the
vertical.
(ii) The weight of the mass of water or gravity force G.

Summing forces along vertical axis,

L–G=0
𝜎(2𝜋r)cos 𝜃 – 𝛾V = 0
𝜎(2𝜋r)cos 𝜃 – 𝛾(𝜋r2h) = 0
𝛾(𝜋r2h) = 𝜎(2𝜋r)cos 𝜃
2𝜎cos 𝜃
h=
𝛾𝑟

Where: r = radius of the tube, m

𝛾 = 9810 N/m3
𝜃 = 0° for water (for mercury, 𝜃 = 130°)

For water-glass in contact with air,

𝑁
2(0.0728𝑚)cos (0)
h= 𝑁 = 1.48 x 10-5/r
(9810 3 )𝑟
𝑚

For mercury-glass in contact with air,

Fluid Mechanics

𝑁
2(0.465 )cos (130)
𝑚
h= 𝑁 = -6.09 x 10-5/r
(9810 3 )𝑟
𝑚
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1.12 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

Directions: Provide an accurate solution of the following problems.Underline your
final answers.

1. If a certain gasoline weighs 7,000 N/m3, what are the values of its density,
specific volume, and specific gravity relative to water at standard
condition?

2. A certain gas weighs 16 N/m3 at a certain temperature and pressure. What

are the values of its density, specific volume, and specific gravity relative
to air weighing 12 N/m3.

3. Initially when 1000 mL of water at 10℃ are poured into a glass cylinder
the depth of the water column is 100 cm. The water and its container are
heated to 80℃. Assuming no evaporation, what then will be the depth of
the water column if the coefficient of thermal expansion for the glass is
3.6 x 10-6 mm/mm?

4. Water in hydraulic press is subjected to pressure of 100 MN/m2, absolute

at 20. If the initial pressure is 100 kN/m2 (absolute), what will be the
percentage decrease in specific volume?

5. At a depth of 8 km in the ocean, the pressure is 81.8 MPa. Assume specific

weight at the surface is 10.05 kN/m3 and that the average volume modulus
is 2.3 x 109 N/m2 for that pressure range. (a) What is the percentage
change in the specific volume? (b) What is the percentage change in
specific weight?

6. Approximately what pressure in N/m2 must be applied to water to reduce

the volume 2 percent?

7. A vessel contains 85 L of water at 15℃ and atmospheric pressure. If it is

heated to 78℃, what will be the percentage change in its volume? What
weight of water must be removed to maintain the volume at original?

8. A cylindrical tank (diameter = 10 m and depth = 5 m) contains water at

20℃ and is brimful. If the water is heated to 53℃, how much water will
spill over the edge of the tank?

9. If a natural gas has a specific gravity of 0.8 relative to air at 100 mbar,
absolute and 15℃. What are its specific weight and specific volume at the
same pressure and temperature? What is the value of the gas constant for
the gas?

10. A hydrogen-filled cellophane balloon of the type used in cosmic-ray

studies is to be expanded to its full size, which is a 30-m diameter sphere,
without stress in the wall at an altitude of 45 km. If the pressure and
temperature at this altitude are 10 kN/m2, absolute and -55℃
respectively, find the volume of hydrogen at 100 kN/m2 absolute and 20℃
Fluid Mechanics

which should be added on the ground?

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11. (a) Calculate the density, specific weight, and specific volume of oxygen
at 10 ℃ and 30 kN/m2, absolute; (b) If the oxygen is enclosed in a rigid
container of constant volume, what will be the pressure if the temperature
is reduced to -120 ℃?

12. Helium at 140 kPa is compressed isothermally, and hydrogen at 100 kPa,
absolute is compressed isentropically. What is the modulus of elasticity of
each gas? Which is more compressible?

13. Helium at 140 kN/m2, absolute is compressed isentropically to one-fifth of

its original volume. What is its final pressure?

14.The absolute viscosity of a certain gas is 0.0107 cP while its kinematic

viscosity is 164 cSt, both measured at 1,013 mbar (absolute) and 95.
Calculate its approximate molecular weight and suggest what gas it may
be.

15. A flat plate 30 cm x 50 cm slides on oil with dynamic viscosity of 0.8

Pa.s over a large plane surface, what force is required to drag the plate at
2 m/s if the separating oil film is o.4 mm thick?

16.A 0.6-mm-diameter glass tube is inserted into water at 20°C in a cup.

Determine the capillary rise of water in the tube.

17. A space of 25 mm width between two large plane surfaces is filled with
SAE 30 lubricating oil at 25. (a) What force is required to drag a very thin
plate at o.35 m2 area between the surfaces at a speed of 0.1 m/s if the
plate is equally spaced between the surfaces? (b) If it is at a distance of
8.5 mm from one surface, what is the drag force needed?

18. A journal bearing consists of a 15 cm shaft in a 15.25 cm sleeve 20 cm

long, the clearance space (assumed to be uniform) being filled with SAE
10 lubricating oil at 30℃. Calculate the rate at which heat is generated at
the bearing when the shaft turns at 1oo revolution per minute.

1.6 REFFERENCES

R. A. Dela Fuente, et al., “Simplified Fluid Mechanics (Expanded Version of

Hydraulics Reference Text)”, Merriam & Webster Bookstore, Inc., 2013 Edition

Merle C. Potter, “Fluid Mechanics Demystified – A Self-Learning Guide”,

McGraw-Hill, 2009

Yunus A. Çengel & John M. Cimbala, “Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and

Applications”, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2013

Daugherty, Robert L., Ingersoll, Alfred C. Fluid Mechanics withEngineering

Applications. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1954.
Fluid Mechanics

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