Unit – 5

Process Planning

When the design engineers have designed the product, the assembly drawings and working
drawings of individual components are made. Now the process planners have to see how the
product can best be made to meet the drawing specifications.
Process Planning:
Process planning can also be defined as the systematic determination of the methods by which a
product is to be manufactured economically and competitively. It consists of devising, selecting
and specifying processes, machine tools and other equipment to convert raw material into
finished and assembled products.
Purpose of process planning:
The purpose of process planning is to determine and describe the best process for each job so
that:
1. Specific requirements are established for which machines, tools, and other equipment can
be designed or purchased.
2. The effort of all engaged in manufacturing are coordinated.
3. A guide is furnished to show the best way to use the existing or proposed facilities.
Process planning is intermediate stage between design and manufacturing as shown in fig.1.
Procedure of process planning:
To achieve the aim of economic manufacture of the product, process planning is done as follows:
1. The finished product is broken into sub-assemblies and individual components from
manufacturing point of view.
2. Prepare a bill of materials for all components of the product which forms a basis for
purchase of raw materials.
3. Decide which parts are to be manufactured in the plant and which parts are to be
purchased from the market depending upon the facilities available in the plant.
4. Choose the appropriate blank size and select the most economical process to be followed
to manufacture components of the product. This is done by comparing the various
possible methods of obtaining the final product.

Fig 1: Concept of process planning

5. Decide the sequence of operations to be performed on each component in the process
sheet.
6. Depending upon the accuracies called for by the drawings, determine the machine tools
to do the operations.
 7. Determine the need for any special equipment like jigs, fixtures, tools etc.
8. Determine the inspection stages and the instruments required and the need for designing
any inspection devices.
9. Estimate the standard time for performing the job.
10. Determine the type of labour (skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled) required to do the job.
Process Sheet:
The whole information determined by the process planning is recorded in a tabular form in a
sheet called process planning sheet. The character of this sheet will vary for different
organization depending upon the production conditions and degree of details required. However,
in general the following data is listed for each component the product:
1. Quantity of work to be done along with product specifications.
2. Quality of work to be completed.
3. Availability of equipment, tools and personnel.
4. Sequence in which operations will be performed on the raw material.
5. Names of equipments on which the operations will be performed.
6. Standard time for each operation.
7. When the operations will be performed?
8. Cutting speed
9. Feed
10. Material specification.
11. Job rating of labours.
Part description ......... Part No. .........
Drawing number ......... Assembly No. .........
Material specification ......... Material size ......... Lot size .........
Quantity required per unit ......... Issued by .........
(Inclusive of scrap)
Operation Description Dept. Machine Tool std. Jig / fixture Time analysis Remarks
No. or spl. gauges Machining Handling Set-up Cycle
time time time time
Computer Aided Process Planning
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) has been investigated for more than 20 years; it can be
categorized in two major areas; variant planning, where library retrieval procedures are applied to find
standard plans for similar components, and generative process planning, where plans are generated
automatically for new components without reference to existing plans. The latter system is most desirable
but also the most difficult way of performing CAPP.
The process planning function bridges the gap between engineering design and manufacturing and is thus
a critical element in integrating activities within manufacturing organizations. Current CAPP systems
range from simple editors for manual planning to fully-automated systems for planning a range of
products. Some of the specific benefits of CAPP are:
1. Improved productivity
More efficient use of machines, tooling, material and labour. “Best practice” (in the form of optimized
process plans) is documented for consistent application throughout the organization rather than captured
mentally by the process planner.
2. Lower production cost
Cost reduction are realized through productive improvements. Also, the skill level required to produce
process plans is less than that required for manual methods.
3. Consistency
Computerized methodologies assure consistent application of planning criteria. Also the number of errors
generated during process planning is reduced.
4. Time savings
Time savings can range from days to minutes. Lead times are reduced and flexibility is increased due to
the ability to react quickly to new or changing requirements. The amount of paper work and clerical effort
involved with design changes is also reduced.

Selection of manufacturing process:

Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a
product. The manufacturing processes can be broadly classified into three categories viz.
shaping, joining and finishing processes as shown schematically in Fig.2. The selection of a
particular process from a wide range of choices for a given application requires a hierarchical
classification of the processes. For example, Fig.3 depicts how the shaping family can be
expanded in different classes such as casting, deformation, moulding, composite and powder
processing, and prototyping. Next, moulding as a class can be enlarged into a number of member
processes such as compression, rotational, transfer, injection moulding, etc. Lastly, each member
process can be identified with a number of attributes, which would facilitate the selection of a
member process for a given material, dimension, level of requisite tolerances and so on.
Similarly, Fig.4 depicts how the joining and machining family can be expanded in different
classes and actual processes.

Fig.2: Different classes of manufacturing processes

Fig.3: Taxonomy of process with part of the shaping family

Fig.4: Taxonomy of processes with part of the joining and finishing family

Shaping Processes
The shaping processes are referred to those that use a certain raw material and shape it to a final
part. Casting, moulding, powder material processing, primary and secondary material forming,
machining are typical example of shaping processes.
Casting Processes
Most of the manufactured parts start its journey with casting process. In a typical casting process,
metal is first heated in a furnace until it melts and then the molten metal is poured into a mold so
that the liquid metal takes the shape of the mold cavity, which is the final shape of the part. Once
the liquid metal in the mold cavity solidifies, the mold is broken or opened to take the final part
out of the mold cavity.
Machining
Machining is a form of subtractive manufacturing in which a sharp cutting tool is used to
physically remove material to achieve a desired geometry. Most of the engineering components
such as gears, bolts, screws, nuts need dimensional and form accuracy for serving their purpose,
which cannot be obtained through casting or deformation process like forging, rolling, etc. A
wide variety of machining processes are available today that can broadly be classified in three
main categories – conventional machining processes that are used for all kinds of bulk material
removal operations, grinding processes that are primarily employed to obtain a desired surface
finish, non-conventional or advanced machining processes that are used for special kind of
material removal operations. As per the name suggests, non-conventional machining processes
do not follow the principle of relative hardness as conventional machining, where the tool
material must be harder than the work material for proper removal of material. The processes
that remove material by melting, evaporation, chemical and / or electrochemical action etc. are
generally referred to as non-conventional machining processes. Electrodischarge machining,
electrochemical machining, laser and electron beam machining are some of the common
examples of non-conventional machining processes.

Estimation of costs of manufacture:

All final decisions are usually based on cost. No matter how perfect the final design may be, no
matter how much eye appeal it has, it will not sell unless the price is in line with competitive
products. The relation between product design and price is obvious, yet this connection is too
often overlooked by the functional designer. The better a product’s features and design, the
higher the price it will command. Conversely, a product that suffers in comparison with its
competitors must be sold at a lower price, if at all.
Since cost influences many decisions of all those associated with designing for production, it is
quite important that the engineer have not only an appreciation for, but an understanding of, cost.
Two kinds of costs are of vital interest to the engineer: development costs and the cost of the
product.
Development costs include cost of sales’ analysis, research and engineering (such as
engineering and draftsmen time), models, and tests. They include cost of tools, equipment, plant
rearrangement, and obsolete stock; cost of training sales and service personnel; and promotional
expenses such as advertising and instruction and service manuals.
The cost of the product is composed of the cost of each component of the product. Knowing
these costs enables the engineer to choose between materials and processes so as to obtain the
lowest product cost.
PRODUCT COST
“What does it cost?” is the eternal question asked the production design engineer by a supervisor
or manager. There are many other important factors to be considered, such as capacity,
appearance, and ease of repair, but cost enters the picture sooner or later in choosing materials,
processes, and functions of design, and in negotiating sales contract with the customer. The
structure of product cost is as shown below.
Profit
Sales
Expenses
General
Expenses
Selling
Factory Total
Price
Expenses Manufacturing Cost
Direct Factory Cost
Material Prime Cost
Direct Cost
Labour

Item of cost entering into the development of selling price:

First cost or prime cost is usually thought of as including the cost of direct material and direct
labor. When factory expense is added to prime cost, the factory cost is obtained. Manufacturing
cost is made up of factory cost plus general expenses. Total cost of the product is then
determined by adding selling expenses to manufacturing cost. After the total cost is determined,
a reasonable profit is added in order to determine the selling price.
However, price is not always determined by cost; it is frequently determined by what buyer is
able and willing to pay. It is influenced considerably by the lowest competitive price, and is
determined at the point of sale, not in the factory. If profit is les than cost, the company must take
steps to reduce the cost or cease manufacturing. Often a company does not know its costs and is
unknowingly losing money for itself and competitors. Recently trade associations have educated
small companies in cost procedures and thus maintained the market price above actual costs.
An understanding of the basis of costs will enable the production – design engineer to use good
judgment in the section of materials, processes, and functions to create the best product. An
increase in perfection from 90 to 99 percent may result in a 50% increase in development and
product cost and destroy the sales value of the product. Cost, quality, and degree of perfection
should be carefully considered
ed in order to obtain the greatest profit over a period of time. Cost is
still the deciding factor. The relationship between cost, sales, profit or loss and volume is best
revealed on what is known as break – even chart.

KINDS OF COST PROCEDURES

The two most common forms of cost procedures are actual or recorded costs and standard or
predetermined costs. Neither actual nor standard costs are true costs, as both are based on
assumptions as to yearly volume of business, taxes, heat, light, rent, and many other expenses
that are prorated to each unit.
ACTUAL COST
Under the actual cost system, the actual costs of material and direct labor are charged directly to
the order. The factory overhead may be prorated entirely on the basis of labor costs or may be
applied on both material and labor. The common method is apply overhead only on labor costs.
In some cases actual labor rate of the person working on the job charged directly to order;
however, the average rate is usually used. The material cost plus the
the direct labor cost plus the
factory overhead cost equals the factory cost. The factory cost plus administrative and sales
expense equals the total cost. The difference between the price and total cost is the profit and
loss.
Therefore, there is no such thing as an actual cost. It is true that the actual material and possibly
the actual labor are charged to the job. It could be possible to have a manufacturing unit making
one product for a period of one year. Thus, a true cost could be determined.
STANDARD COSTS
Standard costs are estimated using sound assumptions as to material, labor, and overhead
expenses. Each one of these items is under budget control, and variances from the standards are
reported to management periodically. Thus management knows the current status of costs and
can take action before jobs are completed or before damage is done.

STANDARD MATERIAL COSTS

Standard material costs are based on actual costs, which include selling price plus cost of
transportation. The cost analyst looks over the history of the part and, with the aid of production
and purchasing departments, sets a standard price for the material.
STANDARD LABOR COSTS
Standard labor costs are based upon the average labor rate of the operators for a machine, work
station, group, or department. By means of job descriptions and classifications the average rate
for each operator in group or department can be determined. If the costing rates are based on a
group including several grades of jobs ranging from an hour, the normal composition of the
group is recorded and the average rate is calculated. The same procedure applies to a department.
JOB COST SYSTEM
It is important that the production – design engineer have an understanding of the flow of cost
data in a typical job cost system. With this understanding he is in much better position to talk
with the accountants in relation to cost analysis of a given product design. In any job cost
system, debit and credit are names given to left side and right side entries in the general ledger.
For every left side entry, there must be an equal and offsetting right side entry.
Assets reflect debit balances and include such items as cash, receivable, and inventories.
Liabilities are shown by credit balances and include payables as well as accrued items. Net worth
is shown as credit balance on common stock, preferred stock, and surplus. The relationship
between assets, liabilities, and net worth is
Assets = liabilities + net worth
The principal accounts maintained in a job cost system include: raw material, direct labor,
factory burden control, factory burden absorbed, work in process, finished goods inventory, cost
of goods sold, cash, accounts receivable, sales, and profit and loss. The flow of entries in these
accounts is illustrated in fig 3.4
COST REDUCTION ACTIVITIES
Since costs are so vital to decisions made in designing for production, the people in engineering
and manufacturing should understand the accounting system. Moreover, a definite plan for
recording any savings, both actual and estimated should be made to serve as an incentive to
further efforts in designing for lower cost. A low costing rate may not indicate an efficient shop.
When making cost reductions, the management should study the efficiency of the overhead
departments and obtain overall reductions in cost. The engineer should be aware of these
conditions and assist in obtaining a true picture of the product cost.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN COST REDUCTION & COST CONTROL

Cost reduction is accomplished by changes in tools, processes, and design that eliminate
operations, reduce the cost of the material, and use less expensive machines and fewer skilled
operators. The costs of changes are justified by the decrease or difference in cost per unit. The
saving per unit must pay for the change in a reasonable time. A separate record of such savings
and expenditures for making the improvements must be kept for management’s information.
Cost control has no connection with cost reduction. Cost – control procedures inform
management that expenses are or are not according to plan. Rising or lowering costs of labor and
material are reflected in variance accounts. Although these factors are often out of control of
management and supervisor, it is their obligation to combat rising costs by training more
efficient operators and obtaining less expensive materials. Lower costs permit reduction of
selling prices and eventual broadening of the market.
Many expenses under the control of supervision can be reduced. The engineer, through his
knowledge of these expenses, can save indirect costs. For example, he may know that one part is
used on several active assemblies and could be stocked. By suggesting that the part be stocked,
he saves the cost of setup. If he understands the operations used to make the part, he can usually
suggest to the methods engineering department a better process of manufacture which is more
economical in view of the increased number of parts on the order.
ESTIMATION OF COST OF CASTINGS
The total cost of manufacturing a component consists of following elements :
1. Material cost.
2. Labour cost.
3. Direct other expenses.
4. Overhead expenses.
1. Material Cost
(a) Cost of material required for casting is calculated as follows :
(i) From the component drawing, calculate the volume of material required for casting. This
volume multiplied by density of material gives the net weight of the casting.
(ii) Add the weight of process scrap i.e. weight of runners, gates and risers and other material
consumed as a part of process in getting the casting.
(iii) Add the allowance for metal loss in oxidation in furnace, in cutting the gates and runners and
over runs etc.
(iv) Multiply the total weight by cost per unit weight of the material used.
(v) Subtract the value of scarp return from the amount obtained in step (iv), to get the direct
material cost.
Note : The casting drawing is made by adding various allowances like-shrinkage, draft and
machining allowance, etc., to the dimensions of finished component.
(b) In addition to the direct material, various other materials are used in the process of
manufacture of a casting. Some of the materials are :
(i) Materials required in melting the metal, i.e., coal, limestone and other fluxes etc. The cost of
these materials is calculated by tabulating the value of material used on per tonne basis and then
apportioned on each item.
(ii) Material used in core shop for making the cores, i.e., oils, binders and refractories etc. The
cost of core materials is calculated depending upon the core size and method of making the core.
Similarly the cost of moulding sand ingredients is also calculated.
The expenditure made on these materials is generally expressed as per kg of casting weight and
is covered under overhead costs.
2. Labour Cost
Labour is involved at various stages in a foundry shop. Broadly it is divided into two categories:
(i) The cost of labour involved in making the cores, baking of cores and moulds is based on the
time taken for making various moulds and cores.
(ii) The cost of labour involved in firing the furnace, melting and pouring of the metal. Cleaning
of castings, fettling, painting of castings etc., is generally calculated on the basis of per kg of cast
weight.
3. Direct Other Expenses
Direct expenses include the expenditure incurred on patterns, core boxes, cost of using machines
and other items which can be directly identified with a particular product. The cost of patterns,
core boxes etc., is distributed on per item basis.
4. Overhead Expenses
The overheads consist of the salary and wages of supervisory staff, pattern shop staff and
inspection staff, administrative expenses, water and electricity charges etc. The overheads are
generally expressed as percentage of labour charges. The cost of a cast component is calculated
by adding the above constituents.

Calculation of Machining Times:

The basic relationship for determining the machining time for any machining operation is that
the cutting time in minutes is equal to the distance the tool is fed, in mm, divided by the feed in
mm per minute, i.e.,
Tm = L / F, per cut or per pass,
Tm = Cutting time in minutes, L = total travel in mm, F = feed of tool in mm per minute.
The distance a tool is fed to make a cut (L) is the sum of the distance the tool travels while
cutting the material plus its approach distance plus its over travel.
The approach is the distance a tool is fed from the time it touches the workpiece until it is cutting
to the full depth.
Approach distance for drill is the length of its point which is about one-forth the diameter of the
standard drill.
The approach of most of the single point tool is negligible.
Overtravel is the distance the tool is fed while it is not cutting. It is the distance over which the
tool idles before it enters and after it leaves the cut. This distance is calculated for face milling
and slotting, but in other cases like drilling or turning it is taken as 0.8 to 0.6 mm.
Machining time for lathe:
Total tool travel = length of job + approach + two overtravels
F=f*N
N = r.p.m. of work or cutter
N = 1000V / (π D), where V = cutting speed in meters per minute of the work or cutter, D = dia
in mm of work or cutter. Therefore
Tm = L / (fN)
Machining time for facing:
N = 1000V / (π Dave), where Dave = average diameter
Tm = L / (fN)
Machining time for drilling:
N = 1000V / (π D), where D = diameter of drill hole
Tm = L / (fN) ,
( L = A + t + A = 2A + t), where L = length of drill travel, t = depth of hole, A = 0.29D

Value engineering in product design:

Value engineering defined value analysis as: an organized creative approach, which has for its
purpose the efficient identification of unnecessary cost, i.e. cost which provides neither quality
nor use, life, appearance or customer features. (or) in other words
Value engineering (VE) is a systematic method to improve the "value" of goods or products and
services by using an examination of function. Value, as defined, is the ratio of function to cost.
Value can therefore be increased by either improving the function or reducing the cost. It is a
primary tenet of value engineering that basic functions be preserved and not be reduced as a
consequence of pursuing value improvements.
The philosophy of VE is implemented through a systematic rational process consisting of a series
of techniques, including
(a) Function analysis, to define the reason for the existence of a product or its components,
(b) Creative and speculative techniques, for generating new alternatives, and
(c) Measurement techniques, for evaluating the value of present and future concepts.
Nature and measurement of value:
Value can be perceived as the ratio of sum of the positives and negative aspects of an object.
Value = ∑(+) / ∑(-)
Value engineering idea generation check-list:
Figure 5, shows a three dimensional matrix involves all possible combinations of five materials,
seven designs and five manufacturing methods. The designer should select the best combination
from 175 alternatives. Similar matrices can be constructed for various features of a product.
Obviously, some combinations in the matrix are completely useless. We only need the best idea
among the long list of alternatives.
The following list is representative of the questions the designer may have in mind while
finalizing a design:
1. Can a material change improve the product performance?
2. Can lubricants and catalysts improve the performance of the product?
3. Should the appearance of the product be associated with major sports or cartoon figure?
4. Can a colour change make the product more attractive?
5. Shoud fragrant be added to the product?
6. Would a change in surface texture improve the appeal of the product?
7. Can the product be made with a special click sound to demonstrate positive engagement?
8. Where two components join or interact? Can the male and female components be
interchanged?
9. Can the handles and buttons be repositioned to improve man-machine interaction?
10. Can the order of operation, direction of cut, or direction of movement be improved?
11. Should the product be made foldable?
12. Can miniaturization lead to low cost production?
13. Can the number of components be reduced to improve strength and decrease assembly?
14. Is the packing and labeling of the product appropriate in terms of cost and function?
15. Are all the components and manufacturing processes standard?

Fig.5: morphological approach for machine element, material and process.

Group Technology
Group technology involves grouping components having similar attributes in order to take
advantages of their similarities in the design or manufacturing phases of the production cycle. It
is implemented through the application of well – structured classification and coding systems
and supporting software to take advantage of the similarities of components, in terms of design
attributes and processing sequence.
Reason for adopting GT:
Benefits of GT

(iv) Improving economies of batch type production: usually, batch type production involves a
wide variety of nonstandard parts, seemingly with nothing in common. Therefore, grouping parts
in families enables achieving of economies that are comparable to mass production.
(v) Easier planning and control: grouping the parts into families facilities the task of
scheduling, since this work will be done for each family instead of for each part.
(vi) Reduced work in process and lead time: reduce work in process (WIP) and lead time
result directly from reduced set-up and material handling time.
(vii) Faster process planning: group technology paves the way for automated process planning.
This can be achieved through proper parts classification and coding system where a detailed
process plan for each part is stored under its code and thus can be easily retrieved.
Concurrent Design:
• Market share and profitability are the major determinants of the success of any
organization.
• The factors that influence and improve the competitive edge of a company are unit cost
of products, quality, and lead time.
• Concurrent engineering (CE) has emerged as discipline to help achieve the objectives of
reduced cost, better quality, and improved delivery performance. CE is perceived as a
vehicle for change in the way the products and processes are designed, manufactured, and
distributed.
• Concurrent engineering is a management and engineering philosophy for improving
quality and reducing costs and lead time from product conception to product development
for new products and product modifications.
• CE means that the design and development of the product, the associated manufacturing
equipment and processes, and the repair tools and processes are handled concurrently.
• The concurrent engineering idea contrasts sharply with current industry sequential
practices, where the product is first designed and developed, the manufacturing approach
is then established.
• And finally the approach to repair is determined.

What is concurrent engineering?

Concurrent engineering is a systematic approach to the integrated, concurrent design of

products and their related processes, including manufacture and support. This approach is
intended to cause the developers from the outset, to consider all elements of the product life
cycle from conception to disposal, including quality, cost, schedule, and user requirements.
Serial or Sequential Engineering

Concurrent Engineering

Why concurrent engineering?

• Increasing product variety and technical complexity that prolong the product
development process and make it more difficult to predict the impact of design decisions
on the functionality and performance of the final product.
• Increasing global competitive pressure that results from the emerging concept of
reengineering.
 • The need for rapid response to fast-changing consumer demand.
• The need for shorter product life cycle.
• Large organizations with several departments working on developing numerous products
at the same time.
• New and innovative technologies emerging at a very high rate, thus causing the new
product to be technological obsolete within a short period.
Schemes for CE
• CE is the application of a mixture of all following techniques to evaluate the total life-
cycle cost and quality.
• Axiomatic design
• Design for manufacturing guidelines
• Design science
• Design for assembly
• The Taguchi method for robust design
• Manufacturing process design rules
• Computer-aided DFM
• Group technology
• Failure-mode and effects analysis
• Value engineering
• Quality function deployment

REFERENCES
1. Niebel BW & Draper AB: Production Design & Process Engg, McGraw Hill,
Kogakusha, 1974.
2. Harry Nystrom, Creativity and Innovation, John Wiley & Sons,
3. Brain Twiss, Managing Technological Innovation, Pittrnan Publications, 1992.
4. Harry, B.Waton, New Product Planning, Prentice Hall Inc., 1992.
5. Chitale, A. K. & Gupta RC., Product Design & Manufacturing, PHI, 1997.
6. Product Design and Development, Karl Ulrich, Tata McGraw Hill
7. P. Narayana, Intellectual Property Law, Eastern Law Edn. 1997
8. G Dieter, Engineering Design - a materials and processing approach, McGraw Hill, NY,
2000.
9. And some internet websites related to the topics used in the subject / syllabus.