MINISTRY OF NATIONAL EDUCATION

THE ANNALS
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA

ECONOMIC SCIENCES
TOM XXIII

2nd ISSUE / DECEMBER 2014

ISSN 1222-569X (printed format)

ISSN 1582-5450 (electronic format)
TheăpublicationăofătheăpapersăinătheăJournală“TheăAnnalsăofătheăUniversityăofăOradea.ăEconomicăSciences”ă-
Tom XXII, 2013, ISSN 1582-5450 (in electronic format on CD-ROM), ISSN 1222-569X (in printed format) a
journal listed CNCSIS category B+ and indexed in RePec, Doaj, EBSCO and CABELLS PUBLISHING
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The abstracts of the papers published in this volume are exclusively engaging authors.

Editor-in-Chief:
Dr. Adriana GIURGIU, University of Oradea, Romania

Associate Editors:
Dr. Maria-Madela ABRUDAN, University of Oradea, Romania;
Dr. Alina-DacianaăB DULESCU,ăUniversityăofăOradea,ăRomania;
Dr. Nicoleta-Georgeta BUGNAR, University of Oradea, Romania;
Dr. Ioan-Gheorgheă AR ,ăUniversityăofăOradea,ăRomania.

Members: Dr. Sergei F. Feostikov, Moscow

Academician, Mircea Malita, Member Academy of Business, Blagoveschensk
of the Romanian Academy, Romania; Branch, Russia;
Dr. Gheorghe Zaman, Correspondent Dr. Xavier Galiegue, University of
Member of the Romanian Academy, Orleans, France;
Romania; Dr. Dongheng Hao, Shijiazhuang
Dr. Ahmet Aktas, University of University of Economics, China;
Akdeniz, Alanya, Turkey; Dr. Valeriu Ioan-Franc, The Romanian
Dr. Ismet Ates, Adnan Menderes Academy, Romania;
University, Turkey; Dr. Zoran Ivanovic, University of
Dr. Mihaela Belu, The Bucharest Rijeka, Croatia;
University of Economic Studies, Dr. Kormos Janos, University of
Romania; Debrecen, Hungary;
Dr. Dorel Paraschiv, The Bucharest Dr. Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski,
University of Economic Studies, University of Lodz, Poland;
Romania; Dr. Rajesh Kumar, Osmania University,
Dr. Gordon Biggs, Moray College UHI India;
Millennium Institute, Scotland, Great Dr. Eszter Lang, University of
Britain; Debrecen, Hungary;
Dr. Luminita Chivu, The Romanian Dr. Nicola Mattoscio, G. D’Annunzio
Academy, Romania; University of Chieti – Pescara, Italy;
Dr. Jose Cifuentes, Honrubia, Dr. Piero Mella, University of Pavia,
University of Alicante, Spain; Italy;
Dr. Constantin Ciutacu, The Romanian Miguel Angel Moreno San Juan, The
Academy, Romania; Leadership Institute, Arlington, USA;
Dr. Dezhi Liu, Shijiazhuang University Dr. Guido Montani, University of Pavia,
of Economics, China; Italy;
Dr. Marin Dinu, The Bucharest Dr. Andras Nabradi, University of
University of Economic Studies, Debrecen, Hungary;
Romania; Dr. Giuseppe Paolone, G. D’Annunzio
Dr. Anca-Otilia Dodescu, University of University of Chieti, Pescara, Italy;
Oradea, Romania; Dr. Ryszard Piasecki, University of
Lodz, Poland;
Dr. Marilen Pirtea, West University of Honorary Committee
Timisoara, Romania; Academician, Mircea Malita, Member
Dr. Nicolae Al. Pop, The Bucharest of the Romanian Academy, Romania –
University of Economic Studies, Dr. H.C of the University of Oradea;
Romania, Dr. H.C of the University of His Excellency, Jonathan Scheele – Dr.
Oradea; H.C of the University of Oradea;
Dr. Ioan Popa, The Bucharest Dr. Gheorghe Gh. Ionescu – Dr. H.C of
University of Economic Studies, the University of Oradea;Aldo Poli – Dr.
Romania; H.C of the University of Oradea;
Dr. Ion Popa, The Bucharest Franco Antiga – Dr. H.C of the
University of Economic Studies, University of Oradea;
Romania; Dr. Constantin Rosca – Dr. H.C of the
Dr. Michael Stoica, Washburn University of Oradea;
University, USA; Dr. Gheorghe Olah – University of
Dr. Gabriela Tigu, The Bucharest Oradea.
University of Economic Studies,
Romania;
Dr. Jean-Emmanuel Tyvaert,
University of Reims Champagne-
Ardenne, France;
Dr. Ada Mirela Tomescu, University of
Oradea, Romania;
Dr. Valentina Vasile, The Romanian
Academy, Romania.
Scientific Committee: Dr. Nicolae Istudor, The Bucharest
Dr. Babaita Carmen, West University, University of Economic Studies,
Timisoara, Romania; Romania
Dr. Batrancea Ioan, Babes – Bolyai• Dr. Marie-Noelle Jubenot, University
University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; of Reims Champagne-Ardenne,
Dr. Liviu Begu, The Bucharest France;
University of Economic Studies, Dr. Victor Manole, The Bucharest
Romania; University of Economic Studies,
Dr. Nicolae Bibu, West University, Romania
Timisoara, Romania; Dr. Ovidiu Megan, West University,
Dr. Rodica Boier, Gh. Asachi Timisoara, Romania;
Technical University, Iasi, Romania; Dr. Tatiana Mosteanu, The Bucharest
Dr. Sorin Briciu, 1 Decembrie 1 1 ″ University of Economic Studies,
University, Alba Iulia, Romania; Romania – Dr. H.C of the University of
Dr. Alexandru Chiș, University Babes- Oradea;
Bolyai, Cluj Napoca, Romania Dr. Valentin Munteanu, West
Dr. Gheorghe Ciobanu, University University, Timisoara, Romania;
Babes-Bolyai, Cluj Napoca, Romania Dr. Emanoil Muscalu, Lucian Blaga
Dr. Smaranda Adina Cosma, University University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania;
Babes-Bolyai, Cluj Napoca, Romania Dr. Doina Mureșanu, Université of
Dr. Cristiana Cristureanu, Dimitrie Québec in Abitibi-Témiscamingue,
Cantemir Christian University, Québec, Canada
Bucharest, Romania; Dr. Carmen Năstase, Ștefan cel Mare
Dr. Emilian M. Dobrescu, Romanian University, Suceava, Romania;
Academy, Bucharest, Romania; Dr. Răzvan Liviu Nistor, Babeș-
Dr. Cosmin Dobrin, The Bucharest Bolyai University, Cluj Napoca,
University of Economic Studies, Romania;
Romania; Dr. Marin Opritescu, University of
Dr. Luigi Dumitrescu, Lucian Blaga Craiova,Romania;
University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania; Dr. Marius Pantea, West University,
Dr. Liliana Feleaga, The Bucharest Timisoara, Romania;
University of Economic Studies, Dr. Nicolae Petria, Lucian Blaga
Romania; University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania;
Dr. Niculae Feleaga, The Bucharest Dr. Ciprian Marcel Pop, University
University of Economic Studies, Babes-Bolyai, Romania;
Romania; Dr. Nicolae Al. Pop , The Bucharest
Dr. Nicoleta Farcane, West University, University of Economic Studies,
Timisoara, Romania; Romania – Dr. H.C of the University of
Dr. Xavier Galiegue, University of Oradea;
Orleans, France; Dr. Mariana Predișcan, West
Dr. Zizi Goschin, The Bucharest University, Timisoara, Romania;
University of Economic Studies, Dr. Gabriela Prelipcean, Stefan cel
Romania; Mare University, Suceava;
Dr. Elena Hlaciuc, Ștefan cel Mare Dr. Teodora Roman, Alexandru Ioan
University, Suceava, Romania; Cuza University of Iași, Iași,
Romania;
Dr. Ovidiu Rujan, The Bucharest Dr. Dorin-Cristian Coita, University of
University of Economic Studies, Oradea, Romania;
Romania; Dr. Adrian Florea, University of
Dr. Nicoleta Sîrghi, West University, Oradea, Romania;
Timisoara, Romania; Dr. Ioana Horea, University of Oradea,
Dr. Cristi Spulbăr, University of Romania;
Craiova, Romania; Dr. Ioana Meșter, University of Oradea,
Dr. Gabriela Stănciulescu, The Romania;
Bucharest University of Economic Dr. Liana Meșter, University of Oradea,
Studies, Romania; Romania;
Dr. Ioan Talpos, West University, Dr. Ioan Dan Morar, University of
Timisoara, Romania; Oradea, Romania;
Dr. Adriana Tiron Tudor, Babes – Dr. Mirabela Pop, University of Oradea,
Bolyai• University, Cluj Napoca, Romania;
Romania Dr. Ioana Pop-Cohuț, University of
Dr. Ioan Trenca, Babes-Bolyai Oradea, Romania;
University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; Dr. Steliana Sandu, The Romanian
Dr. Constantin Tulai, Babes-Bolyai Academy, Romania;
University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; Dr. Klaus-Bruno Schebesch, University
Dr. Jean-Emmanuel Tyvaert, of Bremen, Germany;
University of Reims Champagne- Dr. Monica Sim, University of Oradea,
Ardenne, France; Romania;
Dr. Olimpia Ban, University of Oradea, Dr. Naiana Țarcă, University of
Romania; Oradea, Romania;
Dr. Mihai Berinde, University of Dr. Daniela Zăpodeanu, University of
Oradea, Romania; Oradea, Romania;
Dr. Marcel Boloș, University of Oradea, Gordon T. Biggs, Moray College,
Romania; Scotland, Great Britain;
Dr. Elena Botezat, University of Wiktor Pozniak, College of Europe,
Oradea, Romania; Poland;
Dr. Andra Catarig, University of Egidio Rangone, G. D’Annunzio
Oradea, Romania; University of Chieti, Pescara, Italy.
Dr. Emil Chirilă, University of Oradea,
Romania;

.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION: INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS, EUROPEAN INTEGRATION, FOREIGN

LANGUAGES AND BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT ............................................................ 9
SUB-SECTION: EU SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND
COMPETITIVENESS ..................................................................................................... 9
CSR: FOCUS ON EMPLOYEES. ITALIAN CASES. ................................................ 11
Gazzola Patrizia .................................................................................................... 11
TERMS OF TRADE EVOLUTION, CAUSES AND EFFECTS ................................. 22
Negrea Adrian ....................................................................................................... 22
SUB-SECTIONS: INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS;THE IMPACT OF FOREIGN
LANGUAGES ON THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT ................................................ 31
ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE. NUCLEAR, PROS AND CONS ..................... 33
Benea Ciprian – Beniamin .................................................................................... 33
MULTILATERAL DIPLOMACY AND INTERNATIONAL REGIMES ......................... 41
Benea Ciprian – Beniamin .................................................................................... 41
AU-DELA DES METHODES TRADITIONNELLES DANS L’ACQUISITIONă DESă
COMPETENCES LINGUISTIQUES DANS UNE LANGUE ETRANGERE – LE
BLOG, UN OUTIL PRATIQUE? ................................................................................ 50
Bogdan Rodica ..................................................................................................... 50
LE TOURISME ROUMAIN - STRATEGIQUEMENT OUVERT VERS
L’INTERNATIONAL.ăL’EST-IL AUSSI VERS LA COMMUNICATION MULTILINGUE?
(I) .............................................................................................................................. 56
Constantin Felicia ................................................................................................. 56
LE TOURISME ROUMAIN - STRATEGIQUEMENT OUVERT VERS
L’INTERNATIONAL.ăL’EST-IL AUSSI VERS LA COMMUNICATION MULTILINGUE?
(II) ............................................................................................................................. 65
Constantin Felicia ................................................................................................. 65
ERASMUS-STIPENDIEN ZWISCHEN ANGEBOT UND INTERESSELOSIGKEIT.
DER HINTERGRUND DER FEHLENDEN STUDENTENMOTIVATION ................. 75
Hamburg Andrea................................................................................................... 75
TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE TO FOREIGNERS ................ 87
Horea Ioana Claudia ............................................................................................. 87
HIGHLIGHTS OF ROMANIAN AND FRENCH WINE MARKETS: THE EXAMPLE
OF FRENCH CHAMPAGNE MARKET .................................................................... 95
Jubénot Marie-Noëlle ............................................................................................ 95
COMPETITIVENESS AND SUPPORTING THE BUSINESS COMPETITIVENESS
................................................................................................................................ 106
Meşter Liana-Eugenia, Bugnar Nicoleta-Georgeta............................................. 106
BUSINESS ENGLISH OUTSIDE THE BOX. BUSINESS JARGON AND
ABBREVIATIONS IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION ........................................... 111
Pop Anamaria-Mirabela, Sim Monica-Ariana ..................................................... 111
THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON VOCABULARY LEARNING CASE STUDY-
FACEBOOK ............................................................................................................ 120
Sim Monica - Ariana, Pop Anamaria - Mirabela .................................................. 120
 DIE WICHTIGSTEN METHODEN DES FREMDSPRACHENUNTERRICHTS ..... 131
Sacara-Onita Adina ............................................................................................. 131
SECTION: ECONOMICS, BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, TOURISM AND
STATISTICS ............................................................................................................... 135
SUB-SECTIONS: BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, ECONOMIC STATISTICS AND
MODELLING, TOURISM ........................................................................................... 135
FROM SLOW FOOD TO SLOW TOURISM ........................................................... 137
Bac Dorin Paul .................................................................................................... 137
INVOLVEMENT OF LOCAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT
OF RURAL TOURISM ............................................................................................ 145
Barbu Ionel.......................................................................................................... 145
IMPLEMENTING FISCAL OR MONETARY POLICY IN TIME OF CRISIS?
RUNNING GRANGER CAUSALITY TO TEST THE PHILLIPS CURVE IN SOME
EURO ZONE COUNTRIES .................................................................................... 154
Gianluigi Nico ...................................................................................................... 154
PERCEPTION OF MANAGERS ON PERFORMANCE - EMPIRICAL STUDY
CONDUCTED IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY ENTITIES IN ROMANIA ........ 165
Scorţe Carmen Mihaela ...................................................................................... 165
QUALITY MILESTONES OF THE SUSTAINABLE TOURISM .............................. 175
Tomescu Ada Mirela ........................................................................................... 175
SUB-SECTION: ECONOMICS .................................................................................. 185
FROM INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTS TO FIRMS NETWORKS: THE ITALIAN CASE 187
Colantonio Emiliano, Perrucci Antonella, Odoardi Iacopo .................................. 187
RESTORATION AND SUSTAINABLE VALORIZATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE
AND REGIONAL POLICY IN NORTH-WEST REGION OF ROMANIA. CASE
STUDY OF REVITALIZATION OF THE ORADEA FORTRESS ............................ 195
1
Dodescu Anca , ................................................................................................. 195
EDUCATIONAL IMPACT ON THE ROMANIAN’S MACROREGIONS .................. 204
Florea Adrian ...................................................................................................... 204
THE USE OF GREEN CERTIFICATES IN THE BANAT REGION ........................ 210
Perțicaș Diana – Claudia .................................................................................... 210
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY AND THE MARKET COMPETITION......................... 218
Sîrghi Nicoleta..................................................................................................... 218
SECTION: FINANCE, BANKING, ACCOUNTING AND AUDIT ............................... 225
SUB-SECTIONS: ACCOUNTING, AUDIT ................................................................. 225
THE SAMPLING PROCESS IN THE FINANCIAL AUDIT .TECHNICAL PRACTICE
APPROACH ........................................................................................................... 227
Grigore Marian .................................................................................................... 227
THE STOCK AUDIT OF THE ENTITIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION FIELD ........ 232
Grigore Marian .................................................................................................... 232
SUB-SECTIONS: BANKING, PUBLIC FINANCES .................................................. 239
TAXPAYERS AND TAX AUTHORITIES INTERACTING WITHIN THE MENA
REGION: THE NEXUS BETWEEN TRUST, POWER AND COMPLIANCE .......... 241
Bǎtrâncea Larissa ............................................................................................... 241
DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS WITHIN LOCAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ... 251
Bențe Florina Maria , Bențe Corneliu .............................................................. 251
1 2

TAXATION.FAIRNES. EQUALITY. ......................................................................... 261

7
 Morar Ioan Dan ................................................................................................... 261
BUDGET AND PUBLIC DEBD ............................................................................... 266
Morar Ioan Dan ................................................................................................... 266
CREDIT RATING AGENCIES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON CRISIS ................... 271
Petris Sorina Ioana ............................................................................................. 271
ASSETS AND LIABILITIES DEPENDENCE: EVIDENCE FROM AN EUROPEAN
SAMPLE OF BANKS.............................................................................................. 279
Trenca Ioan *, Zapodeanu Daniela **, Cociuba Mihail-Ioan ** ........................... 279
SECTION: MANAGEMENT, MARKETING, ECONOMIC INFORMATICS AND
CYBERNETICS ......................................................................................................... 287
SUB-SECTIONS: MARKETING I, II ...................................................................... 287
ECONOMIC INFORMATICS AND CYBERNETICS .................................................. 287
DEVELOPING A SEVEN METAPHORS MODEL OF MARKETING FOR
UNIVERSITIES ...................................................................................................... 289
Coita Dorin-Cristian ............................................................................................ 289
IT&C FOR TIME MANAGEMENT .......................................................................... 296
1 2
Mares Valerica , Mares Daniel ........................................................................ 296
THE IMPACT OF ONLINE ENVIRONMENT ON THE DECISION OF THE
CONSUMER OF HEALTH SERVICES .................................................................. 305
Bodog Simona-Aurelia, Daina Lucia-Georgeta .................................................. 305
DEVELOPMENT EGOVERNANCE INSTRUMENTS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
LOCAL INSTITUTIONS IN BIHOR COUNTY ........................................................ 314
Săveanu Tomina Gabriela , Abrudan Maria-Madela , Săveanu Sorana Mihaela
2 2 3

............................................................................................................................ 314

8
.

SECTION: INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS, EUROPEAN

INTEGRATION, FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND BUSINESS
ENVIRONMENT

SUB-SECTION: EU SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND

COMPETITIVENESS
CSR: FOCUS ON EMPLOYEES. ITALIAN CASES.

Gazzola Patrizia
Department of Economics, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
[email protected]

Abstract: The aim of the paper is to analyze the Corporate Social Responsibility‘s
(CSR) influence on employees considering the fact that employees are primary
stakeholders who directly contribute to the success of the company. CSR relates to
employees helps to motivate the employees themselves. Job quality should be a key
objective of any employer because the happy employees can create happy customers,
which produce good business results. Research clearly indicates, with the help of
statistical data and with the case study methodology, that committing to CSR boosts the
morale and commitment of workers in a positive way. Employees who are satisfied with
the organization’s commitment to social and environmental responsibilities demonstrate
more commitment, engagement and productivity. A conceptual framework is proposed
based on literature. The author predominantly uses methods of qualitative research. In
the research the case study methodology, which has been developed within the social
sciences, is used. The paper starts with a concise introduction of CSR. In the first part
the potential impact of CSR on employees is explained, considering why CSR may
represent a special opportunity to positively influence employees’ and prospective
employees’ perceptions of companies. In the second part the research considers three
Italian companies that have distinguished themselves for their CSR strategy for
employees: Luxottica, Brunello Cucinelli and Ferrero. A growing number of studies have
been done regarding the benefits of CSR. However, most are concerned with the
external view of shareholders and customer perspective. CSR research on the
employee level is not well developed now. In order to better understand its effect on the
employees, this study explore the impact of employees' perception of CSR on
subsequent work attitudes and behaviors. CSR has a significant effect and it could
improve employees' attitudes and behaviors, contribute to corporations' success, and
achieve a win-win situation. The main contribution of the research is to explore the
impact of an organization’s CSR activities internally on employee engagement.

Key words: Corporate Social Responsibility; employees; work; reputation

JEL classification: M14; M54

1. Introduction
In the past companies often thought to business and society in opposition (Friedman,
1970), but in these days external pressures for CSR continue to grow and numerous
organizations monitor, rank, and report social performance (Gazzola, 2012). Sometimes
the legal, business and reputation risks are great for companies engaging in practices
deemed unacceptable.
The social responsibility of the firm defines a transparent corporate behavior based on
ethical values and on the respect of coworkers, of society and of the environment
(Waddock and McIntosh, 2009). Companies should recognize the importance of CSR
and need to consider concepts like: moral and ethical programs, ethical behavior, social
responsibility, equity and also try to implement these concepts in their organizational
culture (Nunes and Simescu, 2010).
11
Now companies understand the enormous potential of business to contribute to social
progress (Vlad, 2012) and they understand they depend on healthy and well-functioning
societies to thrive (Ditlev-Simonsen and Gottschalk, 2011).
The institutional goals of businesses has to consider the following elements (Masini,
1978):
1. Satisfaction of economic (salaries, etc.) and non-economic (conditions of
individual development) needs of the workers involved in the development of
the company with their overall personality;
2. Meeting the expectations, especially economic, of the shareholders (in family
businesses non-economic expectations are also important).
3. Active participation in the economic and social development of the country or
countries in which the company operates.
This interconnection between private purposes and social role reflects the convergence
in the company of multiple interests referring to external subjects: they are economic
non-institutional interests and non-economic institutional interests. The common goal for
the company is the production of remuneration for participating in the community which
is the company (shareholders and employees). External interests that are identified as
priorities, affect directly the sustainability of the entrepreneurial project. Other external
interests, not priority, are those to which the business must make socially responsible
behaviors.ăIt’să possibleă toă identifyăthreeă levelsăofăinterest:ătheă institutională interests,ătheă
interests of stakeholders and the general interests of social communities in which the
company refers to.
Employees are primary stakeholders who directly contribute to the success of the
company and company behaves responsibly depends on the aggregate of individual
employees' day-to-day commitment, decisions and actions. Employees are motivated by
CSR. The integration of social, environmental, and economic improvement through CSR
makes workplaces enjoyable (Nanderam, 2013). That's why the companies need much
more emphasis and training focused on employee social responsibility and on employee
engagement.
Employee engagement is one of the toughest and often most important elements of
CSR efforts. The level of employee involvement and ownership is critical to the success
of CSR in theăcompany.ăEmployeesăbridgeătheăgapăbetweenătheăcompany’săCSRăgoalsă
and the realization of those goals. Companies are increasingly relying on employee
engagement as a means of competitive advantage. Desirable behavioral outcomes
associated with employee engagement are strongly correlated with affective
commitment.
Studies show that when companies implement CSR successfully, the result is positive
employee relations with respect to recruitment, morale, retention, and productivity. The
paper shows which link CSR initiatives, and employee commitment. These alliances
promote an affective employee-employer connection as they reinforce a work culture
that values social responsibility as well as provide opportunities for skills development.

2. Literature review
Ină 1985ăTajfelă andăTurneră presentedă aă frameworkă whichă explainedă individuals’ă needă toă
classify oneself and others into social groups. They reveal that the relationship between
CSR and employee engagement could be explained through the Social Identity Theory.
According to this theory, individuals derive part of the identity from the group(s) to which
they belong (Tajfel and Turner 1985).
The relationships between companies and stakeholders and the conditions under which
this relationship can evolve are studied by Collier and Esteban (2007). They stated that
unlessă companiesă manageă toă gaină employees’ă willingnessă toă collaborateă towardsă aă
social responsible business profile, they will be unable to achieve their goals.

12
According to Greenwood (2007) the companies to achieve their goals require the
development and maintenance of stable relationships between the company and the
employees via the routes of communication, identification, dialogue and exchange
processes, or even a combination of them.
Donaldson and Preston (1995) and Freeman (1984) consider that CSR relates to
employees,ă oneă ofă aă corporation‘să maină stakeholderă groups,ă helpsă toă motivateă theă
employees themselves.
As Lindgreen and Swaen (2010) stated, when companies invest strong relationships
with their stakeholders, both parties are more likely to work towards the achievement of
common goals. The theory also proposes that a membership can describe employee
behaviors, perceptions or even thoughts and feelings. An employee may feel attached to
the organizational membership and experience organizational success or failure as part
of their personal achievement.
Bryman and Bell, 2007 define the relationship between CSR and employee engagement
like aă setă ofă techniquesă whichă takesă people’să experiencesă andă theiră verbal expression
seriously, while checking their value, meaningfulness and applicability. Hence,
qualitativeăresearchăfocusesăonăindividuals’ăperceptionsăregardingăsocialăphenomena.
According to Buckingham and Coffman (1999) and Gibbons (2006) companies increase
relying on employee engagement as a means of competitive success.
Greenwood (2007) and Jamali (2008) underline the employee engagement imperative
and they also recognize the strategic value of relationships with external stakeholders,
such as local nonprofit community organizations, as a means of securing competitive
success. CSR initiatives, cross-sector alliances in particular, may provide an innovate
approach for supporting business success as they can be used to simultaneously
address employee engagement challenges as well as address the collective voice of
varied external stakeholders.
The stakeholder engagement between managerial action and communication is
analyzed in Gazzola (2013) where the dialogue and the communication with stakeholder
become the key tool for strategic change and the opportunities for an economic
development and growth that respects society,

3. Methodology
ThisăstudyăisăfocusedăonătheăCSRăandăit’săinfluence on employees.
This study has three research objectives:
4. To understand how CSR contribute to the success of the company;
5. To identify the motivations which lie behind the development of CSR
initiatives;
6. To examine the impact of the CSR practices adopted by companies,
onăemployeeăcompanies’ăengagement.
The research design predominantly employs the qualitative methods. The authors
describe and synthesize, with the use of statistical data, the dynamics and the evolution
of employee motivation.
In the research the case study methodology which has developed within the social
sciences is used. Such methodology is applied not only in the social sciences, such as
psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics, but also in practice-oriented fields
such as environmental studies, social work, education, and business studies. Case
study research excels at bringing to an understanding of a complex issue or object and
can extend experience and add strength to what is already known through previous
research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of
events or conditions and their relationships. The research adopts the view of the

13
business case illustrated by the syncretic model (Berger et al., 2007) because it
recognizes direct and indirect relationships between CSR and firm performance
(Gazzola and Mella, 2006). This view allows the firm to value and appreciate the
complex relationship between CSR and employees. Such appreciation may enable the
firm to identify and exploit new opportunities (Carroll and Shabana, 2010).
The main contribution of this line of research is to explain the important relation between
the CSR and employees engagement.

4. CSR and work

Job quality should be a key objective of any employer. “Happyăemployeesăcreateăhappyă
customersăwhichăproduceăbusinessăresults”.ă(GovernmentăofăCanada, 2012)
The first step in understanding the potential impact of CSR on employees is to consider
whyă CSRă mayă representă aă specială opportunityă toă positivelyă influenceă employees’ă andă
prospectiveăemployees’ăperceptionsăofăfirmsă(Bauman and Skitka, 2012).
The survey conducted by Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, prepared for the
nonprofit Net Impact, provides a revealing picture of what students and professionals
most value in a job, and demonstrates how opportunities to make a positive impact at
work are linked to job satisfaction (Net impact, 2012).
Most people, of statistically-significant sample of 1,726 individuals divided in students
and professionals, say that having a job that makes a social impact on the world is an
important life goal (Fig. 1). Students say it is more important than having children, a
prestigious career, being wealthy, or being a community leader—ranking only below
financial security and marriage. Professionals show similar prioritization, with having
children rising higher on their list of goals.

Figure 1: The following are very important and essential in my happiness

Source: Source: Net impact, 2012

InătheăFigureă1,ă53ăpercentăofăworkersăsaidăthată“aăjobăwhereăIăcanămakeăanăimpact”ăwasă
important to their happiness, and 72 percent of students about to enter the workforce
agreed. Most would even take a pay cut to achieve that goal (Anderson, 2012). In the
survey also they ask what is very important or essential in the ideal job and 38% of the
workers and 50% of the students answer: employer prioritizes the CSR (Fig. 2)

14
Figure 2: The following are very important or essential to my ideal job
Source: Net impact, 2012

Another research, conducted by the Kenexa Research Institute (KRI), evaluated UK

workers’ăperceptionsăofătheirăorganizations with regard to corporate social responsibility.
The research shows that a strategic corporate initiative of CSR that has been receiving
an increased amount of attention, provides more benefits to an organization than simply
reducing costs by recycling and giving back to the community. Results in the United
Kingdomăindicateăthatăanăorganization’săCSRăeffortsăalsoăpositivelyăaffectăanăemployee’să
personal outlook of the future, satisfaction with their job and confidence in the
company’săfutureă(KRI, 2007).
Aăsociallyăandăenvironmentallyăethicalăapproachăensuresăaăcompany’săabilityătoăthriveăină
the long-term by protecting its reputation, its license to operate, its supply chain, its
relationships with partners and its ability to recruit talent (Colombo and Gazzola, 2012).
In order to satisfy, attract, and engage top talent, employers would be well advised to
place a greater emphasis on connecting jobs to social and environmental impact.
The role that CSR plays in enhancing a company's reputation among its own
employees, subsequently boosting their motivation and engagement, is perhaps
underrated, which is particularly problematic for companies that are inconsistent in their
approach to implementing CSR initiatives.
In a study of workplaces, in more than 140 countries, from 2011 through 2012, Gallup

15
(2013a)ăestimatedăthatăonlyă13șăofăemployeesăworldwideăareăclassifiedăasă“engaged”.ăItă
is apparent from these findings that employees with a low morale can make a
significantly negative impact on the profitability of a business. Employees who are
engaged contribute to a reduction in staff turnover, and ultimately, a boost in profitability.
It is possible to compare the date with the study of the American workplace from 2010
through 2012. In 2012 in USA 30% of workers was engaged, 52% of workers are not
engaged, and worse, another 18% are actively disengaged in their work. Gallup (2013b)
estimates that these actively disengaged employees cost the U.S. between $450 billion
to $550 billion each year in lost productivity. They are more likely to steal from their
companies, negatively influence their coworkers, miss workdays, and drive customers
away.
To better understand how CSR influence the employees in the next sections 5, 6, and 7,
we analyzed three Italian companies where CSR is particularly consequential for
employees.
5. Luxottica: everyone feels part of the organization
Luxottica produces and distributes sun glasses and prescription eyewear of high
technical and stylistic quality to improve the well-being and satisfaction of its customers
and at the same time create value for employees and the communities in which the
Group operates.
The Social responsibility is the main lever with which Luxottica Group is committed to
sustainable development of their business. It has shown a great interest in people and
this interest has declined in a vast corporate welfare program, characterized by a strong
attachment to the land and the desire for involvement of workers and union
representatives.
Luxottica has created a new system of industrial relations that seeks the reinforcement
of the productive system, the improvement of all workers actual wages and foresees the
promotion of services in favor of the workers themselves.
Luxottica gives primary importance to the human aspects of organizational life, the
quality of the relationships between people, the satisfaction of their needs and the
fulfillment of their aspirations. The basic idea is that all these aspects affect the daily
operation of the company performance and therefore on the market performance.
The company has focused primarily on "involvement" with the conviction that the
organization has to make everyone feel part of it like belonging to a large family in which
the contribution of the individual is precious for the good of all. All these concepts
revolves around an idea which is the sense of identification, the will of commitment and
personal adherence of the employees' to the activities and the objectives of the firm
constitute, more so in the uncertainty of today's market scenario. They are vital
resources for business competitiveness.
On this front the efforts of the group are certainly important, as confirmed on the
occasion of 50th anniversary, the allocation of bonus shares of the company to the
employees of Italian factories in recognition of their contribution to business success.
Luxottica listened to the needs of its staff and distributed goods and services not only to
the most deserving but to everyone in the company. Agreements have been reached
with the retail chains to purchase primary goods; with preventive diagnostic medical
centers , dental care, pediatric and specialists; support for the means of transport;
interventions for school education; scholarships and career guidance. All this was
carried out by Luxottica in constant agreement and cooperation with trade unions and
the territory (www.luxottica.com).

16
The belief of the firm is that each one could help retrieve this value that had been lost,
by paying attention to "how" one works meaning ones daily habit, respecting the
rules that guide the process, the caring of the workplace and the tools that are used by
everybody , an example that can be given to others. If all pursue this behavior it then
becomes a habits and therefore it is possible to measure the recovery in value,
monitor and activate the circle that creates value and convey it to the people. The
project, therefore, can be self-financing with the resources that are saved by the
reduction of waste. (Salomoni, 2011)
The concept of "quality" is joined to "welfare" with the desire to create a virtuous cycle:
quality of life (if you feel part of a family, you work better and you are more stimulated),
the quality of process (because process is made by the people), product quality,
reducing of waste. At the base there is a strong emphasis on meritocracy and fairness to
all employees. To give substance to the project there are four principles: work
organization, prevention, communication and collegiality.
Consequently the invisible assets represented by the sense of belonging and loyalty of
human resources should be appropriately encouraged, but that they are also able to
create a virtuous link between employee involvement and a series of indicators related
to the provision organization such as the reduction of absenteeism and the increase of
the orientation to quality work.

6. Brunello Cucinelli: the humanistic factory

Brunello Cucinelli is the President and Managing Director of Brunello Cucinelli SpA, a
company famous the world over for its production of cashmere apparel, which are
exported throughout Europe and to the United States, Japan, Russia, and the Far East.
Brunello Cucinelli SpA carriesă onă operationsă ină theă world’să principală cities with 1.000
points of sale in multibrand stores and around 80 monobrand boutiques, over 750
employees, and a turnover of which three quarters come from international markets.
2
His entrepreneurial story began in 1978, at the age of 25, when he opened a small 40m
workshop. Throughout the 1980s the business grew and developed.
Now the Brunello Cucinelli brand is at the top of the luxury pyramid for the cashmere of
Italian quality. It is internationally recognized as one of the prime examples of "absolute
luxury". It combines superb Italian manufacturing with an ability to be innovative and to
set trends while preserving distinctive taste and style focusing on a luxurious casual-chic
total look.
The ethical, humanist-inspired entrepreneurial model places people at the center of the
production process. It encourages the creativity of each worker and simultaneously
develops within them a sense of profound participation in the group's success and goals.
This commitment is shared on all levels of the company and with outside contractors
and clients around the globe who are extremely loyal and who trust the company
(www.brunellocucinelli.com).
Brunello Cucinelli has created a strategic competitive advantage through nurturing a
human advantage.
Brunello places paramountă importanceă onă theă essenceă ofă humanityă stating;ă “Qualityă ofă
lifeăisăessential.ăWorkăbecomesămoreăhumaneăifămanăisăplacedăatăitsăcenter.”• To deliver
onă thisă heă didn’tă justă setă upă favorableă humană resourceă policiesă andă practicesă bută
invested in this philosophy in a major way by buying and restoring an entire town to
provide his employees with an aspiring and inspiring lifestyle.
Ină theă lateă 1980′să heă boughtă aă medievală hamletă Solomeoă ină Umbriaă andă restoredă theă
town into an artisan factory village where employees live and work including Brunello
himself. The town includes a thirteenth-century castle, church, medieval houses,
farmhouse and villa. Old buildings have been transformed into artisan workshops,

17
warehouses, dining areas, town squares and an outdoor theater, each with a plaque
containing a philosophical maxim
Brunelloă builtă whată heă callsă aă “humanistică factory”• whereă “employeesă areă treatedă asă
preciouslyăasătheăclothesătheyăcreate”• . With an emphasis on craftsmanship, creativity,
prideă ină one’să workă and perfection, there is no traditional hierarchy and no distinction
between management and non-management. Employees earn higher than average
wages, do not punch time cards and each employee has a key to the workplace .
His notion of "the humanistic firm" is based on the following business model: a third of
the profits go to employees (who are paid wages and salaries higher than the industry
average), a third to the community, and a third is retained as entrepreneurial profit on
the investment made. This approach has paid off handsomely in market terms, since the
company has managed to grow during the crisis. Earnings have grown in parallel with
reputation. (Corbellini and Marafioti, 2011).
Cucinelli is an enterprise in which the orientation to CSR is part of the genetic heritage
of the company from the beginning for the presence of a strongly leadership sensitive to
social and environmental issues. (Cross, 2013).

7. Ferrero: “sharing value to creating value”

The Italian chocolate and confectionery manufacturer Ferrero, founded and managed by
the Ferrero family has acknowledged social responsibility and put it into real practice
since the business started. Having inherited the vision and culture of the ancestors, they
have progressively formed the CSR value system (Mella, 2012) during the course of
company development. They believe that good business is built on good values.
Ferrero’să CSRă visionă Sharingă Valuesă toă Createă Valueă hasă beenă deeplyă embeddedă ină
their mindset, and is also implemented into every aspect of the entire business
operation.
From the very beginning, Ferrero's corporate spirit has been built on strong values,
reflecting the Company's origins and history. According to these values, man is naturally
at the heart of the Company.
In this context, Ferrero pursues an ambitious social policy aimed at the well-being of its
employees. Two key principles guide this process: the constant objective of company
growth, and the desire to further the development of its employees.
In recent years this social project has become effective in Ferrero France with the
creation of a social organization at the service of the employees, and with the opening of
a company nursery and a mini club on the premises to help with child-care issues
(www.ferrero.it).
In Mexico, for example, Ferrero is setting up a college scholarship program, in Ecuador
and in Argentina the employees are entitled to discounts in supermarkets, Ferrero
Luxembourg has made five-a-side football and tennis courts available for the sportier
people!
Reputation Institute (2013) recently released its 2013 CSR RepTrak® 100 study, ranking
100 global companies by their CSR reputation, based on a survey of 55,000 consumers
worldwide. Ferrero is in the 30th place.

Conclusion
In the paper we consider how CSR relates to employees and how corporate social
responsibilityă mayă representă aă specială opportunityă toă influenceă employees’ă generală
impression of the company.
Italy, in the CSR practices, follows the initiatives of the European Union. The European
Commission, after proposing a new definition of CSR as "the responsibility of
enterprises for their impacts on society" (EU, 2011), calls on companies to put in place a
processă foră integratingă social,ă environmental,ă ethical,ă humană rightsă andă consumers’ă

18
interests in their business operations and in their basic strategy, in close cooperation
with their stakeholders. When all of these principles were present, they formed the basis
of a focused, forward-thinking, corporate environment that clearly understands and
realizes the business case for CSR: attracting and retaining talent; reducing
environmental footprint and costs; innovating products and services; and enhancing
reputation and goodwill with all stakeholders.
By addressing their social responsibility, enterprises can build long-term employee,
consumer and citizen trust as a basis for sustainable business models. Higher levels of
trust in turn help to create an environment in which enterprises can innovate and grow.
CSR is very important for the overall growth and employee motivation of any
organization. From this paper it becomes clear that companies must engage in CSR
activities if they want to satisfy employees and keep them motivated towards
organizational commitment (Chenoy, 2012).
By satisfying their need for a meaningful existence, employees should enjoy greater life-
satisfaction and increate emotional well-being. In addition, when employees participate
in programs that matter to them, it may strengthen their relationship with the company
and help them rededicate themselves to their own work roles (Grant, 2008).
As public expectations are increasingly adding social and environmental values to the
mix of how companies should behave, employee engagement in CSR plays a critical
role in company competitiveness, reputation, innovation and execution. When
employees are engaged in sustainability and CSR, it shapes their thinking and their
behavior, enabling their companies to come up with new ways to solve current business
problems and create new opportunities.
The three case studies show how these successful businesses base on CSR towards
employees the key of their success. The integration of social, environmental, and
economic improvement through CSR makes workplaces more attractive. The cases
show that when companies implement CSR successfully, the result is positive employee
relations with respect to recruitment, morale, retention, and productivity.
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www.brunellocucinelli.com
www.ferrero.it
WWW.LUXOTTICA.COM

21
TERMS OF TRADE EVOLUTION, CAUSES AND EFFECTS

Negrea Adrian
Department of International Business, Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: Terms of trade are meant to show the ratio by which a country is different in the
level and dynamics of revenues from the exchange made by different categories of
products on the external markets. The level of recorded revenues from the
commercialization of products and services varies from country to country, and there is
rarely a mutually beneficial exchange situation from these operations. Trade efficiency
analysis lies in the determination of the terms of trade. In the current paper, international
developments are analyzed based on net terms of trade index used by UNCTAD.
Statistical data are provided by the World Bank, where export and import price index and
the volume of imports and exports by countries were considered. The classification of the
countries has been done according to the geographical orientation and based on the
purchasing power parity, thus creating two tables, the first table highlighting seven regions,
and the second table with seven categories of states including OPEC and non-OPEC
members. The terms of trade evolution are influenced by certain important factors in the
production process of goods and services. Some of these factors are mentioned: labour
productivity; changes in commodity prices; yet, only the last factor is examined in this
paper. Based on World Bank commodity price data, the evolution of major energy inputs
such as crude oil, gas, coal, and major industrial raw materials such as aluminium, copper,
lead, nickel, tin, zinc, silver, gold, platinum and iron was analysed and interpreted. For
Romania, the data on terms of trade evolution shows a dramatic situation. If terms of trade
development presented a cyclical evolution, the economy as a whole would send an
optimistic message. In contrast, the data presented in the following paper will show that
our country has registered continuous depreciation of the terms of trade ratio, with a direct
impact on external trade balance deficits, a rising external debt and a declining purchasing
power for the population. The conclusions address some of the remedies that our country
needs in order to improve.

Keywords: terms of trade, efficiency, production, commodities, price, economic

development

JEL classification: F10

Introduction
Terms of trade is designed to present the ratio in which a state is compared with another
state in terms of trade revenues. According to Iancu (1983), terms of trade has the function
of showing "the extent to which a country is compared to another in level and dynamics of
trade revenues realized through trading different categories of products on external
markets".
International trade involves a wide range of national states that sell a more varied range of
products and services to each other. The development degree of those states differs one
from another, and the same goes for the products or services that business enterprises
from these countries traded.
Income levels recorded from the marketing of products or services vary from state to state
and only sometimes there is a mutually beneficial situation in these operations. Trade
efficiency consists in analyzing the performance of the terms of trade.

22
Terms of trade index
The indicator used to analyze trends in international sales of a country to another country
or trading blocks, is the terms of trade index. Iancu (1983) states that "this ratio expresses
differences in economic development, technological development, industrial structure, etc.
between countries participating in tradeăoperations.”
Stoian, Puiu, Mo iu (1973) state that the terms of trade "expresses the relationship
between export and import prices, respectively a commodity purchasing power relative to
other commodities, a group of goods exported compared with the same imported group,
exports compared to imports as a whole.".
Misztal (2012) continues the definition, stating that "[T]erms of trade is defined as the ratio
of the price of exported goods to those imported.”
The evolution of the terms of trade studies the impact on the trade balance, current
account and the economic development.
Based on the analyses performed by Iancu (1983), the author determined that "[T]hrough
international economic exchanges results a major revenue leakage occurs from some
countries to others, especially from underdeveloped countries to developed ones.”
The analysis performed by Bari (2005), Cerchez (2007), Giurgiu (2008) concludes that,
based on this indicator, one can determine the value of exported goods needed to be able
to import the same amount of goods, according to the formula:

ITS  100
indicele preturilor exporturilor
indicele preturilor importurilor
Genereux (2000), based on the formula, states that the ratio of export price index and
import price index, when the ITS > 100%, means that the trade flows provides an
advantage to the exporting country, imports are cheaper compared to the base period.
When ITS < 100%, the country's terms of trade suffers from international trade, requiring
an additional quantity of exported goods in order to be able to import the same amount of
goods.
The gross terms of trade index (Irsb) is calculated as the ratio between the average export
price index and import price index:

Where:
- Gross terms of trade index

- Medium export price index of the base period

- Medium import price index of the base period

- The quantity of exported or imported goods of the current period

- The quantity of exported or imported goods of the base period

- Export import prices of the base period

23
Net terms of trade index (Irsn) is calculated as the ratio between the average export price
index and import price index:

Where:

- Net terms of trade index

- Medium export price index of the current period

- Medium import price index of the current period

- Export import prices of the current period

- Export import prices of the base period
- The quantity of exported or imported goods of the current period
- The quantity of exported or imported goods of the base period

By some estimations Cerchez (2007), Giurgiu (2008) net terms of trade index gives the
resultăofăaăcountry’săefficiencyăinăinternationalătradeăflows.ăGiurgiuă(2008)ăstates: "It can be
considered an indicator of external purchasing power, acquired by a nation through
exports. If imported products are on average more expensive than the exported products,
the exchange conditions are unfavorable: in order to procure goods from abroad, the
concerned country must produce and sell more goods and services"
The literature identifies three transmission channels of terms of trade volatility on economic
development, namely: it may cause changes in capital productivity and the level of foreign
investment; it may alter the structure of savings and consumption; it may alter the amount
of public spending.
Based on the studies carried out by Begu (1999), Cerchez (2007), Giurgiu (2008), statistic
indicators such as the price scissors (FP) are also used to determine the regression of the
net terms of trade, according to the formula:

FP  (1  IRSN ) x100
Also, the authors analyze the impact of the income index from the terms of trade, or the
purchasing power of exports index (Ivrs).
The purchasing power of the exports index is obtained by multiplying the average export
price index and the net terms of trade:

Another indicator used to measure the purchasing power is the factorial terms of trade

24
index (IFRS) which, according to the formula, is the multiplication of the net terms of trade
W
index (Irsn) and the labor productivity index I :

IFRS  IRSN x I W
The analysis of the result shows that when IFRS> 100% and it is considered a positive
evolution of the indicator. According to the formula, the result may be due both to a positive
evolution of both terms, or just one of them, but with a significant growth, so the end result
should be interpreted as a favorable one.
Giurgiu (2008) states that the factorial analysis of the terms of trade can use other
quantities, such as the share of exports in domestic production and the share of exports in
domestic consumption. The first is obtained as the ratio between total exports or domestic
industries and the total internal production or domestic industries. The second is obtained
as the ratio between total exports or domestic industries and total consumption or domestic
industries.

Terms of trade evolution at international level

International developments were analyzed in net terms of trade index used by UNCTAD,
the statistical data being provided by the World Bank. The export and import price indexes
were considered, and also the volume of imports and exports by countries. The
classification of the member states was carried out according to geographic orientation and
based on purchasing power parity, thus resulting two tables, the first table consisting of
seven regions and the second one of seven categories of states. In the last table there are
additionally inserted the OPEC member states or the non- OPEC member states.
In the following table, it can be observed the evolution of the terms of trade based on the
geographic orientation of the member states.
The strong appreciation of the terms of trade was achieved in the Middle East and North
Africa, due to the presence of oil exporting states. In this case, a sharp rise in the world
price of oil has led to an improvement in the terms of trade in 2011, compared to the base
year 2000 by approximately 50%.
Another significant increase in terms of trade is outlined in the Sub-Saharan states, mainly
because of the export of raw materials, whose prices have risen on the international
market.
The lowest rate of terms of trade increases are recorded in the European and North
American states. Due to outsourcing and relocation processes of parts of production to the
developing states, they reached a point where they recorded a minimum growth of terms of
trade.
Koze, Reizman (2001) demonstrate that improved terms of trade leads to faster economic
growth as a result of long-term capital accumulation. Other economists show that an
improvement in terms of trade leads to an increase in foreign investment in the country,
having a direct impact on the economic development.
In his work, Grimes (2006) show that higher levels of terms of trade and a low volatility can
lead to economic growth, particularly in raw materials exporting countries and developing
countries. The economy of New Zealand was the main element analyzed, the author
observing a stable dynamic in terms of trade. This aspect can be seen in the table
analyzed.
It is also deemed to mention the impact of the economic crisis which began in 2008 with
direct repercussions on the terms of trade of states, an evolution marked by a steep
decline, observed in 2009 in all geographic regions under scrutiny.

25
Table 1: The evolution of the terms of trade of the member states based on geographic orientation during 2000-2011, %
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Europaă iăAisaă AsiaădeăEstă iă

Average 100 99,7 99,4 99,2 99,6 99,1 106,9 105,0 105,4 104,8 108,5 109,4
Pacific

MIN 100 91,4 88,8 88,1 83,8 78,1 73,8 71,7 62,0 68,2 67,7 60,1
MAX 100 106,3 107,3 112,5 139,2 159,5 191,7 187,3 243,3 195,7 227,6 230,2
Average 100 100,1 99,9 100,6 102,0 103,9 107,4 107,9 111,4 106,9 110,1 112,7
Central

MIN 100 87,1 83,4 79,5 76,2 71,8 71,4 65,9 65,6 67,5 68,2 72,4
MAX 100 132,0 131,7 142,8 144,2 153,2 187,7 183,6 245,6 181,3 197,9 234,2
Average 100 98,3 96,9 96,8 99,1 100,3 107,2 108,4 108,9 106,5 111,3 113,7
Latin ă iă
America

Caraibe

MIN 100 82,2 86,8 84,1 82,5 79,4 75,9 74,4 62,1 65,6 70,7 64,5
MAX 100 115,6 110,7 121,0 133,3 154,4 184,4 202,1 249,5 181,7 215,9 258,7
Africa de Nord

Average 100 95,0 94,2 99,9 107,4 126,8 138,2 139,3 165,3 129,4 142,2 153,0
Mijlociuă iă

MIN 100 86,3 85,8 88,4 85,4 79,6 74,5 70,5 62,4 64,8 58,6 53,6
Orientul

MAX 100 105,1 104,0 117,4 128,5 176,9 200,7 235,1 265,5 174,4 223,2 230,9
Average 100 101,7 101,0 102,7 104,4 105,0 104,7 106,4 108,1 105,4 107,5 108,3
America de
Nord

MIN 100 97,4 97,9 98,8 101,2 97,2 96,0 96,6 91,8 99,0 97,1 94,6
MAX 100 105,0 104,4 106,4 110,4 114,4 114,1 117,6 126,6 114,8 119,9 122,5
Average 100 102,2 100,0 96,9 94,5 94,6 94,9 88,6 87,3 91,4 91,9 92,1
Asia de Sud

MIN 100 97,8 88,6 88,7 84,6 75,2 70,0 65,5 57,6 51,0 50,4 52,4
MAX 100 110,6 109,0 110,1 129,2 137,4 139,7 127,3 145,1 133,9 140,3 151,5
Average 100 94,7 96,0 97,8 101,2 107,8 116,8 117,9 125,0 118,0 127,6 134,0
Africa Sub-
Saharian

MIN 100 37,7 30,4 24,4 29,5 21,4 21,3 22,8 30,7 28,7 29,4 30,4
MAX 100 110,6 143,4 138,6 130,8 171,9 197,6 202,7 250,9 219,5 234,6 244,7
Source: Author's calculations based on statistics provided by the World Bank

26
In the following table one can better notice all the influences mentioned above, in particular
those referring to increased world prices of oil, the effects of relocation and outsourcing of
production processes to developing countries. Misztal (2012) believes that "Changes in
terms of trade represent one of the factors that explains the difference in per capita income
levels between developed and developing countries."
The most pronounced increases are recorded by OPEC and non-OPEC states. In these
countries, terms of trade calculated on the reference year 2000, recorded an increases
between 70% and 100%. These increases are recorded strictly due to a raise in the price
of oil barrel and natural gas. A good example here is provided by the authors Backus and
Crucini (2000) who, in their study, demonstrate how a reduction in oil production leads to
an increase in oil prices, with automatic impact in improving terms of trade of oil exporting
countries, and vice versa for other countries.
The most pronounced increases in the terms of trade are recorded by states with an
average income per capita level, these countries benefiting from the industrialization
process. Many companies in the developed world started delocalizing or outsourcing
production processes to them. The production based on intensive use of labor, some of it
will be externalized or outsourced to countries where skilled labor is cheaper, thereby
accumulating benefits from lower production costs.
Insignificant increases are recorded in economies with a high income per capita. To this
category belong the developed countries that have reached a limit of production
development, a limit of improved labor productivity, which is why they cannot accumulate
terms of trade increases based on these attributes. All this will be transferable to
developing states, with an average income per capita, because they advocate for the
reduction of discrepancies, the continuous improvement in labor productivity and aspects
of the production process.

27
Table 2: The evolution of the terms of trade of the member states based on purchasing power parity in the period 2000-2011, %
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Average 100 101,2 101,6 101,2 102,2 102,5 103,9 104,7 103,3 103,8 104,5 104,6
Venituri mici Venituri medii Venituri mari: Venituri mari:
OECD

MIN 100 93,3 90,8 87,7 84,8 79,0 73,8 71,7 62,0 68,2 67,7 60,1
MAX 100 132,0 131,7 142,8 144,2 142,8 183,2 189,5 174,6 166,7 204,0 213,3
Average 100 97,3 95,9 98,9 101,9 110,2 117,3 118,5 131,4 113,0 120,2 125,4
nonOECD

MIN 100 86,3 84,1 79,5 76,2 71,8 71,4 65,9 62,4 64,8 58,6 53,6
MAX 100 105,1 105,2 117,4 139,2 176,9 200,7 235,1 265,5 195,7 227,6 234,2
Average 100 98,5 97,5 98,7 102,8 108,7 118,0 118,6 125,8 115,0 121,7 126,5
spre mari

MIN 100 82,2 83,4 83,8 81,2 78,0 73,5 68,2 67,6 65,6 70,7 68,6
MAX 100 116,3 114,9 121,0 133,3 171,9 197,6 202,7 250,9 181,7 215,9 258,7
Average 100 98,3 100,2 100,6 102,8 107,0 115,8 114,6 120,6 116,3 123,7 128,3
spre medii

MIN 100 88,4 87,0 84,1 82,5 75,2 70,0 65,5 57,6 51,0 50,4 52,4
MAX 100 110,6 143,4 138,6 130,8 156,6 195,2 193,3 224,2 177,8 215,6 229,4
Average 100 94,8 93,4 94,4 95,2 95,7 100,9 101,0 101,3 101,4 108,1 111,5
Venituri mici

MIN 100 37,7 30,4 24,4 29,5 21,4 21,3 22,8 30,7 28,7 29,4 30,4
MAX 100 105,3 109,8 121,0 117,8 160,0 174,9 175,9 224,5 219,5 234,6 225,7
Average 100 93,0 91,6 101,2 117,1 152,6 173,5 178,5 216,9 154,0 181,6 204,4
OPEC

MIN 100 82,2 85,8 97,1 104,9 106,9 113,0 116,4 123,7 119,8 127,1 134,1
MAX 100 105,1 103,9 113,6 128,5 176,9 200,7 235,1 265,5 181,7 223,2 258,7
Average 100 89,8 94,0 98,6 103,4 124,3 139,9 146,2 169,5 140,4 159,9 170,6
NON OPEC

MIN 100 37,7 30,4 24,4 29,5 21,4 21,3 22,8 30,7 28,7 29,4 30,4
MAX 100 110,6 143,4 138,6 130,8 176,9 200,7 235,1 265,5 219,5 234,6 258,7
Source: Author's calculations based on statistics provided by the World Bank

28
Conclusions

The strong appreciation of the terms of trade was achieved in the Middle East and North
Africa, due to the presence of oil exporting states. In this case, a sharp rise in the world
price of oil has led to an improvement in the terms of trade in 2011, compared to the
base year 2000 by approximately 50%.
Another significant increase in terms of trade is outlined in the Sub-Saharan states,
mainly because of the export of raw materials, whose prices have risen on the
international market.
The lowest rate of terms of trade increases are recorded in the European and North
American states. Due to outsourcing and relocation processes of parts of production to
the developing states, they reached a point where they recorded a minimum growth of
terms of trade.
It is also deemed to mention the impact of the economic crisis which began in 2008 with
direct repercussions on the terms of trade of states, an evolution marked by a steep
decline, observed in 2009 in all geographic regions under scrutiny.
The most pronounced increases are recorded by OPEC and non-OPEC states. In these
countries, terms of trade calculated on the reference year 2000, recorded an increases
between 70% and 100%. These increases are recorded strictly due to a raise in the
price of oil barrel and natural gas.
The most pronounced increases in the terms of trade are recorded by states with an
average income per capita level, these countries benefiting from the industrialization
process. Many companies in the developed world started delocalizing or outsourcing
production processes to them. The production based on intensive use of labor, some of
it will be externalized or outsourced to countries where skilled labor is cheaper, thereby
accumulating benefits from lower production costs.

References
Backus, David K.; Crucini, Mario J. (2000) Oil prices and the terms of trade, Journal of
International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(1), pages 185-213
Bari, Ioan (2005) Globalizarea economiei,ăEdituraăEconomic ,ăBucureşti
Begu, Stelian (1999) Statistică internaţională, EdituraăAIIăBeck,ăBucureşti
Cerchez, Octavia (2007) Eficiența economică a comerțului exterior, Editura Logos,
Bucure ti
Giurgiu, Adriana (2008) Comerţul intraeuropean. O nouă perspectivă asupra comerţului
exterior al României, EdituraăEconomic ,ăBucureşti
Grimes, Arthur (2006) A smooth ride: Terms of trade, volatility and GDP growth, Journal
of Asian Economics, Elsevier, vol. 17(4)
Iancu, Aurel (1983) Schimburile economice internaționale,ă Edituraă tiin ific ă iă
Enciclopedic ,ăBucure ti
Kose, M. Ayhan; Riezman, Raymond (2001) Trade shocks and macroeconomic
fluctuations in Africa, Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 65(1)
Misztal, Piotr (2012) Terms of Trade and Economic Growth in Poland in the period
1980-2009, The Romanian Economic Journal
Stoian,ă Ion;ă Puiu,ă Alexandru;ă Mo iu,ă Anicaă (1973)ă Tehnica operațiunilor de comerț
exterior,ăEdituraă tiin ific ,ăBucure ti
UNCTAD
World Bank
SUB-SECTIONS: INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS;THE IMPACT OF FOREIGN
LANGUAGES ON THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT
ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE. NUCLEAR, PROS AND CONS

Benea Ciprian – Beniamin

Department of International Business
Faculty of Economics, University of Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: It’s needless to say that nuclear is a hot subject. It arouses public imagination,
suspicion, and fear. It has always animated scientists’ minds and souls and after they
discovered how to manipulate the atom, the public conscience has become aware of its
dangers and its merits. Present paper aims to present why it is important to regard with
optimism and trust the science of atoms, not without loosing our critical view concerning
the risks inherently connected to it. Nuclear arms are a reality, but climate change is
another. Mankind is facing both. It cannot ignore one of them without assuming greater
risks in the future. In this context, nuclear can be regarded with hope and audacity. Its
expansion, both in countries where it already is employed, and into newcomers (where it
could be implemented), can bring benefits such as: reducing energy dependence on
foreign interests placed under the umbrella of oil and gas producers, or transporters;
rising energy security in a world where access to cheap and reliable energy would
become more problematic; greater success in fighting climate changes and global
warming through energy generated in a more environmentally friendly manner.
Furthermore, over the energy aspect of peaceful nuclear energy, there is another
economic and technological benefit: nuclear researches could be involved
simultaneously in electricity generation, heat production, agricultural and industrial
rising’s potential, water desalinization and providing in arid areas, and application in
medical researches and treatment. But nuclear has its weak points: it is connected to
military researches and programs, while offering the needed technical ground for UN
Security Council permanent members to have and maintain prestige in international
politics; it looms over mankind, as a menace which hunts our conscience after
Hiroshima and Nagasaki… Its minuses have to do with international context, too: if we
connect the highest level in technology with strongest religious sentiment than we can
face a terrifying drama. A nuclear nuke in the hands of a terrorist organization is the
worst nightmare mankind could face. Countries with nuclear arms (Russian Federation
and Pakistan) were courted by dangerous organizations, which searched to gain access
to fissile material. But there is a hope, and the paper presents it in an indirect manner: if
public conscience activates in direction of nuclear disarmament, nuclear could become
the hope for a better future. Nuclear disarmament would mean a safer world, while
peaceful nuclear expansion will mean cleaner energy and greater access to electricity in
more areas, all of them creating a better world and a civilization proud of its name.

Keywords: climate change; energy security; nuclear energy; nuclear programs; nuclear
risks

JEL classification: H76; O44; Q01; Q42

Energy sector must be changed; this is an unquestionable matter. But this change have
to be a dramatic one in decades ahead in order to relax fears connected to energy
security, and those facing climate changes. Present civilization in based in such
measureăuponăenergyăresources’ăconsumptionăthatăităcannotăworkăwithoutăthem.ăButăoneă
can easy note that the direction humankind chose two and a half centuries before could
head directly to a dead end for human civilization. The way we consume resources
today points to the fact that humankind is the biggest enemy of itself.
33
But each decision regarding changing the way energy is consumed and how is realized
the energy mix involves decisions with great importance, with strong political
connotation; as energy consumption is in an inextricably manner connected to
transportation sector – both, energy and transportations being strategic aspects in all
states – there is a need to see and treat them with greatest care.
Civilizationăisănotăcontemporaryăwithătheăhumanăbeing’săappearanceăonătheăplanetăEarth.ă
Civilization appeared when towns appeared, but the level of civilization has risen only
when man succeeded in multiplying his weak power with different sources of energy; in
this way man started to master in some way the nature. Man transformed through
different technologies different elements provided by nature in order to master it; but the
extraction of the carbon from the Earth (in the form of energy resources) and their
burning to produce energy, has generated more and more carbon in the atmosphere.
One of the most significant indexes of civilization degree hit by a specific society is per
capita energy production and consumption. Man is a very weak being, but amplifies its
fragileă forcesă throughă energyă resources’ă consumption.ă Foră example,ă theă worldă ină 2004ă
consumed energy resources which generated cca. 15 TW, with oil representing 5,6 TW,
natural gas 3,5 TW, coal 3,8 TW, while water and nuclear sharing the same position: 0,9
TW;ătheăremainingă0,3ăTWăwasăproducedăusingăotherăenergyăsourcesă(Maliţa,ă2009a).
But the effects generated by the rising concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere have
started a process known as climate change, with visible effectsăstartingăinătheă’60s,ăwhenă
some species of birds have started to change the way they migrated and how they
behaved. In that moment to the sensitive security concerns connected to the control
over energy resources and the routes used for their transportation, there was added a
new and the most complex one in all human history: climate change. Even if since 1965
the US President L B Johnson received the first dossier containing information
concerning the consequences and dangers brought by the climate changes (Victor et
al., 2009), only after Cold War ended the nations started to agree over the fact that there
is present a big problem for humankind – climate change.
Moreover, 86% of energy is obtained through the process of burning non-renewable
resourcesă suchă asă oil,ă gas,ă andă coală (Maliţa,ă 2009b)ă showingă thată weă liveă ină ană
unsustainable manner in a civilization captured by nonrenewable and polluting
rd
resources…ăInăthisăregard,ăatătheăbeginningăofătheă3 millennium, the Earth must breed
not 6 bn. peoples, butăthisănumberă24ătimesămanyăover,ămeaningă144ăbn.ăpeopleă(Maliţa,ă
1998);ăthisăisădueătoămanăforce’sămultiplicationăthroughăenergyăconsumption.ăButătheăwayă
man consumes resources and produces energy is made in a clearly unsustainable way.
Rising energy securityă andă emissions’ă reductionă couldă beă simultaneouslyă attainedă ifă
thereăisăregisteredăaărisingăefficiencyăforăenergyăsources’ăuse,ăandăchangingă the energy
resources mix in a radical and irreversible manner. The expansion of renewable
resources (water, wind, sun-power, geothermal) and of resources with an unlimited
potentială (atoms),ă coupledă withă theă reductionă ofă nonrenewableă sources’ă consumptionă
would provide simultaneously a stronger energy security and the prevention of dramatic
climate change. To do this, there are needed both wise decision at highest political
echelons in all countries, and a new attitude from the part of citizens of developed
countries, and emergent economies; there is needed a new mentality for all citizens of
the planet Earth.
The renewable and atoms have not only strong points; there are minuses, for them, too,
while their implementation brings heat political debates (Froggatt and Levi, 2009).
Political leadership has to lead the de-carbonization process of world economy in a
tense environment, taking account of climate change and energy security, and of public
opinion and social trends. For political leaders the decision vice has two components:
one is objective, containing energy security and climate change, while the other is
subjective, political parties looking closely to the public opinion trends and desires,
34
searching to size any opportunity which would bring a greater voting share for them, and
lookingătoăavoidăanyăpublicăpositionăwhichăwouldădamageăinăelectoralămoments…
It is noteworthy to mention that we can look at nuclear with hope, and with fear. The
discoveries in atomic field and the technological progress in this high-tech area gave the
th
20 century’sămanăaăhugeăpowerăoverămatterăandănature.ăThisăhasăbeenăhisălongădream:
toă masteră theă nature…ăAndă theă atomică ageă placedă himă onă theă highestă peaks.ă Bută thisă
has brought with it enormous risks for his fellows, and for him: there appeared for the
first time in human history the possibility to annihilate human civilization, and even the
whole life on the Earth, as a consequence of an all-out atomic war. There appeared the
balance of terror, looming over all of humankind. A nuclear war between nuclear powers
would have meant the end of history. And this is the case with all human inventions. As
pointedăKapitzaă(inăEpsteinăandăWebster,ă1983:ă59),ă“[T]he society which created these
things is modeled by them, finding that it is extremely difficult to have an objective and
responsible attitude towards them”.
The problem for humankind and for the of the pillars present civilization is based upon is
the way resources are exploited and consumed in order to produce energy, which only
promote proud and vanity. The signals regarding climate changes – detectible starting in
theă ‘60să – have become more and more visible as we close to present days; and
presentă trendsă andă future’să perspectiveă mustă activateă ină oură conscienceă theă menacesă
humankind will surely face.
Over the high volatility of international system, new poles of power fighting for
dethroning old ones complicating furthermore geopolitical equations at global level,
humankind must face a new challenges, rising the complexity for decision-making.
Aspects such as food, water, energy, and environment have become the heat subjects
on the agenda of influential international think-tanks (RIIA, CFR, CoR, CEIP), and these
elements have a great potential to generate huge tensions in the future, both at
domestic, and at international level.
If the food, water, and the environment are the key-elements for the life on the planet
Earth, energy andă theă controlă overă natureă usingă energyă sourcesă providedă man’să
ascension to the position of dominant specie on Earth. But this brings with it a great
responsibility,ăwhichămanăhasn’tăprovedăyetăthatăheăwasătotally aware. This has brought
overt political crises, ending in military conflicts, when man killed his fellow. Furthermore,
energy resources – and especially oil, after it has become the key-element for
transportation and car industry – became the gold which brought states in a state of war
against one another. While the trade of oil has become extremely militarized, even there
aren’tă overtă politicală oră militaryă clashes;ă ină thisă context,ă oilă andă armă transfersă areă
inextricably linked, with oil being the enemy of freedom.
Entering into nuclear age opened new opportunities for mankind: the control over the
atom has provided a new energy source with enormous potential. The sin where man
stepped in immediately he had discovered how to manipulate the atoms, was exactly
the discoveries which gave man the knowledge to use the atoms to destroy his fellows,
and the environment. He created the most destructive weapon in human history: the
nuclear bomb. The great sin of this discovery resides in military applicability of the
knowledge from atomic field. History teaches us the effects of the two atomic explosions
in Japan; and today they are labeled as low-power thermo-nuclearămechanisms…
Using nuclear energy on a greater scale to produce energy has clear advantages face
to face with other energy resources, both classical, and unconventional ones, but
imminentă risksă whichă couldă harmă life,ă peopleă andă environment’să health,ă andă theă statesă
which are developing nuclear programs,too.
Risingă people’să numberă globallyă overlappingă theă rising emerging economies will surely
bring fiercer competition for access to energy sources, and for control over their
transportation routes. Rising consumption brings higher prices for energy, but their
35
burning vents in the atmosphere greenhouse gases. In this angle, nuclear appears as a
constant source of energy, having a great capacity, and providing energy without
producing CO2 emissions.
There are other green energy sources, each one has its weak points; and world
economy’să de-carbonization could be attaint with only these green sources. But the
costs for such an action would be far greater than in the case nuclear is present in the
global energy mix in a significant percentage. Any try of de-carbonization of energy and
transportation systems must have the nuclear on the agenda, together with green
energyăsources’ăexpansion.ăPeacefulănuclearăexpansionăbringsăbenefitsăsuch:ăităprovidesă
energy in a relatively constant manner; big installed capacity; lowest CO2 emissions;
energyă sources’ă diversificationă both in developed and in emerging economies. If
transport system de-carbonization would simultaneously be attained, electricity which
would be produced in atomic power plants could provide the necessary energy for road
and rail transportation.
Developing high-speed railways and trains for small and medium distances, coupled
with electrical cars or hybrid-carsăwouldăreduceătransportation’sădependenceăonăoil,ăandă
CO2ăemissionsădueătoătransportăactivities.ăWhenătransportationsăaren’tădependentăonăoil,ă
there will be reduced the influence oil exporting countries over oil consumption markets,
bringing great social and geopolitical effects: there will be registered a radical
reorientation in international relations, bringing irreversible changes at domestic level in
oil exporting countries such as a deeper democratization and a greater role for women
in society and in family.
Reducing gas dependency is an important matter, too. The natural gas resources are
concentrated in a lower number of countries in comparison with oil possessing
countries,ăwhileăităisătransportedăusingăpipelines,ărisingăimportingăcountries’ăvulnerability.
Gazprom giant is a strong example, and Moscow influence using this energetic arm
could be felt repeatedly since 1991. The dependency on gas brings with it strategic
vulnerability, while a massive orientation toward gas in the context of economy de-
carbonization means greater gas consumption, and higher price for this commodity,
lowering economic competitiveness and rising food prices (natural gas is a key-element
forăfertilizers’ăproduction).
Nucleară power’să expansionă couldă simultaneouslyă reduceă theă vulnerabilityă givenă toă aă
higher price for gas, and to the dependency on gas exporting countries. This means a
greater freedom in foreign policy for consuming state. The existence of the energetic
base which could not be influenced by countries which export energy resources or by
those which control access to them brings reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
together with the reduction of the influence those countries could exert. How would look
like such a world, and what role would be reserved for countries such as Russia,
Venezuela,ăNigeria,ăAngola…ăTheăbenefitsăcouldăbeăidentifiedăinălowerăCO2ăemissions,ă
andăatătheăinternationalăsystem’sălevel,ătoo.
France’săexampleăcanăbeăbroughtăhere:ădueătoătheămostăsuccessfulănuclearăprogramăină
the world, Paris succeeded to endow France with an energy amount equivalent to 80
mil. tones of oil (Wiesenfeld, 1998). Today in France there are 58 nuclear reactors in
use, providing 78% of its electricity, while 40% of primary energy is France is based
upon nuclear (Lester and Rosner, 2009: 25).
In the US almost 90% of emissions generated in energy production are due to coal,
while it counts only for 52% in electricity production balance (The Future of Nuclear
Power: An Interdisciplinary Approach,ă 2003:ă 18).ă Andă asă coal’să burningă hitsă mostă theă
environment, it has the lowest energetic capacity, related to installed capacity. But is has
a large base at global level – a lot of countries having great coal reserves – and for this
reason decision regarding energy systems took account of coal, as a major energy
source for heat and electricity generation.
36
But in the context of climate changes, coal menaces our future the most, and identifying
and spreading new technologies for carbon capture and stocking, together with nuclear
expansionă couldă beă viableă solutionsă bothă foră diversification,ă andă CO2ă emissions’ă
reduction; and this is a remarkable point in a historical moment when China connects to
its national grid two new coal power stations each week (Burton, 2010: 185).
ExpectingănewăpoliticalăsolutionăatăinternationalălevelăaimingăatăCO2ăemission’sătaxation,ă
reducing dependency on fossil fuels and reorientation to alternative energy sources,
bring a new force for decisions concerning nuclear energy.
Nuclear addresses simultaneously toă numerousă itemsă writtenă onă states’ă agendaă
(Lauvergeon, 2009: 91): it is sustainable (it vents the lowest amount of CO2
emissions/kWh in comparison all other energy sources, making it attractive in the
context of climate change debates); it is competitive (Lauvergeon, 2009: 92), even in the
absence of tax imposed on CO2 emissions; it provides energy security, because
uranium reserves are located in politically stable countries, the uranium reserves being
200 times many over the present necessity (Lauvergeon, 2009: 92), while the global
market for uranium works smoothly.
Furthermore, the uranium (the fuel) represents only 10% of the total costs of electricity
generation, while in the case of coal the share is 77%, and for natural gas, it rises to
93% (Rowe, 2009: 86).
Other advantages of nuclear expansion overcoming the framework of energy generation
are connected to medical care, agriculture, and hydrology. Countries located in areas
known for long and severe droughts, but having seashore could contemplate peaceful
nuclear projects in order to provide both electricity, and desalinized water, rising
agricultural potential for those areas, too. And the know-how in the nuclear field in the
agriculture could create a scientific base for rising agricultural potential in the context of
climate changes, as new knowledge could provide resilient seeds and types of harvest;
while the applicability of nuclear researches in medicine has positive uses. Of course,
there could appear in time secondary effects of irradiation used in medical treatment
(nausea, radio-generated sarcoma).
But as Cirincione sais (2008), the biggest sin of nuclear technology resides in the fact
that big problems come in small packages; it is necessary only a small quantity of
fissionable material (Uranium 235 or Plutonium 239). As peaceful nuclear researches
(could) overlap the military researches, the nuclear expansion could give to a greater
number of states in the possession of knowledge in this important scientific field
knowledge with military applicability. There are some parts of nuclear fuel cycle with civil
applicability and military application which overlap (Yudin, 2010): mining and milling,
which gives Uranium 308, which is passed through a conversion process, after which
there is obtained Uranium hexafluoride (UF6), material which is passed to enrichment
process. The same knowledge and installations used to enrich Uranium at low levels (4-
5%), preparing it to be used as fuel in nuclear reactors to produce electricity, could be
used to enrich it up to the level of 80% U235; in this moment it has become fissile
material with direct military applicability. Furthermore, when over Uranium enrichment,
there is the other part of nuclear fuel cycle: it concerns the separation the Plutonium
from the burned fuel used in peaceful nuclear reactors. This process has to do with the
fissileămaterial’săreprocessingăandătheăseparationăofăPlutoniumăfromăthisămaterial; in that
moment this Plutonium could be used in military direction. But if there are needed 25 kg
U235 to build an atomic weapon, in the case of Pu239, there is needed only the small
quantity of 5 kg, but this plutonium based weapon has a much greater destructive force
(practically as great as one wants), because of adding tritium (Jackson, 2009: 1163).
Theăviceăpressingăonădevelopingăcountriesăwhichădon’tăhaveăpeacefulănuclearăreactorsă–
reducing the vulnerability connected to energy resources and cutting greenhouse gas
emissions – makes them to look with optimism to it. But nuclear expansion at global
37
level aiming at cutting emissions through nuclear expansion brings risks at international
security level: peaceful nuclear programs and researches could in time be redirected to
military programs (Jackson, 2009: 1157), rising the instability in the areas which already
are known for their instability.
This is a very important reason why nuclear expansion to developing economies which
don’tă haveă alreadyă nuclear reactors is regarded with suspicion. Even nuclear has
unquestionable merits it has some characteristics which hinders its expansion.
As the expertise, material, scientific, and human bases employed in peaceful nuclear
researches could be redirected to military applicability, making these states potential
candidates for the club of nuclear armed states Rauf (in Brener-Maerli and Lodgaard,
2007: 274), with complex implication in the field of international security, the expansion
of peaceful nuclear could meet real barriers, or to encounter those risen by public
opinion (or by some political currents, having as key-figure the debate over nuclear,
hoping to gain in this way political capital, as is recently the case in Germany).
There are real fears connectedătoănuclearăenergyă andănuclearăreactors’ăoperation,ăandă
the notable accidents from Three Mile Island (1979), Cernobil (1986), and Fukushima
(2011)ă couldă signală usă theă reală dangersă ofă nucleară energy…ă Evenă ifă theă oddsă ofă aă
nuclear accident is very small, nuclear expansion to new states, and its multiplication in
states already possessing it would rise the probability of nuclear accidents.
Until nuclear reactors are 100% sure – until the moment that a nuclear accident will not
generate radiations at all – the possibility of a catastrophe floats over peaceful nuclear
programs (Feiveson, 2009: 65), over places where nuclear reactors operate, and in the
nearby area, and over whole humankind.
Although mankind posses a cumulated experience of about 13000 years/reactor
(Meserve, 2009: 105), the risk associated with an accident at an active nuclear power
plant must not be underestimated. And any accident somewhere in the world would
surely reopen the already heated debates related to peaceful nuclear energy, the safest
plant or the best operating system becoming in this way prisoner to the weakest link and
most vulnerable plant in this truly global nuclear chain.
To this risk, there is wise to add the possibility of a criminal act oriented against an
active nuclear power plant, coming from a terrorist organization, a very zealous
employeeăbelievingătoămuchăinătheă“green”ăcolor’sămerits,ăorăfromăsomeăotherăstateăwhichă
– due to war state of affairs – could search to hit peaceful nuclear installation in its rival
state, affecting quickly and irreversibly the targeted state (through cutting its energetic
base,ăsimultaneouslyăwithăpublicăandămilitaryămorale’săsapping),ătheăregion at large, and
the conceptions regarding international security.
Furthermore, terrorist organizations are looking tirelessly to gain access to fissile
material, in order to us it in an atomic explosion, or in a dirty bomb. Peaceful nuclear
expansion means a rising number of places where they could found the much desired
material; and this is a major and real risk for the West, because it connects a very
sophisticated technology with boiling religious fanaticism.
Russian Federation and Pakistan are most weak links in this chain; many times in the
past, terrorists searched there to obtain fissionable material. But there is a difference
betweenă them:ă whileă ină Russiaă terroristsă searchedă toă “buy”ă theă materială – and we can
note here the Snejinsk incident and precarious guarding system at Seversk (Bunn,
2009: 118) – in Pakistan there exists the possibility that well organized and armed
extremists would enter the deposits where are Pakistani nuclear nukes, with devastating
consequences at global level. The determination of terrorists organization in this
direction noted in the past and connected to this risk makes us aware about it (Bunn,
2009: 118).

38
And over nuclear reactors and the places nuclear stockpiles are located, the places
where used nuclear fuel is located could become the object of a terrorist attack, rising
the risks of contamination over larger areas.
Public opinion could be in its turn a hindrance for peaceful nuclear programs; there are
states where nuclear energy is regarded with suspicion. As a consequence of Three
Mile Island accident, Sweden (in 1980) passed a law forbidding new nuclear reactor’să
construction and a gradual elimination of nuclear power; after Cernobil (1986), Italy
decides in 1987– after there was initiated a referendum – to close all its four nuclear
reactors (Joskov and Parsons, 2009: 45).
If states with tradition in centralization (China and Russia) could pass relatively quickly
on the path of nuclear expansion without caring much about the public opinion, countries
having more democratic systems take decisions with public opinion in mind. And as
nuclear gains quickly public attention – due to public and personal perceptions related to
it – any incident or accident rise heat public debates and this can be captured by the
nuclear opponents, rising their importance and presence in public conscience, with
direct consequences for them, especially if there follows election.
But the greatest minus of peaceful nuclear energy has to do with its connection to the
nuclear bomb. The peaceful nuclear expansion to new states could take place only there
is manifesting a real disarmament process, nuclear armed states engaging in good faith
negotiations with this sincere aim in mind.
A disarmament process stared by the most powerful nuclear states (Russia and USA),
expanded thereafter to all other nuclear armed states in a multilateral framework, could
become the strong base for the peaceful nuclear expansion, eliminating the risk of
horizontal proliferation while there is taking place the nuclear expansion; it is an
important step forward on the way to renounce to national control over nuclear programs
by nuclear states (Socolow and Glaser, 2009: 41), over national enrichment facilities
and/or plutonium reprocessing.
Such a process could bring great benefits to mankind both directly due to a gradual, and
a definitive and irreversible nuclear disarmament, and indirectly through the creation of
preconditions aimed at peaceful nuclear expansion to new states, without fearing the
uncontrolled nuclear proliferation.

In conclusion
Rising importance of climate changes debates on international agenda without taking
account of all aspects concerning the de-carbonization of world economy and
transportation, could be a cure more dangerous to global system, to society and the
environment than the disease brought upon mankind by climate changes: massive
expansion of peaceful nuclear energy in present international context and domestic
politics of peculiar states could be greater risks to mankind than climate changes effects.
But if there will be some positive (and irreversible) changes concerning military
applicability of nuclear researches, peaceful nuclear expansion must be reconsidered,
with the greatest attention, and seriousness

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Bunn,ă M.ă (2009)ă ’Reducingă theă greatestă risksă ofă nucleară theftă Ță terrorism’,ă Daedalus,
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Cirincione, J. (2008) Bomb Scare. The History and Future of Nuclear Weapons, New
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Feiveson,ăH.ăA.ă(2009)ă’Aăskeptic’săviewăofănuclearăenergy’,ăDaedalus, Fall, pp. 60-70.

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*** The Future of Nuclear Power: An Interdisciplinary Apporach (2003), MIT.

40
MULTILATERAL DIPLOMACY AND INTERNATIONAL REGIMES

Benea Ciprian – Beniamin

Department of International Business
Faculty of Economics, University of Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: The history of diplomacy can by divided in three main periods: one is that of
occasional diplomacy peculiar to Middle Ages, while other belong to permane
diplomacy, peculiar to modern times. But this one can be divided in two parts, too: one
st
with a bilateral character, previos to 1 World War, and one with a multilateral character,
st
manifested especially after the end on 1 World War. This third type is the focus of
present paper. And it cannot be separated from the newly international constructs:
international regimes, and international organizations. International instritutions – the
area where international regimes are belonging to – are legal constructs which provide
the formal (and) legal framework for continous negotiations. They are the most visible
part of the new diplomacy – the one which has a permanent character, and it has an
more open face. Anyway, the most important connection has to do with the international
institutions, international regimes, and multilateral international negotiations. In the era
of the new diplomacy, they all have a permanent character. International institutions help
international negotiations’ carring on; while in their turn, they provide the base for
international regimes’ creation, and especially for their evolution. The international
regimes’ evolution is an inseparable part of a permanent international framework. And if
there is missing a permanent international framework (international organization)
connected to a specific regime, this regime is a difuse one, its members have only
informal relations among them, while they survey each other, looking at their behavior,
but they don’t have a formal relationship among them, which could help them solving
their future common interests, and protect them from their common fears. International
regimes are very important in the era when evrithing touches, and influences everything.
In the same time, the complexity of our present world can be successfully handeled only
by common efforts made by all interested states. International regimes are made from
two main parts: one regards the principles, norms, rules, and procedures peculiar to a
specific international area, while the other has to do with the evolutionary process of
these regimes – sustained by a permanent organizational framework, and permanent
negotiations. They help their members to attain their goals in conditions of incertitude,
without arriving at such a tensions as to degenerate in war. Looking them through in this
angle, international regimes can be regarded as peaceful means for advancing states’
interests.

Keywords: international negotiations; international regimes; multilateral negotiations;

norms; principles

JEL classification: A10; K33; F60

There are three steps in the history of diplomacy. The first one regards the disrupted
diplomacy specific to Middle Age, when embassies had an irregular form; the second
one regards the period between Middle Ages and the first part of 21-st century, while the
last one started after World War 2.
For the second part of the great history of diplomacy, there was a normal thing to have
only secret channels of contacts between states through ambassadors – which were
accredited for a short or a longer mission abroad; after 1919, there appeared what we
normally call open diplomacy. This does not mean that all details negotiated are

41
presented to the public, at large, but the result of debates is public presented. With this,
diplomacy has entered a public sphere; and it is called an open diplomacy. Of course,
not all details are presented to the general public, and it is not keep informed about all
aspects of negotiations, but from time to time, there is some public debates and
presentations concerning the subject of negotiations.
Of course, there are some subjects of negotiations which need a large audience in order
to bring support for a peculiar cause, while other are still kept in the greatest secret…ăIfă
negotiations belonging to the first group are negotiations concerning global population,
and its possible trends, education, health, environment and climate changes, the
negotiations carried on in the UN Security Council, or those concerning an arms’ă
transfer,ăorăarms’ăproduction,ăbelongedătoătheăsecondătype,
Anyway, there is more openness today than in the past, and although there is a lot of
informationătoăkeepăusăalertăwithăinternationalăevolution,ăthereăcanăappearăaă“suffocation”ă
effect given by too much information which can be very difficult to manage. Today we
have great access, but there is too much information, and too much information
channelsătoăselect…
In this context, international institutions help international system to work smoothly, and
sustain it through the creation of the needed framework for international regimes’ă
building. These regimes are indispensable for 20-st, and especially for the 21-st century
world; while they are compulsory for multilateral diplomacy to work smoothly. They help
states to solve problems with international (and global) implications which are rooted in
common interests, or common fears.
In this moment we can easy note that there appeared a new type of diplomatist, one
which is not preoccupied especially with political affairs as he had been before 1919,
and whose characteristics are well detailed by de Callieres and re-detailed focusing on
that reference by Waquet (2005); instead he has become a specialist, being focused
upon different aspects of problems with international character.
And as one easy can note, transportations (and communications in general) have a
genuinely international character. It is not a hazard that the first crerated international
institutions were focused on international communications and post sending. Both of
them sprang after the multilateral talks were held in Paris, after 1850.
After that, and especially after 1919, when the League of Nations was created, there has
become impossible to speak about globalization without bring into debate international
institutions, and their unmistakable effect: international regimes.
Studying the history of diplomacy, one could note that it could be delimited into two main
periods: one commencing in ancient times ending at the end of the 15-th century, while
the other starts in that period, and runs into present times; it is characterized by the
permanentă diplomacy’să appearanceă andă theă accreditationă andă theă improvementă ofă
diplomatic methods and institutions. This new type of diplomacy has in its greatest part a
th
bilateral form – ită isă theă “classical”ă oră “traditional”ă diplomacy.ă Bută startingă withă theă 19-
century,ă thereă couldă beă identifiedă andă recognizedă aă newă divisionă here:ă thereă isă aă “newă
diplomacy”,ăasăaăpartăofătheăpermanentădiplomacyă– it is the multilateral diplomacy.
Lord Hankey mentioned that 1914 was the year when diplomacy started to take place
underă theă conferences’ă umbrellasă (Maliţa,ă 1975:ă 319). As was pointed by Nicolson
(1955), the appearance of this new type of diplomacy promoted by W. Wilson in 1914
represented the continuation of conflict peculiar to 19-th century, concerning the
opposition between the common interests of humankind, and the exclusive national
rights.ăTheă“progressăofădiplomaticătheoryăhasămanifestedăstartingăwithătheăconceptionăofă
exclusive tribal rights, ending in a more comprehensive conception – that of inclusive
common interests (Nicolson, 2005).
The division of labor (at domestic and international levels), the appearance of new
technologies which helped man to control space and nature, which reflected themselves
42
in new transportations means, have played a decisive role in rising interdependence
among states, at global stage. Exactly this greater interdependence has generated
changes regarding diplomatic practices, and negotiations – whichăare,ăasăMaliţaăpointsă
out (2007), the core of diplomacy.
In the same context, multilateral diplomacy became the norm, while the exception had to
be reserved to bilateral diplomacy; and some peculiarities of these negotiations carried
on at international level have started to influence their character, and their results.
Some norms and principles started to guide the thinking of key-policy makers, and the
way negotiations were carried on during pre-negotiations phase, during negotiations per
se, but especially after the negotiations ended, during post-negotiations period.
These new elements which were brought in by convergent expectations and similar
behaviorsăgaveăbirthătoăsocialăinstitutionsăwhichăcouldăbeă“covered”ăunderătheăaegisăofăană
agreement;ă bută afterwardsă theyă influencedă aă lotă signatoryă states’ă actions,ă duringă theă
post-agreement phase.
Those actions regard the agreement’să conclusionă ată theă endă ofă properă negotiations,ă
when participants agree to a formula, while during post-negotiations phase the details
follow to be debated, identified, and agreed to. The formula had success if it works for
specific cases; it helps providing a guide for different problems (Zartman and Berman,
1982).
The formula establishes, and provides the criteria on which is based the future
problems’ăsolving.
Sometimes,ă theă negotiationsă cannotă giveă shapeă toă detailsă usingă theă formula’să
framework, thus being directed to reformulate the framework, in order to provide the
necessary peculiarities to implement it successfully. There were cases when a quick
arrived at formula needs a great span of time for detailed aspects to be found and
implemented, and only passing through a difficult and complex process. The advantage
for participants is that they communicate and learn together (both from others, and from
themselves experience).
These processes are facilitated if there is a framework which provides an efficient and
permanent contact among the parties which intend to find together a solution for the
problems they face.
As a consequence, between these negotiations and the framework where they take
place establishes a very strong and stable connection, which has a great importance.
The framework existence ensures the continuity of negotiations process; while any
changeă whichă couldă influenceă theă resultsă arrivedă ată beforeă couldă beă “managed”ă asă toă
absorb tensions and changes to fit a new context. This framework could be presented
as international institutions (in a large manner), or as international regimes (in a more
restrictive sense).
There is present a strong connectivity between regimes, international organizations, and
multilateral negotiations. One cannot separate them, without affecting all of them.
Ană internatională regimeă meansă moreă thană aă formula’să findingă throughă ană agreementă
concluding;ătheăregimesăcouldăbeăseenăasăsomeă“sortsăofăgovernmentalăarrangements”,ă
whichăcompriseă“networksăofăprinciples,ărules, and procedures which regulates behavior,
andăcontrolăitsăeffects”ă(KeohaneăandăNye,ă1977).
A scientist belonging to rationalist school of international relations underscores the great
role of institutions and rules for international society to work smoothly, the general
“imperativeă principles”ă guidingă someă personsă oră groupsă ofă personsă toă behaveă ină aă
predeterminedămanner”ă(Bull,ă1977).
To him, international institutions help interested states adhering to peculiar rules,
following their formulation, communication, administration, implementation,
interpretation, legitimization, and adaptation.

43
In this meaning, regimes mean much more than a simple temporary agreement which
changesă asă aă consequenceă ofă poweră capabilities’ă changing,ă and/oră newă interests’ă
identification. Regimes and agreements are very different: while agreements are arrived
at through a one-hită decision,ă theă regimes’ă maină aimă isă toă facilitateă concludingă ofă
agreements (Krasner, 1983). As Robert Jervis points out (in Krasner, 1983: 173), a
“regimeămeansămoreăthanănormsăandăexpectationsăwhichăfacilitateăcooperation”,ăaimingă
at a cooperation which crosses over the point focused only at unilateral short term
gains.
Others authors, such as Puchala and Hopkins (in Krasner, 1983: 62) present regime as
a phenomena influenced by its components which exert pressures upon behavior. It has
principles (beliefsăofăfactsăandărectitude)ăregardingăproceduresăforădecisions’ătakingăandă
norms (which proscribe or prescribe types of behavior). Each regime has its elites which
are its actors; and the regime can appear in any field of international relations where
there could be identified a behavior which can be squared in a peculiar framework.
Theseă cană beă identifiedă readingă Krasner’să regimeă definitionă (Krasner,ă 1983):ă
“international regimes are defined as principles, norms, rules, and decision-making
proceduresă aroundă whichă actors’ă expectationsă converge”ă ină aă specifică fieldă ofă
international relations.
Butălookingămoreăclosely,ăthisăisăanăincompleteădefinition;ăitădoesn’tătake into account of
theă processă concerningă regime’să operation,ă whichă sustainsă itself.ă Ină thisă angle,ă theă
Zartman’să definitionă (ină Spectoră andă Zartman,ă 2003:ă 14)ă isă moreă actuală andă moreă
comprehensive;ăheăpointsăoutăthat,ăinternationalăregimesăareă“continuous bi-dimensional
negotiations carried on among sovereign states, in order to solve the coordination
problemăinătheăconditionsăofăincertitude.”
Furthermore, Zartman (in Spector and Zartman, 2003: 19) mentions that regimes
become instruments of international cooperation – instruments for collective
coordinationăandăinterdependencies’ămanagement.
Coordinationă andă managementă areă necessary,ă becauseă theyă facilitateă information’să
circulation for organizing the negotiation process, providing of standards, providing
functionsă andă roles,ă monitoringă fulfillmentă ofă arrivedă ată terms,ă conflict’să reduction,ă andă
disputes’ăsolving.
If the principles are beliefs of facts, rectitude, or causality, norms are standards of
behavior defined in terms of rights and obligations, rules are prescriptions or
proscriptions concerning future actions, while procedures for decision-making are
agreed upon practices regarding the way collective actions are taken, and how they are
implemented (Krasner, 1983). But Zartman sees a regime through a larger angle: a
regime is much more than principles, norms, rules, procedures, and behaviors. It is an
institutionalized effort which provides a real framework for these elements of the regime,
and monitors them, providing a base for their fulfillment and sustaining. But here it must
be mentioned that this institutionalization is an international one, and not a supranational
one.
And here everyone could easily observe that there is a natural connection among
international regimes, international institutions, and international multilateral
negotiations.
In this way, the institutional framework provides a permanent forum for carrying on
continuous multilateral negotiations under the umbrella of principles, norms, rules, and
procedures which generate convergent behavior and expectations.
In this new angle, Cede (in Kremenyuk, 2002: 155) thinks that, the aim of international
negotiationsă cană beă thată ofă solvingă aă divergentă positionă throughă aă regime’să creation,ă
which almost always is followed by institutional understandings and arrangements. And
the results of negotiations carried on for the creation of a new international institution or
a new international organization is an effort which belongs to the same category – that
44
ofă aă newă regime’să creation.ă Thisă isă theă reason why international regimes and
international organizations appear as legal constructs. And Zartman (in Spector and
Zartman, 2003: 26-29) says that they provide a permanent and formal framework which
helps carrying on recursive multilateral negotiations which gives a peculiar dynamic and
evolution to an international regime.
This evolution is due to previous experience and to the elements which gave the regime
aă peculiară feature,ă helpingă regime’să maintainingă onă theă oneă side,ă andă toă theă followingă
elements, on the other side: a) reactions givenă byă regime’să memberă statesă (whichă
continuously are searching for maintaining or gaining or regaining through negotiations
whată theyă hadă wonă oră hadn’tă wonă oră hadă lostă ină theă previousă negotiations);ă b)ă theă
cybernetic series of links between domestic governance and international governance –
this is because after the international negotiations had ended, the regime comes back to
theăparticipatingăstates’ădomesticăscene,ăwhereăthereăwouldăfollowătheăimplementationăofă
the aspects convened at international level. And there are necessary new negotiations
carried on at national level (in governmental agencies, where there could be registered
pressuresă comingă fromă society’să sideă channeledă byă nongovernmentală organizations).ă
The results of these negotiations is a new set of elements which will be enforced as a
consequence of previous negotiations, and a new entries which will be the subject of
future international negotiations. This is both, a domestic reactions and an interaction,
an integral component of the regime in evolution; c) exogenous factors involving
accidents, unforeseen challenges, new information or acknowledgments, and other
“influences”ăofăchangesăcomingăfromătheăoutsideăăăă
Asăweăcanăobserve,ătheăregime’săevolutionăis a continuous negotiation process, and the
regime’săevolutionăisărealizedăthroughăpost-agreement negotiations. But this evolution of
a regime through negotiations is facilitated by the existence of a formal and permanent
framework provided by international organizations.
There was a case in history when there was a regime in being, but an international
organization to provide a permanent formal framework for it, missed altogether. It is the
case of colonialism, an era when the relations among great powers were regulated by a
regime prescribing some sorts of behavior among main centers of colonialism and their
behavior in relation with their colonial subjects. It was a geographically and functionally
opaque regime, a pluralistic exercise obtained through reciprocal monitoring, in its
greatest part being informal. There were just a few codified international rules
concerning this regime, and for this reason a permanent international organization to
helpăgoverningăthisăregime,ădidn’tăexisted.
The transformation for this regime took place in a revolutionary manner, due to a
comprehensive changing of principles the governments were taking account when they
conductedătheirăinternationalăaffairs.ăDuringă’60săasăaăcontra-regime was taking shape to
counterbalance the old colonial regime, there were specified, legitimized, and
institutionalized by UN General Assembly and its subsidiaries the norms prescribing
decolonization. Personalities changed, norms were modified, power, and its distribution
at international level had changed, too.
Conversely, a regime whose evolution is ensured by multilateral negotiations carried
under a formal framework like an international organization is a very specific regime, not
an opaque one; it is characterized by formality, not informality, its evolution being a step-
by-step changing one, and not a revolutionary one.
Most of the international regimes took off after international conferences took place,
when there were established international organizations which provided a permanent
and expert framework for specific international aspects. It is the case of international
institutions (organizations and regimes) in areas such: food, work and migration, trade,
international finance and investments, health, weather, tourism, culture, communications
(postal, telecommunications, and all types of transport).
45
Some international regimes appear in a larger framework provided by international
organizations, and their evolution is ensured exactly by the presence of a permanent
institution sustaining specificăformalămultilateralănegotiations.ăTheăregimes’ăsustainabilityă
is due to general assembly of those institutions, their councils, congresses, or other
organs belonging to international organizations, while their monitoring is ensured by the
international bureaucracy. These are the regimes which are included in the family of
formal regimes.
In a world composed by sovereign states, the main function of international regimes is
thată ofă statesă behavior’să coordinationă ină orderă toă gaină neededă resultsă ină aă specific
domain of international relations; Keohane (in Krasner, 1983: 146) points that in the
international system, the regimes birth as a result of voluntary agreements concluded
amongă actorsă withă equală poweră fromă legală pointă ofă view.ăTheă regime’să existence helps
concluding the agreements because they provide superior quality and quantity of
information, while reducing the transaction costs, too. Furthermore, the cost for the
creation of a regime would be reduced if there exists a formal communications among
states; and the international organizations provide exactly this needed framework.
Oran Young (in Krasner, 1983: 93-97) specifies that an established path of behavior
inevitably generates convergent expectations. This brings a conventionalized behavior
which would give birth to recognized and acceptable norms, and if there could be
identified actions and activities which could be connected among them, there should
appear convergent norms and procedures.
Throughă interconnectedă activities’ă identification,ă there could be generated convergent
norms and procedures. While creating transnational links, where elites have a central
role – being practical actors on international stage – there could be provided a climate
favorableă toă theă negotiations’ă caringă on.ă The post-negotiations become in this way
negotiationsă“amongăfriends,ăbasedăuponătheăpreviousăagreement,ăwhereătheădegreeăofă
understandingăandătheăconsensualăknowledge’săexistenceăsustainăaăcommonăframeworkă
for a peculiar problem and its solution. As mentioned by Spector (in Spector and
Zartman, 2003: 80-81), the post agreement negotiations have a great chance to work
smoothly, adapting themselves to previous agreement.
Working on and establishing a partial agreement by diplomats brings with it a continuous
negotiation (permanent negotiation) under the aegis of an international forum, helping to
continue the work previously started. Spector (in Spector and Zartman, 2003: 61) thinks
that these future negotiations become in the most cases a major component of an
international regime.
Theăcontinuityămanifestsăinăconnectionă withăparties’ăexperience,ătoo.ăAsătheănegotiatorsă
have developed common expectations, have generated common norms and principles,
and have thought about the effects of their choosing, the continuity becomes a learning
process,ă partiesă learningă toă simulateă aă progressiveă advanceă foră commonă problems’ă
solving,ăthroughăbypassingăpastămistakes,ăeitherăthroughăcreativeăsolution’săproposal.ăă
This learning process is facilitated especially by international organisms; they have a
permanent character, and due to this peculiarity, the problems debated inside them
receive a permanent character; the point which could not be successfully concluded in a
specific moment could be resoluted in a more favorable contextă ină theă future…ă
Furthermore, new gained knowledge as a consequence of the learning process,
changes in power and interests, and the benefits of innovation in technical field provide
an international regime with the peculiarity of continuity and interests’ăsatisfactionăforăitsă
members, because there is a permanent framework for formal debating, where the
actors involved can discuss these aspects. Their efforts would be directed using
international organizations (public or private) from UN specialized agencies, to
specialized forums, secretariats, centers, headquarters, councils, committees, or
conferences.
46
Periodical meetings under the aegis of international organizations have the role of
determining states to think and re-think their policies which would follow to be adopted,
implemented, and to defend them. Puchala and Hopkins (in Krasner, 1983: 85) say that
ifătheăaimăofătheăactorsăwasăregime’săchangingăandăthisăisăaăresultăofăaălearningăprocess,ă
then international institutions and organizations connected to a peculiar regime, became
the classrooms.
Keohane (in Krasner, 1983: 170) says that regimes and the formal debates which
assure through continuous negotiations their evolution are requested and appear in
domains where: there is a high density of problems; regimes are capable to develop
generalized working norms and provide high quality information to political leaders.
Highăproblems’ădensityădemandsăconcludingăofăagreements,ăsustainingăcooperationăandă
actorsăactions’ăcoordination;ăasăproblemsămultiply,ă and as their complexity is rising and
have a deeper impact, the demand for agreements rises dramatically. And as these
agreementsă multiply,ă theă internatională regime’să andă organization’să buildingă isă moreă
pressing. Using these international institutions mean reducing transactional costs,
providing specific information, in the same time, too.
Bută internatională regimesă aren’tă quasi-governments – imperfects trying for the
institutionalization of a relationship, with a central authority in global politics. Lowry says
that regimes close (in Samuels, 1979: 276) more to contracts, involving actors who had
established their long term interests, trying to structure the relationship among them in a
stable, predictable, and in a mutual advantageously manner.
Regimes are like quasi-agreements, where their rules are frequently changed or
cancelledăinăorderătoăfităthemătoătheămoment’săexigencies.ăTheirămostăimportantăfunctionă
is to establish mutual stable expectations regarding the way of behavior of others and to
develop workingă relationsă whichă wouldă sustaină actors’ă adaptationă practicesă toă neweră
situations.
Asă internatională regimes’ă rulesă rarelyă enteră ină forceă automatically,ă theyă becomeă theă
object of future negotiations and re-negotiations, after the initial agreement had been
concluded.ă Theă problemsă encounteredă ată internatională stageă aren’tă statică andă theă
solutionsăforăthem,ătoo;ăwhileătheăpowerăandăinterestsăofăagreement’săsignatoriesă(andăaă
regime’să members)ă areă fluid.ă Internatională actorsă areă conformingă toă ană international
regime’să elements,ă bută ină theă sameă timeă theyă areă tryingă toă changeă theă regime’să normsă
and rules through adaptation, in order to serve their new perceived interests, and their
way to solve their problems.
In order to be sustainable in the long run, international regimes have to register an
evolution: this evolution must be based upon a process of continuous and permanent
negotiations;ăthatăforă“regimesăbirthăasăaăconsequenceăofănegotiationăprocess”,ăandătheyă
enter the evolution phase only through post-agreement negotiations, as pointed by
Spector and Zartman (in Spector and Zartman, 2003: 4).

In conclusion

International regimes help coordinating problems encountered by actors at international

stage. And this coordination takes place through the negotiations, when there are
analyzedăelementsăwhichăinfluenceăactors’ăbehaviorăandătheăwayătheyăareăsearchingăforă
adaptingătoătheănewăsituations’ăpeculiarity.
These negotiations have a multilateral character, and the elites and international
organizations’ă existence, having a permanent character, become the formulas and
frameworks which sustain a permanent contact among international actors. While the
negotiations’ăcarryingăonăresemblesătheăcharacterăofăcontinuity.
We can easily note the strong and direct connection among international organizations,
international regimes, and multilateral diplomacy, and the way its key-function –
47
multilateral negotiation manifests. Specifically, the multilateral negotiation carried on
underătheăaegisăofăinternationalăorganizationă“has the character of a process concerning
theăconstructionăofăaăregime;ăitădoesn’tăforeseeătheăvalues’ădistributionăorăredistributionăină
a direct manner, but is focused upon the general accepted criteria toă establishă values’ă
distribution, or for the performances’ă evaluationă ină aă peculiară context”ă Sjostedtă (ină
Kremenyuk, 2002: 363).
Andă ită isă noteworthyă toă beă mentionedă thată “internatională regime”ă isn’tă synonymousă withă
“internatională organization”,ă althoughă ină mostă ofă theă cases,ă internatională regimesă areă
closely followed by international organizations which aim at supporting them, in different
ways (Young, 1989).

References:
Bull, H. (1977) The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics, New York:
Columbia University Press.
Jervis,ă R.ă (1983)ă ’Securityă Regimes’ă ină Krasner,ă S.ă D.ă (ed.)ă International Regimes,
Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Keohane, R. O. and Nye, J. S. (1977) Power and Interdependence, Boston: Little,
Brown.
Keohane,ăR.ăO.ă(1983)ă’TheăDemandăforăInternationalăRegimes’ăinăKrasner,ă S. D. (ed.)
International Regimes, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Krasner, S. D., ed., (1983) International Regimes, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Krasner,ă S.ă D.ă (1983)ă ’Structurală Causesă andă Regimeă Consequences:ă Regimesă asă
Interveningă Variabiles’ă ină Krasner, S. D. (ed.) International Regimes, Ithaca: Cornell
University Press.
Kremenyuk, V. A., ed., (2003) International Negotiations. Analysis, Approaches, Issues,
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Lowry,ăS.ăT.ă(1979)ă’BargainăandăContractăTheoryăinăLawăandăEconomics’ăinăSamuels,ăW.ă
J. (ed.) The Economy as a System of Power, New Brunswick, N. J.: Transaction Books.
Maliţa,ă Mă (1975)ă Diplomaţia. Şcoli şi instituţii,ă Bucureşti:ă Edituraă Didactic ă şiă
Pedagogic .
Maliţa,ă M.ă (2006)ă Negocierile (ună modelă folosită înă cursulă deă masterată deă Relaţiiă
InternaţionaleădeălaăSNSPAăşiăînăactivit ţileăUniversit ţiiăM riiăNegre).
Maliţa, M (2007) Jocuri pe scena lumii. Conflicte, negocieri, diplomaţie,ă Bucureşti:ă
Editura CH Beck
nd
Nicolson, H. (1955) Diplomacy, 2 edition, London: Oxford Univerity Press.
Samuels, W. J., ed., (1979) The Economy as a System of Power, New Brunswick, N. J.:
Transaction Books, 1979.
Sjostedt,ă G.ă (2002)ă ’Negotiationă onă Tradeă andă theă Environment.ă Variationă ină theă
Multilaterală Approach’ă ină ă Kremenyuk,ă V.ă A.ă (ed.)ă International Negotiations. Analysis,
Approaches, Issues, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Spector, B. I. and Zartman I. W., eds., (2003) Getting it Done. Postagreement
Negotiaiton and International Regimes, Washington DC.: USIP Press.
Spector,ă B.ă I.ă andă Zartman,ă I.ă W.ă (2003)ă ’Regimesă andă Negotiation:ăAnă Introduction’ă ină
Spector, B. I. and Zartman I. W. (eds.) Getting it Done. Postagreement Negotiaiton and
International Regimes, Washington DC.: USIP Press.
Waquet, Jean-C. (2005), Francois de Calleires. L’art de negocier en France sous Louis
XIV,ăParis:ăEditionsăRueăd’Ulm.
Young, O. (1989) International Cooperation: Building Regimes for Natural Resources
and the Environment, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Zartman, I. W. and Berman, M. R. (1982) The Practical Negotiator, New Haven: Yale
University Press.

48
Zartman,ăI.ăW.ă(2003)ă’NegotiatingătheăRapids’ăinăSpector,ăB. I. and Zartman I. W. (eds.)
Getting it Done. Postagreement Negotiaiton and International Regimes, Washington
DC.: USIP Press.

49
AU-DELA DES METHODES TRADITIONNELLES DANS L’ACQUISITION DES
COMPETENCES LINGUISTIQUES DANS UNE LANGUE ETRANGERE – LE BLOG,
UN OUTIL PRATIQUE?

Bogdan Rodica
Department of International Business, Faculty of Economic Science, University of
Oradea, Oradea, România
[email protected]

Abstract: Although the classical and traditional methods have proven effective in seizing
on foreign language skills by pupils and students, new means of communication and
dissemination of information - in the virtual world via Internet - are continuous and
opportune challenges towards progress. The purpose of this paper is to question the
effectiveness of new instruments - namely the blog - for conveying and assimilating the
skills necessary for communicating in another language. We live in a world in which a
wide range of public figures stemming from diverse environments, such as the
academia, mass-media, political and cultural environment, etc. use this tool - the blog -
in order to present in a personal manner their knowledge or opinions, to promote a
different kind of dialogue with their readers, with the audience, with their constituency or
with those interested in the proposed topics. The journalist and the blogger are often
tantamount. Great online publications have a blog button on their site. In such
conditions, is the blog a practical tool for both the teacher and the economy student
learning a new language? A series of pertinent questions are posed: to which extent
can the blog be used as an instrument in teaching and learning a foreign language? Is
the virtual platform a proper place for designing, displaying and posting both practical
and theoretical topics? If preparing such a topic - at an economy student's hands -
entails a significant effort as a self-taught, is this effort best assessed when presenting
a paper before a professor, in the interaction between the two, which coincides with the
evaluation and assessment of the student's work? While the information content is
taught the same for all students, regarding one on one assimilation and evaluation,
could an individual blog - moderated by the student - or a collective blog in which all
students have access be more appropriate? Is the use of a virtual platform more
effective than other traditional methods of language acquisition? All these questions are
legitimate and we propose to formulate answers highlighting our opinion in the following
lines. Together with traditional approaches to teaching and learning, the use of a virtual
platform in acquiring linguistic skills secure attractiveness, novelty and a beneficial,
peculiar dynamic.

Keywords: tradition vs. novelty; blog; virtual; foreign language; linguistic skills.

JEL classification: Y8.

1. À l’aide de la technologie performante est-ce qu’on peut se rendre complètement

autodidacte ?
Les innombrables et indéfiniment diversifiées possibilités de faire circuler l’information et
de s’informer dans le troisième millénaire changent les interrelations entre les acteurs
d’un processus d’enseignement tel qu’il a été conçu et mis en œuvre jusqu’au dernier
siècle et déplacent les vecteurs de la didactique classique et de la pédagogie
traditionnelle.

50
1.1. Pour l’homme postmoderne, l’information et le pouvoir vont de paire
L’hommeă moderneă etă postmoderneă jouită d’ună éventailă quasiă incontrôlableă deă voiesă d’accèsă àă
l’informationăet,ădeăceăfait,ăàădesămodalitésătrèsădifférentesădeăpoursuivreăsaăpropre formation, son
deveniră enă tantă qu’êtreă social,ă culturelă etă professionnel.ă Dèsă lors,ă laă balanceă s’inclineă fortementă
versăl’autodidactisme – c’estăl’hommeăquiăfaităleăchoixădeătextesăetămatièresăqu’ilăveutăparcourirăetă
assimiler, en réduisant considérablementăleărôleădeăl’enseignant.
Àă l’aideă deă laă technologieă moderne,ă trèsă performante,ă l’hommeă tendă àă s’érigeră enă autodidacte,ă
contentădeăsonăindépendance.ăDerrièreăl’écranădeăsonăordinateur,ăilăinteragităavecălesăautresătoută
en instituant un écart de plus en plus important entre l’être réel et un double qu’ilă construită
minutieusementăetălanceălibrementădansăl’universăvirtuel.

1.2. Tradition et nouveauté – le tableau noir vs le blog

Laă questionă quiă nousă préoccupeă estă laă suivante:ă dansă leă processusă d’enseigner une langue
étrangère, est-ceă qu’onă peută supprimeră complètementă l’interactionă directe,ă leă face à face
enseignant-étudiant ?
Le blog, comme nous allons voir en ce qui suit, nous permet de transmettre, communiquer,
promouvoir et distribuer une importante quantitéă d’informationsă deă touteă sorteă sansă qu’uneă
interaction directe du type blogueur-lecteur, soit nécessaire.
Mais,ă enă seă débarrassantădesă méthodesă traditionnellesă d’enseigneră – le tableau noir et la craie
(ou bien le tableau blanc et le marqueur couleur), la lecture de la leçon à haute voix dans la salle
de classe, le dialogue professeur-étudiant, les questions et réponses directes, les exercices et
les devoirs, est-ceă queăl’efficacitéă duăprocessusă didactiqueăresteă laămême ?ă Leă rendementă d’ună
apprenti s’améliore-t-il ? Est-ceăqu’onăpeutăseărendreăcomplètementăautodidacte ?

2. Blogs, blogueur, blogosphère – quelques considérations sur le blog

Avant de répondre à la question essentielle si le blog peut constituer un instrument
pratique dans le processusăd’enseignementăetăd’apprentissageăd’uneălangueăétrangère,ă
essayonsă d’esquisseră quelquesă traitsă etă aspectsă communs,ă généraux,ă maisă aussiă
particuliers des blogs.

2.1. L’accès à l’information sur les blogs

En très peu de mots, le blog est donc, dans la réalité virtuelle, un outil (trans)porteur
d’informations,ă un outil moderne qui facilite la communication, la promotion et la
distribution de l’information.ăD’uneămanièreămêmeăparadoxale,ăceăquiăestămisăenălumièreă
sur Internet gagne un plus de « réalité » - “Whenă ită isă postedă onă theăWeb,ă ită becomesă
moreă real,ă moreă important.ă Peopleă actuallyă lookă ată it.”ă (Grimm,ă citéă pară Sueă Burzynskiă
Bullard dans un article sur Internet « Blogs: An Essential Teaching Tool »).

2.1.1. Données personnelles, expérience professionnelle

Le blog est donc un moyen de partager avec l’autre à la fois ses sentiments et opinions,
ses connaissances et idées, son expérience – de vie et/ou professionnelle. Il est aussi
bienăuneăvoieăd’accèsăauxăsavoirs,ăpensées,ăopinions,ăidéesăetăexpériences des autres.
Leăblogăpeutăêtreăunăexcellentămoyenăd’entamerăunădialogueăavecăceuxăquiăpartagentălesă
mêmes intérêts et préoccupations. En même temps, il est un instrument utile et
redoutable pour employer – enregistrer, stocker et transférer une immense base de
données.

2.1.2. La connaissance du code linguistique

L’accèsăàăcetteăinformationăpratiquementăinépuisable,ăuneăouvertureătousăazimuts,ăresteă
en échange conditionné par la connaissance du code, de la langue, du langage dans
lequelăl’informationăest transmise.
Comment réussir alors, dans cet océan tempétueux, passionné et incontrôlable de
données, dans ce nouveau « babel » de langages, à trouver ce qui vraiment nous
préoccupe, sans nous dissiper et sans nous perdre dans tous les détails qui sont, à la
51
fin, coûteux – leur prix est notre temps – « time is money »?

2.1.3. Toucher l’essentiel

Commentătoucherăleăplusărapidementăpossibleăl’essentielă?ă
Selonă l’expressionă deă Theodoră Adornoă quiă critiqueă leă goûtă excessifă poură l’informationă
dans la culture deă masse,ă ilă paraîtă qu’uneă quantitéă gargantuesqueă d’informationă neă seă
traduităjamaisăparăuneăacquisition,ăparăuneăconquêteădeăl’essentiel : « However useful it
mightăbeăfromăaăpracticalăpointăofăviewătoăhaveăasămuchăinformationăasăpossibleăatăone’să
disposal, there still prevails the iron law that the information in question shall never
touch the essential, shall never degenerate into thought. » (Adorno, cité par Dean,
2010). Dans le cas de la formation à distance, est-ceăqu’onăpeutăalorsăpasserăau-delà de
la surface des choses ?

2.2. Le blog en tant que « double du réel »

Doubleră l’existenceă réelleă d’uneă existenceă virtuelleă neă représenteă plusă l’exceptionă
aujourd’hui.ăC’estăbienăla règle.ăGrâceăàăl’essorăindéniableăetăsoutenuădeălaătechnologie,ă
de la théorie et de la pratique – une véritable industrie de la communication ––, le fait de
vivre « exempt » de toute connexion en ligne devient presque inconcevable,
e
inimaginableăpourăl’hommeăduăXXI siècle.
Enă tantă queă moyenă deă faireă circuleră dansă l’espaceă virtuel telle ou telle information et
d’établiră uneă interactionă avecă lesă lecteurs,ă leă blogă peută constitueră ună double de la
personne (le blog individuel) ou bien le double d’uneă communauté entière (le blog
collectif).

2.2.1. L’identité et le double

e
Si au XX siècleă onă parlaită déjàă d’ună double du réel – pour se légitimer, par exemple,
quiconque doit présenter une carte, une pièce d’identité. Il ne suffit pas de prononcer, à
haute voix, son nom parce que, de cette manière, on ne peut pas supprimer le soupçon
sur l’identitéădeăl’autrui.ăMaisăauămomentăoùăl’individuăfournităuneăpièceăenăcartonăouăenă
plastique,ăsurălaquelleăseătrouveăinscrităsonănomă(leămêmeănomăqu’ilăvenaitădeăprononceră
à haute voix), face à cette « preuve », face à cette « pièce » – délivrée par une
institution autorisée, par une « instance supérieure » –,ăsonăidentitéăn’estăplusămiseăenă
question,ă elleăsortădeăl’empireăduă douteăetă duăsoupçon.ăUne carte d’identité, une pièce
en carton ou en plastique fonctionne – d’uneă façonă licite,ă mêmeă obligatoire – comme
un « double » de la personne réelle (1976, Rosset).

2.2.2. L’identité et le personnage

e
Au XXI siècle, ce phénomène de re-présentation, de « doubler »ăl’êtreă(chairăetăos)ăpară
un avatar, un « personnage », de doubler ou « remplacer » tout individuă s’accroîtă etă
prendădesăformesăqu’onăpeutămultiplierăindéfiniment.ăLaăpersonne – en fait son double /
l’unădeăsesă« personnages » (1989, Tournier) – se rend « accessible » à distance par le
biaisăd’unăréseauădeăsocialisationă(facebook, twitter, instagram etc,),ăd’uneăplateformeădeă
blogs (google, wordpress etc.),ă d’ună siteă internet.ă Commentă alorsă enseigneră ună
« personnage », comment lui transmettre ses connaissances ou son savoir-faire ?

2.2.3. L’identité et le profil

On sait que dans la réalité virtuelle, tout individu se fait valoir à travers son profil.
Les renseignements sur la personne réelle sont soigneusement gérés, rendus visibles
selonăl’intérêtădeăchaqueăblogueur.ă
Dans un article qui mettait en question la juxtaposition du discours autobiographique –
sous la forme du blog personnel – et du langage publicitaire (susceptibleă d’êtreă
52
monétiséăenăapportantădesăbénéfices),ănousăavonsăvuăcommentăl’histoireăpersonnelleădeă
l’individuă peută sortiră deă l’anonymat,ă sortiră duă « tiroir » et devenir « spectacle »ă :ă “Leă
discoursăautobiographiqueăn’estăplusădestinéăàăsoi-même,ăleăjournalăn’estăplusăécrităsură
duăpapier,ăcachéădansăunătiroirădontăl’auteurăgardeăprécieusementălaăclé.ăIlăsortăsurălaă«ă
scène », il devient « spectacle ». Son auditoire ne se trouve plus réuni dans une salle, ni
mêmeăsurăunăstade,ămaisăseămultiplieăd’uneămanièreăindéterminée.”ă(Bogdan,ă2008).ă
Maisăceluiăquiăécrităpeutăseăcacherăindéfinimentăsousăleăvêtementăd’unăprofilăimaginaire,ă
construităd’uneămanièreăconfortableăpourălui-même. Et ceux qui entament et poursuivent
leădialogueăavecăluiăpeuvent,ăàăleurătour,ăgarderăàăl’infiniăleăsecretădeăleurăidentitéăréelle.ă
Leădouteăsurăl’authenticitéădeăsonăinterlocuteur,ăpeut-il influencer la qualité du processus
d’enseignementăàădistance ?

3. Le (non) écart entre les différentes générations

L’interactionă etă laă formationă àă distanceă dépassentă lesă frontièresă deă l’âge,ă mêmeă siă laă
jeune génération est prise en considération, à ce titre, comme « marché cible » – c’estă
la génération des nouveaux gadgets connectés, la génération qui prend connaissance
de soi-même,ă deă saă propreă existenceă etă deă celleă deă l’autrui,ă deă l’environnementă etă deă
l’universă extérieură pară leă biaisă deă l’écran:ă laă télévision,ă l’ordinateur,ă leă portable,ă laă
tablette, la montre connectée etc.
Enă fait,ă l’écrană n’estă qu’uneă distanceă supplémentaireă entreă leă vécuă personnelă etă laă
rencontreădeăl’autre.ăL’hommeăneăfaităqueărendreăplusăintenseăsaăsolitudeăenămettantăàălaă
disposition de son semblable le(s) double(s), les « avatars » de soi-même,
ses « personnages ».
Enă réalité,ă leă fosséă entreă lesă différentesă générationsă n’estă pasă tellementă grandă pară
rapportăàălaăcommunicationăenăligneăouăàăl’interactionăvirtuelle.ăOnăpourraităplutôtăparleră
d’ună mélangeă complexeă – sur un diagramme circulaire, par exemple, la zone
superposée (utilisateurs jeunes / utilisateurs plus âgés) serait assez grande, assez large
etăimportante.ăOnăpourraităparlerăd’unăamalgameădeăreprésentantsădeătousălesăâges,ăd’ună
locus communis oùălesăbarrièresăaboutissentădesăfoisăàăs’effacer complètement. De ce
point de vue, un enseignant plus jeune peut avoir des élèves ou étudiants plus âgés que
lui, renversant le schéma traditionnel : « les grandes personnes » détiennent
inévitablement le savoir et la sagesse.

4. Enseignant et / ou blogueur
On a déjà vu, les blogueurs sont ceux qui choisissent les modalités de présenter et
structureră leă fluxă d’information,ă leă volumeă desă donnéesă misesă àă laă dispositionă deă leursă
lecteurs. Ils trient eux-mêmes les thèmes et sujets envisagés, et entretiennent le
dialogue avec le public fidélisé ou potentiel.
Maisăsiăunăenseignantăfournităl’information,ăleămatérielădidactiqueăpourăsaăclasseă– leçon,
exercices, dessins, tableaux, schémas, diagrammes, graphiques, tests, etc. – sur une
plateforme virtuelle, est-ceă qu’ilă peută supprimeră complètementă sonă interactionă directeă
avec ses élèves ou étudiants ?ă Uneă autreă questionă qu’onă peută soulever : doubler
l’activitéă deă laă classeă pară uneă activitéă dansă l’espaceă virtuelă pourraită accroîtreă leă
rendementădeă l’acquisitionă desă connaissances ? (Parmi les références énumérées à la
fină deă cetă article,ă onă peută trouveră plusieursă sitesă oùă l’enseignantă etă lesă étudiantsă
déroulentă leursă activitésă d’éducationă dansă l’espaceă virtuel.)ă Uneă formation,ă ună
approfondissement de ses connaissances sont possibles sur Internet. Mais cela ne suffit
pas pour apprendre et maîtriser une langue étrangère.

4.1. L’espace virtuel – un facteur de progrès dans le processus d’éducation

53
Selonă leă professeură Scottă Moore,ă laă technologieă appliquéeă àă l’éducationă est un facteur
de changement et de progrès. La crainte liée à la technologie ne doit pas nous
empêcheră àă promouvoiră etă àă mettreă enă œuvreă lesă nouveauxă pratiquesă pédagogiques :
« Technology applied to education: I enjoy using technology when teaching my face-to-
face classes. I have used the standard Sakai-backed course Web site. I have also used
a wiki as my course Web site. I have had my students write blog entries as part of their
classwork. I have had students tweet messages during class as part of their in-class
work. » (http://www.samoore.com/about-this-blog/)

4.2. Enseigner sur Internet – limites

Ilă faută seă demanderă alorsă quelsă changementsă apporteă aujourd’huiă ceă typeă d’interactionă
dans le processus d’apprendre et d’enseigner une langue étrangère.ăJusqu’àănos jours,
lorsă duă déroulementă deă laă leçon,ă leă professeură /ă enseignantă etă l’élèveă /ă étudiantă seă
trouvaient traditionnellement face à face, dans la même salle de classe, dans le même
endroit physique. Mais il existe à présent plusieurs sites qui offrent la possibilité
d’apprendreă uneă langueă étrangèreă à distance
(http://lewebpedagogique.com/ressources-fle/, www.livemocha.com/pages/learn-
languages, www.bbc.co.uk/languages, www.duolingo.com).
De plus, on a déjà assisté à une épreuve de bac passée par visioconférence (voir Le
Monde, 23/05/2014), examen autorisé par décret ministériel. Qui ou quoi pourrait
empêcher la transposition de cette exception en règle.
Siălaăpersonneăestădoubléeăd’ună« profil »,ăd’ună« avatar »ăouăbienăd’ună« personnage »
etăsiăl’espaceăréel est remplacé par celui virtuel, est-ceăqu’onăpeutăcontinuerăàăenseigneră
etăapprendreăd’uneămanièreăefficace?ă
Leăcontenuăd’uneăleçonăpeutăêtreăpartagéăsurăuneăpageăweb.ăLesăquiz et les exercices
de grammaire aussi. En ce qui concerne la phonétique, la prononciation et la pratique /
conversationăd’uneă/ădansăuneălangueăétrangère,ălesăchosesăneăsontăenăéchangeăpasăsiă
simples, ni à la portée de tous.
Mais un enseignant-blogueur peut et doit devenir un observateur appliqué, un
entraîneur, un guide pour ses élèves / étudiants. Il devient en même temps conscient
qu’ilă n’estă plusă leă possesseură deă laă véritéă absolue,ă niă mêmeă dansă sonă domaineă
d’expertise.ăChacunădeăsesăapprentisăpeutăarriverăàăunăniveauădeămaîtriseăcomparableăàă
son maître et même aller plus loin que celui-ci. Et le professeur doit savoir comment
aideră chacună àă s’orienteră etă àă seă débrouilleră toută seulă dansă cetă océan,ă dansă cetteă
« jungle informationnelle ».

5. Conclusion
Enă guiseă deă conclusion,ă onă peută direă qu’àă cetă âgeă deă laă technologieă enă plein essor,
l’éducation,ă laă formation,ă laă didactiqueă etă laă pédagogieă traditionnellesă neă sontă plusă
suffisantes pour enseigner et apprendre les langues étrangères. En même temps, on ne
peută pasă déplaceră complètementă dansă l’espaceă virtuelă l’acquisitionă d’uneă langue
étrangère.ă L’interactionă directeă enseignantă – étudiant reste nécessaire, même
obligatoire.
Quantă àă l’assimilationă d’uneă langueă étrangère,ă onă neă peută s’érigeră enă autodidacteă
absolu. Mais le blog fournit un espace propre au déroulement de certaines activités
spécifiquesăauăprocessusăd’éducation.ăL’enseignantăpeutăfaireăleălibreăchoixăd’employeră
ou non le blog dans ses activités professionnelles quotidiennes. Il ne peut pas en
échangeărenoncerăàăl’interactionădirecteăavecăsesăélèvesă/ăétudiants.

54
Bibliographie
Bogdan, R. (2008) Le discours autobiographique et la publicité,
Dean, J. (2010) Blog Theory, Polity Press
Rosset, C. (1976) Le réel et son double. Essai sur l’illusion, Editions Gallimard
Tournier, P. (1989) Le personnage et la personne, Delachaux & Niestlé
Burzynski Bullard, S. Blogs: An Essential Teaching Tool,
http://www.nieman.harvard.edu/reports/professor.aspx?profarticleid=100013) [Online]
[20 Apr. 2014]
http://lewebpedagogique.com/ressources-fle/
www.livemocha.com/pages/learn-languages
www.bbc.co.uk/languages
www.duolingo.com
Les Blogs des étudiants en Mobilité, Université de Toulouse, [Online], Available
http://espe.univ-toulouse.fr/accueil-/international/mobilite-etudiante/les-blogs-des-
etudiants-en-mobilite-117112.kjsp?RH=FR_05-MOB-ETU
http://www.lemonde.fr/education/article/2014/05/23/pour-la-premiere-fois-une-epreuve-
du-bac-passee-par-visioconference_4424916_1473685.html
http://monbtscom.wordpress.com/2014/01/28/article-sur-londres-mettre-les-photos-
relecture/
http://projetparabole2013.wordpress.com/
http://recherchemid.wordpress.com/
http://blogs.ionis-group.com/iseg/ecoles-
toulouse/2014/03/live_and_breathe_projets_des_etudiants_de_1ere_annee.html.php
http://iffresblog.com/2014/03/31/25-projets-ont-ete-retenus-lors-du-lancement-dun-
grand-plan-national-pour-booster-lentrepreneuriat-etudiant/
http://masterpcep.over-blog.com/
http://www.blog-espritdesign.com/artiste-designer/design/projet-etudiant-le-design-et-la-
paresse-par-colin-martinez-12873
http://www.blog-etudiant.fr/2014/02/05/les-sejours-linguistiques-apprendre-langues/

55
LE TOURISME ROUMAIN - STRATEGIQUEMENT OUVERT VERS
L’INTERNATIONAL. L’EST-IL AUSSI VERS LA COMMUNICATION MULTILINGUE?
(I)

Constantin Felicia
Department of International Business, Faculy of Economic Science, University of
Oradea, Oradea, România
[email protected]

Abstract: One of the recommendations of the ELAN study (2007), which developed a
pertinent analysis of the impact of linguistic incompetence on the economic
performance, was to devote more extensive research on the impact of the language
skills on other sectors of economy. We chose tourism, which is, according to the World
Tourism Organization, one of the most important and dynamic sectors in the world, an
engine for development, prosperity and welfare. Romanian tourism should follow the
general tendency of Tourism Towards 2030; this perspective projects that the number of
international tourist arrivals worldwide will increase by 3.3% per year between 2010 and
2030, reaching 1.8 milliards in 2030. Our study is structured in two parts, developed in
two distinct articles. In the first part (I), a careful reading of the official documents that
note the strategic directions in Romanian tourism for periods between 5 and 20 years
confirm the openness of the Romanian tourism towards the international. However, we
were surprised to notice the fact that, in these reference documents, the issue of foreign
languages, vehicles for international communication, is ignored, if not completely
obscure. Despite its strategic role, multilingual communication is mentioned only
sporadically and is not granted a focused attention at any level - national, regional or
local; it is not included in a detailed strategic program that could generate an added
value indisputable in promoting tourism. In the second part of our study (II), we tried to
capture the effects of this inconsistency on the practical aspects of tourism, specifically
the virtual multilingual presentations of the hotels in Oradea, a municipality located close
to the border with Hungary and therefore a multilingual and multicultural space par
excellence. The comparison with a similar survey conducted in 2011 confirmed the
same lack of interest for a simple, quick, sustainable and very profitable decision: that of
having the sites translated into several languages. We shall try to identify some of the
causes of this indifference, and also some solutions that could revitalize the activity of
promoting tourism to foreigners, by a top priority revaluation of multilingual
communication.

Keywords: multilingual communication, tourisme, virtual presentations, Oradea,

Roumanie

Cod JEL: Y8

1. Le Tourisme
1.1. Définition du tourisme
Le tourisme, « secteur économique fondamental dans de nombreux pays » (Mesplier et
Bloc-Duraffour, 1997 :ă17)ăbénéficieăd’uneădéfinitionădétailléeădansăleăTrésor informatisé
de la langue française (cf. TILF, 2014).
Le premier volet de la définition présente le touriste en tant que client ou bénéficiaire
qui exprime une « demande » liée aux besoins de satisfaire sa curiosité, son goût de
l'aventure et de la découverte, le désir d'enrichir son expérience et sa culture. Cette
personne quitte son domicile et « visite une région, un pays, un continent autre que le

56
sien »,ă voyageă poură sonă agrément,ă maisă aussiă poură desă affairesă ouă poură d’autresă
raisons.
Le deuxième volet mise sur l’offre surprise dans sa complexité :ă l’ensembleă desă
activités touristiques. Plusieurs critères sont pris en compte pour couvrir ce vaste
champ :ă laă populationă etă lesă lieuxă visités,ă lesă zonesă d’accueil,ă laă forme,ă leă typeă
dțorganisationă ouă dțactivitéă etă lesă moyensă deă transportă utilisés.ă Laă profusionă deă l’offreă
transparaît dans la diversité des associations lexicales : tourisme étranger, européen,
français, intérieur, international, national ; tourisme balnéaire, fluvial, montagnard, rural ;
tourisme de plein air ; tourisme à la ferme ; tourisme et thermalisme, tourisme blanc,
tourisme de neige, tourisme vert ; tourisme actif, commercial, culturel, gastronomique,
naturel, religieux, social, sportif, tourisme d'affaires, de congrès ; tourisme des jeunes ;
tourisme aérien, automobile, équestre ; tourisme à pied, à cheval, en auto ; tourisme de
randonnée, tourisme à bicyclette, etc. (idem).
Le troisième volet de la définition est consacré aux fournisseurs des services dans ce
domaine,ăàăl’ensembleădesăacteursăéconomiquesăquiărendentăpossibleălaămiseăenăplaceă
deă l’offreătouristique,ă priseă globalement.ăIlsăconstituentăuneă industrieă« se consacrant à
tousă lesă besoinsă engendrésă pară lesă déplacementsă desă touristesă [ă … ] et à toutes les
questionsădțordreăéconomique,ăjuridique,ăfinancier,ăsocialăqueăsoulèveăceădomaineă[ă… ]
organisé, structuré et réglementé au niveau national et régional » (idem). Plus
précisément, le tourisme renvoie à des aspects pratiques tels que la communication, les
transports,ă lțaccueil,ă lesă sites,ă maisă aussiă àă desă problématiquesă d’analyseă économiqueă
comme les statistiques, la balance commerciale ou la circulation des devises.
Les relations qui se mettent en place sont très claires et respectent un modèle
économique simple :

 le client formule une demande et cherche les meilleures offres et les meilleurs


fournisseurs dans le contexte particulier de son choix ;
le fournisseur cherche à améliorer son offre et à la communiquer à un nombre
important de clients.

1.2. Propos introductifs

Ceăquiănousăintéresseădansăcetăarticleăstructuréăenădeuxăpartiesă(IăetăII),ăc’estălaămanièreă
dont les fournisseurs de services touristiques promeuvent leur offre en se servant des
langues étrangères en accord avec les plans officiels de développement stratégique du
tourisme ;ă c’est-à-dire nous nous intéresserons à la problématique de la
communication multilingue dansă laă promotionă touristiqueă desă unitésă d’accueil, plus
précisémentăauxăsitesăinternetădesăhôtelsădeălaăvilleăd’Oradea,ădansăleădépartementădeă
Bihor, dans la région du nord-ouest de la Roumanie. La communication touristique
multilingueăseăréfèreăiciăàăl’ensembleădesăinformationsăfourniesăparăvoieăorale ou écrite
dans le tourisme etă l’analyseă proprement-dite porte sur les informations écrites,
distribuées en plusieurs langues sur les sites internet.

L’hypothèseădeădépartăestăqueăleătourismeăroumainăestăouvertăversăl’international,ăayantă
des lignes stratégiquesă bienă définies,ă maisă qu’ilă n’estă pasă égalementă ouvertă versă lesă
langues étrangères. Cet article fait suite à une communication de 2011, issue de notre
mémoireă deă master,ă quiă s’étaită proposéă àă l’époqueă deă réaliseră leă tableauă desă sitesă
internet des hôtels etădesăpensionsătouristiquesădeălaăvilleăd’Oradeaăetădeălaăstationădeă
B ileăFelixă(Constantin,ă2011).ăTroisăansăplusătard,ălesămodificationsăsurvenuesădansăceă
domaine seront enregistrées et évaluées. Les observations permettront de conclure sur
l’existence d’uneădynamique,ăd’uneăstagnationăouăd’uneăprogressionădansălaăpromotionă

57
multilingue ; elles autoriseront également de juger du bien-fondéăd’uneăfutureărecherche,ă
à même de fournir une description complète de la perspective multilingue impliquée
dans la promotion touristique de cette région de la Roumanie et, par extension, du
tourisme roumain.

2. Le tourisme roumain ouvert vers l’international, mais pas vers la diversité

linguistique
Afin de contextualiser nos propos, on présentera succinctement dans la première
partieă deă l’articleă quelquesă documentsă deă référenceă quiă témoignentă deă l’ouvertureă duă
tourismeă roumaină versă l’international.ă Dans le secteur touristique, approché dans sa
dimension internationale globalisante, les langues étrangères restent un thème
marginalisé,ă qu’ilă s’agisseă desă documentsă officielsă quiă sous-tendent les stratégies
nationalesă ouă régionalesă ouă bienă deă laă promotionă desă unitésă d’hébergementă sură leursă
sites internet.
Bienă queă lesă résultatsă desă étudesă deă spécialitéă mettentă enă valeură l’impact des
compétencesă linguistiquesă ouă bienă lesă effetsă deă l’incompétenceă linguistiqueă sură lesă
affaires (voir les conclusions du Rapport ELAN, 2006 ou les Recommandations du
Forum des Entreprises sur le Multilinguisme,ă2007),ălesălanguesăneăbénéficientăpasăd’un
traitement distinct dans les politiques touristiques roumaines à long terme. Il est
possible de transférer vers le tourisme les propos du Forum des Entreprises relatifs au
commerce : « dans la majorité des pays, les organisations nationales de promotion du
commerce offrent des conseils pratiques et de l’aide financière aux PME [petites et
moyennes entreprises], poură amélioreră leursă stratégiesă d’export,ă mais les stratégies
linguistiques ne sont pas en général incluses dans ces programmes » (CE, 2007 :
5, nous avons souligné).
Le fil rouge de notre analyse suivra le parcours stratégie nationale – stratégie régionale
– stratégie départementale – stratégie locale.

2.1 Le Département pour les PME le milieu d’affaires et le tourisme

En ce qui concerne la responsabilité officielle, le tourisme roumain est à présent géré
par le Département pour les PME, le milieu d’affaires et le tourisme, qui coordonne
deux directions responsables du tourisme : la Direction de politiques et stratégies de
promotion du tourisme et l’AutoritéăNationaleăpourăleăTourisme.
La Direction de politiques et stratégies de promotion du tourisme conçoit et
élabore les lignes stratégiques générales relatives au développement et à la
promotion du tourisme en Roumanie. Elle conçoit également le programme annuel
pour la stratégie de la promotion et du développement touristique des produits et des
destinations touristiques nationales, étant chargée de la représentation à des
manifestationsă spécifiquesă duă tourismeă dansă leă paysă etă àă l’étranger,ă avecă la mission
d’assureră laă croissanceă deă laă circulationă touristiqueă enă Roumanieă etă saă notoriétéă àă
l’étranger.ă Cetteă directionă n’aă cependantă pasă ună siteă dédiéă ouă uneă rubriqueă spécialeă
sur le site officiel du département gouvernemental, ce qui rend difficile la formulation
d’unăpointădeăvueărelatifăàălaăproblématiqueădesălanguesăétrangères.
L’Autorité Nationale pour le Tourisme implémente toutes les stratégies nationales
dans le tourisme national et réalise la politique de promotion et de développement du
tourismeăsurălaăbaseădesăplansăetădesăprogrammesădeămarketingăduătourisme.ăL’agenceă
disposeăd’un site, http://turism.gov.ro/, accessible en roumain, en anglais, en allemand
etă enă italien,ă ceă quiă témoigneă d’uneă priseă deă conscienceă deă l’importanceă desă
présentations virtuelles en plusieurs langues étrangères.

58
2.2 Le Master Plan pour le Développement du Tourisme National, 2007-2026
(2007)
Laă visionă généraleă desă responsablesă duă Tourisme,ă telleă qu’elleă estă formuléeă dansă leă
Master Plan pour le Développement du Tourisme National (MPDTN en abréviation
dans le texte) ne se limite pas à un périmètre restreint, local ou national, mais elle
s’attacheăàăuneădimensionăinternationaleăglobale.ăCelaăseămanifesteădansăl’ambitionădeă
se mettre en rapport avec les destinations touristiques de l'étranger « pour parvenir à
un développement durable de l'environnement en termes de secteur du tourisme,
dans un rythme de développement supérieur à d'autres destinations touristiques en
Europe » (MPDTN, 2007 : 163, notre trad.).
Lesătendancesăduătourismeăroumainăconvergentăversălaămiseăenă œuvreădeăstratégiesă
visantăàăorienterălaăRoumanieădansălaădirectionăd’uneăindustrieătouristiqueădeăsuccès,ă
créatriceă deă profitsă enă termesă d’argentă etă d’image.ă Ceă document qui se veut une
ombrelle du tourisme roumain pour une période de 20 ans renvoie occasionnellement
aux langues étrangères :ă uneă douzaineă d’occurrencesă duă syntagmeă « langues
étrangères »ă apparaissentă enă relationă avecă laă nécessitéă d’amélioreră laă formationă du
personnelăemployéăetăd’élaborerădesădocumentsăenălanguesăétrangères,ăsansămentionă
expliciteă deă décisionsă fermes,ă d’ună termeă limite,ă deă responsablesă ouă d’objectifsă
opérationnels dans ce sens.

2.3. Le Plan de Marketing Stratégique et Opérationnel pour la Roumanie 2011-

2015, Résumé du Rapport Final (2011)
Les concepteurs du Plan de Marketing Stratégique et Opérationnel pour la Roumanie
2011 – 2015 (PMSOR en abréviation dans le texte) observent que la Roumanie est mise
devant une double provocation :ă toută d’abord établir et fournir des expériences et des
produits pour les besoins des nouveaux marchés globaux de tourisme ; ensuite, mieux
profiteră deă laă diversitéă desă actifsă touristiquesă qu’elleă peută utiliseră poură attireră deă futursă
clients » (PMSOR, 2011 : 4, notre trad.). Dans le contexte du géomarketing comme
fondementă d’uneă approcheă professionnelleă duă marketingă touristique,ă sură laă baseă deă
variablesă tellesă queă leă volumeă etă l’évolutionă desă excursions,ă lesă dépensesă moyennesă
ouă l’accessibilité,ă lesă spécialistesă ont identifié comme marchés géographiques
prioritaires de la Roumanie les pays suivants :ă l’Allemagne,ă l’Italie,ă laă France,ă laă
Grandeă Bretagne,ă l’Autriche,ă laă Russie,ă lesă Etats-Unis, la Hongrie. Les efforts de
promotion de la Roumanie devraient également inclureă d’autresă pays : la Hollande,
l’Espagne,ă laă Pologne,ă laă Belgique,ă laă Suède,ă laă Bulgarie,ă l’Ukraine,ă laă Serbie,ă laă
Moldavie,ălaăChineăouăleăJapon.ăAucunăélémentăquiăjustifieraităl’intérêtăpourăuneăactionă
coordonnéeă etăconcertéeă dansă leă sensă d’uneă communication multilingue ne peut être
signalé dans ce document.

2.4. Plan de développement régional de la Transylvanie du Nord 2014-2020

(2014)
Aprèsă lesă deuxă documentsă d’intérêtă national,ă leă plană deă développementă régională
(PDRTN en abréviation dans le texte) manifeste le même intérêt pour les touristes
étrangers,ămaisăconstateăqu’auăniveauărégională« le nombre de touristes est réduit et les
paquetsătouristiquesăneăsontăpasăintégrésăetădiversifiés.ăMêmeăsiăl’onăsaisităleăbesoinădeă
promotionă deă l’offreă touristique,ă ilă n’yă aă pasă asseză d’instrumentsă d’informationă etă deă
promotion du tourisme régional ;ădeăplus,ăl’absenceădesăinformationsăconcernantăleălienă
entreă laă circulationă touristiqueă etă lesă formesă deă tourismeă neă vientă pasă àă l’appuiă d’ună
développement harmonieux » (PDRTN, 2011 : 148, notre trad.). Les seules références
aux langues étrangères visent les langues des minorités, enseignées dans les écoles
de la région. Les langues étrangères ne sont pas donc surprises dans leur dimension de

59
profitabilité économique et d’élémentă favorisantă laă hausseă duă nombreă d’arrivéesă desă
touristes étrangers dans la région.

2.5. Plan de développement du département de Bihor 2007-2013 (2007)

La vision des concepteurs du Plan de développement du département de Bihor (PDDB
en abréviation dans le texte) projette sa transformation dans le département le plus
dynamique dans la région du nord-ouestădeălaăRoumanieăetădansăl’euro-région de Bihor-
Hajdú-Bihar, dontăilăfaităpartie.ăCelaăn’estăpasăpossibleăenăl’absenceădeă« l’émancipationă
de la mentalité des habitants du département de Bihor » (PDDB, 2007 : 10), ce qui va
de pair avec sa double appartenance à une région roumaine et à une euro-région, grâce
à la position géographique, au spécifique interculturel et au marché européen commun.
Le tourismeălocalăestăcorréléădansăceăPlanăavecăleădéveloppementăetăl’intensificationăduă
tourisme au niveau international.

L’intérêtăporteăsurălesăpointsăd’attractionăpourălesăvisiteursăroumainsăetăétrangers.ăTouteă
une panoplie de destinations est exposée dans le Plan stratégique départemental, des
objectifs touristiques qui tiennent au milieu naturel (stations balnéo-climatiques de B ileă
FelixăetădeăB ileă1ăMai,ălaăstationădeăskiădeăStânaădeăVale,ăleăkarstăboisé,ălesăgrottes),ăauă
trésoră culturelă etă historiqueă (lesă zonesă ethnographiquesă deă Crişulă Alb,ă deă Beiuş,ă deă
Crişulă Repedeă etă deă Barc u-Crasna avec leur spécifique : traditions, costumes
populaires, meubles, céramique, objets en bois, architecture, configuration des maisons
etăartisanat)ăetăàăl’infrastructureăspécifiqueă(PDDB,ă2007 : 45-60).

L’analyseăSWOTă– unăoutilăquiăpermetăd‘identifierăStrengthsă(lesăforces),ăWeaknessesă
(les faiblesses),ă Opportunitiesă (lesă opportunités),ă Threatsă (lesă menaces)ă d’ună
phénomène - révèle au niveau local un reflet en miroir de la situation qui existe au
niveau national (PDDB, 2007: 64-66). Parmi les Faiblesses on comptait en 2007 une
série entière de défaillances liées à la promotion. On en sélectionne quelques aspects
seă rapportantă àă l’ouvertureă versă l’international : la faible promotion du potentiel
économique et touristique du département ; la promotion fragmentaire des
destinations touristiques, avecă desă moyensă obsolètesă (pară exempleă l’insuffisanteă
utilisationă deă l’internet) ; l’absenceă desă pointsă etă desă officesă d’informationă touristiqueă
dansă laă villeă d’Oradeaă etă dansă leă département ; la pauvreté de la qualification du
personnel (surtout des guides autorisés, qui connaissent des langues étrangères), etc.
En 2014, on peut enregistrer deux progrès importants par rapport à la période
antérieure :ă l’utilisationă desă technologiesă modernesă deă promotion (l’accèsă àă l’internetă
s’estă démocratisé)ă etă l’ouverture d’ună Bureauă d’InformationăTouristiqueă auă centreă deă laă
villeă d’Oradeaă (ouvertă partiellementă etă d’offreă touristiqueă modeste,ă réduiteă àă quelquesă
publications en roumain et en anglais ; notre entretien avec le directeur de ce bureau a
débouché sur une prise de conscience relative au besoin de présentations multilingues
desă matérielsă deă promotionă etă auă démantèlementă d’ună préjugéă portantă sură laă seuleă
nécessitéădeăl’anglaisădansăleătourisme).

Tous ses problèmes sont placés dans le contexte plus large des Menaces, représentées
par la situation géopolitique européenne et par la compétition sur le marché touristique
des destinations européennes, là où la Roumanie tente de gagner une position visible.

La maîtrise des Faiblesses et des Menaces conduită àă l’identification des Opportunités

qui pourraient influencer la visibilité du département : ces opportunités dépendent de
l’existenceă deă stratégiesă touristiquesă nationalesă etă régionales,ă respectivementă deă
l’existenceă d’instrumentsă financiersă européensă ouă régionaux.ă Enă ceă qui concerne les
languesă étrangères,ă ellesă n’yă sontă pasă vuesă commeă uneă opportunitéă distincteă quiă
permettrait,ă grâceă àă laă positionă géographiqueă etă àă l’appartenanceă deă laă Roumanieă àă
60
l’UE,ă d’ouvriră lesă portesă àă laă collaborationă deă voisinage,ă auxă hommesă d’affaires et aux
touristes étrangers. Personne ne peut cependant ignorer que la maîtrise des langues
étrangèresă pară laă nouvelleă générationă etă sonă habiletéă dansă l’utilisationă deă l’internetă
représentent des Points forts dans le tourisme de Bihor (PDDB, 2007 : 140).

Laădiagnoseăduătourismeămontreăqueăsesăconcepteursăsontăconscientsădeăl’absenceădesă
compétencesă langagières,ă maisă qu’ilsă n’envisagentă pasă deă projetsă concretsă poură
remédier à ces carences : en ce qui concerne les aires protégées du patrimoine
naturel on estime « qu’ilăn’yăaăpasăd’infrastructureăadéquateăpourămettreăenăvaleurădesă
ressources naturelles spéciales » et on constate « le manque des trajets éducatifs et
des matériels de popularisation en langues étrangères » (PDDB, 2007 : 49). En 2011,
la situationă n’étaită pasă sensiblementă différente.ă Cetteă étapeă deă criseă auraită puă êtreă
bénéfiqueă poură l’implémentationă desă mesuresă accessiblesă etă durables : la formation
linguistiqueă etă l’élaborationă deă matériauxă promotionnelsă (mêmeă trèsă simples,ă avecă ună
dessin minimaliste, bon-marché) auraient représenté le point de départ pour une
stratégie communicationnelle en langues étrangères. À cette date, en 2014, des
institutionsăcommeălaăMairieădeălaăvilleăd’OradeaăetăleăConseilăduăDépartementădeăBihoră
peuvent présenter quelques matériels de promotion rédigés en langues étrangères,
issus de certains projets européens ;ă ilă neă s’agită cependantă pasă d’uneă conceptionă
unitaire.

2.6. Plan de développement du département de Bihor 2014-2020 (projet en

discussion publique) (2014)

La future stratégie pour le développement du département de Bihor 2014-2020 est au

moment de la présente étude en discussion publique sur le site du Conseil
Départemental de Bihor. Parmi ses points de départ on compte le raccord de la région
aux flux internationauxădeămarchandises,ădeătouristes,ăd’investissements,ăd’informationsă
etădeăvaleursăculturelles,ăafinăd’enăassurerăleărôleădeă« région logistique » (PDDB, 2014-
2020 : 3). Parmi les quatre objectifs stratégiques de développement, la valorisation du
potentiel touristique du département apparaît avec ses principaux volets : le
développement des services de tourisme dans le département et la promotion
touristique. La lecture des projets du domaine Tourisme présentés dans la Fiche de
projet le Tourisme dans le département de Bihor prouveă l’absenceă deă laă moindreă
initiative centrée sur les langues étrangères.

3. Propos sur l’efficacité des langues étrangères dans une orientation assumée
vers l’international

En France, la consultation nationale en ligne ouverte parălesăAssisesăduătourismeăs’estă

proposé « d’alimenteră laă réflexionă visantă àă redynamiseră leă tourismeă enă France ».
Première destination touristique mondiale, la France reste en permanence préoccupée
parălaăpréservationădeăceăstatutăetăparăl’augmentationădeăsesărecettesătouristiques.ăC’estă
justementă l’objectifă desă Assisesă duă tourisme,ă telă qu’ilă estă fixéă pară leă présidentă deă laă
Républiqueă française.ă L’intérêtă poură l’améliorationă deă l’accueilă sousă toutesă sesă formesă
montre à quel degré le tourisme reste un domaine porteur. Il est important de signaler
queăleăbilanăd’uneădizaineădeă« principaux enseignements » enregistrés à la fin de cette
consultationănationaleă(cf.ăleăsiteăofficielăduăMinistèreădeăl’Artisanat,ăduăCommerceăetăduă
Tourisme http://www.artisanat-commerce-tourisme.gouv.fr/assises-tourisme-bilan-de-
consultation-ligne) compte deux actions prioritaires concrètes reliées aux langues
étrangères : « Poură amélioreră l’accueilă desă touristesă étrangersă lorsă deă leură arrivéeă enă
France : améliorer la pratique des langues étrangères. Pourădynamiserăl’emploiădansă
le tourisme : améliorer en priorité la qualité des formations (par exemple en
61
favorisant l'apprentissage des langues étrangères et les bi-qualifications) » (nous
avons souligné). La préoccupation de la France pour la pratique multilingue dans le
tourisme devrait se positionner en modèle pour tout pays aux ambitions touristiques.

D’ună autreă pointă deă vue,ă la reconsidération des langues étrangères faciliterait «
l'acquisition et la maîtrise des ressources et compétences permettant à la firme de se
différencier de ses concurrents, de déployer ses activités, d'innover ou de disposer
d'une flexibilité suffisante pour s'adapter aux évolutions de l'environnement ou aux
stratégies des concurrents » (Tarondeau, 1998: 17). Dans un monde où les demandes
des consommateurs se multiplient, se diversifient, se renouvellent partiellement ou se
transforment radicalement, seuls les acteurs économiques innovants, en éveil et ouverts
à la diversité peuvent rester compétitifs. Sur l'un des plus grands marchés uniques
mondiaux, les entreprises doivent se doter de tous les instruments à même de leur
assurer la survie et la performance ; l'un de ces outils longtemps négligés est la maîtrise
d'une, de deux, voire de plusieurs langues étrangères (Constantin, 2009 : 526).

Leă tourismeă roumaină doită s’inscrireă dansă laă tendanceă globaleă duă Tourismeă àă l’horizonă
2030 ; cette perspective pose queăleănombreăd’arrivéesădeătouristesăinternationauxădansă
le monde augmentera de 3,3 % par an entre 2010 et 2030, pour atteindre 1,8 milliard en
2030.ă Certes,ă laă communicationă avecă euxă neă seraă pasă possibleă enă l’absenceă deă laă
maîtrise de plusieurs langues étrangères (OMT, 2013).

4. Conclusions partielles (Ière partie)

Deux conclusions apparaissent à la fin de notre étude réalisée en deux temps : la
première en rapport avec la problématique des langues étrangères dans la
communication touristique stratégique de la Roumanie (Ière partie) et la deuxième en
relation avec les carences de la promotion pratique multilingue au niveau local (IIe
partie).
Nousăavonsăprisăcommeăpointădeădépartădeănotreăréflexionăl’observationăqueăleătourismeă
roumain manifeste un intérêt réelăpourăl’international,ăayantădesălignesăstratégiquesăbienă
définies.ăL’hypothèseădeă travailăaăétéăqueă leătourismeăneămanifestaitămalheureusementă
pasă laă mêmeă ouvertureă versă lesă languesă étrangères.ă L’analyseă d’uneă sérieă deă
documents stratégiques élaborés pour des périodes portant sur plusieurs années
prouveă queă dansă leă contexteă d’ună tourismeă internatională globalisant,ă lesă languesă
étrangères restent un thème marginalisé en Roumanie. Dans tous ces référentiels - le
Master Plan pour le Développement du Tourisme National, 2007-2026 (2007), le Plan
de Marketing Stratégique et Opérationnel pour la Roumanie 2011-2015 - Résumé du
Rapport Final (2011), le Plan de développement régional de la Transylvanie du Nord
2014-2020 (2014), le Plan de développement du département de Bihor 2007-2013
(2007) - les langues étrangères occupent une place isolée. Elles ne sont pas
envisagéesă commeă laă composanteă notableă d’uneă stratégieă deă développementă
construite au niveau national ou local.
Sansă prétentionă d’exhaustivité,ă l’articleă signale cette réalité inquiétante, marque
quelques points de réflexion et argumente le bien-fondéă d’uneă futureă rechercheă plusă
détaillée relative à la communication multilingue dans le secteur du tourisme roumain.
D’autresăaspectsănonăabordésămaisăquiădevraient être pris en discussion dans une future
étude viseraient laă typologieă desă touristes,ă l’implicationă desă Chambresă deă Commerceă
nationales, les retombées sur les communautés locales, les réseaux de promotion à
l’étranger,ă laă typologieă desă discoursă deă typeă publicitaire,ă l’étată desă matérielsă
publicitairesă (pară exempleă ilă n’existeă aucună matérielă promotionnelă enă françaisă
concernantă laă villeă d’Oradeaă ouă quelqueă objectifă queă ceă soită dansă leă départementă deă
Bihor), etc.

62
Dans la deuxième partie de notre étude – « Le tourisme roumain - stratégiquement
ouvertăversăl’international.ăL’est-il aussi vers la communication multilingue? (II) » - nous
tenterons de saisir les effets de cette inconséquence sur les aspects pratiques du
tourisme, plus précisément sur la présentation virtuelle multilingue des hôtels de la ville
d’Oradea ; cette ville chef-lieu est située à la frontière avec la Hongrie, étant par
conséquent un espace multiculturel et multilingue par excellence. La comparaison avec
une enquête similaire effectuée en 2011ăconfirmeraălaămêmeăabsenceăd’intérêtăpourăuneă
décision pourtant simple, rapide, peu coûteuse, durable et très profitable : la traduction
duă siteă internetă d’uneă unitéă d’hébergementă enă plusieursă languesă étrangères.ă Nousă
présenterons certaines causes de cette indifférence mais également des solutions qui
pourraientăredynamiserăl’activitéădeăpromotionătouristiqueăparălaărevalorisationăprioritaireă
de la communication multilingue.

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et
http://www.cjbihor.ro/pdf/Strategia%20de%20dezvoltare%20a%20judetului%20Bihor.p
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Constantin, F. (2011). « A-t-o vraiment besoin de langues étrangères dans le tourisme
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din Oradea, Stiinte Economice, Oradea : Editura Universitatii Oradea, pp.113-121, dis-
ponible sur http://anale.steconomiceuoradea.ro/volume/2011/analele-universitatii-
oradea-seria-stiinte-economice-numarul-2-decembrie-2011.pdf (vérifié le 3 mars 2014).
Constantin, F. (2009). « Les langues étrangères comme facteurs d'avantage
concurrentiel dans une économie globalisée », Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Stiinte
Economice, Oradea : Editura Universitatii Oradea, 2009, pp. 585-589, disponible sur
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Tarondeau, J.-C. (1998). Management des savoirs, Paris : PUF.
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21 avril 2014).

64
LE TOURISME ROUMAIN - STRATEGIQUEMENT OUVERT VERS
L’INTERNATIONAL. L’EST-IL AUSSI VERS LA COMMUNICATION MULTILINGUE?
(II)

Constantin Felicia
Department of International Business, Faculy of Economic Science, University of
Oradea, Oradea, România
[email protected]

Abstract: One of the recommendations of the ELAN study (2007), which developed a
pertinent analysis of the impact of linguistic incompetence on the economic
performance, was to devote more extensive research on the impact of the language
skills on other sectors of economy. We chose tourism, which is, according to the World
Tourism Organization, one of the most important and dynamic sectors in the world, an
engine for development, prosperity and welfare. Romanian tourism should follow the
general tendency of Tourism Towards 2030; this perspective projects that the number of
international tourist arrivals worldwide will increase by 3.3% per year between 2010 and
2030, reaching 1.8 milliards in 2030. Our study is structured in two parts, developed in
two distinct articles. In the first part (I), a careful reading of the official documents that
note the strategic directions in Romanian tourism for periods between 5 and 20 years
confirm the openness of the Romanian tourism towards the international. However, we
were surprised to notice the fact that, in these reference documents, the issue of foreign
languages, vehicles for international communication, is ignored, if not completely
obscure. Despite its strategic role, multilingual communication is mentioned only
sporadically and is not granted a focused attention at any level - national, regional or
local; it is not included in a detailed strategic program that could generate an added
value indisputable in promoting tourism. In the second part of our study (II), we tried to
capture the effects of this inconsistency on the practical aspects of tourism, specifically
the virtual multilingual presentations of the hotels in Oradea, a municipality located close
to the border with Hungary and therefore a multilingual and multicultural space par
excellence. The comparison with a similar survey conducted in 2011 confirmed the
same lack of interest for a simple, quick, sustainable and very profitable decision: that of
having the sites translated into several languages. We shall try to identify some of the
causes of this indifference, and also some solutions that could revitalize the activity of
promoting tourism to foreigners, by a top priority revaluation of multilingual
communication.

Keywords: multilingual communication, tourisme, virtual presentations, Oradea,

Roumanie

Cod JEL: Y8

1. Préambule
L’articleă« Le tourisme roumain - stratégiquementăouvertăversăl’international.ăL’est-il aussi
vers la communication multilingue? » est structuré en deux parties distinctes, mais
interdépendantes.ă Laă premièreă partieă deă l’étudeă queă nousă avonsă entrepriseă enă 2014ă
constateăqueăleătourismeăroumainămanifesteăunăintérêtăréelăpourăl’international,ăayantădesă
lignes stratégiquesă bienă définies.ă L’hypothèseă deă départă estă qu’ilă neă manifesteă
malheureusementăpasălaămêmeăouvertureăversălesălanguesăétrangères.ăL’analyseăd’uneă
série de documents stratégiques élaborés pour des périodes significatives qui portent
sur plusieurs années, prouveăqueădansăleăcadreăd’unătourismeăinternationalăglobalisant,ă

65
les langues étrangères restent un thème marginalisé en Roumanie. Dans tous ces
référentiels - le Master Plan pour le Développement du Tourisme National, 2007-2026
(2007), le Plan de Marketing Stratégique et Opérationnel pour la Roumanie 2011-2015 -
Résumé du Rapport Final (2011), le Plan de développement régional de la
Transylvanie du Nord 2014-2020 (2014), le Plan de développement du département
de Bihor 2007-2013 (2007) - les langues étrangères occupent une place isolée. Elles
neă sontă pasă envisagéesă commeă laă composanteă marquanteă d’uneă stratégieă deă
développement conçue au niveau national ou local.
Le point de départ de la réflexion concernant la place des langues étrangères dans le
tourisme roumain a été représenté par notre mémoire de master en affaires
internationalesăréaliséăenă2011ăetăparăuneăcommunicationăquiăs’étaităproposéăàăl’époqueă
d’exposerăleătableauădesăsitesăinternetădesăhôtelsăetădesăpensionsătouristiquesădeălaăvilleă
d’Oradeaăet de la station deăB ileăFelix, située dans sa proximité (Constantin, 2011).

Laă deuxièmeă partieă deă l’articleă « Le tourisme roumain - stratégiquement ouvert vers
l’international.ăL’est-il aussi vers la communication multilingue? »ăcomplèteăl’analyseădeă
la place que les langues étrangères occupent dans les documents officiels qui gèrent le
développement du tourisme roumain. À une distance de trois ans, en 2014, les
éventuelles modifications survenues dans le domaine de la présentation virtuelle,
enregistrées et évaluées, permettront de tirer de nouvelles conclusions. Y a-t-il une
dynamique, une stagnation ou une progression dans la perspective multilingue de la
promotion touristique dans la région du Nord-Ouest de la Roumanie et par extension
dans le tourisme roumain ?

2. Contextualisation de la recherche
2.1 Étude de cas – département de Bihor
Le département de Bihor, avec presque 576000 habitants, est situé dans l'ouest de la
Roumanie, à la frontière avec la Hongrie. La diversité ethnique et culturelle caractérise
démographiquement cette région, où cohabitent des Roumains (67%) et des ethniques
hongroisă (25,3ș),ă romsă (6,3ș),ă allemands,ă ukrainiens,ă slovaques,ă etc.ă (cf.ă àă l’ă Institută
National de Statistique, 2013)
Oradea est le chef-lieu du département de Bihor ; ses avantages sont donnés par la
triple proximité :ădeăl’aéroport,ădeălaăfrontièreăetădeălaăstationăbalnéaire.ăLeădépartementă
présenteăunăpotentielăindiscutableăpourăleătourismeădeăsanté,ădesăaffaires,ăd’aventures,ă
religieux, sportif ou balnéaire. Bihor est par excellence une région multiculturelle et
multilingue, avec des entrepreneurs plurilingues ouverts à la nouveauté, habitués à
l’espaceăinterculturelăetărespectueuxădeălaădiversité.

2.2 Présentations virtuelles des hôtels de la ville d’Oradea

Rappel des résultats de l’étude de 2011
Lesăconclusionsădeăl’étudeăréaliséeăenă2011ădéploraientăl’absenceăd’un intérêt particulier
poură lesă languesă étrangèresă dansă leă secteură duă tourismeă roumain,ă telleă qu’elleă seă
reflétaitădansăl’analyseădesăsitesăinternetădesăhôtelsăetădesăpensionsădeălaăvilleăd’Oradeaă
et de la station de Baile Felix ; il était apparu que ce potentiel était complètement ignoré,
àăquelquesăexceptionsăprès,ăaussiăbienăparăl’Étatăqueăparălesăpropriétairesăprivésăaăprioriă
plus orientés vers l'optimisation de l'activité dans leurs unités (Constantin, 2011).
Laă présenteă analyseă passeă enă revueă leă tableauă desă hôtelsă d’Oradea,ă afină deă rendreă
saillant ceăquiăestăsurvenuădansăl’espaceădeăcommunicationămultilingueădeălaăpromotionă
touristique hôtelière oradéenne dans un intervalle de trois ans. La zoneă d’observationă
estă restreinteă àă laă villeă d’Oradea,ă plusă précisémentă aux hôtels, à partir de la prémisse

66
que la dynamique du changement est plus importante et plus rapide dans une ville et
surtout au niveau des unitésăd’accueilăplusăgrandes.ă D’autantăplusăqueălesăspécialistesă
retiennent,ă dansă laă régionă deă l’ouestă deă laă Transylvanie,ă laă préférenceă desă touristesă
étrangers pour les hôtels (PDRTN, 2011 :ă 148).ă L’hôtelă estă définiă commeă « un
établissementă commercială d’hébergement classé, qui offre des chambres ou des
appartements meublés en location à une clientèle de passage ou à une clientèle qui
effectue un séjour caractérisé par une location à la journée, à la semaine ou au mois,
maisă qui,ă saufă exception,ă n’yă élită pas domicile » (Glossaire des hébergements
touristiques, 2006) ;ă ilă estă enă générală exploitéă pendantă touteă l’année,ă surtoută dansă lesă
villes, et accueille ou peut accueillir un nombre significatif de touristes.
Dansă l’analyseă deă 2014,ă nousă avonsă privilégiéă uneă approche émique, simulant le
comportementă d’ună touristeă étrangeră qui,ă sansă vérifieră lesă listesă officiellesă desă unitésă
autorisées, cherche directement sur internet des hôtels et se laisse convaincre par les
informationsăqu’ilăyădécouvre.
En 2011 on avait enregistré 20 hôtels classés entre 2 et 4 étoiles, qui figuraient comme
unitésă d’accueilă autorisés,ă avecă desă sitesă actifs,ă ayantă laisséă deă côtéă desă hôtelsă quiă
n’étaientăpasăinscritsăsurălaălisteăautorisée.
Àăl’époque,ălaămajoritéădesăhôtelsăavaientădesăprésentations en roumain et en anglais,
un quart d'entre eux bénéficiant de présentations en hongrois, en allemand ou en italien.
Ilă nțyă avaită pasă beaucoupă d’hôtelsă avecă desă présentationsă multilinguesă etă lesă optionsă
pour les langues de présentation étaient différentes, en fonction de l'unité. Il n'y avait
pas une stratégie unanimement acceptée dans la promotion des hôtels ; un seul hôtel,
Atrium, avait le site traduit en 6 langues étrangères ; 2 hôtels, Ramada et Melody,
étaient présentés en 5 langues et l'hôtel Living In était la seule de ces unités
d’hébergementădțOradeaăàăbénéficierăd’uneăprésentationăenăhollandais.
Résultats de l’enquête de 2014
Enă marsă 2014,ă l’actualisationă deă laă listeă desă hôtelsă d’Oradeaă aă conduită àă l’inventaireă
suivant ; les hôtels sont ordonnés chronologiquement et enregistrés avec les données
suivantes :ă leă nomă deă l’unité,ă leă siteă officielă deă l’hôtelă (actifă enă marsă 2014),ă l’existenceă
(symbole Э dansăleătableau)ăouăl’absenceă(symboleănonЭ dans le tableau) des versions
en langues étrangères (suggérées par leurs drapeaux en miniature et par les
abréviations RO - roumain, HU - hongrois, EN - anglais, GE - allemand, IT - italien et FR
- français).

Tableau 1: Analyse des unités d’hébergement de type « hôtel », ville d’Oradea,

2014

Nom de site officiel

l’hôtel RO HU EN GE IT FR
Astoria http://astoriaoradea.ro/ non non non non non
Э
Э Э Э Э Э
Atlantic http://www.hotelatlantic.ro non non non non non
Э
Э Э Э Э Э
Atrium http://www.hotelatrium.ro Э Э Э Э Э Э
Bulevard http://www.bulevardhotel.ro non non non non non
Э
Э Э Э Э Э
Carnival www.hotel-carnival.ro non non non non non
Э
Э Э Э Э Э

67
 Nom de site officiel
l’hôtel RO HU EN GE IT FR
Astoria http://astoriaoradea.ro/ non non non non non
Э
Э Э Э Э Э
Class http://www.classhotel.ro non non non non non
Э
Э Э Э Э Э
Continenta http://www.continentalhotels.ro non non non non
Э Э
l Э Э Э Э
Corola www.hotelcorola.ro Э Э Э Э Э Э
Elite http://www.hotelelite.ro non non non non
Э Э
Э Э Э Э
Gala http://hotelgalaoradea.blogspot.ro/ non non non non non
Э
Э Э Э Э Э
Hotel http://www.hiltoneasteurope.com/ro
non non non non non
Doubletree -ro/destinations/doubletree-by- Э
Э Э Э Э Э
by Hilton hilton-oradea
Impero www.hotelimpero.eu non non
Э Э Э Э
Э Э
Iris http://www.irishotel.ro non non non non non
Э
Э Э Э Э Э
Living in www.livingin.ro non non non
Э Э Э
Э Э Э
Maxim www.hotel-maxim.ro non non non
Э Э Э
Э Э Э
Melody http://www.hotelmelody.ro non
Э Э Э Э Э
Э
Nevis www.hotelnevis.ro non non non non
Э Э
Э Э Э Э
Ramada http://ramadaoradea.ro non non
Э Э Э Э
Э Э
RHC Royal http://www.royalhoteloradea.ro non non non non
Э Э
Hotel Э Э Э Э
Scorilo http://www.hotelscorilo.ro/ non non non non
Э Э
Э Э Э Э
Silver http://www.silverhotel.ro non non non non
Э Э
Э Э Э Э
Sky http://www.skyhotel.ro/ non non non non
Э Э
Э Э Э Э
Terra http://www.hotelterra.ro non non non non non
Э
Э Э Э Э Э
Transit http://www.hoteltransit.ro Э Э Э Э non non

68
 Nom de site officiel
l’hôtel RO HU EN GE IT FR
Astoria http://astoriaoradea.ro/ non non non non non
Э
Э Э Э Э Э
Э Э
Vulturul http://www.thhotels.ro/hotel-vulturul- non non non non non
Э
negru negru/ Э Э Э Э Э
Qiu http://www.qiu.ro/ non non non non
Э Э
Э Э Э Э

 20ăhôtelsăquiăexistentădansălaăListeăofficielleădesăunitésăd’accueilăautoriséesăpară
l’AutoritéăNationaleăpourăleăTourisme (en vigueur en avril 2014, cf.
http://turism.gov.ro/informatii-publice/), ayant les classifications suivantes : 5 étoiles -
Hotel DoubleTree by Hilton ; 4 étoiles - Atlantic, Continental, Elite, Maxim, Nevis,
Ramada ; 3 étoiles - Atrium, Bulevard, Class, Gala, Impero, Living In, Melody, RHC
Royal Hotel, Scorilo, Silver, Transit; 2 étoiles - Astoria et Terra ;
 5 unités ne se retrouvent pas dans la liste des unités autorisées : Carnival,
Corola, Iris, Vulturul Negru et Sky. Ces hôtels ont cependant un site internet, rédigé soit
seulementăenăroumain,ăsoităenăroumainăetăenăd’autresălanguesăétrangères.
Lesă changementsă sontă relativementă dépourvusă d’importance : Atlantic qui apparaît
comme pension dans la liste des unités autorisées, mais comme hôtel dans son propre
intitulé, a renoncé au site en anglais ; Corola, hôtel selon son intitulé, mais absent dans
la liste officielle, a créé ou a rendu active la version du site en anglais. Elite qui avait en
2011 sur son site les drapeaux hongrois, italien et allemand correspondant aux langues,
sans en avoir pour autant les versions multilingues, les a effacés en gardant seulement
les drapeaux roumain et anglais et les versions actives correspondantes. L’Hôtel Gala a
changé de site ; à présent il a seulement une page simple, qui comprend un texte court,
type article de blog, sans facilités spécifiques à un site de type hôtel. L’hôtelă Toscana,
quiă avaită ună siteă enă anglaisă actifă enă 2011,ă n’aă plusă deă siteă internetă etă n’apparaîtă pasă
comme unité autorisée, ce qui a déterminé son effacement de notre inventaire. Une
place à part est occupée par DoubleTree et Ramada, qui font partie de réseaux
internationaux.ă L’unitéă Qiu (http://www.qiu.ro/), prise ici comme hôtel, appartient à une
catégorie distincte, avec une forme agréée par les autorités et classée 3 étoiles :ăilăs’agită
de chambres à louer en régime hôtelier, sans réception permanente.
Le tableau des versions multilingues des sitesă officielsă deă cesă unitésă d’accueil,ă
distinguantăentreăl’existenceăouăl’absenceădesăversionsăenălanguesăroumaine,ăhongroise,ă
anglaise, allemande, italienne et française, se présente comme suit :

Tableau 2: Versions en langues étrangères des sites internet des hôtels d’Oradea,
2014

Langue
RO HU EN GE IT FR
Nombre de sites traduits en 22 6 19 6 6 2
Pourcentage correspondant 85% 23% 73% 23% 23% 8%

Nombre de sites non traduits en 4 20 7 20 20 24

Pourcentage correspondant 15% 77% 27% 77% 77% 92%

69
Tableau 3: aperçu comparatif entre les études de 2011 et de 2014

25 25

20 20
versions versions
15 15

10 10 absence de
absence de
5 versions 5 versions

0 0
RO HU EN GE IT FR RO HU EN GE IT FR

Figure 1 Hôtels d’Oradea en 2011 Figure 2 Hôtels d’Oradea en 2014

Aperçu comparatif entre les deux études

Le tableau comparatif des deux études menées à une distance de trois ans permet de
faire les remarques suivantes (voir Tableau 2 et Tableau 3):
 Leă nombreă d’hôtelsă aă augmentéă pară rapportă àă 2011ă (26ă unitésă analyséesă enă
2014, par rapport à 23 unités en 2011) ;
 L'espace virtuel des unitésă d’hébergementă deă typeă « hôtel » existant dans la
villeăd’Oradeaăcontinueăàăréunirălesălanguesăsuivantes : le roumain, le hongrois, l'anglais,
l'allemand, l'italien et le français ;
 Tousă lesă hôtelsă n’ontă pasă ună site,ă soit-il actif ou non, en langue roumaine. Les
présentations apparaissent en langue roumaine dans 85% des cas. Les 4 hôtels
présentésăseulementăenăanglaisăs’intégreraientădansătroisăcatégories : Astoria et Vulturul
Negru, situés en plein centre ville, faisant partie du patrimoine architectural, visent
probablement exclusivement les touristes étrangers ou les touristes roumains avec un
certainăstatutăsocialăetăquiăparlentăcourammentăl’anglais ;ăl’hôtelăIris est le plus proche de
laădouaneădeăBor ,ăàălaăfrontièreăavecălaăHongrie,ăayantăprobablement comme principale
clientèle les touristes qui entrent ou sortent par la douane ;ă l’Hôtelă Gala n’aă pasă àă
proprement parler un site interactif, mais une simple présentation de type page de blog,
avecăunăensembleăréduităd’informations.ăLe roumain reste une langue inconnue pour les
touristes étrangers ; seuls les touristes italiens, français, espagnols ou portugais
pourraient assez facilement, en utilisant le potentiel intercompréhensif conféré pas la
parenté linguistique, comprendre certains mots ou certaines rubriques de ces sites ;
 Malgré le fait que la ville est située dans une région transfrontalière, un nombre
importantă d’hôtelsă neă disposentă pasă deă laă versionă duă siteă enă hongrois ; les hôtels qui
avaientăleăsiteăenăhongroisăenă2011,ăl’ontăégalementăenă2014,ăaucunăautreăhôtelăn’ayantă
pas traduit sa présentation. La situation est identique pour les hôtels qui ont ouvert leurs
portes après le printemps du 2011 (par exemple DoubleTree, Sky ou Bulevard). Suite à
l’analyseă desă sites,ă nousă pouvonsă constateră que seulement 25șă d’entreă euxă sontă
présentés en hongrois. Or, vu le nombre important de touristes hongrois dans la ville
d’Oradea,ăonăpeutăestimerăqueăcelaăseăconstitueădansăunăargumentăenăfaveurădeăl’idéeă
queă laă versionă desă sitesă enă langueă étrangèreă n’estă pas exclusivement liée à la
nationalitéă desă touristesă accueillis.ă D’autreă partă onă pourraită penseră queă lesă touristesă
hongrois – arrivés individuellement ou en groupes - sont probablement hébergés par les
familles, chez des amis ou dans les résidences tenues par leurs compatriotes ;
 L’existenceă desă versionsă enă anglaisă n’estă pasă uneă surprise ; nous admettons
sansăréserveă laănécessitéă deă l’anglaisăetănousă pensonsăqu’ il est trop facile de dresser

70
les langues les unes contre les autres « dans une lutte des plus fratricides » au lieu de
les « enrichiră d’alliances,ă enă communautéă d’intérêts » (Challe, 2002 : 135). Nous
considérons même que les 27% des hôtels sans présentation en anglais devraient
remédier très vite à cette carence ;
 L’allemandă etă l’italienă occupentă toujours une position modeste et relativement
égale dans le paysage linguistique de la promotion hôtelière, avec une présence de
seulement 23%. Dans le cas de ces langues nous ne remarquons pas de changement
notable par rapport à 2011, quand les sites étaient traduits en proportion de 26% (la dif-
férenceăestădueăàăl’apparitionădeănouveauxăhôtelsăquiăneăsontăpasăpromusănonăplusăenă
italien ou en allemand). Tout comme dans le cas du hongrois, la situation des langues
italienneăetăallemandeăn’estăpasăprobablementăen rapport avec la présence des touristes
(deăloisirsăouăd’affaires)ăallemandsăouăitaliens ;
 Le français se trouve en queue de la liste et jouit d'une présence extrêmement
modeste,ă sinonă négligeable,ă ceă quiă confirmeă l’idéeă queă lesă valeursă obtenuesă troisă ans
auparavantă n’ontă pasă étéă accidentelles ; on pourrait même affirmer que le français est
pratiquement inexistant dans le tableau de la communication multilingue dans le tou-
risme,ăétantădonnéăqu’ilăneăcouvreăniă10% du tableau multilingue examiné ;
 On ne constate pas de modifications par rapport à des langues comme l'espa-
gnol, le russe ou le chinois qui correspondent cependant à un nombre significatif de par-
leurs au niveau mondial, touristes potentiels extrêmement mobiles lors des dernières
années. Aucune initiativeăn’estăàăsignalerădansăceăsens.
Nousăadmettonsăqueăl’offreăsuităenăgénéralălaădemande : quand il y a une demande, les
entrepreneursă s’empressentă àă laă satisfaireă auă mieuxă etă àă rendreă visibleă leură offre,ă afină
d’emporterăleăpasăsurălaăconcurrence.ăLaăréciproque est également valable : la demande
peută êtreă àă sonă toură modeléeă pară l’offre.ă Desă touristesă enă grandă nombreă quiă sollicitentă
sură l’internetă l’accèsă àă desă informationsă dansă uneă certaineă langueă peuventă stimuleră lesă
administrateurs des hôtels à faire traduire le site dans la langue étrangère respective.
Pară voieă deă conséquence,ă l’existenceă d’ună ensembleă d’informationsă enă anglais,ă enă
français, en allemand, en italien, en hongrois, en chinois, en espagnol ou en russe,
accessibles à des touristes dans leur langue maternelle, peut les stimuler à choisir un
certain hôtel pour leur hébergement lors du séjour à Oradea ou dans la région.

3. Conclusions finales (Ière partie et IIe partie)

Deux conclusions apparaissent à la fin de notre étude réalisée en deux temps : la
première en rapport avec la problématique des langues étrangères dans la
communication touristique stratégique de la Roumanie (Ière partie) et la deuxième en
relation avec les carences de la promotion pratique multilingue au niveau local (avec un
regard spécial sur la langue française) respectivement les solutions envisagées (IIe
partie).

3.1. Conclusions de la première partie de l’étude

L’analyseă desă donnéesă susmentionnéesă aă permisă d’évalueră etă deă compareră àă petiteă
échelle les possibles « scénarios »ămultilinguesădansălaăpromotionătouristiqueăd’uneăvilleă
de frontière et de formuler des conclusions relatives à la problématique envisagée. Les
conclusionsă portentă deă nouveau,ă commeă enă 2011,ă sură laă mêmeă attitudeă d’indifférenceă
envers les langues étrangères manifestée dans un secteur très orienté vers
l’internatională etă soucieuxă deă transformationsă rapidesă enă termesă deă visibilitéă etă deă
profitabilité : la promotion faite à travers les sites internet. Sans prétention
d’exhaustivité,ă l’articleă signaleă uneă réalité inquiétante, marque quelques points de
réflexion et argumente le bien-fondéă d’uneă futureă rechercheă plusă détailléeă relativeă àă laă
communication multilingue dans le secteur du tourisme roumain. D’autresăaspectsănonă

71
abordés mais qui devraient être pris en discussion visent la typologie des touristes,
l’implicationă desă Chambresă deă Commerceă nationales,ă lesă retombéesă sură lesă
communautésălocales,ălesăréseauxădeăpromotionăàăl’étranger,ălaătypologieădesădiscoursă
deătypeăpublicitaireăouăl’étatădesămatérielsăpublicitairesă(parăexempleăilăn’existeăaucună
matérielăpromotionnelăenăfrançaisăconcernantălaăvilleăd’Oradeaăouăquelqueăobjectifăqueă
ce soit dans le département de Bihor). Les officiels et les petits acteurs impliqués dans
le tourisme roumain ignorent toujours des solutions simples, accessibles et peu
coûteuses telles que la traduction des sites officiels en plusieurs langues étrangères. La
traduction d'un site suppose un investissement initial modique, renouvelable surtout en
ce qui concerne les données chiffrées et l'actualisation du site peut être faite par tout
connaisseur moyen de la langue.

3.2. Conclusions de la deuxième partie de l’étude

Quelles seraient alors les voies qui permettraient de remédier à cette carence, qui
représente un vrai handicap culturel ? Nous considérons comme pertinentes et nous
proposons des initiatives telles que le volontariat dans la traduction des matériels
publicitaires, la conception de projets centrés sur les langues, laă miseă enă placeă d’uneă
stratégie programmatique avec une feuilleădeăparcoursăbienăétablie,ăl’élaboration de kits
d’informationsăpré-formatées,ăadaptéesăauătypiqueădeălaăpromotionăparăinternet.ăD’autreă
part,ă mêmeă siă l’hôtelă paieă lesă versionsă traduitesă dansă desă languesă étrangères,ă ilă faută
prendre en compte le rapport coût – bénéfice : le volume des informations pour la
présentationăsurăunăsiteăd’hôtelăneădépasseăprobablementăpasă3ă- 4 pages format A4, ce
quiărevientăàăunăprixăd’environă30ă- 40ăeuros.ăL’accessibilitéădeălaănouvelleăversionăduăsiteă
dans la langue étrangère pourrait apporter des bénéfices multipliés. Avec environ 250
euros,ătoutăhôtelăroumainăpourraităseădoterăd’unăsiteămultilingue,ădoncădisponible en 6 ou
7 langues étrangères.
Quant à la situation du français dans la communication touristique multilingue en
Roumanie,ă elleă estă inquiétante.ă Pourquoiă ceă manqueă d’intérêtă poură leă françaisă enă tantă
que langue de communication publicitaire dans le tourisme roumain ouvert aux
étrangers ? Face à cette interrogation rhétorique, il suffit de penser premièrement au fait
que le français est la 14e langue au monde du point de vue des locuteurs, étant parlée
par environ 75 millions de personnes. Le français figure après des langues comme le
chinoisă quiă aă ună nombreă écrasantă deă parleursă (plusă d’ună milliard),ă l’espagnolă (406ă
millionsă deă locuteurs)ă ouă l’anglaisă (335ă millionsă deă locuteurs),ă etc.ă Onă constateă aussiă
que,ă duă pointă deă vueă duă nombreă deă paysă d’oùă proviennentă sesă locuteurs,ă leă françaisă
parléădansă51ăpaysăestădépasséăseulementăparăl’anglaisă(répanduădansă101ăpays)ăetăpar
l’arabeă (59ă pays)ă (cf.ă http://www.ethnologue.com/world, 2014). Deuxièmement, le
français est à côté de l'anglais, de l'arabe, de l'espagnol et du russe une langue officielle
de l'Organisation Mondiale du Tourisme.ăTroisièmement,ăd’aprèsălesăestimationsăd’INSăȚă
Horwath HTL, fournies dans le document Plan de Marketing Stratégique et Opérationnel
pour la Roumanie 2011 - 2015, Résumé du Rapport Final Horwath HTL (2011 : 13), la
France est le troisième marché prioritaireăpourălaăRoumanie,ăaprèsăl’Allemagneăetăl’Italieă
et avant la Grande-Bretagne,ăl’AutricheăouălaăRussie.
Sansă oseră présumeră l’indifférenceă poură leă potentielă desă touristesă venusă deă l’espaceă
francophone, on retient comme causes possibles l’existenceă d’une culture dominante
anglicisante,ăl’absenceăd’uneăvisionălinguistiqueădeătypeăplurilinguismeăauăniveauăofficiel,ă
ayantădesădébouchésăopérationnelsăauăniveauălocal,ăl’absenceădeăpersonnelăqualifiéăquiă
disposeă deă compétencesă enă langueă française,ă l’absenceă d’uneă réactionă diplomatiqueă
desă officielsă françaisă ouă leură implicationă limitéeă dansă cesă aspects,ă laă perceptionă d’uneă
ainsi-dite complexité et difficulté du français ; dans ce sens, Challe (2002 : 8) parlait
même du besoin de « calmer la peur que provoque le système linguistique français ».

72
Leătourismeăroumainăestăstratégiquementăouvertăversăl’international ;ăilăn’estăpasăouăilăneă
sembleăpasăpourăl’instantăstratégiquementăorientéăversălesălanguesăétrangèresăouăversălaă
communication multilingue. Le remède en estăpourtantăplusăsimpleăqu’ilăneăparaît.

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74
ERASMUS-STIPENDIEN ZWISCHEN ANGEBOT UND INTERESSELOSIGKEIT. DER
HINTERGRUND DER FEHLENDEN STUDENTENMOTIVATION

Hamburg Andrea
Department of International Business, Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: In a world of intensified cross-cultural relations it would be of great

importance that young people ‒ especially those in academic environments ‒ gain
some international experience, get to know during their college period other cultures
and socio-economic systems than theirs. The Erasmus programmes of the European
Committee could give them due to the financial support they suppose the opportunity to
live the experience of studying or doing practice in a company abroad and thus extend
their personal and professional horizon. Romania takes part in Erasmus programmes
since 1998 and in the last two and a half decades sent more than 38,000 students on
Erasmus study or placement mobility. It is a nice number but still too little related to the
overall number of Erasmus scholarships academic institutions could dispose of yearly.
Following study proposes to offer an insight into the Erasmus programme since 1987,
the year of its establishment, in figures and essential data. After this general overview
we focus upon the main channels of communication, ways of promoting exchange
programmes at the University of Oradea, Romania (the author’s institution of affiliation).
By conducting a comparative study upon the relation between offer and demand at the
same faculties of two academic institutions, the above mentioned University of Oradea
and the University of Debrecen, Hungary, one may realize that the situation is quite the
same in both academic environments, Erasmus programmes don’t represent in general
main attraction for students. The analyzed study domains are: technique, economics,
medicine/pharmacy, history, political and communication sciences. The most interested
in an international experience, at least according to data of some academic years,
prove to be medicine students who applied 2013-2014 in Oradea for about 44% and
2011-2012 in Debrecen for 80% of the scholarships offered. Why for instance
economic students at the University of Oradea show little interest for Erasmus
programmes we have tried to find out by means of a questionnaire pointing to the main
causes for applying/not applying for an Erasmus scholarship. The answers given by the
over 120 students questioned correspond partially with the author’s initial suppositions
and show main directions for counterbalancing and actions to be taken to increase
visibility, feasibility and popularity of Erasmus programmes among students.

Keywords: Mobilitätsprogramme; Erasmus-Stipendium; Nachfrage und Angebot;

schwacher Ausnutzungsgrad; Umfrage; Erhöhung der Teilnahmequote

JEL classification: A22; I20; Z00

1. Erasmus-Programme. Ein Überblick

Das Jahr 1987 bildet einen Meilenstein in der Entwicklung der europäischen Mobilität,
der Intensivierung des Erfahrungsaustausches und der Erweiterung des Horizonts unter
den Jugendlichen im akademischen Bereich. Es ist nämlich das Jahr, in dem die
Europäische Kommission die sogenannten Socrates-Erasmus-Programme mit dem
Zweck ins Leben gerufen hat, den Austausch im akademischen Bereich zu fördern. In
der Zeitspanne 1987-2013 haben dank der geförderten studentischen
75
Austauschprogramme zwecks Studiums (Erasmus Study Mobility – ESM) oder
Praktikums in Unternehmen (Erasmus Placement Mobility – EPM) an die 3 Millionen
Studierende die Gelegenheit gehabt, im Ausland zu studieren oder Berufserfahrung zu
gewinnen.
Danebenă finanziertă Erasmusă ‒ă mită einemă Hintergrundă vonă 4.000ă Institutionenă ină 33ă
Ländernă ‒ă auchă dieă Mobilitätă undă Kooperationă deră Lehrkräfteă undă Angestelltenă
verschiedener Organisationen zwecks Unterrichts (Teaching Staff Mobility) oder der
Ausbildung (Staff Training Mobility). All diese Förderungen stellen nur eine
Teilfinanzierung im Sinne eines finanziellen Beitrags für den ausländischen Aufenthalt
dar.
Nun sollen einige konkrete Daten über das Programm folgen. Die meisten Erasmus-
Studenten stammen aus Spanien, Deutschland, Frankreich, Italien und Polen und unter
den beliebtesten Reisezielen fürs Studium befinden sich Spanien, Deutschland,
Frankreich, England und Italien. Im letzten Jahrzehnt beträgt die durchschnittliche
Länge des Austauschprogrammes 6 Monate und während dieser Zeit erhalten die
Studierenden monatlich an die 250 Euro Förderung für ihren ausländischen Aufenthalt.
Erasmus-Programme bieten aber nicht nur finanzielle Unterstützung, sondern haben
auch eine Vermittlungsrolle im studentischen Austausch. Dabei versichern sie allen
Erasmus-Studentenă ‒ă mită oderă ohneă EU-Förderungă ‒ă bestimmteă Vorteile,ă wieă z.B.ă
Entlastung von der Zahlungsverbindlichkeit der Betreuungsgebühre in den
Gastinstitutionen. Im Sinne der Chancengleichheit erhalten Jugendliche mit speziellen
Bedürfnissen einen Extrabetrag für die Finanzierung ihrer Auslandsaufenthalte, so ist
die Zahl der Antragsteller aus diesem sozialen Segment in den letzten Jahren leicht
gestiegen.
Da das Programm nicht nur die Erweiterung des Erkenntnis- und Kenntnishorizonts,
sondern seit 2007 auch den Erwerb und Austausch von Erfahrung zwecks hoher
beruflicher Qualifizierung erzielt, hat es sich im Laufe der Zeit ein Netz aus über 35.000
europäischen Unternehmen ausgebildet, die im Rahmen des Erasmus-Programms
Studierende zum Praktikum annehmen. Beinahe 80% dieser Betriebe sind klein- und
mittelständische Unternehmen. Über 30% der Praktikanten entstammen den
Studienbereichen: Sozial- und Wirtschaftswissenschaften, bzw. Jura, an die 17%
studieren Ingenieurwissenschaften, Bauwesen und weitere 17% Geisteswissenschaften
und Kunst. Ungefähr dieselben Länder ergeben den Großteil des Zu- und Abflusses der
Praktikanten, wie im Falle des Erasmus-Programms fürs Studium, nämlich Spanien,
England Deutschland, Frankreich, Italien als Bestimmungsort und Frankreich,
Deutschland, Spanien, England und Polen als Ursprungsland. Die Praktikanten
verbringen durchschnittlich 4 Monate am Ort ihrer praktischen Ausbildung und erhalten
für diese Periode im Durchschnitt 357 Euro pro Monat. Zweck dieses Programms ist
Kennenlernen von anderen Wirtschaftssystemen, Anpassung der Studierenden an die
Forderungen des Arbeitsmarktes, Erwerb von berufsspezifischen Fertigkeiten und
Verstärkung der Kooperation zwischen Anstalten für Hochschulstudium und
Unternehmen. So passt es genau in den Rahmen des Programms fürs lebenslanges
Lernen (Lifelong Learning Programme), unter dessen Ägide Erasmus-Programme in der
Zeitspanne 2007-2013 laufen. Die Bedürfnisse des zukünftigen akademischen Bereichs
und Arbeitsmarktes werden ab 2014 die Erasmus+ Programme bedienen.
Die Typologie der im Rahmen des Erasmus-Programms durchführbaren Tätigkeiten wird
in der von der Europäischen Kommission gewilligten Erasmus Universitätscharta
(Erasmus University Chart) festgelegt und umfasst Aktionen wie: studentische Mobilität
fürs Studium und Praktikum, Lehrkräftenmobilität zwecks Unterrichts und der
Ausbildung, Intensivprogramme, intensive Sprachkurse (EILC), Kooperation zwischen
Hochschulen und Unternehmen, virtueller Campus, um nur einige zu nennen. Erasmus-
Programme laufen aufgrund zweiseitiger Abkommen zwischen den teilnehmenden
76
Institutionen ab, d.h. betreffende Anstalten können in derăvereinbartenăZeitspanneă‒ăeină
oderă mehrereă akademischeă Jahreă ‒ă gemäßă deră existierendenă Stipendien- bzw.
Förderbetragszahl und für die im Abkommen vermerkte Gesamtdauer Studierende oder
Lehrkräfte an ausländische Institutionen verschicken, oder von dort annehmen. Alle
Antragsteller für eine Erasmus-Förderung sollen bestimmten Auswahlkriterien recht
werden und alle, im als begleitendes Reisedokument geltenden finanziellen Vertrag
gestellte Bedingungen erfüllen, sonst müssen sie den Gesamt- oder einen Teilbetrag der
Förderung zurückerstatten. Studierende können höchstens eine Erasmus-Förderung
fürs Studium und eine fürs Praktikum erhalten, diese zwei Typs von Programmen
können auch kombiniert werden.
In Rumänien wurden Erasmus-Programme 1998 aufgrund des Entschlusses des EU-
Beitrittsrates Rumänien vom September 1997 eingeführt. Seit dem ersten Jahr seiner
Teilnahme am Programm, als Rumänien 1.250 Studierende ins Ausland verschickt hat,
ist die Zahl der rumänischen Erasmus-Studenten hauptsächlich von Jahr zu Jahr
gestiegen und hat im akademischen Jahr 2011-2012 schon 3.380 erreicht. Die
Gesamtzahl der Erasmus-Begünstigten unter den rumänischen Studenten beträgt in der
Zeitspanne 1998-2012 über 38.000 (38.120 Personen).

2. Erasmus-Stipendien für Studenten. Institutionelle Maßnahmen für die

Bekanntmachung des Programms an der Universität von Großwardein (Oradea),
Rumänien
Nach diesem kurzen Überblick über Erasmus-Programme europaweit wird in den
folgenden Sektionen die Lage in Rumänien in Betracht gezogen. Da im erforschten
Segment wegen des Umfangs eine bestimmte Beschränkung nötig ist, wird eine einzige
Institution,ă nämlichă dieă Universitätă vonă Großwardeină ‒ă dieă Ursprungsinstitutionă desă
Autorsă ‒ă mită sechsă ihreră Fakultätenă (dieă Fakultätă ă füră Elektronischeă
Ingenieurwissenschaften und Informationstechnologie, die Fakultät für Energetische
Ingenieurwissenschaften und Industriemanagement, die Fakultät für Wirtschafts-,
Ingenieurwissenschaften und Technologie, die Fakultät für Geschichtswissenschaft,
Internationale Beziehungen, Politik- und Kommunikationswissenschaften, die
Medizinische und Pharmakologische Fakultät und die Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche
Fakulät) in der Zeitspanne 2011-2014 untersucht. Um die Daten auch im internationalen
Vergleich zu sehen, hat man auch die Universität von Debrecen, Ungarn, mit ihren, den
rumänischen Institutionen entsprechenden Fakultäten in der angegebenen Periode in
die Studie einbezogen. Ein mehrseitiger Vergleich unter weiteren Hochschulanstalten
Ungarns und Rumäniens hinsichtlich des Mobilitätsprogramms für Studenten oder
Lehrkräfte könnte das Sujet weiterführender Studien bilden.
Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit ist, das Angebot an Erasmus-Stipendien für Studenten an oben
erwähnten Fakultäten, das Verhältnis zwischen Nachfrage und Angebot zu untersuchen,
mögliche Erklärungen, Gründe für das geringe Interesse an Erasmus-Programmen in
den betreffenden Institutionen und Lösungsvorschläge für die Verbesserung der Lage
zu finden. An der Universität von Großwardein standen leider nur für die
Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakultät vollständige Daten zur untersuchten Periode zur
Verfügung, im Falle der anderen Fakultäten waren die Angaben nur für das
akademische Jahr 2013-2014 zugänglich.
Die Frage ist, wie erfahren Studierende über die Existenz der Erasmus-Programme,
was für Mittel und Wege für Informierung und Werbung benutzt werden, in einem Wort,
wie die Universität von Großwardein diese Programme und ihren ganzen Hintergrund
verwaltet.
Es gibt ein zentrales Büro für Internationale Beziehungen, das auch für die Erasmus-
Programmeă verantwortlichă ist.ă Diesesă Büroă koordiniertă denă „Aus- undă Eingang“ă vonă
77
Erasmus-Studenten und Lehrkräften in der Unterrichts- und Ausbildungsmobilität,
organisiert Veranstaltungen für die ausländischen Studenten, hilft ihnen bei der
Unterkunftssuche, usw. Informationen über dieses Büro, zu den Erasmus-Programmen
im Allgemeinen, zum Termin des Vorstellungsgesprächs im Auswahlprozess an
verschiedenen Fakultäten, Informationen angesichts der nötigen Unterlagen,
verschiedene Formulare sind von der Webseite der Universität (www.uoradea.ro),
Sektion Internationale Beziehungen herunterzuladen. Außerdem gibt es Erasmus-
Koordinatoren, Verantwortliche für internationale Beziehungen oder Kontaktpersonen für
Erasmus-Programme an den meisten Fakultäten. Die Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche
Fakultät hat zusätzliche Verantwortliche für internationale Beziehungen an allen ihrer
vier Abteilungen. Diese helfen dem/der Fakultätsverantwortlichen bei der Verwaltung der
Austauschprogramme. Hauptsächlich gibt es auf der Webseite jeder Fakultät
Informationen über Erasmus-Programme, die oben erwähnte Fakultät ladet da
beispielsweise Auskunft über die nötigen Unterlagen, Bewerbungsformulare, das
jeweilige Angebot an Erasmus-Stipendien, Angaben zum Bewerbungs- und
Auswahlprozess, die Liste der erfolgreichen Berwerber, usw. hoch. Es gibt zwar auch
einen Link zum Erfahrungsbericht ehemaliger Erasmus-Studenten der Fakultät ohne
aber hochgeladenen Inhalt. Jährlich organisiert die Fakultät sogennante Erasmus-Tage,
an denen die Interessenten von den Erasmus-Verantwortlichen, ehemaligen
Stipendiaten, aufgrund von Präsentationen Näheres über die Mobilitätsprogramme
erfahren können. Außerdem gibt es Anzeigen am Schwarzen Brett und Lehrkräfte,
Gruppenbetreuer, bzw. Studierende mit Erasmus-Erfahrung hinter sich informieren die
Studenten über die Gelegenheit, im Ausland zu studieren oder Berufserfahrung zu
gewinnen, und ermutigen sie zur Teilnahme am Programm.
Wie es im nächsten Abschnitt beleuchtet wird, stammt der Großteil der Informationen,
über die die Studenten zu den Erasmus-Programmen verfügen, von der Fakultät (von
Lehrkräften, Kommilitonen, Anzeigen, der Webseite). Doch das geringe Interesse an
diesen Programmen zeigt, dass für diese Sache manches noch sollte getan werden.
Einige Vorschläge diesbezüglich werden in dieser Studie sogar thematisiert.

3. Erasmus-Stipendien: Nachfrage und Angebot

An dieser Stelle möchten wir anhand der zugänglichen Angaben das Verhältnis
zwischen Angebot an und Nachfrage für Erasmus-Stipendien unter den Studenten der
Universität von Großwardein, Rumänien, bzw. der Universität von Debrecen, Ungarn,
unter die Lupe nehmen. In die Analyse werden die schon erwähnten Fakultäten, bzw.
Anstalten einbezogen.

3.1. Nachfrage und Angebot. Erasmus-Stipendien an der Universität von

Großwardein
Der technische Bereich lässt sich in der Studie sogar durch drei Fakultäten der
Universität von Großwardein vertreten, nämlich die Fakultät für Elektronische
Ingenieurwissenschaften und Informationstechnologie, die Fakultät für Energetische
Ingenieurwissenschaften und Industriemanagement und die Fakultät für Wirtschafts-,
Ingenieurwissenschaften und Technologie. Konkrete Angaben zum Angebot an
Erasmus-Stipendien fürs Studium, bzw. Praktikum stehen uns nur für das akademische
Jahr 2013-2014 zur Verfügung, es ist aber anzunehmen, dass die Palette in der
Zeitspanne 2011-2014 keine beachtlichen Änderungen aufweist.
Die Fakultät für Elektronische Ingenieurwissenschaften und Informationstechnologie
arbeitet mit 22 Institutionen aus 10 Ländern im Bereich der Mobilität fürs Studium und
mită weiterenă 18ă Partnernă ausă 8ă Ländernă ‒ă teilweiseă dieselbenă ‒ă imă Bereichă deră
praktischen Berufsausbildung zusammen. Die 83 Stipendien fürs Studium bzw. die 44
78
Förderungen fürs Praktikum für insgesamt 189 Monate ermöglichen Studierenden vom
oben erwähnten technischen Bereich Erfahrung in Frankreich, Deutschland, Portugal,
Spanien, Ungarn, England u.a. zu gewinnen.
Die Fakultät für Energetische Ingenieurwissenschaften und Industriemanagement hat
zwar weniger Stipendien im Angebot, aber doch versichert sie ihren Studenten 41
Förderungen fürs Studium für insgesamt 181 Monate in 21 Institutionen von 8 Ländern
und 2 Stipendien auf insgesamt 6 Monate fürs Praktikum. Die Partnerländer dieser
Fakultät sind: Frankreich, Italien, Polen, Portugal, Spanien, die Türkei, England,
Griechenland und Ungarn.
Von der dritten, in die Studie einbezogenen technischen Fakultät haben im
akademischen Jahr 2013-2014 48 Studenten die Möglichkeit, an einer der 21
Institutionen der 8 Partnerländer, für insgesamt 352 Monate zu studieren, und weitere
19 Jugendliche bei den 9 Partnerinstitutionen insgesamt 57 Monate lang ihre
praktischen Fertigkeiten zu entwickeln. Die Partnerländer sind dieselben wie im Falle
der anderen zwei technischen Fakultäten. Diese Teilsummen ergeben an der Universität
von Großwardein im technischen Bereich insgesamt 172 Stipendien fürs Studium auf
eine Gesamtperiode von 1058 Monaten, bzw. 65 Stipendien fürs Praktikum für 252
Monate. Diese Möglichkeiten wollten 2013 insgesamt 14 Studenten zwecks Studiums (5
sind aber zurückgetreten) und 7 weitere zwecks Praktikums (1 Rücktritt) ausnutzen. Von
den insgesamt 26 Antragstellern um ein Stipendium fürs Studium haben sich 2011 nicht
weniger als 11, bzw. von den 18 Kandidaten 2012 die Hälfte anders besonnen. EPM-
Stipendien waren auch nicht populärer, 2011 haben sie 7 Studenten beantragt und 2012
war diese Zahl 15, von denen 4 Studierende zurückgetreten sind.
Die Fakultät für Geschichtswissenschaft, Internationale Beziehungen, Politik- und
Kommunikationswissenschaften der Universität von Großwardein hat insgesamt 18
Partnerländer im Erasmus-Programm. Die Studenten können 220 Stipendien für
Erasmus Study Mobility in 74 Institutionen von Ländern, wie Belgien, Bulgarien,
Griechenland, Dänemark, Italien, Deutschland, Spanien, Slowenien, Ungarn, um nur
einige zu nennen, für insgesamt 1620 Monate in Anspruch nehmen. Die 35 EPM-
Stipendien für 105 Monate bieten bei 39 Partnerinstitutionen Einblick ins alltägliche
Berufsleben der betreffenden Unternehmen. Demgegenüber ist die Zahl der
Interessenten gering, 2011 gab es 25 Kandidaten und 2 Zurückgetretene, im nächsten
Jahr sind von den 18 Antragstellern 4, während 2013 von den 20 Kandidaten 7
zurückgetreten. Die EPM-Stipendien haben 2011 7 Studierende, im darauf folgenden
Jahr 10, während 2013 nur 11 Studenten angezogen. Rücktritte gab es hier auch.
Österreich, Bulgarien, Frankreich, Itaien, Spanien, Portugal, die Türkei und Ungarn sind
in den Erasmus-Programmen die Partnerländer der Medizinischen und
Pharmakologischen Fakultät. 32 Stipendien für 269 Monate an 15 Universitäten, bzw. 7
finanzierte Praktikantenstellen für insgesamt 21 Monate an 5 Partnerinstitutionen bieten
Medizin- und Pharmakologiestudenten internationale Erfahrung. Daran haben 2013
insgesamt 17 Studierende Interesse gezeigt und 14 die Förderung auch erhalten. In den
vorangehenden zwei Jahren wurden viel weniger Studenten von diesen Stipendien
angezogen, 2010 gab es aber 21 Kandidaten. Rücktritte sind ebenfalls vorgekommen.
Interessanterweise waren EPM-Förderungen für niemanden anziehend.
Das reichste Angebot an Erasmus-Stipendien fürs Studium und Praktikum hat von den
analysierten Institutionen die Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakultät. In der untersuchten
Zeitspanne hat sie insgesamt 379 ESM- und 78 EPM-Stipendien für eine Gesamtdauer
von 2960, bzw. 258 Monaten angeboten. Die auf akademische Jahre zerlegte
Stipendien-Palette sieht folgendermaßen aus. Während den Studenten im
akademischen Jahr 2011-2012 genau 116 ESM-Stipendien für insgesamt 808 Monate
zur Verfügung gestanden sind, und die Lage auch für 2012-2013 ähnlich war, zeigt das
Angebot für 2013-2014 mit 150 Förderungen auf eine Gesamtdauer von 1342 Monaten
79
ein bemerkenswertes Wachstum von zirka 13% auf. Die Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche
Fakultät arbeitet mit Institutionen aus Kroatien, Deutschland, Frankreich, Italien, Litauen,
Zypern, Spanien, Portugal, Ungarn zusammen, um nur einige zu erwähnen. Im Sinne
der zweiseitigen Abkommen empfängt sie die meisten Erasmus-Studenten aus Portugal
und Spanien, es gibt aber auch französische, italienische, slowakische oder polnische
Studierende in der rumänischen Lehranstalt.
Im Gegensatz zur großen Stipendienzahl steht die Nachfrage dafür. 2011 interessierten
sich 11 Studierende (davon 8 Magister- und 3 Bachelorstudenten) für eine Mobilität fürs
Studium und zwei Magisterstudenten für eine geförderte Praktikantenstelle. Die Zahl der
Bewerberă beträgtă 2012ă bloßă 15ă Personenă ‒ă davonă erhaltenă 14ă Studierendeă ein
Stipendiumă imăAuslandă ‒ă undă imă Jahră 2013ă nochă weniger,ă undzwară 10.ă Rücktritteă sindă
auch vorgekommen. Als Vergleichsbasis soll hier erwähnt werden, dass sich in der
Zeitspanne 2006-2011 durchschnittlich 25 Wirtschaftsstudenten für ein Erasmus-
Stipendium fürs Studium oder Praktikum beworben haben. Interessanter- und
unverständlicherweise machen diejenigen Studenten, deren Fachrichtung mit
Internationalisierung, fremden Sprachen und Kulturen zu tun hat, wie z.B. Tourismus,
Internationale Handelsbeziehungen, usw., nicht einmal die Hälfte aller Bewerber aus.

3.2. Nachfrage und Angebot. Erasmus-Stipendien an der Universität von

Debrecen, Ungarn
Rumänien gleich, nimmt Ungarn an Erasmus-Programmen seit 1998 teil und schickt
seitdem Studierende in einer von Jahr zu Jahr steigenden Zahl ins Ausland. Bis 2012
beträgt diese Zahl 35.160, das sind fast 3000 weniger ungarische Erasmus-Stipendiaten
als rumänische in derselben Zeitspanne. Das ist eher mit der Tatsache im Einklang,
dass im akademischen Jahr 2013-2014 die untersuchten rumänischen Fakultäten
insgesamt ungefähr doppelt so viele Stipendien im Angebot hatten als die
entsprechenden ungarischen Institutionen, als lässt relevante Schlussfolgerungen
angesichts des Interesses ungarischer Studenten an Stipendien im Vergleich mit ihren
rumänischen Kollegen ziehen.
An den analysierten ungarischen Fakultäten bleibt die Palette der Erasmus-Stipendien
für die Periode 2011-2014 bis auf etliche Variationen relativ unverändert. DieTechnische
Fakultät verfügt bis 2013 über 132 Stipendien auf eine Gesamtdauer von 781 Monaten,
ab 2014 steigt die Zahl der Förderugen bei einer etwa gesunkenen Gesamtdauer (771
Monate) auf 140. Die 26 Partnerinstitutionen, mit denen die oben genannte Fakultät
zusammenarbeitet, befinden sich in Ländern, wie: Österreich, Deutschland, Spanien,
Italien, Polen, Rumänien, Finland, der Türkei, usw. Für das akademische Jahr 2013-
2014 gab es Praktikantenstellen bei 43 Partnern in 13 Ländern, die Zahl der Stipendien,
sowie die der Bewerber ist uns aber unbekannt.
An der Universität von Debrecen gehören die Studienbereiche Geschichts-, Politik- und
Kommunikationswissenschaften zu unterschiedlichen Institutionen oder Lehrstühlen der
Philologischen Fakultät. Die drei ungarischen Institutionen, die der Fakultät für
Geschichtswissenschaft, Internationale Beziehungen, Politik- und Kommunikations-
wissenschaften in Großwardein entsprechen, bieten insgesamt 66 Stipendien für 327
Monate in 11 Partnerländern an. Die sind in Auswahl: Deutschland, Spanien, Rumänien,
die Slowakei, Dänemark, die Türkei, u.a. Von den 28 Förderungen, die den Studenten
am Lehrstuhl für Kommunikationswissenschaften und Mass Media zur Verfügung
stehen, wurden 2011 nur 2, 2012, bzw. 2013 eine einzige beantragt. Außerdem haben
sich 2011 zwei weitere Mass-Media-Studenten und 2013 ein einziger um ein Erasmus-
Stipendium vom Angebot anderer Lehrstühle beworben. Von den anderen zwei
Institutionen der Philologischen Fakultät sind leider keine Informationen hinsichtlich der
Zahl der Antragsteller zugänglich.

80
 Die Medizinische und Pharmakologische Fakultät der Universität von Debrecen hat bei
einer ungefähr gleichen Zahl der Partnerländer (9) und –institutionen (19) wie im Falle
der Medizinischen und Pharmakologischen Fakultät in Großwardein mehr Stipendien für
eine längere Gesamtdauer (303 Monate) im Angebot. Einige von ihnen sind aber nur für
das akademische Jahr 2013-2014, oder die Zeitspanne 2012-2014 gültig, andere sind
2013 ausgelaufen. Ungarische Medizinstudenten scheinen zielorientierter zu sein als
ihre rumänischen Kollegen. Von den 45 Stipendien zwecks Studiums oder Praktikums
wurden für das akademische Jahr 2011-2012 fast alle (36) zuerteilt. In den folgenden
zwei Jahren standen den Studierenden 50, bzw. 51 Förderungen zur Verfügung.
An der Wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Fakultät gibt es 77 Stipendien für insgesamt 432
Monate in 15 Ländern. Die Zahl der Bewerber für eine Erasmus-Förderung variiert von
Jahr zu Jahr, in der untersuchten Zeitspanne zeigt sie aber eine leicht steigende
Tendenz. Während 2011 nur 16 Studenten Interesse an diesem Programm gezeigt und
davon 12 auch ein Stipendium erhalten haben, steigt diese Zahl 2012 schon auf 19
Antragsteller, davon 15 erfolgreiche Bewerber und 2013 auf insgesamt 22 Kandidaten
und 21 zuerteilte Stipendien. Hier kann man auch keine direkte Korrelation zwischen der
Fachrichtung der Bewerber und ihrer Bereitschaft für eine Auslandserfahrung machen.
Anhand der verfügbaren Daten lässt sich folgendes Fazit ziehen: weder rumänische
noch ungarische Studierende nutzen die ihnen angebotene Gelengenheit für
Horizonterweiterung aus. Von den analysierten Studienbereichen scheinen aber
Medizin- und Pharmakologiestudenten die offensten für eine Erasmus-Erfahrung und
die zielstrebigsten in der Entwicklung ihrer Karriere zu sein, wenigstens anhand der
Daten von 2013, bzw. 2011. Ein Vergleich unter den Wirtschaftsstudenten beider
Institutionen hebt beispielsweise die Tatsache hervor, dass die Zahl der Antragsteller für
ein Stipendium im Verhältnis zur Gesamtzahl der Bachelor- und Magisterstudenten (an
die 1150 in Debrecen und 2150 in Großwardein) sehr gering ist. Daraus ergibt sich,
dass sich 2013 weniger als 2% der Studenten der Wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen
Fakultät, Debrecen (Tageskurse und Fernstudium) um ein Erasmus-Stipendium
beworben haben und dieser Prozentsatz ist an der Wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen
Fakultät, Großwardein noch geringer, nicht einmal ein halber Prozent. Auch im
Verhältnis zur Zahl der Stipendien zeigen ungarische Wirtschaftsstudenten bessere
Resultateă‒ăeinenăAusnutzungsgrad von zirka 29% 2013, ungefähr 25% 2012, bzw. 21%
2011im Gegensatz zu den zirka 7% 2011 und 2013, bzw. ungefähr 13% 2012 im Falle
ihreră rumänischenă Kollegenă ‒,ă auchă wennă dasă ganzheitlichă allzuă wenigă ist.ă Eineă
Synthese der in diesem Abschnitt untersuchten vollständigen Angaben ist in folgender
Tabelle zu finden. Der Ausnutzungsgrad wird der eingereichten Bewerbungen und nicht
der tatsächlichen Abfahrten gemäß berechnet, so spiegelt er nur das Maß an Interesse
für Erasmus-Stipendien wider.

Tabelle 1: Nachfrage und Angebot. Erasmus-Stipendien im Überblick

Universität von Großwardein, Universität von Debrecen,
Rumänien Ungarn
Zahl der Zahl der Zahl der Zahl der
Stipendien Bewerber Stipendien Bewerber
Wirtschaftswiss. 2013-2014
Fakultät
150 10 77 22
Ausnutzungsgrad gemäß zirka 7% zirka 29%
Bewerbungen
2012-2013
113 15 77 19
Ausnutzungsgrad gemäß zirka 13% zirka 25%
81
Bewerbungen
2011-2012
ESM - 116 11 77 16
EPM - 78 2
Ausnutzungsgrad gemäß insgesamt zirka 7% zirka 21%
Bewerbungen
Med. und Pharmak. 2013-2014 2011-2012
Fakultät
ESM - 32 ESM - 17 ESM+EPM 36
EPM - 7 45
Ausnutzungsgrad gemäß zirka 44% 80%
Bewerbungen
Quelle: eigene Schöpfung

4. Hintergrundanalyse für den schwachen Ausnutzungsgrad der Erasmus-

Stipendien
Im vorangehenden Abschnitt haben wir schon gesehen, dass Jugendliche im Zeitalter
des freien Verkehrs und der zahlreichen existierenden Gelegenheiten ziemlich passiv zu
diesem Angebot stehen. Warum das so ist, welche Gründe hinter dem lauen Interesse
an Stipendien im Ausland stecken könnten, hoffen wir in dieser Studie wenigstens
teilweise beleuchten zu können.

4.1. Methodologie
Vor dem Hintergrund der sozio-ökonomischen Umwandlungen der letzten zwei
Jahrzehnte hat man schon manche Vermutungen zur Motivation, besser gesagt zur
mangelnden Motivation vonseiten der Studenten, wenn es um Studienmöglichkeiten
handelt. Diese sind wie folgt: finanzielle Gründe, schwache Fremdsprachenkompetenz,
allgemeine Interesselosigkeit, Bequemlichkeit, die mittels einer Umfrage unter den
Studierenden am besten zu überprüfen sind. An der Wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen
Fakultät der Universität von Großwardein wurden 122 Studierende mit keiner vorherigen
Erasmus-Erfahrung (106 Bachelor-Studenten, 34 im zweiten und 72 im vierten
Semester, bzw. 16 Magister-studenten) um das Ausfüllen folgenden Fragebogens
gebeten.

82
 Umfrage

1. Kennen Sie die Erasmus-Programme?

a) ja
b) nein

2. Wenn ja, woher haben Sie von ihnen erfahren?

3. Sind Sie der Meinung, dass für die berufliche Ausbildung der Studenten ein
Studiumaufenthalt im Ausland absolut notwendig sei?
a) ja
b) nein
c) ich weiß nicht

4. Sind Sie der Meinung, dass für die berufliche Ausbildung der Studenten ein
Studiumaufenthalt im Ausland nützlich sei?
a) ja
b) nein
c) ich weiß nicht

5. Würden Sie sich um ein Erasmus-Stipendium fürs Studium oder Praktikum im

Ausland bewerben?
a) ja
b) nein
c) ich bin unentschieden

6. Wenn Sie die vorherige Frage bejaht haben, welches sind die Hauptgründe für diese
Wahl (Sie können mehrere Varianten ankreuzen)?
a) ich möchte meinen Horizont erweitern
b) eine Erasmus-Mobilität sieht gut im Lebenslauf aus
c) ich möchte meine Fremdsprachenkenntnisse verbessern/eine neue Sprache erlernen
d) ich möchte andere Kulturen kennen lernen
e) Abenteuerlust
f) andere (bitte erörtern)

7. Wenn Sie sich um kein Erasmus-Stipendium im Ausland bewerben möchten, welches

sind die Hauptgründe für diesen Entschluss (Sie können mehrere Varianten
ankreuzen)?
a) Furcht vor dem Unbekannten
b) Furcht davor, dass man den Erwartungen nicht gewachsen ist
c) ungenügende Fremdsprachenkenntnisse
d) dieser Aufenthalt böte mir nichts Besonderes an
e) zu viel Stress mit den Prüfungen an der Gast- und Heimatinstitution
f) finanzielle Gründe
g) andere (bitte erörtern)

4.2. Resultat der Umfrage

Die Umfrage hat folgende Resultate ergeben. Ungefähr die Hälfte (16) der befragten
Studenten im ersten Jahrgang haben über Erasmus-Programme nicht gehört.
Studierende im zweiten Jahrgang und Magisterstudenten zeigen natürlich einen
besseren Kenntnisgrad auf, nur ungefähr 19% von beider Kategorie erklären sich als
Nichtkenner des Programms. Wie es schon in einem vorangehenden Abschnitt
83
angedeutet wurde, zählen für etwa mehr als die Hälfte der Studierenden als
hauptsächliche Informationsquellen die Fakultät, ihre Webseite und Lehrkräfte, während
nur 8% Bekannte, Freunde, bzw. zirka 11% Kommilitonen und weitere 4% Anzeigen,
Werbematerialien, das Internet angegeben haben. Nicht zu vergessen ist, dass für 27%
aller Befragten Erasmus-Programme unbekannt sind. Bemerkenswert ist auch, dass
während 57% der Antwortgebenden einen Auslandsaufenthalt für ihre Ausbildung für
nicht absolut notwendig finden, denken fast alle befragten Studenten (an die 85%), dass
diese Erfahrung nützlich sei. Auf die Frage, ob sie sich um ein Erasmus-Stipendium
bewerben würden, haben zirka 34% positiv geantwortet und weitere 39% waren
unentschlossen. Im Spiegel der tatsächlichen Bewerbungen der letzten Jahre kann man
dieser unentschiedenen Kategorie eher eine negative Antwort zumuten.
Die Gründe, die für die Bewerbung um ein Erasmus-Stipendium sprechen, sind
hauptsächlich Horizonterweiterung, Verbesserung der Sprachkenntnisse (je 47
Stimmen), bzw. Kennenlernen von anderen Kulturen (37 Stimmen). Die Faktoren, die
die Studenten als von der Bewerbung abschreckend angegeben haben, stimmen
hauptsächlich mit unseren Vermutungen überein, sind jedoch zahlenmäßig nicht so
überwältigendă‒ă27ăAntwortgebendeăhabenăungenügendeăSprachkenntnisse,ă24ăzuăvielă
Arbeit und Stress mit den Prüfungen und 22 finanzielle Gründe beklagt. Nicht alle
Fragebögen lassen sich aber eindeutig interpretieren, 11% der Atnwortgebenden haben
nämlich weder ihre positive noch die negative Wahl begründet, 17 noch unentschiedene
Studierende (35% der zwischen ja und nein Schwankenden) gaben nur Gründe für die
Nicht-Bewerbungă ană ‒ă sieă neigenă wohlă eheră zură negativenă Antwortă ‒,ă währendă 4ă
Studenten aus dieser Kategorie (zirka 8%) bloß Gründe für die Bewerbung angekreuzt
haben. Weiterhin haben 24% der potenziellen Antragsteller auch ihrem Zweifel Ausdruck
gegeben, indem sie auch einen Grund für die Nicht-Bewerbungă ‒ă dasă Finanzielle,ă
mangelndeăSprachkenntnisse,ăFurchtăvorădemăScheitern,ăzuăvielăStressă‒ăverzeichneten.ă
Weiterhin soll erwähnt werden, dass von den 24 befragten Studenten der Fachrichtung
Internationale Handelsbeziehungen, an die Erasmus-Stipendien in erster Linie gerichtet
werden, dieses Programm nur 2 für unnützlich halten, sich 10 (zirka 42% also) für ein
solches Stipendium bewerben würden und weitere 9 (37,50%) noch unentschieden sind.

4.3. Fazit
Diese Resultate sind für Lehrkräfte und Unterstützer einer Auslandserfahrung besonders
informationsreich: zum einen zeigen sie, wo man bestimmte Vorurteile abbauen, was
man bekämpfen soll und in welcher Richtung noch Arbeit zu leisten ist. Natürlich lässt
sich gegen die Bequemlichkeit der Jugendlichen nicht vieles tun, ihre Befürchtungen
wegen mangelnder finanzieller Mittel können aber dadurch behoben werden, dass
Bestimmungsländer mit niedrigeren Unterhaltskosten oder mit vielseitigen Möglichkeiten
zur Teilzeitbeschäftigung während des Studiums in den Vordergrund geschoben werden.
Zum anderen verstärken die Chance eines Erasmus-Stipendiums und das Interesse an
einem Auslandsaufenthalt schwankende Studentenmotivation zum Erlernen einer
Fremdsprache.

5. Vorschläge für die Erhöhung der Teilnahmequote an Erasmus-Programmen

In den vorangehenden Abschnitten wurde schon beleuchet, welche Werbemittel und
Kommunikationskanäle für die Bekanntmachung der Erasmus-Programme verwendet
werden, welches Interesse diese erwecken und welche Gründe hinter der fehlenden
Studentenmotivation angesichts der Berwerbung um ein solches Stipendium stecken
könnten. Daraus ergibt sich, dass man einerseits Wege zur Erhöhung des
Bekanntheitsgrades der Mobilitätsprogramme identifizieren und andererseits Argumente

84
finden sollte, mit denen Befürchtungen der Studenten zu beseitigen und Vorurteile
gegenüber Studienaufenthalte im Ausland zu bekämpfen sind.
Dass eine Großzahl der Studierenden im II. Semester über Erasmus-Stipendien noch
nicht gehört hat, zeigt, dass eine frühzeitige Bewusstmachung dieser
Studienmöglichkeitenă nötigă ist.ă Mană sollteă dieă „Neukömmlinge“ă schonă beiă deră
Eröffnungsfeier ihres ersten akademischen Jahres über die Existenz der
Mobilitätsprogramme informieren, damit sie zur Zeit der Bewerbungsperiode um diese
Stipendien von Online-Quellen und Berichten der ehemaligen Teilnehmer mit Erasmus-
Programmen schon einigermaßen vertraut sind.
Anlässlich der jährlichen Schülerbesuche, an denen Gymnasiasten, potenzielle
zukünftige Studenten mit der Universität, dem akademischen Milieu Bekanntschaft
machen, könnte man diese Jugendlichen zu einem Vorstellungsgespräch zur
Erwerbung eines Erasmus-Stipendiums einladen; damit wäre die erste Begegnung mit
Erasmus-Programmen gemacht ud der erste Eindruck schon hinterlassen.
Ehemalige Erasmus-Stipendiaten, Lehrkräfte, die an Mobilitätsprogrammen teilnehmen,
könnten eine größere Rolle in der Popularisierung der Stipendien auf sich nehmen.
Durch mündliche und schriftliche, möglichst objektive Erfahrungsberichte, die nach der
Heimkehr von der Mobilität auf die Webseite der Fakultät hochgeladen wären, würden
sie ihren Beitrag zum besseren Kennenlernen der Programme mit all den Vor- und
Nachteilen während des ganzen akademischen Jahres und nicht nur zur Zeit der
Erasmus-Tage leisten.
Eine weitere Maßnahme wäre die Verpflichtung der Erasmus-Stipendiaten zum
Ausfüllen des Evaluationsbogens angesichts ihres Auslandsaufenthaltes und dessen
Öffentlichmachen an der institutionellen Webseite. Dieser Fragebogen ist von der
Webseite des Büros für Internationale Beziehungen der Universität von Großwardein
herunterzuladen und vorläufig fakultativ auszufüllen. Man könnte aber dessen
Beantwortung zum Teil des ganzen Verfahrens und so zur Verpflichtung des jeweiligen
Erasmus-Stipendiaten nach Beenden der Mobilität machen. Diejenigen Stipendiaten, die
zu dieser Bewertung auch ihren Namen geben, könnten in eine Datenbak der möglichen
Kontaktpersonen zwecks Informierung über bestimmte Institutionen und Bestimmungs-
länder aufgenommen werden. Ihre direkten positiven oder ab und zu auch negativen
Erfahrungen würden Interessenten bei der Beschlussfassung und der richtigen Wahl
gewiss helfen.

6. Danksagung
An dieser Stelle möchten wir uns bei den Mitarbeitern der Büros für Internationale
Beziehungen oder Erasmus-Koordinatoren an beiden untersuchten Institutionen für die
wertvollen Informationen bedanken, die uns beim Verfassen dieser Studie von großer
Hilfe waren.

85
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86
TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE TO FOREIGNERS

Horea Ioana Claudia

Department of International Affairs, Faculty of Economics, University of Oradea,
Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: Teaching English as a foreign language requires very different approaches if

we consider the recipients of the didactic process. Concerning the practical aspects of
the primary task of a language instructor, namely teaching, skills of all sorts are required
in order to be able to use best methods and most appropriate resources and up to date
materials and devices. Moreover, to teach students of your own mother tongue is one
very distinct thing from teaching foreigners. These two categories, namely students of
the same mother tongue as their teacher and foreigners, have two things in common,
namely: first, they are the subjects on whom the activity of teaching English is to be
applied and second, this language is not their native tongue. These facts can thus be
reduced to one idea: addressing to recipients of EFL teaching. Still, there is a big
difference between teaching the first category mentioned, those who have the same
mother tongue as the teacher and teaching the second category, foreigners, to whom
not even the vaguest hints can be provided in other language than English. There
comes a new challenge, an extra endeavour for an even more special approach. This
study undertakes to present some of the distinctions entailed at the level of teaching
methods and to parallel the diverse methodological approaches for the two situations
presented. Are the four skills that language acquisition assumes to be taught distinctly
and shall the approaches in each particular situation differ from one case to the other or
not too much? It takes some distinct features to be or, better saying, to become a
teacher of languages; and to teach English as foreign language to foreigners is a new
development within this typology, a diverse dimension. New levels of character traits are
instinctively reached by instructors in order to better cope, unconsciously,
psychologically and emotionally, with the ‘upgraded’ challenges.

Key words: teaching EFL, foreigners, mother tongue, methodological approaches

JEL classification: Y80; Z00; K00

1. Introduction
In the first place, the challenging nature of teaching English as a foreign language can
be considered to be due to the permanently dynamic status of both the English
language itself and the methodological aspects implied by teaching. Then, it is often
painstaking to follow and comply with the too often changes in curricula and in the
regulations concerning preparation of documents necessary in the field. Being a didactic
instructor means unfortunately a lot of administrative work as well. These are collateral
aspects that do not make the concern of this paper though possibly quite relevant in the
‘economy’ă ofă theă professionă ofă aă languageă teacher.ă Theă maină roleă ofă theă teacher,ă theă
practical aspect of this job, is the matter at stake here. Two particular categories are to
be analysed as follows, both concerning teaching English as a foreign language (EFL),
i.e. to students with mother tongues other than English, and by a language teacher who
is non-native. The two categories differ in the fact that one refers to students having
another mother tongue than the teacher (foreigners), while the other one is represented
by students of the same language as their teacher.
2. Language teaching

87
It takes many specific features to be a good teacher in general and some might say that
teachers of languages have to be born with certain particularities. They should not only
prove a talent for language and a sort of musicality but also peculiar propensities and
specific trends of character. English teachers, in the view of Geoff Barton, have to be:
“passionate”,ă“textămaniacs”,ă“risk-takers”,ă“nervousăonătheădayăofăexamăresults”ăandătheyă
“loveă theă processă ofă teaching”ă andă “itsă creativeă opportunities”,ă “loveă individualism”,ă
“balanceă spontaneityă withă structure”,ă “workă tooă hard”,ă “donțtă pretendă to know all the
answers”,ă bută “haveă aă powerfulă emotională impact”ă andă areă “moreă importantă thană theyă
realize”ăwhile,ăstill,ătheyăseemătoăbeă“undervalued”.ă(Barton,ăGeoff;ăpp.1-3)

2.1. Teaching EFL

Teaching English as a foreign language is a permanent challenge though as some
researchersă haveă notedă “Ită isă notă unusuală foră EFLă teachers in the present context to
interpret professional development solely in the sense of improving their linguistic
competence,ăratherăthanătheăteachingăpractice”ă(Kubanyiova, p.9). Teaching has in itself
always been in the first place a matter of self improvement so as to be able to pass over
knowledge and facts that are accurate, true and up to date. So it is only natural that
learning precedes teaching and indeed there will be voices to argue that this is never
enough;ă andă ită reallyă isn’t.ă Ită isă notă onlyă theă thingă toă beă nextă transmittedă thată hasă
previously to be well assimilated but the real challenge comes when turning to the part
of appropriately conveying the info one desires to render. In terms of teaching a foreign
language,ă especiallyă English,ă thată isă soă widelyă usedă andă thusă veryă muchă ‘alive’ă andă
volatile, the teacher who is not a native speaker has of course a double work to perform.
Besides doing their job, teaching, i.e. following the methodological steps and improving
their methods, the EFL teachers shall be permanently trying to improve own skills and
keep up with all facets of this dynamic language. And it is an endless circular endeavour
implied here as the new developments in one area trigger diverse approaches in the
other.

2.2. Particularities of teaching the fours skills

Listening, reading, writing and speaking are the four skills to be targeted in teaching a
foreign language. Each of these skills requires a particular way of tackling it, a different
approach of the material and of the class of students.
Asăseveralăresearchersăhaveănoted,ăforăinstanceă“whenăextensiveăEFLăreadingăisătaughtă
..., it is supposed not only to develop fluency in reading and promote acquisition, but
alsoătoădevelopăotherăskillsăasăwell,ăespeciallyăwriting”ă(Sehlaouiă2001,ăp.620).ăReadingă
and writing are said to be shared knowledge, that is, what we know about reading and
the way we comprehend a text is similar to the way we compose it. (Carson 1993, Kroll
1993, Sehlaoui 2001, Sehlaoui 2001, p.620)
The range of activities that are used in teaching the skill of reading is quite vast covering
from simple reading comprehension question that require straightforward answers more
or less easily identifiable in the text as such or slightly differing, to more complex
exercises that need accurate interpretation of the ideas present in the material read so
as to further allow and facilitate selection of appropriate answers in multiple choice drills
that present similar options just slightly different in meaning. This assumes a whole
panel of activities of various levels of difficulty, from direct recognition in the text of a
group of words and a logical structure to the elaborate and sophisticated process of
analysing meaning and also mastering enough skills to correctly identify it once
transformed into another lexical structure of exactly the same sense, i.e. having already
acquired the complex psychological, interpretational and, ultimately, communicational
and linguistic ability to detect such transformations. The latter requires obviously a much

88
more elaborate cognitive, deductive and inductive process of greater demand both for
knowledge of language and of its subtleties.
Gapped text completion with given structures to be placed in the right location can in
themselves be of various levels of difficulty. Generally, the more and the longer the
fragments to be filled in with are, the more demanding and challenging the drill.
However, what is very relevant in all reading comprehension exercises is correct
identification and recognition of key words. They shall guide all choices, in all the types
of exercises aforementioned. Precise connections and correlations are necessary as
well since they are the ones to render the meaning and its precise grasping is of utmost
importance when considering activities of choosing communicational structures of
identical semantic value – i.e. of very similar interpretability - as the original text.
If teaching first levels reading and speaking, pronunciation and vocabulary, comes more
usual, when tackling writing and more complex developments of speaking, involving
grammar and specific structures, more explanations will be required so an intensive
interrelation needs to be employed between teacher and student, which asks for a
developed capacity of accurate, proper communication, between transmitter and
receiver of such information in the foreign language.
Obviously, the material provided for reading, together with all possible comprehension
exercises, will make a good study object for preparation in tackling the formation of the
skill of writing. Here, nevertheless, a series of other specificities shall follow as the
learners will later need to make clear cut distinction between the various styles or the
diverse types of registers. It will at the same time be crucial for them to acquire proper
knowledge of terminology used for particular sorts of texts and to understand what a
certain written material should consist of and how it has to be tackled considering its
nature,ăi.e.ăwhatăisăhasătoăcompriseăifăităis,ălet’săsay,ăaăreport,ăwhatăifăităisăaădescription,ăoră
an essay, a formal or an informal letter, a short article, a book review etc. Not only that
many examples of texts belonging to such categories are to be studied but also several
characteristics of each category of texts are to be learned and much consideration of the
details that make the difference should be implied in developing writing skills.
In what speaking is regarded, there is a big variety of abilities to consider, from standard
phrases that are to be learned and then used as such or slightly added to concord with
the factual circumstance in specific communication instances, to dialogues of the
question and answer type, to more elaborate conversations or guided presentations and
speeches or monologues on given topics.

3. Teaching EFL to regular classes and to foreign students

3.1. General methods employed in teaching language skills

As mentioned in the subtitle above, the four skills will be taught or, better saying,
induced and implemented, using different activities, distinctive from one skill to another.
When, for instance, acquisition of speaking skills is intended during a class activity, the
methods of approaching this purpose range from role play, directed discussion,
conversation on topic, expressing ideas and preferences, dialogue, description of
image, question and answer quizzes, oral puzzle games etc.
In the case of reading, activities such as observation of model reading, silent and loud
reading, pair work in case of dialogues, role-play in case of conversations,
comprehension drills etc. can be employed.
At listening, for developing this skill, a series of activities of different types of listening
can be used, from tape recorders of shorter to longer fragments, from more familiar to
more complex scripts, partially supported by fragments of scripts, with previous and
ulterior analysis of the fragments heard or to be heard.
89
For writing, a series of exercises are to be solved in preparation stages, drills of use of
language combined with drills on other related aspects that together, in time, shall
provide a necessary degree of mastery of a series of components that shall form the
writing ability: from the extensive amount of various grammar structures needed, to
general or specific vocabulary and lexical elements, idioms or expressions. These
acquisitionsă willă ultimatelyă workă togetheră withă theă subjects’ă knowledgeă ofă theă particulară
formulas and formats of the different materials to be written. They will in time be
assimilated by, for instance, multiple choice drills or other similar types of exercises that
can generally induce passive assimilation of such materials rather unattractive to learn.
All the various aspects employed according to the type of skills in discussion are to be
tackled differently in distinct type of classes, consideration of a native language common
or not common to the instructor and the subjects being relevant in most cases, i.e. for
most of the class activities mentioned.

3.1. Tackling regular classes

It is quite obvious that there can be assigned a higher degree of difficulty to the job of an
Englishăteacherăsince,ăasănotedăinăvariousăcircumstancesătheyă“haveătoăexplain things to
learnersăinăEnglish”;ăthus,ăevenăifătheyăareăsaidătoă“haveămoreăpositiveăattitudes”,ă“showă
moreă enthusiasm”,ă toă beă “moreă creative”ă andă “moreă flexible”ă andă toă “haveă aă closeră
relationshipăwithăstudents”,ăthey,ăhoweverăseemătoăhaveăgreaterăimpedimentsătoăsurpass
as by the nature of their activity they have to work harder to compensate the language
barrieră asă theyă “useă English,ă whichă createsă aă greateră distanceă betweenă teachersă andă
students.”ă(Lee p.34) More often than not, to perhaps non-deliberately, even instinctively,
avoid such perceptions with the students taught, the teachers of languages may
sometimes make use of their mother tongue, especially with elementary level students.
Thus, students of the same mother tongue as the teacher will be even unintentionally
treated in a more stimulating way from the point of view of communication of diverse
unknownă aspectsă concerningă theă foreignă languageă taught.ă Ofă course,ă thisă ‘familiarity’ă
should not be overused. The danger is that the situation might degenerate into an
inappropriately extensive use of mother tongue during the foreign language class. Then,
it is more harmful than useful as the abuse of mother tongue in a foreign language class
will turn that class from its very purpose, i.e. learning and making use of a foreign
language. But still, a small, admissible amount of a language other than the one which is
being taught at one moment can make a big difference and confer some aid or the
needed comfort in a particular, proper situation. Its suitable use cannot harm if not, on
the contrary, it can sooner re-establish an adequate atmosphere in the class. Moreover,
it will most of the time pass unnoticed, because, as it is said, some things are remarked
only when they are absent, and things that come just natural are the ones that best
integrate here. In short, it is all just natural and obvious that mother tongue shall from
time to time be used in regular classes of foreign languages to make certain
clarifications and to settle various things.
Regular classes show yet another particularity that can at times be either and advantage
or a disadvantage. Thus, they can benefit or respectively, as specified, suffer from the
consequencesă triggeredă byă theă existenceă ofă theă lexicală elementsă soă calledă “falseă
friends”.ă Studentsă mayă be tricked by erroneously familiar lexical elements, as the very
idea of false friends suggests, or, on the contrary, they can achieve more knowledge of
vocabulary, through the very opportunity of having discussed such elements during
classes. in many situations it can be considered that several words have become better
known especially because they had been learned as examples of false friends and
reinforced along previous years of teaching process.

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3.2. Approaches of teaching EFL to foreign students
It isăindeedăsaidăthată“someăofătheăbestăEnglishălessonsăareăoftenătheăresultăofăaăteacheră
who only knows English and therefore forces the students to speak in English to
communicate. This method of teaching [...] is known as the direct method or the natural
method of teaching a foreign language, and focuses heavily on correct pronunciation
andă gainingă conversatională skills.”ă (Tips for teaching EFL) When English is the only
possible common language between trainer and trainee the situation boils down to the
aforementioned one, which in the original reference referred to native English teachers.
It nevertheless holds true for the situation at stake, namely teaching EFL to foreigners.
The factual circumstance is that the trainer and the trainees can communicate in English
alone.
Now how does this change the problem? There are several things that shall no longer
be tackled properly, or surely not in the same way as with regular classes. It will be a
challenge for both the students and the teacher. To adapt to the new situations of no
means of communication other than the language that is just being taught is certainly
quite a challenge.
Naturally, the language category of false friends cannot be explained or discussed with
classes of students of another language. An approach of the kind and the entire
consideration connected to false friends are invalid in classes of English taught to
foreigners.
Neither the shortcomings of the English words having the characteristic of being very
similar to words in their mother tongue, in spelling or pronunciation, nor the advantages
in benefiting from the discussions and the learning of these terms, of these lexica
elements, will be present with classes of English taught to foreigners.
The lack of a common language to the instructor and the students (other than English –
the language of teaching and the language being taught as well) prevents them from
having discussions on vocabulary as those implied in the process of presenting the false
friends. Still, there might be instances of multilingual considerations. This holds true in
the circumstance that various English terms are known by most students in the class
and they can help the others by giving translations in their mother tongue if the case.
Also, certain structures can be analyzed seeing the development of particular lexical
units in all the languages available in the class if appropriate and pertinent. This can
come as useful in rather few situations. For instance, consideration of the English word
“car”ă cană beă interestingă toă discuss if among the foreign students there are also
Portuguese, Hungarian or Spanish people. Comparing to the Romanian translation
interestingă situationsă shallă occur.ă Ifă theă Portugueseă “carro”ă resemblesă theă Englishă termă
and means the same thing, the Romaniană“car”ăisănotătheăcorrectătranslationăsoăthatăweă
can talk about a false friend here, it meaning a traditional means of transportation with
animal traction used in the countryside. What is even more interesting is that
considering the Spanish and HungarianătranslationăofătheăEnglishă“car”,ănamelyă“coche”ă
andă respectivelyă “kocsi”,ă weă shallă findă thată thereă isă anotheră Romaniană word,ă similară toă
theseă two,ă “cocie”,ă ofă regională circulation,ă andă havingă theă sameă meaningă asă theă termă
“car”,ăpreviouslyăexplained.ăSo, the mentioning of such a situation is indeed interesting
and it maybe quite useful if not else then as a memo technical procedure. But such
examples are hard to identify and rather scarce. Continuing the consideration of these
terms it might be again relevant to see that the Romanian correct translation i.e.
“maşin ”ăalsoăgivesă wayă toădiscussionsăasătheă wordăexistsăwithăsmallăvarianceă inămostă
languages implying the general term that denotes a device, an apparatus, a machinery,
a system of components put together to work as an ensemble if stimulate by some
engine or impulse of some kind. So, vocabulary teaching may get very interesting if
tackled in a comparative manner but it shall not be an easy task to embark to. If the
teacher has no notions of the language the students have as mother tongue he/she will
91
have to rely on translations and explanations provided by the students themselves. That
will not be quite appropriate nor too reliable. Such approaches can only be then very
short and merely consultative oră comingă asă discussionsă “byă theă way”ă notă asă aă regulară
part of the class. However, documentation and attentive consideration are required.

4. Incompatible activities and commonly applicable techniques

Diverse procedures can be used more or less successfully in both categories of classes
under discussion. From among these, the most common are: use of gestures, verbal
exemplification or audio device production and repetition, reproduction of material read
and learned, visual explanation or physical presentation of notions taught.

4.1. Body language

Severală researchersă noteă thată theă firstă skillă oneă willă needă toă masteră ină orderă toă “startă
successfully teaching English as a foreign language is the ability to use body gestures
and signs effectively. Many students find that they learn a new language better when
they are forced to speak only Englishăinătheăclassroom.”ă(Tips for teaching EFL) So, in
the case of teaching EFL to foreigners, being unable to make use of the student's
native language, the teacher will encourage and force them to start communicating and
learnăEnglishăbyăfirstăusingă“bodyălanguageăandăgesturesătoăteachăthemănewăwords,ăandă
thenăusingăwhatătheyțveălearnedătoăbuildăevenămoreăknowledge.”ă(Tips for teaching EFL)
The same can apply to teaching EFL to students of the same mother tongue as the
teacher’săthoughăităwillăbeămoreăoftenăthanănotăthatătheăteacherăshallăinătheseăsituationsă
sometimes appeal to the mother tongue to make clarifications, offer translations, give
accurate and ultimate explanations of more sophisticated notions. No matter how hard
a teacher might try not to use other language than English during the English classes,
some remarks, some words, some phrases might anyhow escape this self censoring
attempt and this can make an important difference between the two types of classes.
Once the teacher gets accustomed to such style, it will be more difficult to control during
classesă ofă teachingă Englishă toă foreigners,ă andă anyă ‘slip’ă asă theă previouslyă mentionedă
ones, towards the mother tongue, would be felt as at least awkward in that context.

4.2. Repetitions
Another technique that is considered relevant when teaching English as a foreign
language,ăandănotăonly,ăisătoăhaveătheăstudentsă“practiceăcommonăphrasesăuntilătheyăfeelă
completely comfortable with those phrases. This technique [...] allows the student to
focus heavily on correct pronunciation and accent. [...] It's important when teaching any
language to focus on the most useful and common phrases first, so [...] students are
able to startăconversingărightăaway.”ă(Tips for teaching EFL).
This strategy applies perfectly also to the classes of teaching EFL to conational students
but it is only at the elementary level that such procedure is valid for (teaching greeting
and easy phrases, focusing on pronunciation), and at that level differences are not of too
much relevance between the two types of students with respect to the methods of
teaching. Both groups know very little English in that case or during that stage and it is
not the concern of the current study as the situation is rarely met at the level of higher
education and the approaches are however similar if not identical.
To pronounce something and elicit several repetitions from the students is probably the
easiest way of tackling foreign language vocabulary. And if only pronunciation is put
forward it is nothing more to it.
Indeed when interpretation of meaning is involved things change, the approaches get
distinct in the two situations under analysis.

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4.3. Translation and retroversion
If with students of the same mother tongue as the teacher translation comes just natural,
with foreigners an entire process of explaining the sense of the given notions in many
words and gestures shall follow. The latter approach, the extensive explanation in
English is indeed applicable, and, which is more, quite preferable and advisable with the
former group, while the former approach, the direct translation, is of course useless,
invalid and awkward with the latter group.
With students having the same mother tongue as the teacher translation and
retroversion constitute usual activities in the economy of the class. With foreign
students, the teachers not knowing their mother the regular activities abovementioned
cannot be employed in the teaching- learning process. Thus, such activities prove
unusable and remain incompatible with teaching EFL to other students than those with
whom the teachers share the same mother tongue.

5. Conclusions
As a non-native teacher of English to teach EFL to foreigners can be a process very
distinct from teaching students of your own mother tongue.
For instance, while with students having the same mother tongue as the teacher
translation and retroversion constitute a normal and maybe extensively used part of the
process of teaching and learning, with students that do not share a common language
with their teacher of a foreign language, other than the particular language that is the
very object of teaching and learning – and that of course to just a certain degree, as else
is would not have to be a discipline in the curricula – there is no way of using the
otherwise very common activity of translation or retroversion.

6. References
Barton, Geoff; Twelve Things That Great English Teachers Do, 3 page article avaliable
online at http://www.geoffbarton.co.uk/files/english/12_things.pdf,
www.geoffbarton.co.uk, accessed on 4.09. 2013.
Lee, Joseph J., The Uniqueness of EFL Teachers: Perceptions of Japanese Learners,
Feature Articles, Georgia State University, TESOL Journal 1.1, pp.23-48, March 2010,
available online at http://www.tesolmedia.com/docs/TJ/firstissue/05_TJ_Lee.pdf,
accessed on 4.09. 2013.
Abdelilah Salim Sehlaoui, Facing the challenge of teaching and learning EFL. Reading:
beyond the language of critique, Reading in a foreign Laguage 13(2), 2001, Emporia
State University Kansas, USA, pp.615-629, available online at
http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/PastIssues/rfl132sehlaoui.pdf.
Kroll B. (1993), Teaching Writing and Teaching Reading: Training the New Teachers of
ELS Composition. In Carson J.G. & Leki, I., (Eds.) Reading in the composition
classroom: Second Language Perspectives, 61-74, Boston MA, Heinle and Heinle, in
Abdelilah Salim Sehlaoui, Facing the challenge of teaching and learning EFL. Reading:
beyond the language of critique, Reading in a foreign Laguage 13(2), 2001, Emporia
State University Kansas, USA, pp.615-629.
Carson J.G. (1993), Reading for writing: cognitive perspective, In Carson J.G. & Leki, I.,
(Eds.) Reading in the composition classroom: Second Language Perspectives, 61-74,
Boston MA, Heinle and Heinle, in Abdelilah Salim Sehlaoui, Facing the challenge of
teaching and learning EFL. Reading: beyond the language of critique, Reading in a
foreign Language 13(2), 2001, Emporia State University Kansas, USA, pp.615-629.
Kubanyiova, Magdalena (2006), Developing a Motivational Teaching Practice in EFL
Teachers in Slovakia: Challenges of Promoting Teacher Change in EFL Contexts, TESL-
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EJ, September 2006, Volume 10, Number 2, pp.1-17, University of Nottingham, United
Kingdom, available online at http://www.tesl-ej.org/ej38/a5.pdf.
Tips for Teaching English as a Foreign Language, available online at
http://www.5minuteenglish.com/tips-teaching-english.htm, as accessed on September
17, 2013.

94
HIGHLIGHTS OF ROMANIAN AND FRENCH WINE MARKETS: THE EXAMPLE OF
FRENCH CHAMPAGNE MARKET

Jubénot Marie-Noëlle
Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne,
Reims, France
[email protected]

Abstract: The market is a dynamic market in which the European Union plays a leading
role as the main producer and exporter of vine products. In this area, four countries with
strong agricultural and viticultural tradition dominate the market: France, Italy, Spain and
Germany. But among the new eastern EU members, countries as Romania, with a
favorable geography and climate and also a viticultural tradition, some may also play a
more prominent role.
Romania is part of the top 12 wine-producing countries, however Romania penalty to
export large-scale production of wine. In contrast, France is the main producer and
exporter of wine country. This situation is primarily due to the strategic choice of a very
strong geographic labelisation of wine production and the emphasis on quality and even
the excellence of its products, in particular thanks to a promotion policy.
Two major non-exclusive solutions seem to emerge for Romania. On the one hand, it
can copy to a certain extent the French solution by leveraging labelisation its wines. The
French wine market is also the reference of the European Union in particular as regards
the creation of the label: Appellation of Origin (PDO). The example of champagne is, in
this context, remarkable. This product alone largely not only the volume and value of
exports of wines, but also the volume and value of exports of all agricultural products. It
can also try to increase its exports to emerging countries outside the European Union.
Non-European areas are both a promise of growing opportunities in a context of
economic crisis or post-crises and a threat to the European wine sector: in particular we
think about America, Asia and Oceania. Indeed, the main third countries also wine
producers are trying to increase their market share. This explains the new measures
taken by the European authorities aimed at deep modernizing European wine sector.

Introduction: This paper is a preliminary study of a comprehensive study of Romanian

and French vitinicoles markets, including the market for Champagne wine as regards
France, as part of a future partnership of French-Romanian research. The purpose of
this introductory paper is to provide some salient features of these two markets that are
part of a broader and highly competitive environment, both within Europe and in third
countries. This paper is constructed in three parts: the first part deals with the wine
market at European and global level. The second part highlights the main characteristics
of French and Romanian markets. While the third part is devoted to the study of the
champagne market. The wine industry is an important sector of the European
économoie both in terms of production, export, at the social level. This activity is indeed
a great source of employment, especially in the Champagne region who practice a
traditional mode of production with high demand for labor. The share of wine exports in
European Union, and in particular in France and Romania allows this region to
significantly improve its foreign trade balance. In addition, this market remains a
promising market with the entry of emerging countries, which have already begun to
revitalize the sector.

Keywords : Common Market Organization ; wine ; production and exports ; Champagne

 WorldwiEU wine market

95
 The European Union EU-27 (EU now includes 28 member states, Croatia entered the
EUă ină 2013,ă bută dataă fromă Croatiaă areă notă included)ă isă theă world’să leaderă ină wineă
production, with almost half of the global vine-growing area and about 60 percent of
production by volume, according to USDA (2013) datas. 2012 EU-27 wine production is
estimated at 141 Million Hectoliters. France, Italy, and Spain represent about 80
percent of total EU-27 output, as can be seen in the Table 1 for the last six years :

Table 1 : Wine production trend (1000 hectoliters)

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
France 45.672 41.640 46.269 45.669 50.757 40.609
Italy 42.514 46.245 45.800 46.737 42.705 39.300
Spain 36.408 35.913 36.097 35.363 33.397 31.500
Germany 10.261 9.991 9.228 6.906 9.132 8.903
Portugal 6.074 5.620 5.872 7.133 5.610 5.857
Romania 5.289 5.159 6.703 3.287 4.213 4.059
Greece 3.511 3.869 3.366 2.950 2.750 3.150
Austria 2.256 2.628 2.672 2.352 1.737 2.815
Hungary 3.222 3.460 3.198 1.762 2.750 1.874
Other EU-27 3.853 3.604 3.034 2.616 3.177 2.773
countries*
EU-27* 159.060 158.129 162.238 154.775 155.671 140.840
*Volume of product removed from fermenters after the first natural fermentation of the must of fresh grapes
(juices and other musts excluded) 2011 (provisional) – 2012 (estimates)
**ăAuthor’săcaculation
Source: OIV (International Organization of Vine and Wine); Eurostat; FAS Europe Offices, quoted by USDA
(2013)

In 2012, EU-27 wine production declined of about 9 percent from the previous year. In
fact, EU-27 vine-growing area has been declining over the past few years due to
shrinking margins and the grubbing-up policy of Common Market Organization (CMO)
since April 2008. Grape growers producers are compensated for alternatives, they
received a financial incentive to voluntarily pull up their grape vines.

Table 2: continental areas under vines and continental grapes production

Europe America Asia Oceania Africa
200 2012 200 2012 200 201 200 201 200 201
0 0 0 2 0 2 0 2
Continental area under vines 62.5 55.6 12.0 13.3 19.4 23.4 2.0 2.7 4.3 5.2
as % of global vineyard
Continental grapes 62,5 39.0 12.0 21.0 19.4 31.2 2.0 2.7 4.3 6.3
production as % of global
vineyard
World production of wine % 72.7 62.3 17.0 19,8 4.5 6.9 3.1 5.9 4.3 5.1
World consumption of wine 69.3 62.0 6.0 10.0 19.8 22.0 3.0 3.0 1.9 3.0
%
World wine import 45.2a 22.5c 14.5
8.3b
a UE b Rest of Europe c North America
Source : Castelucci F. (2013), « World vitiviniculture situation in 2012 », XXXVIth World Congress of Vine and
Wine, OIV (International Organisation of Vine and Wine), Bucarest, 3rd june.
The new CMO strategy aims to reduce production of uncompetitive wines, regain
market share on the world market, cut surpluses, phase-out expensive market
intervention measures. EU wine producers would be too small and their production not
large enough for the needs of large-scale retailers. To reach those goals the main

96
proposed actions include grubbing-up, issuing planting rights, abolishing crises
distillation, reevaluation of enrichment practices and labeling rules, and possibly more
flexibility in oenological. Labeling concerns for example origin and geographical
indications, traditional terms and so on. CAP (Common Agricultural Policy) is organized
into two pillars. The first one is the "direct aid". Rural development measures which are
managed and financed by the regions constitue the second one.

The EU has prohibited any new plantings until at leat December 31, 2015. Replanting
is allowed only to renew or replace areas where producers voluntarily pull up the vines.
Planting right may be considered as a tool to keep stability in the wine market.

Crisis distillation of wine was an important way for the EU to get rid of surplus
production. However, the distillation scheme of surplus wine has been gradually
phased–out over the last four years concluding in July 2012. Beginning August 1,
2012, Member States were allowed to grant national aid to wine producers for the
voluntary or mandatory distillation of wine but only in justified cases and with the
approval of the European Commission. Distilled alcohol must be used in the industrial
sector.

Promotion in third country markets has become widely used by the wine sector,
supporting the growth in exports of wines with PDO/PGI (Protected Denomination of
Origin/Protected Geographical Indication) in recent years. The main target markets
are the U.S., Canada, Japan, and Switzerland. China, Brazil, and India are being also
developed as new promising markets.

Overall EU-27 wine production decreased in wine year 2010/11 but not in the Member
States that had grubbed up the largest area: Spain (68 447 ha), Italy (20 532 ha) and
France (16 674 ha). Some of the reduction in productive capacity can be offset by an
increase in yields. The EU-27 wine production decrease in wine is mainly due to a
decrease in Germany and Romania where the total area grubbed up was respectively
56 ha and 185 ha for the two first wine years of enforcement of the scheme. In wine
year 2011/12, wine production continued to increase compared to 2010. Taking account
of the climatic conditions, grubbing-up did not yet cause the expected reduction in wine
production.

According to the EU Commission, 175,000 hectares (Ha) were taken out of production
between 2009 and 2011. However, EU-27 area wine still accounts for 46 percent of the
world area under vines (Table 3).

97
Table 3: Continental areas by countries and region in 2012 *
viticultural
Continental areas superficie
Countries 1000 %
Ha
U.E. à 27 3 492 46,1%
Of which FRANCE 800 10,6%
ITALIE 769 10,2%
ESPAGNE 1 018 13,4%
PORTUGAL 239 3,2%
GRECE 110 1,5%
102 1,3%
ALLEMAGNE 205 2,7%
ROUMANIE 44 0,6%
AUTRICHE 64 0,8%
HONGRIE 78 1,0%
BULGARIE 4 212 55,6%
EUROPE 1 009 13,3%
AMERIQUE (**) 378 5,2%
AFRIQUE (**) 1 770 23,4%
ASIE (***) 206 2,7%
OCEANIE
TOTAL MONDE 7 575 100,0%
Some Reductions in the vine surface areas in EU are also the result of declining
climate conditions, stagnation of EU alcohol consumption, vine diseases, and health
concerns campaign. Europe has one of the highest levels of alcohol consumption per
capita. Henceforth, targeted measures aimed at limiting drunk-driving, and improved
education and information campaigns are taken. Taking the case of climate, for
example,ăRomania’săgrapeăwineăproductionăhasăbeenăhardlyăaffected by the heavy frost
in February 2012 and the severe heat and drought over the summer that damaged the
main crop areas. Already, during 2011, winter freeze and summer's scorching
temperatures made drop the production about 30 percent.
Table 4: EU-27 Production, Supply, and Demand (1000 Hectoliters)
2013
2013
2011 2012 2011 2012 (forecast
(forecast)
)
140.84
Production 155.671 154.706
0 91.95% 91.18% 91.95%
Imports 13.625 13.620 13.550 8.05% 8.82% 8.05%
154.46 100.00 100.00
TOTAL SUPPLY 169.296 168.256
0 % % 100.00%
Exports 22.474 22.300 22.400 13.27% 14.44% 13.31%
Total domestic use, 151.66
151.260 151.979
including: 5 89.35% 98.19% 90.33%
125.00
Human consumption 126.000 126.000
0 74.43% 80.93% 74.89%
Other 25.260 26.665 25.979 14.92% 17.26% 15.44%
-
Changes in inventories -4.438 19.505 -6.123 -2.62% -12.63% -3.64%
154.46 100.00 100.00
TOTAL DISTRIBUTION 169.296 168.256
0 % % 100.00%
Author's calculation from FAS Europe Offices data quoted by USDA (2013)

The EU-27 remains the world’să leadingă wineă exporteră ină 2012,ă exportingă 22.3ă Mhlă
valued at $11.3 billion. According to the latest EU Commission data, intra-EU trade has
98
increased 14 percent from 43 Mhl in 2007 to 49 Mhl in 2011. However, the share of
exports is only 13 to 14 percent of the total demand of EU-27 wine. In 2012, the United
States remained the leading EU-27 export market, representing 24 percent of the t)otal
volume and 28 percent of the total value. EU-27 export volumes to China, valued at
$978 Mln, climbed 9 percent in 2012.

France’să 2012ă exports,ă valuedă ată Ș10.4ă billion,ă remainedă flată comparedă toă 2011.ă The
balanceă ofă frenchă tradeă balanceă ofă winesă ină 2012ă recordedă aă surplusă ofă almostă €ă 7.2ă
billion. In value terms, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany are the
main destinations for French wines. Germany, the United Kingdom, Spain, China, and
Estonia are the top Romanian wine destinations.

Wine production is estimated to represent approximately 5 % of the EU agricultural

output.

During the financial years 2009 and 2010, expenditure in restructuring and conversion
was particularly notable in Italy (168,7 million euro), France (148,6 million euro), Spain
(134,7 million euro) and Romania (83,2 million euro).

 Comparison of Romanian and French wine market

2.1 Romanian wine market

According to Fulconis and Viviani (2006), « Rich of 250.000 hectares of vines producing
13 millions hectoliters of wine, Romania is among the first wine countries of the world. It
occupied, in 2004, the rank of 12th world wine producer, just after Portugal. It is also a
country of old wine tradition, if we can read that vine would be cultivated there since
Antiquity. The Romanian wines were affected during the XIXe century by epidemic of
phylloxéra. It is the principal explanation of the fact that current type of vines were
imported from France, Germany and Italy, and acclimatized to Romanian conditions
(grey pinot, pinot noir, chardonnay, Italian Riesling, merlot, white sauvignon, cabernet-
sauvignon, etc), during XXe century. But some autochthones type of vines remained.
During the communist era, Romanian vineyard export was turned towards the only
USSR and the policy of rationalization did not always aim wine quality. Even now, about
half of the production is still ensured by large co-operatives. However, there is recent
evolutions in terms of surface planted and especially of quality. Quality had increased
sinceătheăretrocessionăofătheălandătoătheăformerăownersăbeganăduringătheă1990’s.
According to official data, white varieties occupy about 85 percent of the total vineyard
area, while red varieties account for the remaining 15 percent. Feteasca Alba and
Feteasca Regala are the main white varieties, followed by Riesling, Aligote, Sauvignon,
and Muscat. Leading red varieties are Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. In 2010, PDO
and PGI wines represented 10 and 18 percent of the market, respectively. Wineries can
apply to EU funded reconversion programs to replace the hybrid vineyard with noble
vineyard. In Romania, The vineyard area has been on a downward trend for the last
three years, falling from 184,400 Ha in 2009 to 175,000 Ha in 2012.

Romania have eleven wine-producing regions (Cotnari, Dealu Mare, Jidvei, Murfatlar,
Panciu, Odobesti, otesti, Recas, Târnave, Vânju Mare, Bucium), with a classic
continental climate: hot summers and very cold winters, and very diverse landscape.
Romania is the sixth-largest wine grower in the European Union and with its 180,000
hectares of vineyards. Romania produced as of 2009 around 610,000 tons of wine. In
99
recent years, Romania wine market began to attract European business people and
wine buyers, due to the affordable prices of both vineyards and wines compared to other
wine producing nations such as France, Germany, and Italy. Wine market is one of the
very few sectors of the Romanian economy that is attracting EU development funds.
Nevertheless, Romanian wine activity suffers of a bad reputation for widespread graft,
cumbersome commercial practices and shaky political foundations. However, product
quality has increased, the area of vineyards has shrunk, new investments and new
players have entered the market. Romanian winery, exports a meagre five percent of its
wine to Canada, Belgium, Sweden and Germany and plans to expand its export base to
United States and across northern Europe. Imports were nine times larger. On April 6,
2012,ătheăRomanianăAssociationăofăWineăProducersăandăWineăProductsă“Dobrudzha”,ăină
cooperation with the Bulgarian State Fund "Agriculture" and the Bulgarian Regional Vine
andăWineăChamberă(“Trakia”)ăagreedă to implement a multinational program to promote
PDO and PGI wines in Russia and China. The EU approved program will last three
years (March 2012- March 2015), with a total budget of 3.2 millions of Euros. Half of the
budget is provided by the European Union (EU), 30 percent by the State budget, while
the remaining 20 percent is paid by the beneficiary. A third EU funded project aims to
promote wines with Geographical Indication from Southern.

2.2 French wine market

Franceăranksăasătheăworld’sălargestăwine producer in 2012, with 16 percent of the global
market share, and nearly 29 percent of the EU-27 market. The Romania share in EU-
27 for the same year is 2,88 percent. EU-27 wine production in 2012 is estimated at
141 Million Hectoliters (Mhl), 9 percent below from the previous year. A significant
decrease of 19 percent occurred in France, against a decrease of only 3.6 percent in
Romania.
In France 2010, vineyard area was officially reported at 774,000 Ha. Approximately 45
percent of French vineyards are devoted to AOC (Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée) and
VDQS (Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure) wines; 28 percent to IGP (Indication
Géographique Protégée) wines, 11 percent to table wines and 16 percent to brandy
production (mostly cognac). On average, 85,000 farms produce 42 Mhl of wine per year
(42.4 Mhl in 2011).

France is a large producer with high specialisation in GIs, Romania is rather a medium
producer with a low share of GIs by sales. Labelling with Geographical Indication (GI)
gather the two following labellings: Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), Protected
Geographical Indication (PGI). In the wine sector, PDOs and PGIs were introduced in
2009 with the 2008 Common Market Organisation reform (Reg. (CE) No 479/2008).

100
 Table 5 - Average sales volume of wine (2010) per category and % per category
(1000hl)
Total PDO PGI Non- % % PGI % non-GI % total
GI PDO
IT 49 213 11 795 11 795 25 24% 24% 52% 100%
624
FR 46 109 21 141 9 147 15 46% 20% 34% 100%
822
ES 24 602 10 813 1 198 12 44% 5% 51% 100%
592
DE 9 578 8 041 199 1 338 84% 2% 14% 100%
PT 6 299 2 485 1 068 2 746 39% 17% 44% 100%
RO 5 018 423 1 229 3 367 8% 24% 67% 100%
HU 3 158 2 088 735 335 66% 23% 11% 100%
UE27 173 60 072 27 135 86 35% 16% 50% 100%
497 289
Source: DG AGRI and AND-International study quoted by Chever T., Renault C.,
Renault S., Romieu V. (2012)
Hl : hectolitres

Theă salesă valueă ofă GIă wineă wasă €30.4ă billionă ină 2010;ă PDOsă representedă 85șă ofă theă
sales value and 69% of the sales volume under GI. The five largest GI wine producers
(France, Italy, Spain, Germany and Portugal) gathered 89% of the sales volume under
GI and 93% of the sales value under GI.
Considering the PDOs and Germany in term of sales volume and sales value, France
(respectively 35% and 54%) is ahead of Italy (20% and 4%) , Spain (18% an d 3%) and
Germany (13% and 9%). Romania gathered only 1% and about 0%. But, Italy was
ahead of France, Considering PGIs. PGI sales were very concentrated: these two
countries gathered 77% of the volume and 81% of the value. The high valorisation of
French wine was partly due to PDO Champagne.
According to Chever T., Renault C., Renault S., Romieu V. (2012), with a total value
aroundă€5ăbillionăină2010,ăPDO/PGIăwinesărepresentedă74șăofătheătotalăvalueăofăextra-
EU exports of wine, including 80% of PDO wines and 20% of PGI wines. Exported GI
agricultural products came mainly from France, the United Kingdom and Italy. Products
originating from these 3 countries represented 86% of total extra-EU exports of GI
products with 40%, 25% and 21% respectively. In the three cases, exports were pulled
up by a very small number of designations, like Champagne and Cognac in France;
Scotch Whisky in the UK; Grana Padano and Parmigiano Reggiano in Italy. The GI wine
sales value is very important in France, with 75% of total French GI sales, in 2010.
French wines represented 29% of the total EU 27 agricultural sales value under GI in
2010. France is the leading EU member state in sales value of GI wines, with 54% in
2010 of all PDO/PGI wine exports. France and Italy alone accounted for 86% of those
exports.

Around a third of extra-EU exports of PDO/PGI wines went to the United States. Next
was Switzerland, followed by Canada, Hong-Kong and Japan. Overall, EU-PDO/PGI
wines were mostly sold in their national markets (63% of sales). Intra-EU market and
extra-EU market respectively 21% and 16% in 2010.

101
Table 6: Shares of Extra-EU exports of PDO/PGI wines by EU member states (2010)
% Extra-EU exports
France 17%
Italy 28%
Spain 9%
German 8%
y
Portugal 13%
Hungary 2%
Romani 1%
a
Bulgaria 4%
Total UE 16%
Source: AND-International survey for DG AGRI

Winesăcontributedă 65șă (€19.3ă billion)ă ofă theă totală valueă premiumă ofă EU-27 GIs (€29.8ă
billion). The value premium is related to the specific characteristics of the products
or/andă theă product’să fame.ă GIsă ină France,ă Italyă andă Spaină representedă 82șă ofă theă EUă
sales value in the wine scheme. GIs in Germany, Portugal, Austria and Hungary another
15% and the GIs in the other MS accounted for the 3% left. The French wine model has
indirectly inspired the EU schemes; together with Italian and Spanish wines, the share
climbed to a 59.9% of the EU value premium.
The French GI wine sector recorded one of the highest value premium rates, thanks to
its very famous and rather huge vineyards such as Champagne, Bordeaux and
Burgundy. For instance in the Champagne supply chain, branding works together with
the PDO scheme.

2.3 The example of Champagne

Sparkling-wines production from 2002 to 2003 is near 20 percent relative to world wine
production. France remains the main sparkling-wines producer before Italy, Germany,
Russia and Spain. According to FranceAgimer (2013), in France, champagne production
amounted to 7 percent of total wine production in volume and 29 percent in value
against, respectively, 4 percent and 3 percent for the other sparkling wines, and 26
percent in volume and 10 percent in value for the PDO still wines

The Champagne appellation represents 0.4% of world vineyard acreage and 4% of

France’să totală vineyardă area. The industry directly employs 30,000 people, of which
15,000 salaried staff, plus some 120,000 seasonal workers at harvest time or for vine
pruning, trimming and trellising. Champagne exports its wine to more than 190
countries, representing 13% by volume of world consumption of sparkling wines. There
are more than 15,000 growers in Champagne and between them they own roughly 90%
of the vineyards.

Table 7: Champagne actors

Number Harvest Volume shipped
s volume sold * **
102
 wineries selling grapes 13 014
winemakers, growers and 4651 67,7
harvesters manipulants
cooperators
Cooperatives 137 27,7
Traders 391 213,4
* vintage 2011 ** million of bottles, 12 months to 31 December 2012
Source : Champagne en pocket (2013) – SGV(Syndicat Général des Vignerons de la
Champagne - General Union Winegrowers Champagne)
In Champagne area, Farms are family-run, small and medium size. More than half of
them highlights less than 1 ha and the average operating area is less than 2 hectares.
Cooperation plays an important role in the Champagne vineyards : 137 cooperatives
and cooperative unions, bringing the total 13,800 wineries are spread throughout the
wine country. They provide benefits pressing and vinification on behalf of their members.
43 of them sell champagne.
Wineries and cooperatives employ approximately 11,000 permanent employees plus a
heavy reliance on seasonal jobs during work in the vineyard (about 115 000 seasonal
harvesters).

Champagne area is a AOC area. Appellation of Controlled Origin (AOC) is a French

certification system. The AOC system tries to define a product based on a geographic
area, of which the product must be typical and culturally-linked. It sets rules as to how
the product is grown, raised or made. The system has been administered since 1990 in
France by the INAO (Institut National des Appellations d'Origine.).

The European PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) system was based on the French
AOC system and is equivalent to a French AOC. Nevertheless, the French system
continues to run in parallel, and for a French product to apply for a PDO, it must apply
for an AOC at the same time.

Only three grape varieties may be used to produce champagne:

Table 8: average share of grape varieties used

Pinot Noir 38 %
Grape varieties Meunier 32 %
Chardonnay 30 %
Source : Comité Interprofessionnel du Vin de Champagne (2014)
http://www.champagne.fr/assets/files/economie/QUELQDS_2013GB.pdf

Champagne market actors have historically relied on export markets. Some famous
champagne houses export more than half of their production since the eighteenth
century. They even had received the complicity of celebrity clients such as tsars or
presidents. The Champagne actors have always aimed luxury in their activity. This
particular strategy could serve as models for other European regions seeking to
strengthen the reputation and quality of their products.

The main buyers of champagne are in the EU, headed by Britain. However, exports
outside the EU tend to develop. According to an interview with the CFO of Laurent
Perrier published by Reuter Tuesday, December 24, 2013, Champagne sales are
expected to decline in volume for second consecutive year. It is not sure that the
103
increase in average selling price could always offset lower volumes. Very hited by the
crisis of 2008, champagne has experienced positive year since then, but never regained
the record levels achieved in 2007, when 339 million bottles had been gone for a
turnover of 4.5 billion euros. The economic situation is still difficult in Europe and
particularly in France, while it remained buoyant outside Europe. So, the champagne
professionals hope to stabilize their revenues with export to distant markets.

Table 9: Champagne Top ten export markets (bottles)

2012
United Kigndom 32,4
United States of America 17,7
Germany 12,6
Japan 9,1
Belgium 8,3
Italy 6,2
Australia 5,4
Switzerland 5,4
Spain 3,1
Sweden 2, 3
Source : http://www.maisons-
champagne.com/orga_prof/statistiques/acteur_economique_majeur.htm

According to the same source, the markets of Australia, Nigeria, Japan, Denmark, Hong
Kong, Finland, United Arab Emirates and Mexico have experienced strong growth (over
10%) in 2012.

As the industry leader in French wine and spirits, Champagne makes a vital contribution
to the national economy. Champagne is a major economic player in the export market
for French wines and spirits.

300 traders have sold 213.4 million bottles, 43 cooperatives have sold 27.7 million
bottles, and 4722 winemakers, growers and harvesters manipulants cooperators, sold
67.7 million bottles.
The French market accounts for 56% of sales of Champagne bottles with 171.4 million
andă aă turnoveră ofă €ă 2.13ă billion.ă Theă Europeană Unionă accountsă foră 25șă ofă sales,ă withă
76.4ă millionă bottlesă andă aă turnoveră ofă €ă 1.14ă billion.ăAndă theă greată exportă accountsă for
20șăofăsales,ăwithă60.9ămillionăbottlesăandăaăturnoverăofă€ă1.11ăbillion.
The Champagne growers union (Syndicat Général des vignerons de la Champagne -
SGV) established in 1904, is a powerful union of the champagne region. This union
represents 5000 growers and grower cooperatives.

The Champagne market knows a bit difficult situation since the beginning of the 2008
crisis. But the high price level of champagne has so far offset the lower level of
production volume. With increasing competition in the market for sparkling wines, the
future remains uncertain. Actors in the region therefore trying to export more to
emerging markets by focusing on international reputation of champagne.

104
Conclusion :
The European Union and some countries in particular have an advantage or have
assets that they can better use in the future in the wine sector. Despite the gloom of
European economies, the wine sector keeps the level of EU exports to third countries.
Historically, wine is the best representing the European culture. Market faces many
challenges as it has become very competitive. But the size of the market continues to
grow outside Europe. The cooperation between European vineyards to target new
markets is to to explore and develop.

In the comparison between markets and Romanian French wine, it appears that France
has relied greatly on the quality of its wines and the geographical labelling. Romania try
to erase some recent past characteristics like negligence of quality criterion in the
communist period. This is Romania the best way to increase the value of its wines and
increase its export potential. The French strategy in the wine sector remains a model for
the main EU wine producers. French strategy in the wine sector was particularly
developed in the region of champagne.

References
Blot C. and Cloarec A. (2013) « Le marché mondial des effervescents », FranceAgrimer,
Conseil spécialisés « Vins », 18 décembre.
Chever T., Renault C., Renault S., Romieu V. (2012) « Value of production of agricultural
products and foodstuffs, wines, aromatised wines and spirits protected by a
geographical indication (GI) », Tender N°AGRI–2011–EVAL–04, Final report, October.
Fulconis F. and Viviani J.-L. (2006) « Segmentation of the Romanian wine market: an
exploratory study », 3rd International Wine Business Research Conference, Montpellier,
6-7-8 July, Refereed Paper.
FranceAgimer (2013) « Le marché mondial des effervescents », FranceAgrimer, Les
synthèses, N°13, July.
FranceAgrimer (2014) « Les chiffres de la filière viti-vinicole 2002/2012 », Données et
bilans, mars
Manole V.,ă Ionă R.ă A.,ă L daruă G.ă R.ă (2010),ă « Wine chain in Romania – a marketing
approach », Annales Universitatis Apulensis Series Oeconomica 2 (10)
Noev N. and Swinnen J. F.M. (2002) « Industry, Policy, and Trade in Eastern Europe and
the former Soviet Union », in Anderson, K. (ed.), "Globalization and the World's Wine
Markets", London: Edward Elgar.
Rabobank I. (2003) The world wine business. Developments and Strategies, Rabobank,
Netherlands.
Syndicat Générale des Vignerons de la Champagne - SGV (2013), « Champagne en
pocket », http://www.sgv-champagne.fr/Pockets-2013-BD.pdf
US Departement of Agriculture- USDA (2013) « Wine Annual Report and Statistics »,
Foreign agricultural service, GAIN (Global Agricultural Information Network) Report
Number: IT1307.

Websites
Australasia’să wineă industryă portală byă wineă titles,ă « World comparisons »:
http://www.winebiz.com.au/statistics/world.asp
SGV: http://www.sgv-champagne.fr/le-vignoble-champenois/les-chiffres-du-vignoble.html
http://www.maisons-
champagne.com/orga_prof/statistiques/acteur_economique_majeur.htm

105
COMPETITIVENESS AND SUPPORTING THE BUSINESS COMPETITIVENESS

Meşter Liana-Eugenia, Bugnar Nicoleta-Georgeta

Department of International Business, Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract: Competitiveness designates efficiency, productivity, success, adaptability,

quality products, optimum costs. Competitiveness is a complex concept which defines
the ability of a firm or country to cope with actual or potential competition companies or
countries on a particular market, on the world market respectively and it is synonymous
with economic efficiency; competitiveness reflects a certain state of the economic
activity arising from a certain resource consumption in order to achieve economic
goods. Supporting the national competitiveness and flexibility is aimed at a sustained
increase in productivity relying on the diversification and the innovation of the domestic
industrial base. The Global Competitiveness Report 2011-2012 ranks Romania as the
77th out of 142 assessed economies. Romania has access to a large market and free
trade area, which makes it attractive for many foreign companies, but Romania needs a
coherent economic policy that changes the approach used today - from the traditionalist
design of restructuring following the resources and, therefore, related to the
comparative advantage to finding solutions that stimulate the activities based on
knowledge and information so that they allow the emphasis of the competitive
advantages. This paper aims to identify the factors and reasons that gave rise to the
level of competitiveness for some activities or fields of activities from the economy of
Romania during the reporting period, as well as the possibilities that would lead to
increasing and supporting the competitiveness of the national economy.

Keywords: competitiveness; competitive advantage; business opportunity; business

environment; Global Competitiveness Report.

JEL classification: M21, O11.

1. Competitiveness - points of view

Traditionally, the term competitiveness suggests efficiency, productivity, success,

adaptability, quality products, optimum cost. Competitiveness is a complex concept
which defines the ability of firms or countries to cope with actual or potential competition
companies or countries on a particular market or on the world market and it is
synonymous with economic efficiency; competitiveness reflects a certain state of
economic activity arising from a certain resource consumption to achieve economic
goods (The Economic Dictionary, 2001). If in a firm competitiveness can be assessed by
its profitability, being synonymous with the term competition, in a national economy,
competitiveness is assessed by the national labour productivity, labour constituting the
main factor of intensive economic growth. The competitive advantage (Porter, 1987) can
be obtained by reducing costs (the advantages of the economy of scale can be achieved
by means of efficient organization of production and thus reducing costs to produce
goods that would offer the possibility of reducing the selling price at least at the level of
price competition but with a higher profit margin) or by qualitative differentiation of
106
productsă (usingă theă factoryă brand,ă productă differentiationă fromă thoseă ofă competitors’ă
through quality, focus on narrow segments of the market and thus reducing costs). The
level of competitiveness is appreciated taking into account several factors, such as price
and quality of products, flexibility and elasticity of supply.

Beyond the meaning of competitiveness expressed in terms of relative efficiency, be it

static or dynamic quantifiable based on levels of performance (productivity, increase
competitiveness and so on), competitiveness is also a reflection of performance in
international trade (measured as performance shares held on export markets or in the
form of import penetration) (Hughes, 1993).

For an objective analysis of competitiveness the following are considered: the ability to
identify and anticipate or predict the long-term market trends, the will and the ability to
obtain, analyze and exploit information provided by the market (strategic nature skills) as
well as: the possibility to manage risk, internal cooperation between different functional
departments, external cooperation with customers and suppliers, consulting and
advisory firms, public bodies, with all firms involved in trade and investment activities
(organizational skills).

The World Economic Forum (WEF) and the International Institute for Management
Development (IMD) publishes The Global Competitiveness Yearbook. According to the
Institute for Management and Development, the national competitiveness refers to the
actions and policies that describe the ability of a country to achieve the coordination of
economic growth and external balance by means of the newly created value in the
national economy and also by the prosperity of the population.

The main factors influencing competitiveness are:

•ă productionă costsă andă businessă performanceă - through product quality, production
efficiency, fiscal policy, and especially innovation and productivity;
•ă availabilityă ofă laboură force, quality of educational outcomes, knowledge and research
capital, infrastructure, political stability, rule of law, ease of contract performance and
industrial relations.

2. Supporting competitiveness in Romania

Supporting the national competitiveness and flexibility will strive to obtain especially a
sustained increase in productivity based on diversification and innovation of the
domestic industrial capacity and will be achieved by:
 competitive environment and business climate: streinghtening the policy in the field
of state aid, reducing the administrative burden on companies, increasing decision
transparency and public consultation;
a. developing the services sector: by promoting the information and communications
society; infrastructure has an important role in national and international
competitiveness as they target the traditional infrastructure, information and
technologyă development;ă •ă supporting research: finding solutions to fund and
support beyond market mechanisms for high technology areas;
 a well-developed financial system integrated globally: supporting the competitiveness
of the national economy;
 developing the small and medium sized enterprises sector: increasing the share of
this sector in the pattern of ownership of the national economy;
 ensuring the continuity of privatization policies by introducing the state ownership on
the capital market in accordance with national priorities;
107
 increasing the administrative capacity: assessing the policies with impact on
competitiveness, improving the absorption of non-refundable grants;
 the export growth: by promoting the support measures for the internal support and
external promotion;
 maintaining a high standard of living: the integration of the domestic economy in the
world economy as workforce training, increasing productivity and overall forming
attitudes towards work, contribute substantially to the increase of national
competitiveness.

The Global Competitiveness Report 2011-2012 ranks Romania as the 77th out of 142
economies covered with 4.1 points obtained out of 7 possible. Among the 27 EU
countries (at the time of the report), Romania is ranked 26th, ahead of only Greece.
The competitiveness of the economy should be viewed in the overall context of global
challenges: economic globalization, open markets, rapid technological changes,
challenges which must be turned into opportunities for the Romanian economy. The
analysis of factors of competitiveness and identification of problems Romania is facing,
in order to find optimal solutions for solving them is a necessity for evaluating the
economic potential.

Strengths for Romania: low cost of labour is an important source of competitive

advantage, but it is in progressive decline, causing stimulation of domestic research and
innovation as the main direction of action which will bring beneficial results such as
reducing imports of technology and equipment, and increasing gross value added
products for both the domestic market and for export. The growth of productivity
depends on both technology development, accomplished by tangible investments
(equipment, new technologies) and intangible assets (licenses, patents, trademarks and
know-how) as well as by the increase in product quality, in marketing and in applying
research and innovation findings, but also in other sources that bring along the value
added growth. Exports and investment have been the engines of economic growth
lately. Romanian exports based on a proportion of about 98% of the industry, had a
positive trend during 2011-2014, but depending largely on low value added products.
There has been progress in the export of high value-added products as well, such as
industrial equipment (radios, television and communication), machinery and electrical
equipment and transport means (especially cars). Regarding imports, the share of high
and medium technology is approximately equal to the one of low technology products.
This shows that Romania mostly imports technology and it is only slightly produced
nationwide, so when it becomes available, the domestic innovation seems difficult to
promote and transfer to productive firms.
The orientation of foreign investors towards industry is mainly due to the advantages
offered by Romania in this field (low land price compared to other countries in the
region, cheap and skilled labour in the industrial filed, manufacturing capabilities, and
tradition). Among the most important investment areas recommended are agriculture, IT,
trade and services, as well as tourism.
The existence of a stable and predictable business environment represents a decisive
factor in the growth of foreign and domestic direct investment. In order to achieve this
goal, action plans have been developed to remove administrative barriers for business
and their implementation has simplified the legal and administrative procedures for start
ups, for the development of competitive business, and for improving the efficiency of
authorizing and approving processes.
In Romania, the research, development and innovation (RDI) is based on a valuable
tradition, currently covering over 50 specific scientific and technological fields and
maintaining a relatively stable annual level of activity and results. The research and
108
development activities continue to take place mostly in the public sector (over 60%).
One of the main issues in this area is inadequate funding.
The best results were obtained for market size, higher education, technical skills and
ability to adopt new technologies to increase productivity, low customs, redundancy
costs, high rate of schooling in the university system, the degree of investor protection,
the ease of doing business, the number of procedures, i.e. the number of days required
to start a business, the degree of penetration of broadband Internet connection, the
quality of science education.

Weaknesses for Romania: Romania shows competitiveness disparities when

compared to the Western and Central Europe. Improving the access to factors,
participation in the European market, supporting investments in optimizing industrial
base, respecting the principles of sustainable development is a critical condition to
ensure the competitive functioning of the Romanian economy. There are still difficulties
due to the limited resources available to them, difficult access to finances, significant
technological gap and lack of know-how, that could enable rapid adaptation to the
demands of the European market and to changes in the global economy. Moreover,
innovative ideas, new products and services, new business models are often tested by
start-ups. The high sensitive risk of such firms makes the cost of typical financing
through debt be it prohibitive. Doubled by the absence of previous checks on feasibility
of the new product / idea, as a producer of cash flow, the access to the equity market is
severely limited. Encouraging venture capital is an optimal alternative to support private
action, the government intervention being necessary to guarantee under the current
development of this segment of the financial market. The solutions in these cases can
be provided by a happy combination between the participating of public and private
capital.
The worst performers were obtained for the degree of sophistication of business,
infrastructure, degree of innovation and quality of institutions. The Romanian economy
registered important competitive disadvantages in the following areas: local production,
the quality of local production, the development of the cluster supply chain, control
distribution, the quality of road infrastructure, quality maritime infrastructure, quality of air
transport infrastructure, costs of companies with R & D, collaboration between
universities and industry in R & D, procurement of advanced technology products, waste
of public funds, public trust in politicians, favouritism in decisions of government,
inefficient spending of public funds, effective legal framework to resolve conflicts,
transparent government policy. Romania has significant competitive disadvantages also
when it comes to labour market rigidities, "brain drain", effects of taxation, agricultural
policy costs, balance of the public budget, the supply of financial services, access to
financial services, and technology absorption at firm level. Creating a favourable
environment for business financing, in competitive financial market conditions, is a
qualitative and quantitative progress. Interventions are needed for certain categories of
SMEs which are disadvantaged by insufficient experience for obtaining financing and by
the performance criteria imposed by financial institutions.
The most problematic factors for the business environment are, in this order: the access
to financing, the inadequate supply of infrastructure, the inefficient government
bureaucracy, taxation, tax regulations, followed by political instability and corruption.

3. Conclusions
Competitiveness is a chapter that Romania has a lot to catch up both nationally and
globally: the productivity of Romanian economy represents 42.5% of the average EU-27
in 2012. Globally, the competitiveness indicator places Romania as the 77th out of a
total of 142 countries surveyed in 2012.
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Romania did not have a public body specialized in issues of competitiveness, but a
multitude of inter-ministerial councils, institutions and disparate strategies, without a
strong impact on the economy. The national plans and programs required by the
European Union cannot replace a national strategy for competitiveness, thought for the
long run. Such a body would be an institutional innovation that could establish a uniform,
strategic and focused approach of the Romanian competitiveness, prerequisite for
catching performance on the European and global stage of competition.
Romania needs a coherent economic policy that changes the approach used today -
from the traditionalist design of restructuring according to resources and, therefore,
related to comparative advantage to finding solutions to stimulate the activities based on
knowledge and information so that they allow emphasizing the competitive advantages .
The measures for economic policy could be:
 accelerating pre-competitive reforms;
 simplifying and improving the legislative and administrative framework;
 reducing the bureaucracy and tax burden, the non-fiscal, removing administrative
barriers;
 supporting small and medium enterprises, according to the rules of the single
domestic market without distorting fair competition conditions, the competitive capacity
of SMEs and encouraging the domestic capital; improving access of SMEs to financing
by external financial support programs and / or budget;
 promoting a fair competitive environment, preventing and limiting the expansion of
anticompetitive practices;
a. encouraging the development of a new quality culture by organizing coherent
surveillance market, and by quality infrastructure and consumer protection;
b. developing and funding a national program for stimulating entrepreneurship, the
implementation of new technologies, innovation as a major source of economic
development;
c. stimulating the exports of highly processed products and the access of SME to
foreign markets;
d. strengthening the capital market by creating a competitive market in the region by
increasing the volume of investment activity, diversification of financial instruments,
attracting new market participants, creating a culture of investment in the capital market.

References:
Held, David; Mc Grew, Anthony; Goldblatt, David si Perraton, Jonathan, Transformari
globale: politica, economie si cultura, Polirom, Iasi, 2004.
Hill, Charles, International Business: Competing in the Global Marketplace, McGraw-Hill
Companies, 1998, 2nd edition.
Hugues, Kirsty, European Competitiveness, Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Porter, Michael, From Competitive Advantage to Corporate Strategy, Harvard Business.
Review’,ănr.3,ă1987.
Russu, Corneliu, Management si competitivitate, Tribuna economica nr.1/1998,pag.9 si
23,nr.2/1998
http://gov.ro/ro/obiective/strategii-politici-programe
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf
http://www.competitiveness.ie/aboutus/
http://www.competitive.org
http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan004867.pdf
http://www.ecc.ae/en
http://www.oecd.org

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BUSINESS ENGLISH OUTSIDE THE BOX. BUSINESS JARGON AND
ABBREVIATIONS IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Pop Anamaria-Mirabela, Sim Monica-Ariana

Department of International Business, Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
Department of International Business, Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract: Business English is commonly understood language, yet Harvard Business

Review called business jargon “The Silent Killer of Big Companies”. As we all have been
taught in school, we are aware of the fact that in communication we must comply with
linguistic rules so that our message gets across succinctly. Yet, there is one place where
all these rules can be omitted (at least in the recent decades): the corporate office. Here,
one can use euphemisms and clichés, can capitalize any word that is considered
important, the passive voice is used wherever possible and abbreviations occur in every
sentence. The worst part is that all of these linguistic enormities are carried out
deliberately. The purpose of this paper is to analyse to what extent business jargon and
abbreviations have affected business communication (which most of the time, it is filled
with opaque language to mask different activities and operations) and the reasons for
which these linguistic phenomena have become so successful in the present. One of the
reasons for the research is that in business English, jargon can be annoying because it
overcomplicates. It is frequently unnecessary and it can transform a simple idea or
instruction into something very confusing. It is true that every field has its jargon.
Education, journalism, law, politics, medicine, urban planning – no filed is immune. Yet,
it seems that business jargon has been described as “the most annoying”. Another
reason is that jargon tends to be elitist. Those who do not understand the terms feel
confused and uncertain. The paper starts with defining these two concepts, business
jargon and abbreviations, and then it attempts to explain the “unusual” pervasion of
these, both in business communication and in everyday communication. For this, the
paper includes a list with the most common business jargon and abbreviations. In this
view, the authors have accessed different economic blogs and specialty journals. Then,
it continues with the presentation of the results of a survey which was applied to
Economics students regarding the extent to which communication, with emphasis on
business communication, is affected by the use of business jargon and abbreviations.

Keywords: business; communication; communication etiquette; jargon; abbreviations.

JEL classification: Y90

1. Introduction
In business, it is required to communicate with different types of people, such as
business associates, clients and co-workers. Therefore, the rules of business
communication etiquette are vital for both interlocutors and they should be incorporated
into daily communications, both written and verbal. As in business, the information
shared must come across clearly.
Communication problems in business, typically, originate in misunderstandings and
many of these problems occur from using ineffective communication techniques.
Communication problems waste time and money, disrupting productivity and resulting in
lower product quality and customer satisfaction. Barriers to good communication
appear when the person sending a message uses the wrong communication style for a
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particular situation. Choosing the wrong mechanism (email, memo, report, letter etc.) or
the wrong words complicate things. Thus, in the business world, it is important to
determine the communication style of the audience in order to avoid unnecessary
problems.
Speaking, listening, writing and reading effectively is not as easy as one might think,
especially in the complicated world of business. It requires practice and diligence and it
takes effort to provide a clear message, through channels appropriate for the target
audience and situation. Business vocabulary (jargon) serves a useful purpose within a
company, but when communicating with the external world to the department or
organization, it is difficult to understand. Also, abbreviated terminology is helpful for
those who work within a particular industry or field because it is fast, efficient and useful
in most circumstances, however in the outside world, it does not say much.
Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to analyse the effects and provide examples of
the way in which the use of business jargon and abbreviations in communication with
people outside the organization has a tendency to undermine the effectiveness of the
communication process.

2. Main concepts. Jargon and Abbreviations

2.1. Jargon. Definition and use

The origin of the term jargon isăOldăFrench,ămeaningă“chatterăofăbirds”.ăăTheăfirstăknownă
use dates as back as 14th century. According to Merriam –Webster Dictionary, jargon
refers to the language used for a particular activity or by a particular group of people.
Other definitions of the term are:
 confused unintelligible language; b. a strange, outlandish, or barbarous
language or dialect; c . a hybrid language or dialect simplified in vocabulary and
grammar and used for communication between peoples of different speech;
 the technical terminology or characteristic idiom of a special activity or group
 obscure and often pretentious language marked by circumlocutions and long
words. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/jargon
In short, jargon is language specific to a group or profession. It is often distinguished by
acronymsă andă initialismsă (“EOD”ă foră “endă ofă day”)ă andă scientific-sounding, polysyllabic
words: deliverable, actionable, metrics, synergy, core competencies. The use of jargon
has been subject to many debates, the most notable belonging to George Orwell, the
author of the famous Nineteen Eighty-Four and the creator of several neologisms,
including cold, war, Big Brother, thought police, Room 101, or doublethink. An advocate
of the idea according to which, in the modern style of language, good writing must be
cleară andă simple,ă ină hisă essay,ă “Politicsă andă theă Englishă Language”,ă Orwellă statesă thată
technical language is nothing but an oratorical trick, simple language is required to
clarify difficult concepts, while complex language is needed to explain simple concepts,
and lastly, political language is structured to make lies seem like the truth. (Apud Roney,
2002:13) Therefore,ă ină Orwell’să opinion,ă specializedă languageă isă notă essential.ă Instead,ă
theăfamouslyăcontroversialăwriterăappreciatesăthată“oneăcanăoften be in doubt about the
effect of a word or a phrase, and one needs rules that one can rely on when instinct
fails. I think the following rules will cover most cases:
 Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to
seeing in print.
 Never use a long word where a short one will do.
 If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
 Never use the passive where you can use the active.
 Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think
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of an everyday English equivalent.
 Breakăanyăofătheseărulesăsoonerăthanăsayăanythingăoutrightăbarbarous.”ă(Orwell,ă
2013:12)
NoămatterăhowămuchăweălikeăOrwell’săideasăandăweăwouldălikeătoăspeakăaccordingly,ăyet,ă
there is no way to completely eliminate jargon from everyday life. Social groups create
special language – jargon – on one side, to make communication short, but most of the
times because they want to clearly delineate who is a member and who is not. Members
understand the lingo and learn to speak it fluently.
Professionals from different fields and academics are famous for their pervasive use of
jargon, but they are not alone. Sometimes, employees use a great deal of jargon which
is not part of the wider industry, but unique to that office environment. The reason is to
use words shortened to make communication faster.
On the other side, it is ironic that slang – words that are not considered part of the
standard vocabulary of a language and that are used very informally in speech
especially by a particular group of people (http://www.merriam
webster.com/dictionary/slang) – has a higher status, taking into consideration that slang
is used only by few people while many people know and use jargon regularly. Slang is
usually associated with different subcultures and, most of the times is not known to
outsiders. In business, it is a common fact that, many times, marketers borrow slang to
make their product seem cool and linked with a desirable group

2.2. Abbreviations and Acronyms. Definition and use

Acronyms and abbreviations have been used for many centuries. For example, the
official name of the Roman Empire was Senatus Populusque Romanus. The ancient
Romans used the abbreviation SPQR. The Latin phrase ante meridiem (before noon)
became AM.

At the end of the 19th century, businesses began abbreviating their company names in
writing to fit into places where space was limited, for example, on a barrel or crate, small
print newspapers and railroad cars. For example the National Biscuit Company became
NABISCO. (http://dchinn1.hubpages.com/hub/Why-Do-We-USe-Acronyms-and-
Abbreviations)

th
Abbreviations became popular in the 20 century, nowadays being used in almost all
fields. According to Merriam-Webster.com,ă ană abbreviationă isă “a shortened form of a
word or name that is used in place of the full word or name”.ă (http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/abbreviation) Abbreviations can have many different forms. The
most popular form is a capitalized letter combination of the first letter in every word of
theăphraseă(e.g.ăFBăisătheăshortăformăforăFacebookăandăF2Făstandsăforă“faceătoăface”).ăăInă
many cases, an abbreviation of a single word is the first couple of letters of the word
with the first letter capitalized, following with a period at the end of the abbreviation (e.g.
Prof. for professor or Mr for mister). Another type of abbreviation is to take only one or
two letters, which are not necessarily from the original word, to stand for the meaning
(e.g. lb (pound) and m (meter)). There are many ways in which abbreviations are
formed,ăyetăallăabbreviationsăhaveăonlyăoneăpurpose:ătoăsaveăpeople’sătime,ăspaceăandă
effort in written or oral communication, and they are used in particular contexts where
they are familiar. Although, many times it results in dialogue distortion. According to
Petersă (1999),ă thisă “distortion”ă ofă dialogueă isă capableă ofă facilitatingă communication
across cultures, so even people in non-English-speaking cultures know the meaning of
the abbreviation.

113
 th
Abbreviations have become more notable since the invention of the telegraph in the 19
century, and especially since the explosion of the electronic age (Beauchamp, 2001:74).
Grammar and spelling were highly valued in the study of English language, and
abbreviations were only used to stand for long phrases, organizations and so on. Yet,
the age of globalization and the need to save time and space have brought an essential
change in the way abbreviations are perceived. Digital technology, including the Internet,
has led to the creation of a huge number of abbreviations, especially as online chat,
internet messaging (IM) and texting (SMS) have gained popularity. Some familiar
acronyms from these media include: FYI = For Your Information; LOL – Laugh(s) out
loud; BTW – By the way. Texting, also known as SMS (Short Message Service) requires
the writer to include a lot of information into a small space. This has led to a modern
form of highly-condensed writing, sometimes surprisingly imaginative: B4 = before; L8r =
later; CU = See you.
There are three forms of abbreviation:
 acronym - a word formed from the initial parts of a name which can be letters or
syllables.ă Theă wordă “acronym”ă wasă createdă byă Bellă Laboratoriesă ină 1943.ă Foră
example, the North American Free Trade Agreement is commonly known as
NAFTA.
 initialism - formed by combining the first letters in a name or expression
 and each letter is pronounced separately. For example, the United Nations is
known as UN or European Union is known as EU.
 truncation - a word is shortened to its first syllable or few letters. For example,
Wed. is Wednesday and info is information.

The use of abbreviations has been under scrutiny for some time. There are linguists
considering that abbreviations corrupt the language and communication ca be confusing
if one is not familiar with the meaning of various abbreviations and acronyms. Yet,
language has to reflect the changes taking place in the world and the development of
society and technology is reflected in the growth of abbreviations. On the other hand,
when used properly, many acronyms and abbreviations can enhance communication
because more meaning is conveyed in less time and fewer words. Many older acronyms
provide fascinating examples of the development of language and changing cultural
attitudes, especially relating to the field of customer service, especially in the contexts of
IT (which has been an especially fertile field for abbreviations) and healthcare.
Nowadays, the world of blogs and microblogs (for example, Twitter limits the length of a
message to only 140 – 160 characters) and social networking sites (Facebook)
contribute to the creation of new abbreviations and acronyms. However, these social
networks are platforms to practise Internet abbreviations rather than to create them.

In business, if a company uses abbreviated acronyms into its external communications

is likely to experience misinterpreted messages. People may try and derive their own
interpretation and this quickly will turn to misunderstandings. Within a company, though,
it is safe to use acronyms and abbreviations (although there might be cases hen the
same abbreviation stands for different meanings, see the list below), especially in
reports, memos and training materials if definitions and meanings are understood or
explained, enabling the audience to understand the meanings involved.

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3. Business jargon and abbreviations in business communication

On 5 December 2012, Citigroupă announcedă thată “aă seriesă ofă repositioningă actionsă thată
will further reduce expenses and improve efficiency across the company while
maintaining Citi's unique capabilities to serve clients, especially in the emerging
markets. These actions will result in increased business efficiency, streamlined
operationsă andă ană optimizedă consumeră footprintă acrossă geographies.”ă
(http://www.citigroup.com/citi/news/2012/121205a.htm) If the reader is not accustomed
withă theă businessă jargon,ă ită isă difficultă toă understandă Citigroup’să intentions.ă Ină fact,ă theă
company was about to fire approximately 11,000 employees. In the 21st century,
business media has been flooded with press release of this type, euphemisms and
empty stock phrases. As many people started complaining about it, Forbes launched its
second annual March Madness–style business-speak bracket, in which phrases like
thought leadership and going forward are mentioned as replacers for takeaway and
make it happen.

The first to complain about the use of business jargon were the Americans. In his article,
“Jargon:ăIt’sănotătheăbusinessăworld’săfault!”,ăFriedmanămakesăaăshortăpresentationăofătheă
evolution of the business jargon in the USA, beginning with 1911, when the engineer
Frederickă Winslowă Tayloră publishedă aă famousă monographă calledă “Theă Principlesă ofă
Scientifică Management,”ă campaigningă foră aă moreă efficientă styleă ofă businessă operation,ă
requiring not charismatic leaders but systematică thinkers.ă “Taylorism”ă wasă soonă theă
subject of academic conferences, congressional investigations, and debates in the
popular press. (Friedman, 2013)

Then, in 1914, Douglas S. Martin, in an article for The Academy and Literature, wrote:
“Theăspoken [English] of the Americans is now taking on a very pronounced commercial
colour,ă […]ă Ată theă tea-tables in the St. Regis, in New York, and the Copley Plaza in
Boston...theă breezyă gossipă ofă theă Americană womană isă simplyă redolentă ofă theă broker’să
office, theăcurbămarketăandătheă warehouse.”ă(Friedman,ă2013)ăTheămaină ideaă wasăthată
business jargon was not as different for everyday talk as one might have expected.
Martinăwasăagainstăwordsăandăphrasesăsuchăas:ă“stopăin,”ă“deliverătheăgoods,”ă“winăout,”ă
“theăstraightădope,”ă“makeăgood,”ă“getăawayăwithăit,”ă“putăoneăover,”ă“showădown,”ă“comeă
across,”ă“getăwise,”ă“onătheălevel,”ă“bawlăhimăout,”ă“gotăhisănumber,”ă“getăhisăgoat,”ă“getă
warmăaroundătheăcollar,”ă“hitătheăceiling,”ă“fallăforăit,”ă“getăbusy.”

Mark Liberman, a linguist at the University of Pennsylvania, noted on the blog Language
Logă thată thisă “speak”ă hadă becomeă asă commonă ină sports,ă politics,ă socială science,ă andă
other spheres as they are in business. http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=7069

Liberman argues that people are unconsciously combining their negative feelings about
workă oră “bosses”ă withă theiră discomfortă foră newă slang.ă “Differentă groups—and groups in
different settings—do have different ways of talking and writing, and everyone knows
thisă asă aă matteră ofă personală experience,…Bută ordinaryă peopleă haveă reasonsă toă dislikeă
managersă moreă thană theyă dislikeă sportswritersă oră particleă physicists.”ă
http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=7069 “Soăwhenăaăneologismărubsăsomeoneătheă
wrongăway,”ăsaysăLiberman,ă“andătheirăstereotype-forming system is looking for a group
toă associateă withă it,ă ‘managers’ă areă aă likelyă target.”ă Theă conclusionă isă that business
producesăaănewătypeăofă“strange”ăvocabulary,ăbutădoesn’tăeverydayăcultureădoăso?

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After consulting several blogs (some in favour, others violently fighting against the use of
jargon), we were able to make a list of some more commonly used business jargon,
considered, though, by some to be the most annoying. What is worth noticing is the fact
that most of these phrases are used in everyday speech.
 Think outside the box: “Inătheălastătwoăfiscalăyears,ăwe’veăusedăoutside-the-box
thinking to facilitate best practices and maximize efficiencies by switching to single-
rather than double-plyă bathroomă tissue.” http://brandjournalists.com/articles/10-pieces-
of-business-jargon-that-suck/

“Out-of-the-box-thinking”ă refersă toă aă typeă ofă thinkingă thată movesă awayă ină
diverging directions so as to involve a variety of aspects and which sometimes
lead to new ideas and solutions. It is usually associated to creativity. This
phrase in itself was clever and illustrative at the beginning, yet not it has come
to a point when it is overused and it has lost its power.

 End user:ă“Ourănewăwebsiteămaximizesăinteractionăandăefficienciesăforăoură end

users.”

Ană“endăuser”ăis the person that a product or service is designed for. The term is
basedăonătheăideaăthatătheă“endăgoal”ăofăaăproductăorăserviceăisătoăbeăusefulătoă
the consumer. This example is illustrative for the way in which simple ideas are
made complex. The end user is actually the customer.

 Leverage:ă“Amongătheăoptionsălistedăbyăthemăare:ăincentiveăandăcompensationă
adjustments for executives, leveraged buy-outs and capital structure changes, focusing
on core skills, diversifying internationally while focusing on businesses in which a firm
hasăstrongăcompetencies,ăandăbuyingăandăsellingămatureăbusinesses.”ă(Pop,ă2013:32)
“Leverage”ăhasăseveralămeaningsă– it may refer to the action of a lever or to the
mechanical advantage of a lever. Also, it means positional advantage; power to
act effectively. Yet, the term has become worldwide spread due to the world
financial crisis of 2007. Before the term was exclusively used in banking,
meaningă theă useă ofă credită oră borrowedă fundsă toă improveă one’să speculativeă
capacity and increase the rate of return from an investment, as in buying
securities on margin (leveraged buyout, leveraged assets et.) The problem is
that,ăatăsomeăpoint,ăpeopleăinăbusinessăstartedăusingăităinsteadăofă“use”.

 Push the envelope:ă“Whenăsheăstartsătoăwhineăaboutăherăhoursăto her manager,

she really starts to push the envelope.”ă (Yun,ă Meissner,ă 2008:16)
Theă meaningă ofă theă phraseă “toă pushă theă envelope”ă isă toă attemptă toă extendă theă currentă
limits of performance; to innovate, or go beyond commonly accepted boundaries. The
origin ofătheăphraseăcameăintoăgeneralăuseăfollowingătheăpublicationăofăTomăWolfe’săbookă
about the space programme - The Right Stuff:ă “Oneă ofă theă phrasesă thată keptă runningă
throughătheăconversationăwasă‘pushingătheăoutsideăofătheăenvelope’...ă[That]ăseemedătoă
be theă greată challengeă andă satisfactionă ofă flightă test.”ă (Wolfe,ă 1979:8)ă Wolfeă isă notă theă
creator of the phrase as it was first used in the field of mathematics in its original form –
““pushă theă edgeă ofă theă envelope.”ă ă (http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/push-the-
envelope.html)

The sheer overuse of the phrase has led to being stripped of meaning and,
nowadays,ă ită isă usedă incorrectly,ă for,ă ină itsă originală sense,ă theă wordă “envelope”ă
referredătoăanăaircraft’săcapabilitiesă(speed,ădurabilityăetc.)
116
 Core Competency: “The primary core competency of marketing is the ability to
identify with the wants and needs of the target customer and communicate the
company's brand image and product value in such a way as to elicit a favorable reaction
fromă thată targetă customer.”ă (http://smallbusiness.chron.com/examples-core-
competencies-marketing-sales-10240.html)

Businessdictionary.comădefinesă“coreăcompetency”ăasătheă“uniqueăabilityăthatăaă
company acquires from its founders or develops and that cannot be easily
imitated. Core competencies are what give a company one or more competitive
advantages, in creating andădeliveringăvalueătoăitsăcustomersăinăitsăchosenăfield.”ă
(http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/core-competencies.html) Yet, the
wordă “competent”ă doesă notă mean. Bruce Barry, professor of management at
Vanderbilt’s Owen Graduate School of Business rates theă phraseă asă “silly”ă - “Doă
people talk about peripheral competency? Being competent is not the standard
we’reă seeking. It’să likeă coreă mediocrity.”ă
(http://www.forbes.com/pictures/ekij45gdh/core-competency/)

 Touch base:ă“SteveăJobsătalksăaboutămanagingăpeopleă‘Touch base frequently

(focus,ă simplicity,ă designă isă howă ită works)’ă
(https://twitter.com/HeinevdM/status/400365079147081728) The meaning of this phrase
is to make contact, to cover all the possibilities. Many say that it has its origin in baseball
where the runners need to touch the base to make a run legal.

Also, we incorporate some of the most common abbreviations and acronyms used in
business. Some of the abbreviations commonly used in business are easy to
understand, while others might be confusing (see PM):
 People / job titles: CEO = Chief Executive Officer; CFO = Chief Financial
Officer; CIO = Chief Information Officer; MD = Managing Director; PRO = Public
Relations Officer;
 Finance: CROGI = Cash Return On Gross Investment; COP = Certificate of
Participation; CBV = Chartered Business Valuator; CDO = Collateralized Debt
Obligation; EBITDAR = Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, Amortization,
and Restructuring or Rent Costs; IBF = International Banking Facility;
 Management: ARMS = Administrative Resource Management System; BPMS =
Business Process Management Systems; BRM =
Budget and Resource Management; CAM = Contract Audit Management; PM =
Performance Management; PM = Performance Monitor; PM = Procurement
Management; PM = Program Management; TMS = Technical Management System;
 Other business acronyms: VAT = Value Added Tax; P&L = Profit & Loss
account / statement; KPI = Key Performance Indicators; KM = Knowledge Management;
RRP = Recommended Retail Price.

4. Research methodology

The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects the use of business jargon and
abbreviations has on business communication. For this study we used a descriptive
research methodology. A survey was administered to students of the Faculty of
Economics. They specialize in different fields such as: International Business, Finance,
Accounting (BA) and European Economic Relations (MA). All the students are familiar
with business vocabulary as they start studying Business English in the first year. The
st nd
BA sample is made up of 1 and 2 year students and there are very few of them who
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work. The MA students study Communication in Business English and some of them
work for different local companies while others work for multinational corporations,
therefore, they are familiar with different types of documents that are used within a
company. Also, they are aware of the importance of correct business communication as
they have to communicate not only in their native language but also in a foreign
language with their business partners.

5. The results of the research

The survey consists of ten questions which are meant to find out whether students are
familiar with termsă likeă “businessă jargon”ă oră “abbreviations”ă andă whetheră theyă consideră
that by using these, communication in business is hindered. Also, the questions included
business jargon terms in order to see whether the students are familiar with their use in
business or their use in everyday life.
The answers to the first question – “Whatăisăjargon?”ă- show that 83.7% of the students
identify the term with special language used by specific groups of people while 16.7%
consideră ită asă beingă “badă language”.ă Then,ă despite our expectations, a percentage of
23.3% of the students surveyed do not consider that the use of jargon affects the
communication process in business.
The answers to the question whether business jargon has negative effects on business
communication are surprising: 41.9% do not perceive that the use of jargon in business
is harmful to the communication process, while (even though more than half of the
students questioned) only 58.1% are aware of the negative effects of the jargon used in
business communication.
When asked whether business jargon: a) helps business people communicate better; b)
makes communication more difficult, the students provided unexpected results as 37.2%
of them consider that business jargon helps business people communicate better.
Askedă toă defineă theă termă “abbreviation”,ă theă studentsă respondedă ină aă percentageă ofă
100% that an abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or name that is used in place of
the full word or name and 90.7% consider that people use abbreviations to save time,
space and effort in written or oral communication, while the rest think that the use of
abbreviations is fashionable.
Regarding whether the use of abbreviations affects communication, 60.5% of the
students provide positive answers, while the rest (which is a rather high percentage) do
not consider that the use of abbreviations has any effects on the communication
process. When asked whether the use of abbreviation has negative effects on business
communication, 47.5% provided negative answers, considering that everybody knows
what abbreviations stand for.
When asked what "CEO" stands for, 88.7% recognized the abbreviation for Chief
Executive Officer, while the rest identify it with Corporate Europe Observatory. This is
surprising considering that the Economics students usually come across the former
meaning.

5. In conclusion
In the end, one might think that George Orwell may have been a little paranoid, but in
our opinion the famous writer was right: fuzzy language can lead to fuzzy (and even
dangerous) thinking. The results of the survey applied to Economics students show that
even if they have not actually started working, they are aware of the dangers and
problems unclear, fuzzy business communication might lead to. Yet, there is quite an
unexpected percentage of students who do not prerceive business jargon and
abbreviations as threats to business communication, perhaps due to the consideration
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that the majority of the business jargon and abbreviations are commonly used in
everyday speech. There is though a small percentage of 9% who consider that jargon is
“badălanguage”.
In spite of the new trends, of the need to save time, space and money, it is important to
write for a general audience. We could not say that jargon is inherently evil. Sometimes
it is just a form of technical terminology that gives people involved in a highly specific,
shared activity a common frame of reference. When it comes to business English,
jargon is sometimes fun as people use new, catchy words or terms. After all, language is
a continuously changing thing. Yet, if one wants to use business English in a way that
maximizes good communication, he has to be careful about how much jargon he uses in
business conversations and meetings. Also, there is no doubt that abbreviations have a
significantă importanceă onă people’să useă ofă dailyă languageă regardlessă ită isă ină relationă toă
social media or to other means of communication. However, there is an ongoing debate
on whether Internet abbreviations, especially, as well as the entire Internet language, will
benefit or damage the existing language structure. As the results of the survey showed,
the use of abbreviations might be confusing, especially in business communication
where the message should get across succintly.

References
Beauchamp, K. (2001) History of Telegraph, London, UK: The Institution of Engineering
and Technology.
Orwell, G. (2013) Politics and the English Language, Penguin Books.
Peters, J.D. (1999) Dialogue and Dissemination. In Speaking into the Air, US: University
of Chicago Press.
Pop, A.M. (2013) Economic Buzzwords and Political Correctness, LAP Lambert
Academic Publishing.
Roney, S. (2002) "Postmodernist Prose and George Orwell" in Academic Questions 15
(2).
T. Yun, J. Meissner, (2008) Business English Smart Business Talk, Manhattan Review.
Wolfe, T. (1979) The Right Stuff, New York: Picador.
Friedman,ă J.ă (2013),ă “Jargon:ă It’să notă theă businessă world’să fault!”ă [Online],ă Available:ă
http://www.bostonglobe.com/ideas/2013/09/15/jargon-not-business-world-
fault/OaaGyPQ40Hn9i969MWoNPJ/story.html [24 March 2014]
http://brandjournalists.com/articles/10-pieces-of-business-jargon-that-suck/ [16 February
2014]
http://dchinn1.hubpages.com/hub/Why-Do-We-USe-Acronyms-and-Abbreviations [21
March 2014]
http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=7069 [2 April 2014]
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/examples-core-competencies-marketing-sales-
10240.html [6 April 2014]
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/core-competencies.html 6 April 2014]
http://www.citigroup.com/citi/news/2012/121205a.htm [12 March 2014]
http://www.forbes.com/pictures/ekij45gdh/core-competency/ [14 March 2014]
http://www.merriam webster.com/dictionary/slang [23 February 2014]
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/abbreviation [19 January 2014]
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/jargon [21 January 2014]
http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/push-the-envelope.html [16 February 2014]
https://twitter.com/HeinevdM/status/400365079147081728 [18 March 2014]

119
THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON VOCABULARY LEARNING CASE STUDY-
FACEBOOK

Sim Monica - Ariana, Pop Anamaria - Mirabela

Department of International Business, Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
Department of International Business, Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract: The paper aims at investigating the impact of computer and social media in
improving students’ knowledge of English language namely vocabulary acquisition
(focused on Facebook) with intermediate and upper intermediate first and second year
ELT students in Economics at the Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Oradea.
Social media technologies take on many different forms including magazines, Internet
forums, weblogs, social blogs, wikis, social networks, podcasts, pictures, videos etc.
Technologies cover blogging, picture-sharing, wall-posting, music-sharing just to name
a few. Nowadays Facebook technology seems to play an important part for the social
life of so many becoming more and more popular as a main means of communication,
that it could also meet an educational need. Thus it could play a distinguished role in
foreign language learning and teaching. Several studies investigate using different
technologies in learning and teaching, in particular, foreign language learning. Still, rare
studies were interested precisely in the role of Facebook in learning foreign languages.
In this study was intended to assess the role and effectiveness of Facebook use in
vocabulary learning. Particularly, the research attempts to answer the question: ‘Can
social media affect students’ development and progress in the foreign language?’ In
order to discover the answer to this question of the study, a project based on Facebook
for the experimental group was conceived. It was assumed that significant differences
were to be found between the groups using social media for learning purposes and
those who did not in developing vocabulary knowledge. The study was conducted with
a number of 127 students of the Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Oradea,
1st and 2nd year students following the specializations: International Business,
Management, Marketing, Finances studying in the academic year 2013-2014. The
development in each group was measured and it clearly demonstrated a more
significant improvement in vocabulary knowledge of the group exposed to the
Facebook group. It is a rather innovative study as there are not many similar studies
using the value Facebook can add to learning performed in Romania. The results of the
study did not support the assumption that the experimental group would outperform the
control group, as the differences between the two groups were not that significant.
However, there was an improvement in both of the groups from pre-test to post-test
scores.

Keywords: social media; Facebook; learning languages, vocabulary

JEL classification: Y90

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1. Introduction The consequences of the fast development in science, technology and
media are reflected in the key verbs for foreign languages learning nowadays:
challenge, engage, and interact as it is perfectly embedded in the ancient Chinese
proverb: Tell me, I forget. Show me, I remember. Involve me, I understand.
Therefore the classic language class structure has changed dramatically in point of the
methods employed for teaching. Relying on textbooks and course books only in order
to increase proficiency and fluency in a foreign language will not yield immediate and
efficient benefits. As the Internet grows one of the latest methods of teaching languages
in general, vocabulary in particular, is obviously connected to it bringing along clear
improvement in the field of foreign language learning. The Internet and computers offer
so much especially because mastering a language means more than just words,
definitions and grammar rules. Consequently, foreign language classes must take
advantage and they actually do from the tremendous potential provided by technical
devices as TV, video projector, laptop, DVD player, computer into the classrooms
leadingătoăwhatăăKrashenă(1982:10)ăcallsă‘subconsciousălanguageăacquisition’.ăăKnowingă
a language requires getting beyond textbooks, it means understanding the cultural
dimension as well. Listening to music, watching TV in a foreign language – be it
movies, shows, cartoons, using computers effectively, with everything they may offer
can turn boring and sometimes ineffective language lessons into real language learning
laboratories.
The present study attempts to explore the impact of computers and social media on
intermediate and upper intermediate first and second year ELT students. Particularly,
the research aims to answer the question ‘Can social media affect students’
development and progress in the foreign language?’ It is assumed that significant
differences will be found between the groups using social media for learning purposes
and those who do not in developing vocabulary knowledge. This study focuses on the
vocabulary development process, rather than on reading or listening comprehension.
While doing this, it uses a vocabulary test applied to participant students twice to
assess changes or improvement of performance as vocabulary acquisition is a
continuum of development. Another innovation of the study is using Facebook as a
medium for language input. There are no similar studies using the value Facebook can
add to learning performed in Romania.

2. Main Concepts

2.1. Social Media

Social media is a fairly new concept since almost nobody heard or use social media 10-
15 years ago. Nevertheless, nowadays websites such as Facebook, Twitter, and
LinkedIn have more than 1 billion users and account for almost 25 percent of Internet
use. According to an article posted on Facebook, it appears that only Facebook’să
monthly active users now exceed 800 million and their daily active users, exceeds 400
million (Facebook a, 2012). It looks like almost overnight, social media has grown
indispensable to our lives--from friendship and dating to news, weather forecasts and
business issues. Social media is a phrase used to describe various websites or other
forms of technology where people can connect and interact with one another and share
information. After all, why are people attracted towards using social media? They
satisfy two basic human needs: to meet new people and to strengthen existing
relationships.
AsădefinedăbyăAndreasăKaplanăandăMichaelăHaenleină(2010),ăsocialămediaăisă‘aăgroupăofă
Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations
of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content.

121
Researchers argue that the impact of social media relies on the fact that they employ
mobile and web-based technologies to create highly interactive platforms via which
individuals and communities share, create and co-create, discuss, and modify user-
generated content (Ahlqvist, 2008). Mikolaj Jan Piskorski (2011) argues that the secret
of successful ones – and here he refers to the business rather than the social success -
is that they allow people to fulfil social needs that either cannot be met offline or can be
met only at much greater cost. This insight provides another perspective on social
media: it does help not only social communication, but also the business world. It
implies that companies can leverage social platforms to create a sustainable
competitive advantage. Companies need to help people interact with each other before
they will promote products to their friends or help companies in other ways.
Examples of Social Media
There are many different forms of social media including Internet forums, weblogs,
social blogs, micro blogging, wikis, podcasts, pictures, video, and rating. In 2010
Kaplan and Haenlein created a classification scheme for different social media types by
applying a set of theories in the field of media research -social presence, media
richness and social processes -self-presentation, self-disclosure. According to them
there are six different types of social media: collaborative projects, blogs and micro
blogs, content communities, social networking sites, virtual game worlds, and virtual
communities.
Technologies cover blogs, picture-sharing, vlogs (video blogs), wall-postings, email,
instant messaging, music-sharing and others. Many of these social media services can
be integrated via social network platforms.
Some Facts about the Social Media
According to a report by Nielsen (2012)ă‘InătheăU.S.ăalone,ătotalăminutesăspentăonăsocială
networking sites has increased 83 percent year-over-year. In fact, total minutes spent on
Facebook increased nearly 700 percent year-over-year, growing from 1.7 billion minutes
in April 2008 to 13.9 billion in April 2009, making it the No. 1 social networking site for
theămonth.’ăAsăofă2012,ăFacebookăhasă152,226,000ăuniqueăPCăvisitorsăandă78,388,000ă
unique mobile app visitors. Twitter reported 37,033,000 unique PC visitors and
22,620,000 unique mobile app visitors. Pinterest reported 27,223,000 unique PC visitors
and 14,316,000 unique mobile web visitors. Google+ reported 26,201,000 unique PC
visitors and 9,718,000 unique mobile app visitors.
Whereas according to the Highlightsă ofă theă Pewă Internetă Project’să researchă relatedă toă
socială networkingă (2013)ă :ă ‘As of 2012, social media has become one of the most
powerful sources for news updates through platforms such as Facebook, Blogger,
Twitter, WordPress, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Google+ Tumblr, MySpace and Wikia; fully 40%
of cell phone owners use a social networking site on their phone, and 28% do so on a
typical day; as of September 2013, 73% of online adults use social networking sites.; as
of the same September 2013: 71% of online adults use Facebook; 18% of online adults
use Twitter; 17% use Instagram; 21% use Pinterest;ă22șăuseăLinkedIn.’
On the other hand, from a linguistic point of view, the impact of social media is mirrored
in the new words or expressions like: news feed, viral, hashtag, wiki –just to randomly
pick some- which did not make any sense few years ago, or meant something
completely different than they do nowadays. Even respectable dictionaries, such as the
Oxford dictionary, add derp, selfie, phablet, emoji, unlike, and other fashionable items of
vocabulary that only recently came into general usage, many driven by these fast-
moving trends in technology and culture.
Brief presentation of the media channels for socializing purpose- with reference to their
utility for language learning purpose
Twitter – I twitter, do you? - is an online social networking and micro blogging service
created in 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Evan Williams, Biz Stone and Noah Glass. The service
122
rapidly gained worldwide popularity, with 500 million registered users in 2012, who
posted 340 million tweets per day as it appears from the List of virtual communities with
more than 100 million active users published online. Registered users can read and post
tweets, but unregistered users can only read them. Users access Twitter through the
website interface, SMS, or mobile device app. It enables users to send and read
‘tweets’,ă whichă areă textă messagesă limitedă toă 140 characters, which forces users to
choose words carefully and to convey the message clearly. This is excellent for
improving your English as unnecessary words are eliminated. Twitter helps users
improve English reading skills too. A variety of short messages on a myriad of subjects
can be read, therefore users are exposed to reading new words, facing turns of phrase,
and jargon, which all helps in building and expanding the English vocabulary.
Facebook According to its own description to be found on the starting page,
‘Facebook is a social utility that connects people with friends and others who work, study
andă liveă aroundă them’,ă foundedă onă Februaryă 4,ă 2004ă by Mark Zuckerberg with his
college roommates. Its name comes from a colloquialism for the printed or online
directory given to students at some American universities consistingă ofă individuals’ă
photographs and names. Facebook users must register first and then they can create a
personal profile, add other users as friends, and exchange messages; it is a web portal
for keeping in touch with others. In addition to text, messages can also contain photos,
videos, music and links to other websites. Moreover, Facebook can be an excellent tool
for building or improving several English skills: writing - users may gain English writing
experience through composing various messages; reading skills – users have the
chance to read an varied range of messages, leading to learning new words; English in
use – users are given the opportunity to study their way with words, as well as their
word choice.
LinkedIn If Facebook and Twitter sound a bit frivolous for some tastes, LinkedIn is
different. It is a social networking site for professionals. This is an excellent site for
connecting with other professionals, be it in business, academia, or other organisations..
LinkedIn offers the possibility of building business English skills through writing profiles,
and then keeping them updated. Business English skills are also improved through
sending messages to others, reading responses, and replying in kind.
YouTube is a video-sharing website. Users upload, share and view videos on this social
networking site. It can be a very useful tool when learning English as it involves listening
to the language used in the viewed videos. Users can also improve reading skills when
looking through the comments posted in English, situated below each video.
Sometimes, YouTube videos are actually text presentations in a slide show format, or
have subtitles available, so users can actually read English in each screen shot.

2.2. Vocabulary Learning

Vocabulary, the core of any language, is probably the most challenging and time
consuming part of learning a foreign language. It takes time and flows like a continuous
process, once you have settled the fundamentals of a language (pronunciation,
orthography and basic grammar). Throughout this process, learners become familiarized
with the words they come across. As researchers claim (Nation, 1990; Schmidt, 2001) it
is frequency of usage and the number of encounters in different forms and contexts that
determine the acquisition of new vocabulary.
When teaching vocabulary the context is really important that is why Warschaur (1995)
underlines the more opportunities for real communication students might be exposed to
when using the Internet and the e-mail system in language learning. Nader (1996)
admitted the great challenge for teachers to design individual and group activities using
the Internet resources and also praised the benefits of the students searching for them
and thus exploring different cultures more directly and effectively.
123
University language learners studying English as additional subject, not a major one, still
have problems in acquiring vocabulary. The assumption is that this might be due to the
strategies used in teaching vocabulary. Thus, language teachers and researchers
started considering technology as an option to teaching more effectively. It seems that
learners show very little effort to deal with their problems about newly learned words
when technology is involved (Meara, 1980). During the lesson teachers often assume
that students will deal with this problem of vocabulary building outside the class on their
own. However, learners do not have enough knowledge about the vocabulary learning
techniques and they have difficulty in dealing with this problem themselves.

3. The Study of Using Social Media (Facebook) in Improving Language Learning

Social Media Language Learning (SMLL) is an innovative approach in teaching
languages interactively, linking social media channels to language learning. Students are
thus encouraged and supported to develop communication and language skills. This
method was originally created by a Spanish company called Idiomplus from Barcelona.
Students are enabled to emerge as much as possible in activities which require the use
of language, given that all of them will result in learning. ‘Can social media affect
students’ development and progress in the foreign language?’ In other words, are there
any statistically significant differences between the students' vocabulary achievement by
means of social media input as compared to their achievement following the traditional
instructional method of teaching?

3.1. Significance of the Study

First of all it should be mentioned that even if teaching with technology is a pretty
fashionable topic, there are few studies referring to teaching vocabulary with the use of
the Internet, and even less or almost no such researches in Romania. Therefore the
purpose of the study is to present the benefits of using Facebook in teaching and
learning vocabulary. The Facebook site is a valuable communication tool for the
students -to find out the latest activities, courses and what is generally happening for
and around the English class. It is a valuable way for the students to communicate to
each, and to communicate to the college with feedback regarding suggestions for
improvement and praise for excellent events and training. Facebook provides our
students with a unique and up to date information portal regarding our Faculty, being
connected to all the breaking news-from scholarships, timetables and all sort of events.
Moreover, it attempts to ring a bell and perhaps dare to contribute to the improving and
updating EFL curricula and help designers and EFL methodologists develop teaching
materials which suit various ways of teaching and match students' level of achievement
in vocabulary.

3.2. Limitations of the Study

This study is limited by the following:
•ăTheănumberăofătheăparticipantălearners,ătheăsampleăconsistedăofă127ăstudents.
•ă Theă studyă isă restrictedă toă theă vocabularyă referringă toă Britishă andă Americană termsă ină
point of similarities and differences.

3.3. Setting and participants

The study was conducted with a number of 127 students of the Faculty of Economic
st nd
Sciences, University of Oradea, 1 and 2 year students following the specializations:
International Business, Management, Marketing, Finances studying in the academic
124
year 2013-2014. The participants of the study took English courses at high school
before their undergraduate education in ELT. They all took an entrance exam in English
as the necessary condition for them to study English at the faculty. The exam covered
questions regarding vocabulary and grammar knowledge. All of the participants were
approximately at a similar English proficiency level (i.e. intermediate and upper
intermediate) based on their scores obtained at the entrance exam.

3.4. Design and procedure

First of all, the 127 participants were randomly assigned to each group. In Group A (the
group exposed to the Facebook posts, or the experimental group), the 70 participants
were periodically sent materials and information regarding the vocabulary meant for
acquiring and in Group B (the group following only the traditional in-class teaching
methods, or the so-called control group) the 57 participants learnt the studied
vocabulary items in class, by reading, translating, comparing. Both groups were given
the same pre- and post-tests.
Then, the research design of the study was tailored using a pre-test - post-test
experiment and group framework to find out the impact of the Facebook instructional
program on students' vocabulary achievements. The test consists of multiple-choice
questions. The students' previous knowledge was assessed by the pre-test
administered to both groups (control and experimental) before the study started. The
objective of the pre-test was to assess the students' background knowledge of words.
The same pre-test was used at the end of the study as a post-test to assess the
students' achievement on the topic, that is the acquisition of the new vocabulary items.
The objective of the post-test was to assess the effect of both instructional methods
(Facebook and conventional) on learners' achievement.
Facebook exposure At the beginning of each academic year a Facebook Group is set
up for the English class use only, with a limited profile. Students are used to rely on the
group for receiving materials, information, and support regarding the language matters
they are interested in. They are in permanent contact with each other and with the
teacher as well. For the purpose of this study, several materials were posted to students
in Group A, or the experimental group, those meant to be exposed to the Facebook
content. The posts referred to the various differences between British and American
terms: different words, spelling, and were presented in an attractive manner, colourful,
organized, reader-friendly.

3.5. Steps and Procedures

The research was conducted in the first semester of the academic year 2013-2014.
The Facebook group was set up.
The instruments of the study were prepared.
The related literature about the roles of using technology in teaching and learning
vocabulary was reviewed.
The first common test was given to participants in the second week of the semester (6-
11 October 2013); after a month the students were divided into the two research groups
at random and were exposed either to the Facebook teaching material or to the
traditional lecture material (around 10-16 November 2013); the last common test took
place at the end of the first semester 6-11 January 2014 after approximately one month
from their exposure to the vocabulary items).
For the confidentiality sake, students were not informed about the aim of the research
before they finished with the post-tests. Students were not allowed to use dictionaries or
other materials when solving the test. Besides, before the administration of the study the
students were reminded that participation was voluntary and there would be no extra
marks or rewards. There was a post-test given to both groups.
125
The results were statistically analyzed in order to reach conclusion and suggest
implications and possible recommendations.

4. Results and findings

It is clear from Table 1 and Table 2 that there were no statistically significant differences
between the performance of the two groups (experimental and control) on the
vocabulary achievement in the pre-test: 1% of students in both groups knew all the
answers, whereas the majority of 58% proved to be able to answer three questions
correctly. There were no major or significant differences between the performance of
Group A and B as far as the other items were concerned. This shows that there were no
differences in the pre-test for both groups. It is assumed, thus, that both groups had
similar knowledge about the target words before they were exposed to the test.

Table 1

Source: authors’ăăresearchădata

126
Table 2

Source:ăauthors’ăăresearchădata

However, the development in each group was measured through the second test. It
demonstrates an improvement in each group as it appears in Table 3 and Table 4.
It is obvious from Table 3 and Table 4 that there were statistically significant differences
between the performances of both groups - the experimental and control - on the
achievement vocabulary post-test. There is an important increase in the number of
students giving all the answers correctly: 14% in Group A as compared to the first test
when the percentage was 1% and 10% in Group B as compared to the first test when
the percentage was the same 1%. Thus in spite of the difference compared with the pre-
test of both groups, the difference acquired by Group A contrasted to Group B is not very
significant. The percentage of no correct answers decreased significantly with both
groups: From 8% to 3% in Group A and from the same 9% to 5% in Group B, thus, the
difference acquired by the two groups is insignificant. This is the case for the 3 correct
answers entry, where the percentages decreased for both groups, whereas the
difference between the two of them is not important 28% in Group A and 25 in Group B
from a common 58% in the pre-test. The results of the study did not support the
assumption that the experimental group would outperform the control group, as there
were no significant the differences between the two groups. However, there were
improvements in both of the groups from pre-test to post-test scores.
Nevertheless, the overall differences are slightly in favour of the Facebook instructional
strategy as revealed for the experimental group. This means that the Facebook strategy
in teaching vocabulary proved a little bit more effective than the traditional method, even
if not necessarily crucial.

127
Table 3

Source: authors’ research data

Table 4

Source: authors’ research data

5. Conclusion
The intent of this paper was to investigate teaching vocabulary through Facebook. It has
been assumed that technologies should be used as instructional tool for vocabulary
acquisition. It has also been argued that this type of learning is beneficial for foreign
language learners, as it considerably builds confidence and increases learners' interest
in the topic. The reasons could be the frequency of exposure as a result to an expanded
language input. The study showed that students improved in vocabulary performance
and confidence (even if slightly) after being exposed vocabulary via Facebook as
compared to the case of students benefitting from traditional instruction only. The
participants in Group A in the study appreciated this type of vocabulary instruction they
were really motivated to challenge themselves to improve their English. Moreover, the
participants began commenting and sending some ideas related to the target topic to the
teacher and to each other on Facebook. The lessons via Facebook seemed more
appealing to students. Working on the Internet and dealing with each other through
Facebook anytime and anywhere is trendy nowadays. Consequently, Facebook could

128
 become a very effective tool and medium for backing the traditional learning and for self-
learning English vocabulary.
There are some recommendations following the findings of the study:
1. Adopting technology in general and Facebook in particular as a teaching strategy in
universities when teaching English skills for effectiveness and better academic
achievement.
2. For generalization, validity and applicability, similar studies should be conducted on
other language aspects and skills.

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130
DIE WICHTIGSTEN METHODEN DES FREMDSPRACHENUNTERRICHTS

Sacara-Onita Adina
[email protected]
Universitatea din Oradea

Abstract: The paper presents some of the most important methods in teaching foreign
languages. The first part of the paper places the teaching methods in the historical
background, in middle ages peole use to learn leaguages like latin or greek, but this
changes radically in the 19th century, when new languages like english or french are
introdused, this leads to new methods in teaching foreign languages, to new
perspectives in approaching foreign languages. The methods presented in my paper
th
are the translation method, used till the 19 century, the behavioral method, the audio-
lingual method, the communicative method and learn by teaching method.

Keywords: teaching methods, foreign languages

JEL codes: Z OO

Die Entwicklung der Methoden des Fremdsprachenunterrichts steht im engen

Zusammenhang mit den historischen Ereignissen. Es wurden die neueren Sprachen in
den Schulunterricht eingefuhrt, wie Englisch oder Französisch, so wurden zunächst die
Methoden des Unterrichts aus den alten Sprachen (Griechisch und Latein) übertragen.

Mit den sich wandelnden Anforderungen an den Fremdsprachenunterricht, ändern sich

auch die Methoden. Die Schuler sollen die lebende Sprache lernen, die sie schriftlich
wie mündlich auch außerhalb schulischer Aufgabenstellungen verwendet werden
können. Sie sollen sich an die aktuellen Bedürfnisse der Gesellschaft anpassen. Für
Lehrende ist die Kenntnis der Grundzüge von Methoden notwendig und nützlich. So ist
es möglich, Lehrwerke von der jeweils zu Grunde liegenden Methode her einzuordnen.
Man soll die richtige Methode fur die ,die jeweilige Zielgruppe benutzen.

Der Begriff Methode/Methodik ist aus dem griechisch-lateinischen Wort methodos oder
methodus abgeleitet und bedeutet etwa: Zugang oder Weg, der zu einem bestimmten
Ziel führt.

Die Arbeit will sich die wichtigsten Methoden zuwenden und ihre Unterschiede und
Gemeinsamkeiten aufzeigen.

Grammatik – Übersetzungs – Methode

Die Grammatik – Übersetzungs – Methode wurde vom altsprachlichen Unterricht

(Latein, Griechisch) übernommen und auf den Unterricht moderner Fremdsprachen
übertragen. Bis zum Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts war sie die an den Gymnasien und
Hochschulen - an anderen Schulformen wurden keine Fremdsprachen unterrichtet -
verwendete Methode. Sie zielte neben dem bloßen Erlernen der Fremdsprache nach
dem damaligen neuhumanistischen Bildungsideal auf die allgemeine Geistesschulung
der Lerner ab.

Das Modell des Sprachunterrichts war die geschriebene Sprache der schöngeistigen
Literatur. Die Sprache wurde als Gebäude aufgefasst, das nach logischen Regeln aus
bestimmten Bausteinen gefügt ist. Die Lerner sollten die Konstruktionsregeln der
Sprache verstehen und anwenden lernen. Ausgangs- und ausschließliche
Unterrichtssprache in der Grammatik – Übersetzungs – Methode ist die Muttersprache.
Die gesprochene Zielsprache spielt keine Rolle , stattdessen wird ausschließlich die
Schriftsprache eingeübt. In erster Linie steht das Erlernen der gesamten Grammatik
nach einem festgelegten Curriculum. Nachdem die Grammatik durch Übersetzungen
und Lückensätzen erlernt wird, wird Lektüre und Übersetzung zielsprachlicher
literarischer Texte betrieben.

Der Unterricht nach der Grammatik – Übersetzungs – Methode bestand aus 3 Phasen:
aus der Einführungsphase, in der Grammatiklehrstoff präsentiert wurde; aus der
Übungsphase, in der Sätze zum Grammatiklehrstoff gebildet wurden; aus der
Anwendungsphase, in der das Lesen, das Schreiben und das Übersetzen als
Anwendung des Lehrstoffes geübt wurden. Der Vorteil der Grammatik – Übersetzungs –
Methode ist die gute kognitive Durchdringung des Stoffes und die gute Vermittlung von
Grammatik und Schriftsprachbeherrschung. Der Nachteil der Grammatik –
Übersetzungs – Methode ist dass die Sprechfertigkeit wegen der Vernachlässigung der
Kommunikation mit Menschen nicht geübt wird.

Behavioristische Methoden

Zu den behavioristischen Methoden zählen die Audiolinguale Methode und die

audiovisuelle Methode. Die Inhalte bestehen zumeist aus Dialogen über
Alltagssituationen. Als Sprachebene gilt die gesprochene, die Dialogsprache, wobei
stets Einsprachigkeit vorherrscht.

Die Übungen beinhalten Satzmusterübungen und Situationsspiele.Der Vorteil ist dass

die Sprachstrukturen automatisiert werden. Beim Erlernen von Fremdsprachen mit
anspruchsvoller Aussprache ist die audiolinguale Methode außerordentlich effizient. Der
Nachteil ist daß, das Lernen als langweilig empfunden werden kann; dies trifft
besonders zu, wenn der Schüler das Lerntempo nicht individuell steuern kann. Wenn
auch die Schriftsprache erworben werden soll, muss die audiolinguale Methode durch
andere Methoden ergänzt werden.

Audiolinguale oder Audiovisuelle Methode

Im Universalwörterbuch Duden werden die Begriffe audiolingual und audiovisuell

folgenderweise definiert : audiolingual [zu lat. audire=hören und lingua=Zunge]:[im
Sprachunterricht] vom gesprochenen Wort ausgehend; audiovisuell : zugleich hörbar
und sichtbar . Im Sprachunterricht geht es im ersten Fall um den Einsatz der Tongeräte
wie z .B. Kassettenrecorder, CD-ROMs, im zweiten Fall um solche Medien wie
Videorecorder, Audiokurse mit Lehrbüchern, Computer.

Diese Methode erwuchs aus einer Verbindung von behavioristischer Lerntheorie und
linguistischen Strukturalismus. In den USA hatte sich der Strukturalismus als
linguistische Grundlage des Fremdsprachunterrichts in den 40er Jahren durchgesetzt.
Dabei wurden die Arbeitsweisen strukturalistischer Sprachforschung direkt als
methodische Prinzipien auf das Fremdsprachenlernen übertragen. Bei dieser Methode
wird der natürliche Spracherwerb gefördert: man soll eine Fremdsprache so lehren, wie
die Mutter ihr Kind die Muttersprache lehrt. Die Sprache gilt als ein Bündel von
Sprechgewohnheiten, als verbales Verhalten.

Der Ziel der Methode war die Entwicklung des Sprachkönnens und nicht mehr des
Sprachwissens. Zuallererst eine wichtige Rolle spielt din mundliche Kommunikation, die
Authentizität der Sprachvorbilder. Man übt die Sprachmustern durch Imitation und
häufiges Wiederholen. Im Unterricht benutzt man die Muttersprache nicht mehr.
Characteristisch fur diese Methode sind die folgende Ubungen: Satzmusterübungen,
Substitutionsübungen, Einsetzübungen. Man verwendigt Nachspiele nach
Modelldialogen.

Die audiovisuelle Methode ist eigentlich eine Weiterentwicklung der audiolinguale

Methode.Der Prinzip der audiovisuellen Methode ist folgendes: die Sprache mit
optischem Anschauungsmaterial zu verbinden, wo immer möglich. Man präsentiert
Bilder oder Bildfolge und auf Tonband aufgenommenen Dialoge. Man erklart die
Bedeutung der einzelnen Gesprächseinheiten. Danach lernt man auswendig die Dialoge
durch Wiederholung von Bildern und Texten. Der Schuler wird aufgefordert Dialoge zu
den Bildern zu machen. Diese Methode legt viel Wert auf die geschprochene Sprache,
man übt Satzstrukturen, man lernt sie auswendig und im Unterricht verwendet man
technische Hilfsmitteln.

Kommunikativ – Pragmatisch – Orientierte –Methode

Die kommunikative Methode stellt in den Mittelpunkt den Schuler. Nach einer Phase der
Stoff-Faszination und der Konzentration auf Objektivierbare und mit objektiven
Testverfahren messbare Lernziele im Bereich der sprachlichen Systeme ist für den
gegenwärtigen Stand der Diskussion eine stärkere Hinwendung zum Lernenden als
dem Subjekt des Lernprozesses und zum Lernprozess selbst kennzeichnend (Neuner et
al 1981)

Diese Methode hat sich in den 70er Jahren aus pragmatisch-funktionale und
pädagogische Grunde entwickelt.Es entsteht eine neue Gruppe von Lernenden wie die
Hauptschuler, Erwachsenen, die die Veränderung der Unterrichtsmethoden erforderten.

Im Zentrum dieser Methode steht der Schuler, als Subjekt des Erziehungsprozesses.
Der Lernende ist jetzt ein aktiver Partner im Erziehungsprozess:man verwendet nichi
nur Einzelarbeit, sondern auch Partnerarbeit oder Gruppenarbeit. Der Lehrer spielt eine
neue Rolle, er wandert sich in einen Helfer im Lernprozess, der die Schuler zum
Fremdsprachen motivieren soll. Die neuen Kenntniss sollen dem Schuler helfen, um
sich in der fremden Welt zu recht zu kommen. Die Landeskunde spielt eine wichtige
Rolle auch, die sollen die Welterfahrungen des Schulers erweitern. Man verwendert
meistens authentische Sachtexte.

Andere Methode

Unter diesem Begriff lassen sich verschidene Sprachvermittlungsverfahren

zusammenfassen: Lernen durch Lehren , Community Language Learning, Silent Way,
Suggestopädie, Tandem-Lernen, Total Physical Response.

Die Methode Lernen durch Lehren ist in Deutschland eine sehr verbreitete
Unterrichtsmethode. Hier bringen sich die Schüler gegenseitig den Lernstoff bei. Für
Nieweler, den Herausgeber des Handbuchs zur Französischdidaktik (2006) ist Lernen
durchă Lehrenă „eineă radikaleă Formă deră Schüler- undă Handlungsorientierung“.ă Zwischenă
den Lernern entsteht durch intensive Interaktionen eine Vernetzung mit entsprechenden
Netzwerkeffekte. Im Rahmen dieser Interaktionen werden Informationen zu Wissen
verwandelt”.
Community Language Learning ist eine Methode die sich an Erwachsene wendet, die
Fremdsprachen in Gruppen von zwei oder drei Personen lernen. Die Lehrende haben
die Aufgabe, Ängste bei den Lernenden abzubauen und ihnen die Sprache als Mittel der
Kommunikation nahe zu bringen. Das Lernen soll als gegenseitiges Lernen in
Gruppenarbeit stattfinden und nur eine Aufgabe oder Übung je Sitzung behandelt
werden. So bleibt den Lernenden genügend Zeit zum Nachdenken, Überlegen, Lernen
und Austausch der Erfahrungen beim Überdenken und Lösen der Aufgabe.

Bibliographie

ötze, Lutz: Vier Lehrwerkgenerationen. In: Goethe-Institut (Hrsg.): Handbuch für

Spracharbeit, Teil 3: Lehrwerksanalyse. München 1990
Henrici, Gert: Kleine Geschichte der Fremdsprachenlehr- und -lernmethoden. In:
Henrici, Gert et al. (Hrsg.): Einführung in die Didaktik des Unterrichts Deutsch als
Fremdsprache. Mit Videobeispielen. Bd. 2, Baltmannsweiler 1994
Neuner, Gerhard: Methodik und Methode: Überblick. In: Bausch, Karl-Richard et al.:
Handbuch Fremdsprachenunterricht. 3., überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage, Tübingen
und Basel 1995
Neuner, Gerhard / Hunfeld, Hans: Methoden des fremdsprachlichen Deutschunterrichts.
Eine Einführung. (Fernstudieneinheit 4), Langenscheidt, München u.a. 1993.
Rösler, Dietmar: Deutsch als Fremdsprache. (Sammlung Metzler Bd. 280), Metzler,
Stuttgart 1994
SECTION: ECONOMICS, BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, TOURISM AND
STATISTICS

SUB-SECTIONS: BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, ECONOMIC STATISTICS

AND MODELLING, TOURISM
FROM SLOW FOOD TO SLOW TOURISM

Bac Dorin Paul

Department of Economics, Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Oradea,
Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: One of the effects of globalization is the faster pace of our lives. This rhythm
can be noticed in all aspects of life: travel, work, shopping, etc. and it has serious
negative effects. It has become common knowledge that stress and speed generate
serious medical issues. Food and eating habits in the modern world have taken their toll
on our health. However, some people took a stand and argued for a new kind of
lifestyle. It all started in the field of gastronomy, where a new movement emerged –
Slow Food, based on the ideas and philosophy of Carlo Petrini. Slow Food represents
an important adversary to the concept of fast food, and is promoting local products,
enjoyable meals and healthy food. The philosophy of the Slow Food movement
developed in several directions: Cittaslow, slow travel and tourism, slow religion and
slow money etc. The present paper will account the evolution of the concept and its
development during the most recent years. We will present how the philosophy of slow
food was applied in all the other fields it reached and some critical points of view. Also
we will focus on the presence of the slow movement in Romania, although it is in a very
early stage of development. The main objectives of the present paper are: to present
the chronological and ideological evolution of the slow movement; to establish a clear
separation of slow travel and slow tourism, as many mistake on for the other; to review
the presence of the slow movement in Romania. Regarding the research methodology,
information was gathered from relevant academic papers and books and also from
interviews and discussions with local entrepreneurs. The research is mostly theoretical
and empirical, as slow food and slow tourism are emerging research themes in
academic circles.

Keywords: fast food; slow food; travel; tourism.

JEL classification: L66; L83

1. Introduction
th
In the second part of the 20 century, there was a revolution in eating based on the
emergence of foods that need little or no preparation. According to some authors
(Myhrvold et. al. 2011) this revolution started with companies like Coca-Cola, Danone
andălatterăonăMcDonald’săandăKentuckyăFriedăChicken.ăTheămainăcauseăofăthisărevolutionă
was formation of the middle class in the United States, and later in Europe.ă“Millions of
people did not have the time, the skills, or the help to cook for themselves-but they did
have enough money to eat well”ă(Myhrvoldăet.ăal.ă2011:20).
The downside of this revolution was the fact that although food was available to people,
health problems started to appear, which were caused by eating. Both the contents of
food and the eating habits had (and still have) a negative impact on the health of
individuals.
For example, obesity is considered to be caused, at least partially by the increase in the
number of fast-food restaurants in the US (Currie et. al., 2009). Or the high fructose
syrup, which was introduced in mass production in the 70s and 80s is linked to diabetes
and other metabolic problems (Goran et al, 2012; Parker et.al., 2010). Mass media has
not been ignorant to these facts and so, documentaries and magazines have appeared
that discuss in detail the problems of food and eating habits (Tabel 1).
137
 Tabel 1: Documentaries regarding food and diet
Title (director) Year Themes
Supersize me 2004 Theă impactă ofă aă McDonald’să basedă dietă onă theă
(Spurllock) health of an individual
Food Inc. (Kenner R.) 2008 The negative impact of the food industry on
farmers, animals, consumers and the
environment
Food matters 2008 The importance of food for the health of the
(Colquhoun J.) consumers and the implications of the drug
industry
The weight of the 2012 An analysis of the diet and food issues in the
nation (n/a) USA, during the 12 episodes of the series
Fed Up (Soechtig S.) 2014 New trends in dieting and the health hazards
generated by the consumption of sugar
Source: www.imdb.com

Considering all these problems and their effects, a counter-revolution started in Italy,
named Slow Food. This new philosophy is based on the concept of slowing down,
opposedătoătheă“insidiousăvirusăFastăLife,ăwhich disrupts our habits, pervades the privacy
of our homes and forces us to eat Fast Foods.”ă (Slowă Foodă Manifesto,ă 1989).ă Theă
movement started with the Slow Food movement in Italy in the 80s and 90s, but has
extendedătoăotherăcountriesăinăEuropeăandălaterătheăworld.ăSlowăFoodăisăconsideredă“theă
gastronomic version of Greenpeace: a defiant determination to preserve unprocessed,
time-intensiveăfoodăfromăbeingăwipedăoffătheăculinaryămap”ă(OsborneăinăHall,ă2012: 109).
The concept of slow has been applied later in other fields: travel and tourism, urbanism,
fashion, culture and even money and religion.
In the present paper we will follow the history of the Slow Food movement, its evolution
and transformation.

1. The first step: the emergence of Slow Food

There are authors who consider Krippendorf as being the first advocate for slowness:
“switchăoffătheătimeămachine.ăTakeăoffătheăwatch.ăGetăridăofătimeăpressure,ătheădeadline,ă
theăagenda.ăEscapeăfromătime”ă(Krippendorf, quoted by Lumsdon and McGrath, 2011),
but it is almost unanimously accepted that the father of the Slow Movement is Carlo
Petrini.
The first step took place in 1985, when the Arcigola foundation was established by
Petrini and other enthusiasts in the town of Bra, to protest against the opening of the
firstăMcDonald’sărestaurantăinăRomeă(Heitmannăetăal.ă2011).ăInătheălastă25ăyears,ăPetriniă
hasă beenă consideredă “theă prophetă andă guidingă lightă ofă theă Slowă Foodă Movement”ă
(Popham 2009).
th
The de facto moment for the emergence of the Slow Food Movement was on the 10
December 1989, when the Slow Food Manifesto was read in Paris in front of delegates
fromă 15ă countries:ă “Our defense should begin at the table with Slow Food. Let us
rediscover the flavors and savors of regional cooking and banish the degrading effects
of Fast Food.”ă(SlowăFoodăManifesto,ă1989)
The next year, in 1990, the first Slow Food International Congress was held in Venice,
Italy. In the years that followed, the movement has extended to several countries:
Germany, Switzerland, Japan, USA, UK etc.
The Slow Food Movement has numerous projects: the Ark of Taste, the University of
Gastronomic Sciences and Terra Madre Day etc. which are trying to achieve the main
138
goals of defending food biodiversity, developing horizontal (consumer-consumer) and
vertical (consumer-producer) networks, and enhance information and education in the
field of food and gastronomy.
TheăArkăofăTasteăwasă launchedă ină1996ăandă ită hasătheăfollowingăobjectives:ă„To protect
the small purveyors of fine food from the deluge of industrial standardization; to ensure
the survival of endangered animal breeds, cheeses, cold cuts, edible herbs - both
spontaneous and cultivated – cereals and fruit; to promulgate taste education; to make a
stand against obsessive worrying about hygienic matters, which kills the specific
character of many kinds of production; to protect the right to pleasure.”ă (Slowă Food,ă
1997) The Ark of Taste consists of a list of products divided into several categories
(breads, breeds, cheese, fish, honey, oils, pasta, spirits, and wines).

Table 2: Slow Food International Congresses

No. Year Town Country
1 1990 Venice Italy
2 1997 Orvieto Italy
3 1998 Turin Italy
4 2003 Naples Italy
5 2007 Puebla Mexico
6 2012 Turin Italy
Source: http://www.slowfood.com/about_us/eng/history.lasso

At this moment, Romania has 10 products in the Ark: Cheese from the Bucegi
Mountains, red onion of Turda, hearth bread, Saxon villages preserves and several
breeds of pigs, sheep and chicken (http://www.slowfoodfoundation.com/
pagine/eng/arca).
The second project is the founding in 2004 of the University of Gastronomic Science. Its
objectiveăisătoă“createăan international research and education center for those working
on renewing farming methods, protecting biodiversity, and building an organic
relationship between gastronomy and agricultural science.”ă
(http://www.unisg.it/en/storia-e-missione/) The University offers undergraduate, graduate
and masters programs in English or Italian, focused on food, culture and sustainability.
Terra Madre Day is celebrated each year on the 10th of December. It is a worldwide
celebration of local food. In 2013, it was celebrated by over 185.000 people attending
750 events in 130 countries. (http://www.slowfood.com/terramadreday/) The day was
celebrated in Romania, in Bucharest and Turda, where local dishes were cooked and
tasted by participants.
There are several critics of the slow food concept. Firstly, some argue that this concept
is not sustainable at a global level. Some authors (Van Der Muelen, 2008; Lindholm and
Lie 2013), ask if small-scale local food production systems can solve global problems at
hand. Locally grown food by small scale farmers can contribute to the health and well-
being of certain regions (towns), this is not a solution for feeding 7 billion people.
Secondly,ăLaudană(2001)ăconsidersăthatăslowăfoodă isăsimplyănostalgiaăforă“aătimeăwhenă
families and friends met to relax over delicious food and to forget that, far from being an
th
invention of the late 20 century,ăfastăfoodăhasăbeenăaămainstayăofăeveryăsociety”.
Thirdly, there is a certain interest conflict between on one hand the social goals of the
movement and the economic goals (profit) of the entrepreneurs that are part of the
movement. This conflict might lead to a fracture between the globalized Slow Food
Movement and its creators, the small agriculture businesses in Northern Italy (Van Der
Muelen, 2008).
Fourthly, some (Eriksen, 2007:182) argue that the Slow Movement can be criticized for
representing an affluent middle class community concerned chiefly with self-realization
139
and personal well being. So, The slow movement is not radical enough in the fight
against globalization.

2. The second step: Cittaslow

The concept of Cittaslow isăbasedăonăPetrini’săprinciples:ă„pleasure before profit, human

beings before head office, Slowness before speed”ă (Honoreă 2004).ă The Movement of
Cittaslowăwasăbornăină1999ăthroughăPaoloăSaturnini’s,ăpastăMayorăofăGreveăinăChianti,ăaă
little town of Tuscany brilliant intuition. The following years more and more cities joined
the movement, and by November 2013, the list of slow cities contains over 100 towns
from 28 countries. (Table 3). Cittaslow is basically an urban social movement against
standardization and also a model for local governance.
The towns on the list have no more than 50.000 inhabitants, as it was argued that small
towns offer the best opportunities for easy, enjoyable living (Miella 2008). The CittaSlow
manifesto contains numerous pledges for the member cities, such as: cutting noise and
reduce traffic; increasing green spaces; supporting local farmers and the shops,
markets and restaurants that sell their produce; promoting technology that protects the
environment; preserving local aesthetic and culinary traditions; and fostering a spirit of
hospitality and neighbourliness. (Honore 2004). The mandatory indicators which have to
be met by cities interested to become members have been split into six categories:
environmental policies, infrastructure policies, quality of urban life policies, agricultural,
touristic and artisan policies, policies for hospitality, awareness and training, social
cohesion and partnerships (Cittaslow, 2014).
The advantage of Cittaslow is the fact that designated cities must go through a rigorous
certification and periodic reviews, as compared to ecotourism destinations, which lack
an international certification system (Lowry & Lee, 2011).

Table 3: Number of towns members in the Cittaslow network

No. Country Number of
towns
1 Italy 73
2 Germany 12
3 Poland 12
4 South Korea 11
5 Turkey 9
6 France 8
7 Portugal 6
8 Spain 6
9 Great Britain 6
10 Others 37
Source: http://www.cittaslow.org/download/DocumentiUfficiali/
CITTASLOW_LIST_november_2013.pdf

Romania is not yet a member of the network, but is considered by many to have a
serious potential in order to implement the above mentioned pledges (Crangus)

3. The third step: slow travel and slow tourism

The philosophy of the Slow Food Movement can be easily appliedătoătourism.ă„Central to

the meaning and concept of Slow Tourism is the shift in focus from achieving a quantity

140
 and volume of experiences while on holiday towards the quality of (generally fewer)
experiences.”ă(Heitmann et al. 2011).
Thereăisn’tăanăexact moment when slow travel emerged, as in the case of slow food, but
most academics agree it was first defined in the second part of the 2000s.
Gardneră (2009)ă authoră ofă “Aă manifestoă foră slowă travel”ă considersă thată slowă travelă „is
about deceleration rather than speed. The journey becomes a moment to relax, rather
than a stressful interlude imposed between home and destination. Slow travel re-
engineersătime,ătransformingăităintoăaăcommodityăofăabundanceăratherăthanăscarcity.”
From the perspective of Dickinson (2009), slow tourism consists of fewer vacations and
longer stays, air travel is not used, but other forms of transport which are more
environmentally friendly, and transport becomes part of the tourist experience.

Table 4: Slow travel v. fast travel comparison

Characteristics
Mode of Slowness Travel Environmental Sense of place
travel experience Consciousness
Walking/ Unhurried Travelling Low consumption Cultural exchange
cycling through the of fuels (attachment)
landscape
Airplane Hurried Travel corridor High consumption Minimal cultural
of fuels contact
(detachment)
Source:ăauthor’săadaptationăofăLumsdonăandăMcGrathă(2011)

Heitmann et al. (2011) believes that slow tourism is characterized by “theăenjoymentăofă

discovery, learning and sharing. This ‘slowing’ă ofă theă paceă ofă aă holidayă providesă
opportunitiesătoăinteractăandăconnectăwithălocalăpeopleăandăplacesăonăaădeeperălevel.”
Lumsdonă andă McGrathă (2011)ă consideră thată slowă tourismă “ină essenceă isă aboută slowingă
down, travelling shorter distances and enriching the travel experience both en route to
andăatătheădestination.“
Hall (2011) views slow tourism as a macroeconomic concept and it compares it to
steady-state tourism, rather than a form of tourism.
Also, slow travel can reduce the pressure on climate change,ăasăită“couldăhelpăcreateăaă
modal shift in transport to the least polluting systems. Given that one such modality is
rail,ăshiftsămayănotăbeăasădifficultăasăimagined”.ă(BurnsăandăBigging,ă2009)
From the start we have to notice that travel and tourism are used simultaneously, but the
reality is quite different. Travel involves the shift from point A(home) to point
B(destination). So, the slow component is mainly observed in the means of
transportation: avoiding air travel, and insisting on walking, hiking, cycling.
This is not the case of tourism. Because of its complexity, the slow component in tourism
can be observed in several fields: transportation, accommodation (using small scale
guest-houses), food (respecting the principles of slow food) and culture (engaging with
the local culture and traditions).
So, slow travel is essentially a part of slow tourism, related to the means of
transportation used in order to get to and from the destination. From a statistical
perspective, slow tourism represent 10% of the European tourism market and is on the
rise (Lumsdon & McGrath, 2011)
Slow tourism in Romania benefits from the image of former Olympic champion Ivan
Patzaichin, who has become the promoter of this form of tourism practiced in the
Danube Delta. Other destinations for tourists are Sibiu, Brasov, Dobrogea and the
George Enescu music festival. Impressions about Romania are mostly positive, but

141
significant difference can be noticed between Bucharest and rural areas of the province
(http://slowtalk.com/groupee/forums/a/tpc/f/).

4. Conclusions
We consider sustainable development, in general, and sustainable tourism, in particular,
to be mainly theoretical concepts, with a small number of examples, coming from the
field of practice. In this scarcity, we have identified a new philosophy and an adjacent
movement which try to reduce the crevasse between sustainability and everyday
consumers.
As we could notice, the Slow Movement has spread throughout the world and is finding
more and more supporters and fans that put its principles into practice. By respecting its
principles, people learn to get back in touch with nature, they try to reduce the fast pace
of life and enjoy social interactions.
Unfortunately, the slow philosophy has a few flaws. Firstly, through Slow Food, we will
not be able to feed 7 or 8 billion people. Although it represents a healthy alternative to
industrialized agriculture, slow food can only be a choice for people in the developed
world. At the same time, by consuming local products, consumers avoid imports from
developing countries, for which agriculture might represent the only economic activity.
Secondly, the Cittaslow concept eliminates from the start cities with population over
50.000 inhabitants, so it is not suitable for large human settlements. A second problem is
the high level of concentration of the member cities (more than 50% of the members
come from Italy).
Thirdly, slow travel and tourism are increasing, but by avoiding air transport, several
destinations (the Maldives, and other Small Island States) will have to face a decrease
of the number of tourists, which will reduce the economic benefits for these countries
(most of which are also developing). Also from an international point of view “amongă
policy-makers there is little sign of acceptance of a developing alternative sustainability
paradigmă basedă onă ideasă suchă asă degrowth,ă steadyă stateă tourismă andă slowă tourism.”ă
(Bramwell and Lane 2011)
In academic books, the forms of tourism are classified according to several criteria
(motivation, destination etc.). In the case of slow tourism, and other forms (ecotourism,
volunteer tourism, pro-poor tourism) we have to admit that there is a secondary
motivation – promoting sustainable tourism. Either through protecting the environment,
helping the needy or supporting local businesses and traditions sustainable tourists get
a higher level of satisfaction from their holiday experience.
Nevertheless, slowness in general and slow tourism in particular can be beneficial as
means of implementing sustainable development principles, at least partially. Because
ofăitsăcomplexity,ăweăcan’tăhopeătoăfindăaăsingleăsolutionăorăaă“wonder-remedy”ăforăallătheă
issues in the world, but slowness might be the start.
In conclusion, we consider that the slow movement with all its components represents
one of the few actions of individuals towards a sustainable civilization. But, it is not the
solution forăallăofătheăworld’săproblemsăandăităcannotăbeăappliedăworldwide.

Acknowledgments
This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled „SOCERT.
Knowledge society, dynamism through research”, contract number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406. This project is co-financed by European Social Fund
through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-
2013. Investing in people!”

142
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144
INVOLVEMENT OF LOCAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT
OF RURAL TOURISM

Barbu Ionel
AIITT Department, Aurel Vlaicu University from Arad,Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: In this paper we try to show the perception of the main stakeholder on the
rural tourism field, local government, on the development of this economic activities. We
believe that a revision of an important part of approaches that have appeared in the
literature in terms of the concept of rural tourism, in terms of methods of analysis of
tourism activities and, not least, requiring the use modern techniques for foresight
indicators by which to make assessments on these activities.The local public
administration is responsible for policy formulation, research and planning,
development of basic infrastructure, the development of certain landmarks, establishing
and managing service delivery standards, establishing management measures and
recovery planning and environmental protection, setting standards for training and
improving employment, setting standards for maintaining public health and safety.In this
paper we try to show as well the main factors of the emergence and development of
rural tourism in order to establish priorities in the joint action of local people,
entrepreneurs, tourists and local and national administrations. In many countries, the
tourism industry fall within government priority. Tourism has been identified as one of the
primary industries with potential to support local communities in developing economic
diversity. In this research, it was also used descriptive analysis of the variables and
comparative analysis using Kruskal-Wallis H and Mann-Whitney U test.Kruskal-Wallis H
test. The Kruskall-Wallis test aims at comparing several independent samples when, as
is the case of our research, the dependent variable is ordinal. The test is based on rank
and hierarchy of data analysis. Scores are ranked from lowest to highest, ignoring the
groups they belong to, and then calculate the sum of ranks for each of the groups. The
question refers to how much respondents considered that are due to the development of
rural tourism attractions in the region Crişana. Respondents could answer one of the
following: a very small extent, small extent, the average measure, largely respected very
much.

Keywords : rural tourism, difficulties,Crisana region, Romania

JEL Classification : M21, R11

1.Introduction
The factors that we analyzed in the some types of questionnaires that included both
aspects is the responsibility of local government and the central public government. The
issues examined were not grouped by types of respondents for not induce some
pressure on them and avoid possibleădistortionsăofăresponses.ăIăalsoădidn’tăaskăwhatătheă
governmentă didn’tă make,ă bută Iă askedă whată factorsă ledă toă theă development,ă althoughă
follow difficulties in the development of tourism in the region analyzed.
Mixing several questions we can summarize that the respondents received the following
question : To what extent do the following factors led to the development of rural tourism


in the region Crisana, from Romania ?
State of the roads connecting the town ;
 Status of road signs ;
145
 The status of walking trails ;
 Status tourist routes ;
 Condition of access to sights
 Status sightseeing ;
 Status indicators for sightseeing ;
 Specific investments ;
 Appropriate infrastructure ;
 Development strategy and long- term tourism activity ;
 Promoting tourism heritage of the area ;
 Increasing interest administrative ;
 Improve infrastructure;
 Restoration of historic monuments ;
From the literature we can draw a number of conditions necessary for the development
of rural tourism and a number of motivations for its support. Implement policies and
travel plans is the responsibility of both the administration and the private sector
entrepreneurs.
The public sector is responsible for policy formulation, research and planning,
development of basic infrastructure, the development of certain landmarks, establishing
and managing service delivery standards, establishing management measures and
recovery planning and environmental protection, setting standards for training and
maintaining public health and safety.
The private sector is responsible for development of accommodation services, travel
agency, the specific activity of commercial enterprises with tourism development and
promotion of tourist attractions through specific marketing activities, based on existing
infrastructure provided by government public.In this paper we try to find the difficulties,
limitations of rural tourism development in Crisana region from perspective of local
government.
Rural tourism has developed due to revenue growth (it is mostly discretionary income),
due to increased leisure life and diversification motivations and desires of tourists.
Tourism development is favored by improving infrastructure, historical monuments and
architectural restoration and promotion of environmental conservation. Rural areas have
a special attraction for tourists because of the distinct characteristics associated with
mystical, cultural, historical, ethnic and geographical. For progress together with profit
for those involved, it requires several components: attractions, investment, appropriate
infrastructure, services and diversified hospitality promotion. To run this set of factors
need to join entrepreneurs and public administrations. From the literature we can draw a
number of necessary conditions for the development of rural tourism and a number of
motivations for its support.
The public sector is responsible for policy formulation, research and planning,
development of basic infrastructure, the development of certain landmarks,
establishment and management of service delivery standards, establishing management
measures and recovery planning and environmental protection, setting standards for
training and improve employment, maintaining public health and safety.
The private sector is responsible for the development of accommodation services, travel
agency operations, the activity of commercial tourist enterprises, development of
landmarks and advertising through specific marketing activities, all based on existing
infrastructure provided by public administration.
To show the difficulties and limitations of rural tourism development in the region Crisana
we conducted a questionnaire that addresses local government.

146
2.Materials and methods
To conduct this research has been through several successive stages interrelated as
follows:
 Defining the research topic
 Setting researched population and territory in which the investigation
 The choice of research (depending on budget)
 Presentation of the hypothesis and research objectives
 Determining the sample size and its features
 Preparation of the questionnaire and the interviewers
 Making preliminary investigation and selection of interviewers
 Data collection by the questionnaire
 Processing, analysis and interpretation of data
 Conclusions
In this research, it was also used descriptive analysis of the variables and comparative
analysis using Kruskal-Wallis H and Mann-Whitney U test.
Kruskal-Wallis H test. The Kruskall-Wallis test aims at comparing several independent
samples when, as is the case of our research, the dependent variable is ordinal. The
test is based on rank and hierarchy of data analysis. Scores are ranked from lowest to
highest, ignoring the groups they belong to, and then calculate the sum of ranks for
each of the groups. The question refers to how much respondents considered that are
dueătoătheădevelopmentăofăruralătourismăattractionsăinătheăregionăCrişana.ăRespondentsă
could answer one of the following: a very small extent, small extent, the average
measure, largely respected very much.
Mann-Whitney U test is used for the difference between independent groups for which
the dependent variable is expressed in ordinal (ranking), or when, even if quantitative,
does not support a parametric test (t test, ANOVA).

3.Steps of research

a. Defining the research topic - setting limits and difficulties in the development of rural
tourism in the region Crisana, from Romania.
b. Setting researched population and territory in which the investigation - we
chose to study local government Crisana region - of the 185 municipalities in the region
Crisana 105 answered the questionnaire. We received the answers and from
entrepreneurs, residents from rural areas, rural tourism professionals and tourists.
c.Presentation of the hypothesis and research objectives. Assumptions from which
we started are that Crisana region shows a great tourism potential in rural areas, but this
potential is not exploited well. For this we try to find out the difficulties faced by those
involved, with the hope that we can deliver some solutions to better exploit this potential.
For all the research we chose to question local government, entrepreneurs, residents,
tourists and tourism specialists. For this paper we present only the difficulties that exist
in terms of local administration.
d. Determining the sample size and its features. To determine the sample size we
started that Crisana region are 185 mayors, so administrative institutions, as follows: 55
mayors in Arad county, 90 mayors in Bihor county, 23 mayors in Hunedoara county and
17 mayors in Salaj county. Sample size I set it with indications [1]. It follows that in a
population of 185 administrative units, the volume of sample is 384. Having more
answers will be working for a sample volume of 391 respondents, so N=391.
e. Preparation of the questionnaire and the interviewers. The questionnaire consists
of 38 questions. Questionnaire method was through e-mail and complete the
questionnaire online . The questionnaire is still on the Internet [2].

147
Although we guarantee the confidentiality of responses and did not send identification
data required for the respondents, most have left both identification data and contact
information.
The most important questions to determine the difficulties facing rural tourism in the
region Crisana were concentrated in the middle questionnaire emphasizing the
development factors of economic activities.
f. Making preliminary investigation and selection of interviewers. Iă didn’tă makeă aă
preliminaryă investigationă andă Iă didn’tă useă someă operatorsă interview.ă Iă haveă personallyă
contacted the municipalities in the region and I managed all correspondence.
g. Data collection by the questionnaire. After checking the questionnaire I conducted
several documentaries trips in the region. I visited many pensions and villages where I
talked with the owners of those pensions and mayors of villages. I left the questionnaire
and asked the e-mail them. A few days later I contacted them again and I asked to
complete the questionnaire online.
h. Processing, analysis and interpretation of data. For analysis we refer to all
questions. Please express your opinion on the : Status of road signs; Status roads
linking to the village; The status of tourist routes; Status tourist routes; Status of access
roads to tourist attractions; Status of tourist objectives; Status of signs for tourist
objectives. As response alternatives we chose : Poor; Small; Acceptable; Good and Very
good.
Coding responses to questions regarding the influence of various factors on the
development of tourism we calculated an average score of responses for each factor.
1.
Were: N sample size, N=391;
Ni , i=1,..., 5 – possible variations of response, attributes aspect under
questioning ( N1 - great importance, N2 - high importance, N3 - medium importance, N4 -
little importance, N5 - very little importance. )
We obtained as specified in the table below.
Table nr.1. Score and ranking the factors examined
The factors analyzed N – Valid answers The average
Valid score
1. Promoting tourism heritage of the area 391 3,25
2. Improve infrastructure 391 3,17
3. Restoration of historic monuments 391 3,06
4. Status of road signs 391 3,04
5. Status sightseeing 391 3,02
6. Increasing interest administrative 391 2,88
7. Development strategy and long- term
391 2,87
tourism activity
8. State of the roads connecting the town 391 2,83
9. Specific investments 391 2,80
10. Appropriate infrastructure 391 2,77
11. Condition of access to sights 391 2,67
12. Status indicators for sightseeing 391 2,45
13. Status tourist routes 391 2,33
14. The status of walking trails 391 2,28
Source: own processing software SPSS
According to the classification presented in Table 1 government should involve much
more specific investments in infrastructure, improve access roads to tourist attractions,
especially natural indicators for mounting sights, setting new tourist routes and marking.

148
Analyzing both the previous ranking, of the 391 respondents and the analysis of whether
or not significant differences in responses between groups of respondents, by applying
Mann - Whitney U, for each factor of 14, the result follows table. ( 1 - There are
significant differences between the views; 0 - No significant differences between the
views ). Note: Current number of factors corresponds to the list presented in the
introduction.
From the point of view of the average score in the overall standings, taking into account
all the 391 responses, the lowest scores are recorded by factors 3 and 4, so the status
indicators tourist routes, with a score of 2.28, and the status of tourist routes with a
score of 2.33. These two factors with scores below the mean value of 3 is considered
difficult to develop tourism. The most important factor of development, according to
respondents, is to promote heritage tourism in the area, with a score of 3.25.
Also note that between entrepreneurs and residents and between residents and
specialists there is a total consensus views. So entrepreneurs, residents and tourism
experts have the same opinion about the influence of these factors analyzed. The
biggest differences between the respondents are between administration, entrepreneurs
and residents on the one hand and, as expected, and tourists, on the other. Differences
recorded 5 and even 6 of the factors analyzed from a total of 14 questions, factors.
By analyzing each of the items we note that there is a total consensus among
respondents only factors condition of access to the attractions, landmarks status,
promote heritage tourism in the area and infrastructure improvements.
Combining the analysis of the average score with existence or not of differences
between groups of respondents views, factor with the lowest score, 2.67, and has a total
agreement between the views of respondents is the condition of access to the sights.
Table 2. Applying the Mann - Whitney U

Total
Groups of Factor
respondents
Nr.crt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
2,83

3,04

2,28

2,33

2,67

3.02

2,45

2,80

2,77

2,87

3,25

2,88

3,17

3,06
The average
score
Administration - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
entrepreneurs
Administration - 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
residents
Administration - 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 4
specialists
Administration - 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 6
tourists
entrepreneurs - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
residents
entrepreneurs - 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3
specialists
entrepreneurs - 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 6
tourists
residents – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
specialists
residents – 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 5
tourists
specialists - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 2
tourists
Total 3 5 3 4 0 0 3 2 3 3 0 1 0 1
Source: own processing software SPSS

149
Given this analysis, further we will analyze the factor condition indicators tourist routes
with the lowest mean score of 2.28 and total consensus between the views of
respondents.
In our opinion and to analyze factors of importance and existence of infrastructure
development strategies and long-termătourismăactivity,ăbută weă don’tă wantăaă bigăresearcă
paper and these factors will be the subject of other papers that will be submitted for
publication in certain journals specialist or to be supported conferences in the field.

4. The analyze of factor status of indicators tourist routes

Descriptive analysis of responses on the Status indicators tourist routes table 3. As I
said, this indicator has the lowest average score, with the value of 2.28 and is the
general opinion a factor that stunted its development. Regarding this factor, almost two
thirds of respondents, 61.4% consider that the state indicators tourist routes is small,
even poor. 25.3% believe that the status indicators tourist routes is acceptable, while
only 13.3% said that they are in good condition and very good. These values are
represented in Figure 1.
The general opinion on the status indicators tourist routes is reflected almost identically
on all categories of respondents, entrepreneurs are those who still think more
unfavorable as the other categories, while among tourists there is a relatively high
percentage (19.8%) who I think the status indicators tourist routes is good or very good.
Table 3. Descriptive analysis on status indicators tourist routes
frequency percentage the percentage cumulative
of valid percent
poor 99 25,3 25,3 25,3
Answ small 141 36,1 36,1 61,4
ers acceptable 99 25,3 25,3 86,7
availa good 46 11,8 11,8 98,5
ble very good 6 1,5 1,5 100
Total 391 100 100
Source: own processing software SPSS
Comparative analysis of answers on the status indicators tourist routes. The opinions
about the status of indicators of tourist routes there are statistically significant
differences between the different categories of respondents, which showed the results of
statisticalăanalysisăχ2ă(4)ă=ă28.129,ăpă=ă0.001,ătableă4.ăInăthisăcase,ăităseemsăthatătheăbestă
opinion have tourists (average rank is approx 230), while the worst opinion have
entrepreneurs in rural areas (average rank = 154), table 5.

very good
good 2%
poor
12%
25%

acceptable
25%

small
36%

Figure 1. Distribution of answers to influence indicators of tourist routes

Source: own processing software SPSS

150
Table 4. The values obtained by applying the Kruskal Wallis H
Parameters Please express your opinion on: [The
status of indicators tourist routes]
2
χ 28,129
df 4
p 0,001
Source: own processing software SPSS
Table 5. Comparative analysis on the influence of indicators of tourist routes
Respondents Ni Average rank
rural local government 105 170,78
Please express your rural entrepreneurs 15 154
opinion on: [The status residents of rural 75 171,35
indicators of tourist travel Specialists 34 184,85
routes] tourists 162 229,99
Total 391
Source: own processing software SPSS
The analysis of responses on the influence of status indicators of tourist routes by
groups of respondents is presented in table 6.
Table 6. Analysis of responses by groups of respondents
Respondents The status indicators of tourist routes Total
poor small acceptabl good very
e good
Rural local number 41 30 22 10 2 105
government percentage 39 28 21 9,5 1,9 100
Rural number 4 9 2 0 0 15
entrepreneurs percentage 26,7 60 13,3 0 0 100
Residents of number 25 28 16 5 1 75
rural percentage 33,3 37 21 6,7 1,3 100
Travel number 6 19 7 2 0 34
specialists percentage 17,6 56 20 5,9 0 100
Tourists number 23 55 52 29 3 162
percentage 14,2 34 32,1 17,9 1,9 100
Total number 99 141 99 46 6 391
percentage 25,3 36,1 25,3 11,8 1,5 100
Source: own processing software SPSS
Comparison between categories of respondents opinions twos reveals that significant
differences in their views on the state indicators are status of indicators between
respondents representing administration and tourists (U = 6040.5, z = -4.147, p = 0.001)
between entrepreneurs and tourists (U = 708.5, z = -2.787, p = 0.005) and between
residents and tourists (U = 4248.5, z = -3.875, p = 0.001), taking into account the
materiality adjusted to 0.005, table 7. (We accept the null hypothesis H 0, there are
significant differencesă betweenă respondentsță opinionsă if,ă p≤0,005,ă andă weă don’tă acceptă
the null hypothesis H0, accept hypothesis H1 no significant differences between
respondents' opinions if, p>0,005. )
Table 7. Applying the Mann - Whitney U test
Pair of respondents Calculate statistical parameters Decision -
U W Z p accepted:
Administration - 750 870 -0,313 0,754 H1
entrepreneurs
Administration - residents 3888,5 9453,5 -0,149 0,881 H1
Administration - specialists 1613 7178 -0,885 0,376 H1
Administration - tourists 6040,5 11605 -4,147 0,001 H0
151
 entrepreneurs - residents 523 643 -0,454 0,65 H1
entrepreneurs - specialists 208,5 328,5 -1,129 0,259 H1
entrepreneurs - tourists 708,5 828,5 -2,787 0,005 H0
residents – specialists 1164 4014 -0,771 0,441 H1
residents – tourists 4248,5 7098,5 -3,875 0,001 H0
specialists - tourists 2045,5 2640,5 -2,468 0,014 H1
Source: own processing software SPSS

5.Conclusions
In this paper we analyzed other factors. Analyzing respondents' opinion on the state
road signs, it appears that the vast majority (40.7%) believe that their condition is
acceptable. Relatively equal percentages are those who believe that the state indicators
is good (23.5%) and modest (23%). Only 7.2% believe that the status signs is very
good, while 5.6% believe that their condition is poor.
Respondents' opinion on the state of the roads that connect rural villages is similar to
that regarding the state road signs, but the percentage of those who believe that the
road condition is poor is slightly higher in this case 17.1%. With regard to this factor
30.4% believe that the state of roads is acceptable, and 24.6% that is good.
Respondents' opinion on the state of tourism routes is identical indicators regarding the
state of signs tourist routes. Thus, 56.3% believe that the state tourist routes is modest
or poor, 29.7% think it is acceptable, while only 14% say that it is good or very good.
Regarding the condition of access to the sights, prevailing opinion that it is modest or
poor (43.8%), possibly acceptable (35%). Only 21.2% of respondents said that the
condition of access roads is good or very good.
Opinion of the majority of respondents (40.2%) on the state of the sights is that it is
acceptable. 33.5% think it is good or very good, while 26.4% believe that the state is
modest sightseeing or poor.
Opinions on the state indicators for sights are similar to indicators regarding the state of
tourist routes. The vast majority of respondents had a negative opinion, 53.5% stated
that indicators is modest or poor condition. 30.4% of respondents believe that the signs
are in acceptable condition and only 16.1% believe that their condition is good or very
good.
By analyzing each of the items we note that there is a total consensus among
respondents about the fact that some of them have stimulated the development of
tourism or even curbed it, such as: condition of access to the sights, the state of objects
tourism and infrastructure.
Another general opinion is that either the volume of investments was not specific
enough, but do not know their value, or efficiency of these investments brought no
improvement in conditions offered to tourists.
We want to draw attention to the road infrastructure. I noticed that rural tourism is
developed in communes is one of the main arteries of traffic, with very few exceptions to
this rule.
So it requires an intervention of administration for rehabilitation of road infrastructure.
We note, however, that not only provides a specific infrastructure development of rural
tourism. This is coupled with traffic in the area. But we believe that improved
infrastructure would result in even more tourists to think twice whether to like a classic
tourism, famous resorts, or rural tourism.
However the future looks promising for rural tourism due to a growing interest to spend
time in the countryside and outdoor activities and free time due to growth and duration
of holidays. This we consider promising future and because entrepreneurs are not
needed investment funds too large, but important condition is that the government
should provide the necessary infrastructure.
152
In our opinion the components for tourism to progress plans should be completed with
some very well documented and carried out by experts in the field and, most importantly,
a strategy for medium and long term development of business tourism strategy must be
part of the overall development strategy of the area.
In general, the personal contribution of the author was to:
- identify a number of factors that influenced the development of rural tourism;
- to process, using SPSS software, an extensive database specific methods
statistical and mathematical processing, database put together by completing
questionnaires to 391 respondents;
- to carry out a research to a large volume of articles and publications;
- to select different authors opinions on major issues concerning rural tourism
development factors;
- to try to prioritize these factors according to the perception of respondents
selected with the intention to highlight those who favored the development, factors that
can be considered as difficulties and limitations of the development of economic
activities.

5.Bibliography
[1] *** http://opa.uprrp.edu/InvInsDocs/KrejcieandMorgan.pdf, last accesed 15.10.2013
[2] *** https://drive.google.com/#my-drive, last accesed 22.10.2013
[3] Barbu I., Barbu S.A.,- Tourism in county Arad. Rural tourism - economic implications -
Annals - Economy Series from Constantin Brancusi University, Faculty of Economics,
B+, 2011, vol. 4, pages 32-35, http://www.utgjiu.ro/revista/ec/pdf/2011-
04/4_BARBU_IONEL.pdf;
[4] Barbu I., - The potential rural religious tourism of south Crişana region from
rd
Romania and the economic implications of rural tourism – 23 DAAAM International
Symposium – University of Zadar, Zadar, Croatia, 21-28 oct 2012, Indexed in ISI
Scientific Proceedings Thomson Reuters, / dpn32295_c_1_Barbu /
http://www.daaam.info/Downloads/Pdfs/proceedings/proceedings_2012/0893_Bar
bu.pdf;
[5] Barbu I. - Infrastructure provided by rural tourism in Crisana region between 1990-
2010 - Annals - Economy Series from Constantin Brancusi University, Faculty of
Economics, B+, 2012, vol. 4, pages 69-73 - http://www.utgjiu.ro/revista/ec/pdf/2012-
04.I/9_BARBU%20Ionel.pdf;
[6] Barbu I., Barbu S.A., - Analysis of rural tourism potential region Crişana –
International Conference European Integration – New Challenges, EINCO 2012, B+,
Oradea, 25-26 may 2012, pag 350-355,
http://anale.steconomiceuoradea.ro/volume/2012/1st-issue-July-2012.pdf, pag.216-
221;
th
[7] Barbu I., Barbu S.A., - Influence of crisis on rural tourism in Arad county – 19
International Economic Conference, IECS 2012, Sibiu, B+, 15 june 2012, Commerce
and Tourism and a new paradigm of change (mctnpc),
http://iecs.ulbsibiu.ro/programme/IECS_2012_final_program.pdf;
[8] Barbu I., - Rural tourism potential of north Crisana - Banat’săUniversityăofăAgriculturală
Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Timisoara, B+, 24-25 may 2013, pag. 129 – 134,
http://lsma.ro/index.php/lsma/article/view/6/163;
[9] Barbu I., - Econometric Study over the Arrivals in Agrotouristic Pensions in the
Crişana Region - Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sustainable
TourismăandăCulturalăHeritageă(STACHăț13),ăBraşov,ă1-5 iunie 2013, pag.290-295;

153
IMPLEMENTING FISCAL OR MONETARY POLICY IN TIME OF CRISIS? RUNNING
GRANGER CAUSALITY TO TEST THE PHILLIPS CURVE IN SOME EURO ZONE
COUNTRIES

Gianluigi Nico
Department of Philosophical, Pedagogical, and Economic-Quantitave Sciences,
University ‚”G.D’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Pescara, Italy.
[email protected]

Abstract: This paper aims to provide empirical evidence about the theoretical
relationship between inflation and unemployment in 9 European countries. Based on
two major goals for economic policymakers namely, to keep both inflation and
unemployment low, we use the ingredients of the Phillips curve to orient fiscal and
monetary policies. These policies are prerogative for the achievement of a desirable
combination of unemployment and inflation. More in detail, we attempt to address two
basic issues. One strand of the study examines the size and sign of the impact of
unemployment rate on percentage changes in inflation. In our preferred econometric
model, we have made explicit the evidence according to which one unit increase (%) in
unemployment reduces inflation of roughly 0.73 percent, on average. Next, we turn to
the question concerning the causal link between inflation and unemployment and we
derive a political framework enables to orient European policymakers in the
implementation of either fiscal or monetary policy. In this context, by means of the
Granger causality test, we mainly find evidence of a directional causality which runs
from inflation to unemployment in 4 out of 9 European countries under analysis. This
result implies that political authorities of Austria, Belgium, Germany and Italy should
implement monetary policy in order to achieve pre-established targets of unemployment
and inflation. In the same context, a directional causality running from unemployment to
inflation has been found in France and Cyprus suggesting that a reduction in the
unemployment level can be achieved through controlling fiscal policy. However,
succeeding in this goal may lead to an increasing demand for goods and services
which, in turn, might cause a higher inflation than expected. Finally, while there is no
statistical evidence of a causal link between unemployment and inflation in Finland and
Greece, a bidirectional causality has been found in Estonia. This implies that pre-
established targets of inflation and unemployment can be achieved by political
authorities by coordinating the monetary and fiscal policy.

Keywords: Econometric Analysis; Fiscal Policy; Inflation; Monetary Policy;

Unemployment.

JEL classification: C01; E52; E31; E52; E62;E63.

154
1. Introduction and aim of the study
This article is grounded on the view that, especially during recessions, GDP can be
raised through stimulating aggregate demand. Boosting aggregate demand during hard
economic times represents, therefore, a key challenge to be put at the top of the
political agenda if unemployment is intended to be reduced to the pre-crisis levels. As a
starting point for discussion, we base this paper on the Keynesian general theory and
combine the ingredients of the Phillips curve. Given this theoretical framework, we here
propose a basic econometric model to be used while deciding between monetary and
fiscal policy. The overarching goal of this paper implies developing a theoretical and
econometric framework which helps policymakers to understand if it is aggregate
demand that reduces unemployment or if it is a low level of unemployment that boosts
aggregate demand. Understanding the causal link is central while implementing
macroeconomic policies. The objective of this paper is therefore twofold: on the one
hand we preliminary estimates the pure effects of unemployment on percentage
changes in inflation. On the other hand we try to estimate what leads to what namely, if
it is a low level of unemployment that causes inflation -via aggregate demand- or vice-
versa. The provision of factual evidences about the causal link should, in turn, reflect in
a sort of trade-off between monetary and fiscal policy. In order to discuss the above
mentioned topic, this paper is organized as follows: section 2 reviews the literature by
enquiring into the stylized facts characterizing the linkage between unemployment and
inflation. It also highlights why the theories underlying such a relationship are crucial in
terms of policy responses to high unemployment rate. Section 3 approaches
econometric techniques in order to both estimate pure effects of unemployment on
percentage changes in inflation and the direction between inflation and unemployment.
Section 4 concludes and discusses policy responses at the country level.

2. Unemployment and inflation: a brief literature review and some theoretical

implications
The history teaches us that from time to time negative fluctuations in the GDP growth
exacerbate the economic cycle. Short periods of stagnation and recession are however
followed by periods of rapid economic growth, boom or expansion. Frankel and Rapetti
(2009),ăforăinstance,ăexplainătheăcurrentăglobalăeconomicăcrisisăasăaăperiodăinăwhichă“the
tranquility of states of full-employment gradually leads to a diminishing perception of
risks and increasingly optimistic expectations about the future. It is also during periods
of tranquil expansion that ‘profit-seeking financial institutions invent and reinvent “new”
forms of money, substitutes for money in portfolios, and financing techniques for various
types of activity”ă (Minsky,ă 1986,ă p.199).ă ”As financial innovation and optimistic
expectations develop, additional demand for goods and assets is created. Asset prices
increase, giving rise to additional profit opportunities which attract new investors. This
positive feedback characterises the booming phase of the cycle. (…) At some point,
some events calls agents’ attention to the high degree of exposure to risk in the system
and a phase of financial distress begins.(…). In this contractive phase, pessimistic
expectations are dominant and negative feedbacks are the rule. The deflationary
developments in the financial markets make most agents either liquidity-constrained or
bankrupt, in both cases affecting their spending decisions negatively. Private
consumption falls and investment collapses, further fuelling the deflationary trends.
What started as a contraction in the financial sector has now spread to the whole
economy: (…). In Minsky's view, government regulation cannot eradicate this cyclical
pattern completely, but can soften it considerably so as to prevent great crises from
happening (again)”ă (Frenkelă andă Rapetti,ă 2011,ă p.687).Some stylized facts can be
inferred from the above mentioned studies: the first one relates to upwards and
downwards movements of average consumer prices during the phases of boom and
155
recession, respectively. The second one relates to high levels of unemployment during
the phases of recession and low level during periods of boom or expansion. As a
corollary of these features, we may use the above framework to theoretically explain
causes of the current economic crisis. We may also want to describe a stable empirical
relationship concerning the patterns of unemployment and average consumer prices
that may serve for advising policy actions. There is a sizable literature shedding light on
the relationship between these two variables. The most important study clearly refers to
the Phillips curve. In 1958 New Zeland born economist, Alban William Housego Phillips,
regressed data on unemployment and the rate of change of money wage rates in the
United Kingdom from 1861-1957. He found an inverse relationship and stated that
lower unemployment in an economy is correlated with a higher rate of inflation. Looking
at figure 1 below, we can find evidence of such a relationship in a set of European
countries during the period 1980-2012

Austria Belgium Cyprus

10 20 30
0

Estonia Finland France

10 20 30
0

Germany Greece Italy

10 20 30
0

1980 1990 2000 2010 1980 1990 2000 2010 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Inflation, average consumer prices. % change % Unemployment

Graphs by Country

Figure 1: Trend in inflation and unemployment in nine European countries (Austria,

Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece and Italy.) from 1980 to
2012.
Source: Own elaboration based on IMF statistics (World Economic Outlook, 2013).

The implications behind that study were that governments or monetary authorities can
control either inflation or unemployment by means of Keynesian policies. In other
words, after deciding the best combination between unemployment and inflation, they
could tolerate a given target of inflation in order to lower unemployment. They can,
however, contract aggregate demand in order to get lower inflation rates, but at the cost
of higher unemployment. In this regard, fiscal policy (i.e., deficit spending) and
monetary policy are the two main tools used by governments to raise aggregate
demand. As a consequence, they can have prominent effects not only on the aggregate
demand but also on output, employment and on the inflationary process.

156
3. Measuring the impact of inflation on unemployment rate: a basic econometric
estimation
Official data interpolated through economic techniques give us a sort of stylized picture
of the overall relationship between inflation and unemployment rate. As a starting point
for discussion, figure 2 below suggests that 1 unit positive percentage change in
inflation causes -β*ă 0,ă 01ă reductionă ină unemployment.ă Thisă isă toă say,ă whenă monetaryă
authorities inject liquidity into the economic system through leveraging on the interest
rate, 1 percentage point increase in the inflation rate reduces unemployment of roughly
0.85 percent, on average.
25
20

Unemployment % = -0,849 ln (Inflation)

15
10
5
0

0 5 10 15 20 25
Inflation, average consumer price, % change

Figure 2. Relationship between unemployment rate and percentage change in inflation

for 9 European countries (Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece and Italy). Time series 1980-2013.
Source:ăAuthor’săelaborationăbasedăonăIMF statistics (World Economic Outlook 2013).

It is straightforward that by using the nonlinear equation in figure 2, we can only get a
naive regression. At the country level, some drawbacks are both related to constraints
in estimating average effects of inflationary process on the unemployment rate and in
the understanding of the most suitable policy response to be implemented. With this
frame of reference, we intend to progress as follows. 1) We preliminary use more
appropriate econometric techniques in order test pure effects of unemployment on
inflation rate in 9 pilot European countries. 2) We then check for robustness of what
leads to what. More in detail, we test Granger causality in the same 9 pilot European
countries in order to validate the idea according to which a higher inflation reduces
unemployment (or vice-versa).

3.1 Estimating pure effects of unemployment on percentage changes in inflation

using RE or FE model
A basic approach to analyze the relationship between percentage changes in inflation
and the unemployment rate draws heavily on the baseline equation (1):

[1]

Where index denotes country and denotes time (from 1980 to 2012), is the
unemployment rate, stands for the percentage change in inflation from one year to
the next, is a time effect, c isă aăcountryă effectăandăεăisătheăerroră term.ăBothăpredictoră
and outcome variables are measured in percentage points.

157
The inclusion of longitudinal data within our dataset suggests developing a model that
includes random or fixed effects (hereafter RE and FE, respectively). The intent here is
to control for omitted characteristics, including unobserved characteristics of country.
From a very general perspective, the idea behind the use of a RE or FE model is to
estimate that coefficient which represents the average effect of when changes
across time and between countries by one unit

Table 1: Estimated coefficients by means of both RE and FE models. Results obtained using
fixed-effects (FE) estimators with cluster-robust standard errors (clustering by country).
Asterisks denote significance levels: (**): significant at 5%. Hausmann test is reported at the
foot of the table.
FE last square dummy variable FE RE
Explanatory variables Inflation, consumer price, percentage change

Unemployment rate -.7329523** -.7329523** -.6719924**

(.0869501) (.0869501) (.0956051)
Belgium 3.845947**
Cyprus 1.124.548
Estonia 6.498206**
Finland 4.873054**
France 4.90494**
Germany 2.675665**
Greece 1.213173**
Italy 6.781328**
Intercept 5.527627** 10.23372** 9.802691**
Adj. R2 3,013888889
Pr>F 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Within 1,54166667 1,5416667
Between 1,39166667 1,3916667
Overall 0,12708333 0,1270833
TEST
Correlationăbetweenăpredictorăandăentity’săerrorăterm -0.5031 0 (assumed)
Hausmann Test 0.000
Source: author’s elaboration and calculation

For the FE model the estimated equation becomes:

[2]

Where (i= 1, 2…9)ăisătheăunknownăinterceptăforăeachăcountry.ăItăisăworthănotingăthată

the slope coefficient is the same from one country to the next. What is varying in this
equation is the term (that varies across country but not over time). It is also interesting
to notice that by estimating a FE least square dummy variable (LSDV) model we can
absorb country specific effects. The first column in table 1 above lists estimated
coefficients.
On average, one unit percentage change in unemployment reduces inflation of roughly
0.73 percent. Figure 3 below provides a graphical exploration at the country level

158
 15
10
5
0
-5

0 5 10 15 20 25
Unemployment rate

Austria Belgium
Cyprus Estonia
Finland France
Germany Greece
Italy Fitted values

Figure 3. FE with LSDV model. Fitted values.

Source:ăauthor’săelaborationăbasedăonăestimationsăinătableă1 (first column).

By contrast, the rationale behind the use of a RE model is the assumption (validated by
1
statistical test) thată entity’să erroră termă isă notă correlatedă withă theă explanatoryă variable.ăă
By using a RE model, the estimated equations becomes:

[3]

Where is the between-entity error. This model allows including time invariant
variables.
The estimated coefficient in the RE model reveals that one unit percentage change in
unemployment rate reduces inflation by 0.67 percent, on average. Another interesting
result inferred by the above reported estimations relates to the intercept. The intercept
in the model suggests the average value of inflation (% changes) when the total labour
2
force is engaged in productive activities . From an economic perspective, such a
situation involves inflation rising as a consequence of positive changes in GDP growth
and a fall in unemployment rate up to 0 percent. In this context, the economy would
move along the Phillips curve. We finally point out that according to the Hausmann test
the FE model is strongly preferred. It is worth noting that our data validate the Phillips
curve thus suggesting a sort of trade-off for decision makers.

3.2 From unemployment to inflation: what leads to what? Testing Granger

causality
Deciding between a fiscal or a monetary policy means to understand what leads to what,
i.e. investigating the empirical causality between unemployment and inflation (or vice-
versa). According to the Phillips curve, decision makers may decide to stimulate
aggregate demand through implementing instrumental variables (public expenditure or
interest rate) in order to reduce unemployment (or inflation). More specifically, while
policy actions should be constrained with low levels of unemployment and high inflation,
they should be boosted with high level of unemployment and low inflation. The above
implemented model has provided us with information about the position and slope of the
Phillips curve: on the one hand, the position identifies the attainable goals. On the other

1
See test reported in table 1 above.
2
Statistically, the unemployment rate equals 0.
159
hand, the slope of the curve identifies the trade-offs since a steep curve involves a big
change in inflation for a small change in unemployment. A flat curve implies a small
change in inflation for a big change in unemployment. As a consequence, once both the
position and slope of the Phillips curve has been identified (and the quantifiable target
established), policymakers act on either fiscal or monetary policy. In this context, our
dilemma is based on the causal link of the relationship. To provide a meaningful
example, let us assume that a low level of unemployment would boosts aggregate
demand that, in turn, will cause a high level of inflation. It is straightforward that the
established targets of unemployment and inflation need to be achieved through
stimulating fiscal policy and by means of public spending that encourages economic
activities. By contrast, assuming that the causal link run from inflation to unemployment,
then the proper policy to be limplemented is the monetary one. As a corollary of this
preamble the following analysis intends to investigate the causal relationship between
unemployment and inflation. The approach used to explore this link is to use the
Granger causality test which allows us to determine whether positive percentage
changes in inflation causes low rates of unemployment or vice-versa. The Granger
causality test is structurally shaped in the form of a Vector Autoregressive model
(hereafter VAR). Conceptually, such a test allows us to determine if lagged values of a
time series X might cause a time series Y. The Granger test can be used as a prove of
causality especially when the economic theory does not provide us with enough
information. We preliminarly specify a very general possible relationship between
percentage changes in inflation and unemployment according Loganathan et al. (2011):

or vice-versa [4]

Where is the percentage change in inflation from 1980 to 2012 and is the
unemployment rate in the same period. Before testing the causal relationship, it is
important to perform the unit root test, namely the Dickey Fuller one, for each variable in
the analysis. The importance to check for the presence of unit roots mainly deals with
possible non-stationary processes of the variables in the model. When it happens, we
need to make them stationary by taking the first, second or even higher differences.
Such a test is reported in table 2 below

160
Table 2: Dickey-Fuller test for unit root with critical values at 1% (*), 5%(**) and 10%
(***).
Augmented Dickey Fuller Test for unit root (constant and trend)
MacKin
non
Countr Differenc Test approxi
Variable 1% 5% 10%
y e statistic mate
p-value
for Z(t)
� -5.405* -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.000
% Inflation
Austria
%
� -4.672* -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.008
Unemployment
� -3.167** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.021
% Inflation
Belgium
%
Rate - 3.715** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.003
Unemployment
� -3.442** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.009
% Inflation
Cyprus
%
� -2.720*** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.070
Unemployment
� -3.807** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.009
% Inflation
Estonia
%
� -3.875** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.008
Unemployment
�2 -3.094** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.027
% Inflation
Finland
%
� -2.958*** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.039
Unemployment
� -3.102** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.026
% Inflation
France %
� -3.283** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.015
Unemployment
� -4.092** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.006
% Inflation
German
%
y � -3.247*** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.075
Unemployment
% Inflation �2 -4.278** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.003
Greece %
� -3.693** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.002
Unemployment
� -3.674** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.024
% Inflation
Italy %
� -3.701** -4.38 -3.6 -3.24 0.022
Unemployment

Source: author’s elaboration and calculation.

We have pointed out that the Granger causality theory specifies whether lagged values
of a time series (let us say Y) causes a time series X. Based on this assumption we
now turn to question concerning the optimal lag order to be included in the Granger
causality analysis. The most common approach to select and pre-estimate the lag order
foră aă VectorăAutoregressiveă (VAR)ă modelă dealsă withă theă useă ofă “information criterion”.
We display in table 3 below the results of the most common approaches used while
deciding about theă lagă lengthă ină aă VAR.ă Theyă areăAkaike’să informationă criterionă (AIC)ă
and Hannan-Quinn information criterion (HQIC). It is important to notice that the lag
withă theă smallestă valueă isă theă orderă selectedă byă eachă criterionă andă theă asterisk,ă “*”,ă
appearing next to the statistics indicates the optimal lag to be included in the Granger
analysis (the confidence interval was set at 95%).

161
Table 3: Information Criterion for length selection in VAR equations. Statistical significance at
critical value of 5 percent.
Pre-estimation tests Lag order selection AIC HQIC
% Inflation � 2 2.75486* 2.77168*
Austria
% Unemployment � 1 1.47654* 1.48141*
% Inflation � 1 2.9711* 2.99054*
Belgium
% Unemployment Rate 2 1.57247* 1.60163*
% Inflation � 1 3.54144* 3.55386*
Cyprus
% Unemployment � 1 2.09276* 2.10445*
% Inflation � 3 3.04049* 2.56297*
Estonia
% Unemployment � 3 3.12803* 2.74601*
% Inflation �2 3 3.13835* 3.14676*
Finland
% Unemployment � 3 3.47884* 3.50407*
% Inflation � 1 2.42675* 2.44357*
France
% Unemployment � 2 1.92351* 1.94875*
% Inflation � 3 1.67347* 1.62881*
Germany
% Unemployment � 2 2.07404* 2.04725*
% Inflation �2 0 4.76248* 4.7755*
Greece
% Unemployment � 1 2.07523* 2.10127*
% Inflation � 1 2.63819* 2.66523*
Italy
% Unemployment � 2 1.37* 1.41057*

Source: author’s elaboration and calculation.

Having performed crucial statistical tests, we can now develop the overall econometric
framework to be tested for Granger causality:

Table 4 below reports the result of the Granger analysis while a discussion of both
results and policy implication is provided in the concluding remarks.

Table 4: Granger causality test: linking inflation to unemployment (and vice-versa).

Type of Timing
Prob> Decisi Type of policy to be
relationship= Null Hypothesis effects of
chi2 on implemented
inverse policy
�Unemployment not
does not Granger 0.708 rejecte More
Equation 5
cause �Inflation d than 1
(Causality:Austria Monetary policy
�inflation does not years
) rejecte later
Granger cause 0.068
d
�Unemployment
�Unemployment not
does not Granger 0.563 rejecte More
Equation 6
cause �Inflation d than 1
(Causality:Belgiu Monetary policy
�inflation does not years
m) rejecte
Granger cause 0.002 later
d
�Unemployment

162
 �Unemployment
Equation 7 does not Granger 0.006 Reject More Fiscal policy
(Causality: cause �Inflation ed than 1
Cyprus) �inflation does not Not year later
Granger cause 0.695 rejecte
�Unemployment d
�Unemployment
rejecte
does not Granger 0.000
Equation 8 d Bidirectional causality:
cause �Inflation 2 years
(Causality: coordination of fiscal and
�inflation does not later
Estonia) Reject monetary policies
Granger cause 0.002
ed
�Unemployment
�Unemployment Not
does not Granger 0.437 rejecte
Equation 9
cause �Inflation d
(Causality:
�inflation does not Not No empirical evidence of
Finland)
Granger cause 0.795 rejecte causality
�Unemployment d
�Unemployment
Reject
does not Granger 0.006
Equation 10 ed
cause �Inflation More
(Causality:
�inflation does not Not than 1
France) Fiscal policy
Granger cause 0.280 rejecte year later
�Unemployment d
�Unemployment Not
does not Granger 0.063 rejecte
Equation 11 cause �inflation d 1 year
(Causality: �inflation does not later
Reject Monetary policy
Germany ) Granger cause 0.000
ed
�Unemployment
�Unemployment Not
does not Granger 0.065 rejecte
Equation 12 cause �inflation d
(Causality: �inflation does not Not
No empirical evidence of
Greece) Granger cause 0.772 rejecte
causality
�Unemployment d
�Unemployment Not
does not Granger 0.503 rejecte
More
Equation 13 cause �inflation d
than 1
(Causality: Italy) �inflation does not Monetary policy
Reject year later
Granger cause 0.001
ed
�Unemployment
Source: author’s elaboration and calculation.

4. Concluding remarks and policy implications

Economic implications behind Phillip's discovery relates to an important political
framework: the short-run inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation
which leads policymakers to make hard decision. In this regard, lowering one variable
results in raising the other. The two-step analysis discussed earlier has been central in
understanding the magnitude of the effects of unemployment on inflation and the causal
link between inflation and unemployment. In this regard, in our preferred model, i.e. the
FE one, we have found evidence that one unit percentage increase in unemployment
reduces inflation of roughly 0.73 percent, on average. Although the estimated parameter
of interest is useful to detect average changes in inflation when one unit change in
unemployment occurs, the presented model does not inform us about the causal link
between the two variables of interest. The existence of a causal link from inflation to
unemployment, and vice-versa, has therefore been detected by means of the Granger

163
causality test (results are reported in table 4). The econometric framework reveals a
directional causality running from inflation to unemployment in 4 out of 9 European
countries namely, Austria, Belgium, Germany and Italy. Such a causality implies that the
monetary policy is the most suitable one since by acting on the interest rate monetary
authorities may decide the desired combination between unemployment and inflation.
Indeed, since high levels of unemployment are mainly caused by low inflation, injection
of liquidity -through lowering the interest rate- may improve labour market outcomes. It
is however worth noting that the timing effects of the monetary policy can be strongly
different from one country to another due to country specific characteristics. The above
econometric scenario also suggests a directional causality going from unemployment to
inflation. This is likely to be evident in France and Cyprus: in these countries, a reduction
in the unemployment level will likely boost aggregate demand via an increase in the
marginal propensity to consume. The rationale behind this assumption can be summed-
up as follows: as the job creation mechanism is generated (through fiscal policy
actions), national output tends to increase. This causes a positive effects in nominal
wages. Consumers demand more goods and services which reflects in an increasing
average consumer prices of goods and services. Finally, given the biderectional
causality detected in Estaonia, a coordination of the monetary and fiscal policy would be
highly reccomended.

Acknowledgments
I’măparticularlyăgratefulătoăProfessorăEmilianoăColantonioă(UniversityăofăChieti-Pescara)
andă Professoră Paoloă Paesaniă (Universityă ofă Romeă “Toră Vergata”)ă foră theiră inpută andă
stimulating guidance in the delivery of this paper.

References
Frenkel, R. and Rapetti, M. (2009) A developing country view of the current global
crisis: what should not be forgotten and what should be done. Cambridge Journal of
Economics 2009, 33, 685–702.
Loganathan, N., Muhammad, N.S., Mori, K. (2011) Dynamic causal relationship between
trade balance and unemployment scenario in Malaysia: Granger non-causality analysis.
Economics and Finance Review 04/2011; 1:13-20.
Minsky, H. (1986) Stabilizing an Unstable Economy, New Haven, CT, Yale University
Press.
Phillips, A.W. (1958) The Relation between Unemployment and the Rate of Change of
Money Wage Rates in the United Kingdom, 1861-1957, Economica, New Series, Vol.25,
No 100 (Nov., 1058), 283-299.

164
PERCEPTION OF MANAGERS ON PERFORMANCE - EMPIRICAL STUDY
CONDUCTED IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY ENTITIES IN ROMANIA

Scorţe Carmen Mihaela

Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: We seek performance. We want to become performers, but undoubtedly most

often we forget to get down to the essence of things, wondering "What is performance?".
But what is meant by performance in the hospitality and tourism industry, an industry
that is booming at world level, but which, at the same time, in the local area, faces an
environment increasingly difficult? What is the perception of managers about this
concept? This was one of the questions addressed to managers in the hospitality
industry Bihor within a broader empirical research that targeted the importance of
accounting information for the management of entities in this sector. The basis of the
empirical research is a survey conducted between November 2012 and January 2013,
the working tool used being a questionnaire that consists of 38 questions administered
on the ground and online. The total population consists of 146 economic entities in the
sector in Bihor; the sample consists of 91 tourist entities and the response rate is 62.33
% as a result of research in the field. 83.5% of the managers surveyed said that the
most important factor influencing the performance in this sector is the occupancy rate of
the capacities available, in second place as a factor of influence being the demand for
services and travel packages offered, in the view of 75.8 % of respondents. It is
surprising that less than 50% of the managers surveyed identified as a factor influencing
the performance the accounting result of the business. Based on these results we also
wanted to identify what measures are taken by managers in the sector to increase
occupancy rate. The research conducted adds value to the indigenous research on
issues regarding management accounting in hospitality and tourism industry, but also in
the perception of performance, paving the way for future research. As limitations of our
research we can identify the restricted area of application of the questionnaires (Bihor
county), but also the large number of questions in the questionnaire that required
maximum concentration, managers getting bored while completing the questionnaire.

Key words: performance; accounting information; managers; hospitality industry.

JEL classification: M 41, L 83

1. Introduction
Hospitality and tourism industry is the one industry that plays a major role in the national
economy by its contribution to the national income; better use of resources on territorial
level; economic growth of some areas lacking soil or subsoil assets; stabilization of labor
force; stimulating element of the global economic system; means of diversifying
economic structures; factor of training and education; regulator of the external balance
of payments.
Tourism and hospitality means, firstly, all activities in which man spends leisure time
and, secondly, the industry of goods and services created to meet the desires,
preferences and motivations requested by tourists at their holiday destinations. Thus,
tourism results from the combined effect of several industries: construction, electronics
and electrotechnics, wood and textile industry, agriculture and food industry. Based on
these aspects we can conclude that the tourism product is superior only to the extent
that these supplying sectors contribute to its construction by provision of high quality

165
elements. Economic entities operating in the hospitality and tourism industry cannot be
performant unless they provide guests with high quality tourism products.

2. State of art
Performance was approached and treated differently over time: the extent to which an
organization achieves its goals without excessive effort from its members
(Georgopoulos and Tannenbaum, 1957); the entity's ability to exploit the environment to
acquire scarce resources that are essential to its operation (Yachtman and Seashore,
1967); different performance with respect to actors and stakeholders: for a category the
financial-accounting dimension will prevail, for the other the dimension product offered -
satisfied consumers or the socio-political dimension ( Freeman, 1984, 2010);
performance has several meanings of which 3 are key: a success (each entity will have
its own representation of success and performance will vary from one entity to another );
result of action; the action itself as performance is more of a process than an outcome
(Bourguignon, 1996); performance measurement actually means measuring the three
dimensions that comprise it, Economy - Efficiency - Effectiveness (Bouquin, 2004);
organizational performance represents the actual results of relevant activities within the
departments of the organization over a period of time (Ya-Hui Ling Ling and Hung, 2010,
Keng-Sheng Ting, 2012).
Measurement of performance can be achieved by several indicators: share price, return
onă capital,ă profită rate,ă turnover,ă customers’ă satisfaction,ă employees’ă satisfaction,ă
productivity, economic value added (EVA), market value added (MVA).
There are voices saying that, in the light of the new realities, the traditional methods of
performance measurement, measuring the value of entities in this sector, are no longer
adequate. Thus Sequeira, in 2000, suggests the management teams in the hospitality
industry should adopt techniques of application of economic value added. He
recommends EVA for the management decisions in the cases of reviewing leasing
contracts, of capital investment to renovate tangible assets of the entity, and when
dealing with special projects as well. Sequeira says that for a hotel the value created
occurs when economic return of the project is greater than the cost of capital. Siyong
Lee conducted an empirical study on 53 entities in hospitality industry, pursuing the
correlation between the economic value added and the share price on the stock
exchange during 1997-2000. Kim also had a contribution on the introduction of EVA in
the hospitality industry. In 2006 she conducted a study on EVA in this activity sector for
the period 1995-2001. She only considered a sample group from the hospitality industry
as a whole, without further analysis on subsectors. Another, more recent study is
conducted by Lee Seoki and Woo Gon Kim on three sectors of the hospitality industry
i.e. hotels, restaurants and casinos. In this study they analyzed 353 entities, namely: 46
hotels, 134 restaurants, 135 casinos and 38 companies that organize cruise tours and
theme parks. The study consists in a comparative analysis of six indicators for
performance measurement as follows: on the one hand, EVA, REVA, MVA, and, on the
other hand, three traditional indicators for performance measurement: ROA, ROE and
CFO. Yet, after numerous empirical studies developed in the hospitality industry, there is
no claim that EVA can be the best model for performance evaluation that can be applied
in this sector.

3. Research method
But what is meant by performance in the hospitality and tourism industry? What is the
perception of managers of these entities on the performance in this sector in Romania?
What factors influence performance? In the view of the management team does
performance have anything to do with accounting information? What importance is given
to the accounting information during the managerial process? Eager to find out the
166
answer to these questions we started an exploratory empirical research that describes
and analyzes human behavior with respect to this issue and is based on a questionnaire
applied to the managers in hospitality industry. In this regard there were selected 146
economic entities that are legally constituted as share companies and limited liability
companies (from the 230 units of tourists' accommodation licensed to operate according
to information published on the ministry website http://www.mdrt.ro/ro/turism/unitati-
clasificate). There were removed from our research a number of 84 economic entities
that had other forms of legal constitution (i.e. sole proprietorship, registered sole trader,
family business).
The questionnaire contains 38 closed and semi-closed questions divided into four parts
as follows: Part I Data on the economic entity and Part IV Personal profile of managers
that contain general questions concerning the characteristics of entities in the sample
and the profile of the managers of these entities; Part II Aspects regarding the
importance of accounting information and Part III Aspects regarding organization of
management accounting and of cost management comprising questions on the
perception of managers in the sector about the usefulness of accounting information,
the perception of performance, the factors influencing performance in this sector in the
managers’ă view,ă theă exploitationă ofă theseă dataă foră groundingă the decision making
process and for a good management of the capacities available.

4. Descriptive analysis of responses

The general questions of the questionnaire relate, on the one hand, to the issues that
shape the identity of respondents and, on the other hand, to the characteristics of the
entities under study.
In the first part Data on the economic entity the questions focused on the distribution of
entities with respect to classifying accommodation units and the additional facilities
available (therapy base, leisure possibilities), the turnover and the total asset value.
Of the 91 tourism units with accommodation functions in the sample, 35 were urban and
rural guesthouses, 28 hotels, 14 hotel complexes, 10 were operating as motels, hostels
or mini-hotels, 3 as tourist villas and one as a chalet. The percentages of the tourism
units, according to GD no. 1267/2010 on issuance of certificates of classification, of
licenses and of patents for tourism and MDRT Order no. 1051/2011 approving the
Methodological Norms regarding the issuance of certificates of classification, of licenses
and of patents for tourism, are as follows: 13.18% 4 star entities, 34.06% 3 star entities,
24.17% 2 stars entities. Most guesthouses are classified as having 3 daisies (51.42 %),
the others are: 11.42% 2 daisies, 8.57% 4 daisies, 2.85% 1 daisy; while the other
guesthouses were graded with stars, among them one of even 4 stars.
Regarding the size of turnover, 54.9% of the entities have a turnover of between 35,000
and 7.3 million Euro, 37.4% have a turnover of less than EUR 35,000 and 5.5% of the
entities have a turnover bigger than 7,300,000 Euro. A percentage of 2.2% of the
managers surveyed considered that the answers to these questions are confidential, so
they did not answer.
With regard to Part IV of the questionnaire, this contains again general questions, but
these refer to the profile of the managers. Regarding profession, the vast majority of
managers declare themselves economists (58.24%), while nearly 25% of the managers
surveyed state they are engineers. An important percentage of entities in the hospitality
industry in Bihor have managers of other qualifications than those explicitly mentioned
by us (13.19%). As for the sex of the managers in this sector, things are balanced:
50.5% were men and 49.5% women.
Part II and Part III of the questionnaire include questions regarding the purpose and the
frequency of the use of accounting information, the organization of managerial
accounting and of cost management in the hospitality industry and tourism, the
167
perception of managers on the performance of the entities in the sector and which the
factors that can influence it may be.

5. Research hypothesis testing

In what follows we will analyze the validity of a research hypothesis regarding the
performance at the level of the sample and we shall generalize the results to the level of
the total population. In what this research hypothesis is concerned, we considered that it
should be separated into two sub- hypotheses because, in our opinion, the factors of
influence of the performance of an entity in the hospitality industry can be divided into
two groups.
Hypothesis H1: The perception of managers on the performance of an entity in the
hospitality industry influences their measures for increasing occupancy.
The questions on bases of which we shall test the validity of this hypothesis are III.13 a,
b and III.12.
These are:
III13. In your view, what are the factors influencing the performance of an entity in the
hospitality industry?
- Occupancy of available capacities
- Demand for the services and tourist packages offered
- Contribution of each service or tourist package offered to the profit of the entity
- Accounting result of the entire activity
- Other (Specify)
III12. What measures are applied within your entity in order to increase occupancy?
- Conclusion of agreements with professional associations or sports clubs
- Provision of themed services and packages (Christmas, New Year, Valentine's
Day, Easter Holidays, Honeymoon)
- Discounts through loyalty cards
- Offering subscriptions for outpatient treatment
- Offering promotional prices and fees (below cost)
- Other (Specify)
We will review at first the distribution of the responses of the managers in the sample to
each of the two questions.

Figure 1: Managers' opinion on the factors influencing the performance of an entity in

the hospitality industry
Source: own elaboration based on the answers in the questionnaires

Regarding the factors that influence the performance of an entity in the hospitality
industry, most of the managers consider that the most important fact is the Occupancy
of the available capacity, a factor mentioned by 83.5% of the managers, on second
place we find the Demand for the services and tourist packages offered, a factor

168
mentioned by 75.8% of the managers surveyed. Somewhat surprising is the fact that
only 45.1% of the managers interviewed mentioned as a factor of influence in the
performance analysis, the Accounting result of the entire activity.
We are inclined to think that this is the perception of managers on the hierarchy of
factors that influence the performance of an entity in the hospitality industry only in the
current circumstances of an economy affected by global economic crisis. We rely on the
fact that in discussions we had on the ground with the managers, many of them stated
that after 2008, the year the effects of the crisis began to be felt, the strategy adopted by
them was to maintain the activity of the entities they were leading at the subsistence
level, i.e. at an equilibrium point, without necessarily thinking in terms of results.
Next, we present the distribution of the responses of managers in the sample, regarding
the measures applied to the entities in the sample in order to increase occupancy.

Figure 2: Measures applied to the entities in the sample in order to increase occupancy
Source: own elaboration based on the answers in the questionnaires

Regarding the measures applied to the entities in the sample in order to increase
occupancy, most of the managers choose Provision of themed services and packages
(Christmas, New Year, Valentine's Day, Easter Holidays, Honeymoon) while the least
appealing measure is Offering subscriptions for outpatient treatment, which was chosen
by only 11% of respondents.
As we mentioned earlier, this research hypothesis was divided into two sub-hypotheses
because we considered that the factors of influence of the performance of an entity in
the hospitality industry can be broken down into two groups as follows: a first class, that
of factors of influence with commercial content (occupancy rate and demand for the
services offered), factors whose influence shall ultimately show in the financial
statements, and the second group, containing factors of influence with accounting
content (contribution to profit of each product or service offered and the accounting
result of the entire activity) .

H1a – for whose validation we use two questions: Question 13 with answer choices a
and b and Question 12 with all answer choices
H1b – for whose validation we use the same questions, namely: Question 13 with
answer choices c and d and Question 12 with answer choices c, e.

To validate the first research sub-hypothesis we proceed as follows:

- for question III13, we assign importance scores to each answer, as follows: 2
points are allocated to those managers who said that factors that influence the
performance of the entity in the hospitality industry are Occupancy of available
169
 capacities and Demand for the services and tourist packages offered, one point to
those who mentioned only one of the two factors and 0 to those who chose none of
these response options.
- for question III12, we assign points according to the number of measures taken by
managers to increase occupancy.
The first step in our approach of validation of this research hypothesis is the elaboration
of the table of correlation between the answers to the two questions. This is presented in
Table 1.

Table 1: Distribution of the answers for the variables used in validation of hypothesis
H1a
Factors that influence the
Total
performance of the entity
0.00 1.00 2.00
1.00 2 5 2 9
Measures applied to the 2.00 1 8 21 30
entities in the sample in 3.00 2 10 19 31
order to increase 4.00 0 1 14 15
occupancy 5.00 0 2 3 5
6.00 0 0 1 1
Total 5 26 60 91
Source: own elaboration based on the answers in the questionnaires

Analyzing the distribution of choices, we can notice a positive correlation between the
answers to the two questions. Thus, we can notice that 60 of the 90 managers surveyed
(65.93%) considered that both factors of commercial content suggested by us
(Occupancy of available capacities and Demand for the services and tourist packages
offered) are important for reflecting the performance of the economic entities in the
hospitality industry but still only 14 of them (23.33%) mentioned that they use 4 of the 6
measures in order to grow the occupancy rate. From our sample of 91 managers, 31
(34%) said that they use 3 of the measures identified by us for the increase of
occupancy rate and, surprisingly, it was only one to confirm use of all the five measures
suggested by us and he even added another one in the field Other (Specify).
2

ni  n j
Validation of the research hypothesis is madeăapplyingătheămethodăχ .

The table of frequencies recalculated by help of formula n ij'  is presented as

n
follows:

170
Table 2: Table of recalculated frequencies associated to Table 1.
Factors that influence the
performance of the entity Total
0.00 1.00 2.00
1.00 4.58 2.29 2.61 9
Measures applied to 2.00 0.26 0.04 0.08 30
the entities in the 3.00 0.05 0.15 0.10 31
sample in order to 4.00 0.82 2.52 1.71 15
increase occupancy 5.00 0.27 0.23 0.03 5
6.00 0.05 0.29 0.18 1
Total 5 26 60 91
Source: own elaboration based on the answers in the questionnaires

 
 n ij  n'ij 
2

With the help of the formula χ calculated

2
we shall determine the
i j n'ij
2
value χ calculated = 16.25.
Since this value is greater than 0, it can be said that at the level of the sample the
perception of managers on the performance of an entity in the hospitality industry
influences the measures applied in order to increase occupancy rate.
To extend our result to the total population - all managers in Bihor county, the following
hypotheses are issued:
H 0 : χ 2  0 and alternative hypothesis H1 : χ 2  0
The calculated value, 16.25 is compared with the table value, determined for 10 degrees
of freedom, and a probability of 95%, which in our case is 18.31. Since the calculated
value is smaller than the table one, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected.
Conclusion: Hypothesis H1a: The perception of managers on the performance of an
entity in the hospitality industry influences their measures for increasing occupancy is
not validated.

H1b The perception of managers on the performance of an entity in the hospitality

industry influences their measures for increasing occupancy
To validate the second research sub-hypothesis we proceed as follows:
- for question III13, we assign importance scores to each answer, as follows: 2
points are allocated to those managers who said that factors that influence the
performance of the entity in the hospitality industry are Contribution of each
service or tourist package offered to the profit of the entity and Accounting result
of the entire activity, one point to those who mentioned only one of the two
factors and 0 to those who chose none of these response options.
- for question III12, we assign importance scores to each answer, as follows: 2
points are allocated to those managers who said that measures taken by them
to increase occupancy rate are Discounts through loyalty cards and Offering
promotional prices and fees (below cost), one point to those who mentioned
only one of the two measures and 0 to those who chose none of these response
options.
The first step in our approach of validation of this research hypothesis is the elaboration
of the table of correlation between the answers to the two questions. This is presented in
the next table.
Table 3: Distribution of the answers for the variables used in validation of hypothesis
171
H1b
Measures applied to the entities in the
sample in order to increase occupancy Total
0.00 1.00 2.00
0.00 19 39 0 58
Factors that influence the
1.00 2 8 16 26
performance of the entity
2.00 0 4 3 7
Total 21 51 19 91
Source: own elaboration based on the answers in the questionnaires

Analyzing the distribution of choices, we can notice a positive correlation between the
answers to the two questions. Thus, we can notice that only 7 of the managers in our
sample (7.69%) considered that both factors of accounting content are important for
reflecting the performance of the economic entities in the hospitality industry and from
these 3 use both measures identified by us as being directly connected to the
accounting results (Discounts through loyalty cards and Offering promotional prices and
fees (below cost)) to grow the occupancy rate.
2
Validationăofătheăresearchăhypothesisăisămadeăapplyingătheămethodăχ .
ni  n j
The table of frequencies recalculated by help of formula n ij'  is presented as
n
follows:
Table 4: Table of recalculated frequencies associated to Table 3.
Measures applied to the entities in the
sample in order to increase occupancy Total
0.00 1.00 2.00
0.00 13.38 32.51 12.11 58
Factors that influence the
1.00 6.00 14.57 5.43 26
performance of the entity
2.00 1.62 3.92 1.46 7
Total 21 51 19 91

 n ij  n'ij 
Source: own elaboration based on the answers in the questionnaires

 
2

With the help of the formula χ calculated

2
we shall determine the
i j n'ij
2
value χ = 45.22.
calculated
Since this value is much greater than 0 it can be said that there is a very strong
connection between variables at the level of the sample.
To extend our result to the total population - all managers in Bihor county, the
following hypotheses are issued:
H 0 : χ 2  0 and alternative hypothesis H1 : χ 2  0
The calculated value, 16.25 is compared with the table value, determined for 4
degrees of freedom, and a probability of 95%, which in our case is 9.49. Since the
calculated value is much greater than the table one, there is a connection between
variables at the level of total population as well and this connection is very strong – the
result is guaranteed with a probability of 95%.
Conclusion: H1b The perception of managers on the performance of an entity in the
hospitality industry influences their measures for increasing occupancy is validated with
a 95% probability.

172
6. Conclusions
Our study is mush broader but in this paper we presented only a few aspects of the
managers’ perception on performance, resulting from a survey conducted, and we
tested some hypotheses regarding performance.
Results obtained:
- For 83.5% of the managers surveyed performance means a high rate of occupancy of
available capacities, while only 45.1% of them see performance in terms of accounting
result of their business, even if 58.24% of managers declared they were economists by
formation;
- 70.3% of the managers said they take into consideration the customization of offers
and the provision of themed packages in order to increase occupancy, on the second
place as such method being the offer of promotional prices and fees, as opted by
64.8% of the managers;
- At the sample level,ătheă hypothesisăthatămanagers’ perception on the performance of
an entity in the hospitality industry influences the measures taken for increasing
occupancy is validated with a probability of 95%.
We believe that the research we conducted brings elements of novelty and originality to
the domestic research in the field of managerial accounting in the hospitality industry,
though it has limitations: particularities of the formulation of the questions in the
questionnaire, the fact that it was conducted only within entities in Bihor county, the
selection of the sample.
This study will further investigate into the perceptions of the managers in the hospitality
industry on various issues related to the exploitation of the information provided by
management accounting, the particularities of cost calculation in this branch of activity
and also different management practices in the sector.

7. References
Bouquin H., (2004) Le contrôle de gestion, , Press Universitaires de France, Paris.
Bourguignon, A. (1996). Définir la performance : une simple question de vocabulaire
?dans A.-M. Fericelli et B. Sire (dir.), Performances et resources humaines, Paris,
Economica, p. 18-31
Freeman, R. E. (2010). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach, Cambridge
University Press 2010
Georgopoulos, Basil S, Arnold S Tannenbaum. 1957. A Study of Organizational
Effectiveness. American Sociological Review 22(5):534-540
Keng-Sheng Ting, (2012), How Accumulation of Intellectual Capital of IC Design Firms
Listed in Taiwan Impacts Organization Performances: Organizational Learning
Capability as the Mediator, The Journal of Global Business Management Volume 8 *
Number 1
Ling Ya-Hui & Hung Ling (2010), How Intellectual Capital Management Influences
Organizational Performances: Intellectual Capital as a Mediating Variable, pp. 1-27,
Issue 1, Volume 10, Journal of Human Resource Management
Seoki Lee, Woo Gon Kim, (2009), EVA, refined EVA, MVA, or traditional performance
measures for the hospitality industry?, în International Journal of Hospitality
Management, vol 28, Number 3
Sequeira, A. (2000). Economic value added (EVA®): Measuring an organization’s true
economic value. The Bottomline: The Journal of Hospitality Financial and Technology
Professionals, 2000, 15(3), 1-2
Siyong Lee, (2002) An Empirical Study Of The Correlation Between Economic Value
Added And Stock Price In The Hospitality Industry, Oklahoma State University.

173
Woo Gon Kim, (2006), Eva And Traditional Accounting Measures: Which Metric Is A
Better Predictor Of Market Value Of Hospitality Companies?, Journal of Hospitality &
Tourism Research
Yuchtman Ephraim and Stanley E. Seashore, (1967) A system resource approach to
organizational effectivness, American Sociological Review, nr 32, pp 891-903.

174
QUALITY MILESTONES OF THE SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

Tomescu Ada Mirela

University of Oradea, Faculty of Economics, Department of marketing and management
[email protected]

Abstract: At this stage there are numerous studies about how tourism activity is related
and affects the environment. The purpose of this paper is to examine theoretically, and
to analyse activities that occur in hotels, linking this activity to the principles and
activities that reduce the tourism negative environmental impact. When we have the
objective to discuss sustainable development we must balance between a trilogies that
enclose the following three concepts: economic, social/ equity and
ecology/environment. In fact in our opinion we agree that “sustainable development is a
fractal” concept. Sustainable development is examined here, specifically - taking
account of the activity of accommodation in hotels, and also the frame that such activity
must integrates. The principles of sustainable development are the most important
factors beside clients` expectations, such that to maintain a standard that not only is
high, so the coefficients satisfy tourists, but to suit the requirements sustainability, which
in this instance means rationalization repeated on different levels and plans (this
concerns to energy consumption, water, to waste disposal, etc.). The relationship
between tourism and the environment is particular complex, since these two factors are
interrelated, and each of them is, at their turn characterised by complexity and
variability. The fundamental premise for a friendly, high quality tourism is harmony on
the one hand, with the operators (for sustainable development) and secondly with
tourists (for a correct use of the facilities). As a syntagma, this can mean: the
promotion and adoption of "green behaviour". It is believed today that more and more
hoteliers should adopt this behaviour, an ecological framework in which hotel has the
benefits of normal economic activity, showing competitiveness, but customer
satisfaction in the highest grade (quality) remains the central plan in spite of rigors
required by the so-called: "green behaviour"! As a final remark, we mention as
milestone of ecological behaviour (green) connected to sustainable development are
certification to ISO 14001 and eco-labelling of accommodation.

Key words: sustainable development; tourism; environment; eco-label; quality

Cod JEL: Q01, L15, L83,

Motto:
“Our goal is a delightfully diverse, safe, healthy and just world, with clean air, water, soil
and power —economically, equitably, ecologically and elegantly
enjoyed.”3

Introduction
When we have the objective to discuss sustainable development we must balance
between a trilogy that enclose: economic, social/ equity and ecology/environment, in fact
weăagreeăthată“sustainableădevelopmentăisăaăfractal”ăconcept.ă“The Fractal Frontier is a
geometrical algorithm which balances and integrates the triple-bottom-line needs of
people, planet and profit. In this context a holistic fractal matrix becomes increasingly
detailed, and guides effective decisionsă foră sustainableă results” (Matthews, 2012). The

3
McDonough, William & Brungart, Michael
175
sustainable development matrix (McDonough, Brungart: 2002: 79) of, a tool developed
by UNO (Seth, 2007: 102) it is a Sierpinski’să(equilateral)ăTriangle:

™
Figure 1. Cradle to Cradle Design Frameworkăoră“C2C”
source (McDonough, Brungart: 2002: 79)

In the literature we found an interesting model that explains the required

comprehensive idea we refer in this paper.
There are some comments to make upon this model (Cradle to Cradle
™
Design Frameworkăoră“C2C”ă( McDonough, W.; Brungart, M.; 2002: 46)
- it use fractal geometry, transform the mathematical concept into an ecological
one -asă“fractalăecology”;
- it integrate the trilogy economy- ecology- -equity into the sustainability triangle
andăitădemonstratesăhowătheă“3e”ăintegrateăintoăsustainableădevelopment;
- ităisăconsidered:ă“world’săfirstăandăonlyămodelăthatăgraphicallyăandăconceptuallyă
identifies the instruction to achieve sustainable results, regardless of
application” (Mock,T; Wernke,T.; 2011: 89);
- it is an instruction set / a "code" that are designed in order to define our
condition sustainable land with various fields; Besides all human efforts (large
and small) that can produce lasting results. This set of instructions / 'code' is a
universal code that must shape the outputs, in order to produce repeatable and
scalable results. Whether you are interested in economic development, food
production, tourism and other fields of sustainable development, the same core
set of instructions apply if sustainable results are desired.
This triangle, drawn by fractal geometry helps us to analyze the problems of sustainable
development, because it shows how ecology, economy and equity is related, among
other values, and we show how each level of decision has impact on all the above -
mentioned planning three. Each of the fractal can be an asset. The aim is to design and
balance the equation. So what we need to do is to move around as required fractal
geometry, so that a new plan can generate value in each category (ecology/
environment; economy; equity/ society/ community).

176
 Figure 2. Cradle to Cradle Fractal Framework (C2C Fractal Framework) –adapted
Source: McDonough, W.; Brungart, M. 2002: 79

We propose to make an inventory of the conceptual framework used in sustainable

tourism. But generally it is accepted as a sort of tourism activity that characterized by
attempting to make as low as possible an impact on the natural environment and local
culture, while helping to generate economic value and employment for local people. In
our opinion, the closest definition to sustainable tourism is that, which it`s using the
“responsible tourism” as paradigm.
The aim of sustainable tourism is to ensure that development brings a positive
experience for its actors - local people, tourism companies and the tourists themselves.
It is said that sustainable tourism is an adopted practice in successful eco-tourism
(Edgell, 2006: 19).
To have sustainable tourism it must be aware of all three legs of the triangle: economic,
social, environmental: economic prosperity, sparing use of natural resource and
environment and communities (human resources, civil society).
At last decade the relationship tourists -hotelier, in sustainable development has become
a priority, it has become more comprehensive by applying environmental management
tools.

Figure 3. The three target dimensions of sustainable development

Source: Bayer, F.; Vogel, T.; Pleia, V.A.; 2013: 12

Tourist activity is mostly related to "natural resources", which obviously for sustainable
development require certain instruments future oriented.

177
 Figure 4. Relationship between sustainable tourism and some related concepts that
constitute the MILESTONES OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
Source:
The systemic relationship between tourism and environment is feasible. We can see
here a relationship full of potential, based on the strength of a lot of complex inter-
dependencies that are established between elements of each. In these days, the world it
is speaking about: good quality, friendly environment, health and harmony of the
environment. In tourism and its actors (tour-operators tourism, tourists, local community)
those above named, must ALL be in harmony. Sustainable tourists can reduce the
impact of tourism in many ways (Swarbrooke, 1999: 13), as well as:
 Informing themselves of the culture, politics and economy of local
communities visited;
 Respecting and acting to conserve cultural heritage and traditional values,
local traditions, customs;
 Understanding and tolerance upon local culture;
 Supporting the integrity of local cultures;
 Supporting local economies by purchasing local goods;
 Using the least possible amount of non-renewable resources;
 Conserving resources by interacting with businesses that are
environmentally conscious.
United Nations and WTO reported World Tourism Barometer Reported that the impact is
even greater as we know that tourism is considered the World's Largest Service Sector
Industry, and this service evolved ascending, (reaching 1.035 Billion tourists in 2012, up
from over 983 million in 2011, and 940 million in 2010). (World Tourism Barometer 2011;
2012; 2013)
Also the tourism sector is a major provider of jobs and income, and when we talk about
business in hostelling, the more we could say that the impact in sustainable
development is more acute in terms of the environment, resources and local
communities. The location where the hotel is located is important. The concern of the
tourists to the targeted area is directly related to the interests of investors to recover
their investment. This is why there it is little ecological operation of hotels, the situation
changes if certain measures are taken. In recent years there is more and more change
on this plan of the development of sustainable environment.
Through this study we want to make an inventory of effects on the natural environment
of the hotel business and also we examine possible to draw several conclusions for
making a more aware management, for an accountable relationship between
environment and hotelier. It is recognized that economic investors' interests are in
conflict with the interests of the natural environment. The most times the investors tend
to prefer the profit at any cost, money to the detriment of the environment, and of the
life. Therefore, often in short term results are less noticeable but with implications that
alter environmental issues, but also the socio-cultural ones.
If we refer to the fact, that there are different degrees of tolerance, which means that the
number of people which possible can hit a stable area, following a certain local lifestyle.
178
Any exploitation above the limit will create alternation and changing socio-cultural and
natural environment also. These are the reasons that experts draw attention to this kind
of impact that ultimately compromise the attractiveness of the area, making a particular
destination to be increasingly more avoided.

Environment and the Hotel

Currently in the world there are hundreds of thousands of hotels, which clearly have a
great impact on the environment by interacting with it, like any other productive
business, often being consuming resources, up to exhaustion, modifying their or
destroying their, leading them to the long-term unwanted effects. These, and many
others,ăareătheăreasonsăwhyătheăconceptăofăă“sustainableădevelopment”ăinătourismăhaveă
expanded into this particular plan that is hostelling.
Below we make a list of activities considered sustainable in contrast to the
corresponding unsustainable activities. (adapted from Swarbrooke, 1999: )
Table 1. Sustainable tourism vs. Non-sustainable tourism
(correspondents/conformity/ mismatch)
Sustainable Non-sustanable
General concepts
Slow development Rapid development
Controlled development Uncontrolled development
Appropriate scale Inappropriate scale
Long term Short term
Qualitative Quantative
Local control Remote control
Development Strategies
Plan, then develop (eco-design) Develop without
Concept-led schemes Project-led schemes
Concentrate on physical elements of landscape Concentrate o
nă”honey-pots”
Pressure and benefits diffuses Increase capacity
Local developers Outside developers
Local employer Imported labour
Vernacular architecture Non-vernacular architecture
Tourist Behaviour
Law value High value
Some mental preparation Little or no mental preparation
Respect local customs& traditions Disrespect/ignore local customs &
traditions
Quiet Loud
Learningălocală”language” Noălearningălocală”language”
Tactful and sensitive Intensive and insensitive

179
 Repeat visit Repeat visit

Many tourism-related activities have a direct or indirect impact on the natural

environment, on physical structure of the place, on the bio-diversity. The natural areas
are damaged by arranging tourist facilities, but the presence of the tourists can destroy
local flora and fauna. Hotels using large amounts of water can contribute to water
pollution, and/or to drying of the soil.
Taking into account our approach we will present the life cycle of tourist accommodation
services (www.incdpm.ro/ro/ăinăStefanic ă2013:ă616).

Figure 5. Life cycle of tourism accommodation services (adapted)

Source:ăStefanic ă2013:ă616ăwww.incdpm.ro/ro/

Analyzing the effect of the activity of a hotel that is designed and constructed so as to
provide quality services to the guest.
In these circumstances the respect for the natural environment and sustainable
development need to consider that the big challenge is maintaining the level of comfort,
convenience and benefits to tourists. The facilities provided should be designed to be

180
efficient, to save resources, remaining at the same time comfortable and useful as
customers demand and expect.
Relative impact on the environment and suggestions for improvement are associated with
each of the phases of the product life cycle classic, finding here, as well as: the growing
period, plateau of maturity, and finally the track of losses also.
Europe has developed different systems of certification, from certification on local level,
to national level in some cases at national level (the Swan or the Green Key- Greenland,
Denmark and European Nordic Countries; Green Certificate -Latvia; La Clef verte-
France; Legambiente Turismo -Italy; Milieubarometer -Netherlands; Hiiumaa Green
Label -Estonia; Eco-Romania-Romania), and at last European eco-label. All can be
applied to tourist hotel structures if they meet certain conditions if meet ecological
principles of sustainability. For instance in hotel industry, the ECO-label must comply, the
following provisions and conditions:
- An offer of services that is responsive and attentive to the issue of the environment
(protective reasoned);
- an offers potentially interested in using an eco-label;
- Proof existence of certain technical conditions (green energy, waste management,
water saving, etc);
- The development of programs / national-oriented sustainability;
- A special care about particularity of local conditions as: climatic conditions, geographic-
physical structure/ biodiversity, traditions, customs, culture, behaviour and consumption;
- Some official/governmental advice support, even financial aid/ grants in the spirit of
sustainability;
- People sensitized to environmental issues, particularly in improving environmental
quality in relation to tourism, in particular the services offered by the hotel.
Openness of hoteliers to environmental issues can be measured by the presence of any
measures taken to protect the environment management, such examples are:
- Prevalent use of eco-labelled products;
- Using of energy saving systems;
- Employees aware, sensitive and responsive to environmental issues;
- Customer awareness concerning his behaviour to environment (sustainably, careful
and harmless).
- Generally, in the activity and the various issues of the hostelry business
management, as presented above featured as ecologic, should be analyzed, and once
identified environmental hazards, for them must be proposed mandatory solutions,
taking into account the following:
- Protecting the landscape and beauty of the area;
- Protection of biodiversity;
- Educating employees and tourists ecological spirit by providing complete and
credible information;
- Integrated Environmental values in the Operations Management (may use some
international standard or ecological scheme/ initiatives);
- use of "green marketing";
- Minimizing the impact on the structure, integrating it into the surroundings;
- Reducing energy costs through efficient and economical suitable practices ;
- Diminish and dispose of waste, using more the method of "3R" -(Reduce,
Reuse, Recycle);
- Minimizing environmental risks (floods, air pollution, fires, pesticides, water
pollution, noise, soil pollution, inadequate waste disposal and sewage waste etc.).
- Specialized tour guides, to conduct harmless tourism, lacking environmental
hazards;
- Environmental Audits regularly operated;
181
- Promoting and supporting responsible tourism.
Attention and interest of hoteliers operators starts from business requirement, it is about
the necessity to differentiate the quality of service to others of the same kind which is
available on the market. Offer comes to meet the demand, and in recent years, demand,
manifested need, consumers are manifested more and more, they are oriented towards
quality products characterized as healthy and eco-friendly.
And more, the good quality products should be verified. In this regard, several initiatives
voluntary stakeholders to have their own domain rules and standards were made known
in time. Thus, emerged a number of guidelines, codes of conduct, best practices, labels
oriented quality of accommodation and the environment.
The interest in the use of eco-labels increases when the hotel management understands
the advantage of differentiating the hotels in question by using certification scheme /
eco-labelling. Definitely this is a proved competitive advantage, an because of this
should not be neglected, but we must recall the fact can create conflict in the chain, by
copying and reproduction, again and again. In spite of this inconvenient in last years
amounted to encourage the market to continue and expand the sustainable
improvements, more and more hoteliers.
It is known that the inclusion of the European Eco-label, an label dedicated to the
tourism facilities is more retrieved in broader tourism program supported and funded by
the EU to promote the EMAS, environmental management and in particular for ISO
14000 standards family, these are leading to an accurate application of the principles of
protecting the natural environment, environmental measures and sustainable
development internationally.
Some stakeholders have established The International Hotels Environment Initiative
(IHEI), this is European initiative, IHEI is located In Denmark at Copenhagen. This is a
charity program developed by the international hotel industry for the benefit of all hotels
and the environment. Their aim is to promote the benefits of environmental management
as an integral part of running a successful, efficient hotel business. (Fletcher, 2013:6)
This initiative uses various tools such as:
 Dissemination of information related to the field of sustainable development and
hostelling;
 Environmental policy instrument;
 Eco-design;
 Life Cycle Analysis;
 Environmental Management;
 Prevention of pollution;
 Other appropriate purpose.
Contemporary tourists are more interested in the problems of the natural environment,
this is one of the reason they feeling the need for a formal certificate of quality hotels.
Thus the hotelier business moves rapidly towards the introduction and use of tools for
environmental management that are both more credible and more visible, being
recognized internationally and now so often operates public. There seems to be a trend
for increased use of ISO 14000 and EMAS in cooperation with the EU Eco-label. There
are regulations approved by European Parliament and Council, already had revised
eco-label in UE, and expands the scope of the European Eco-label for tourism, focusing
on the hotel business.(Tomescu:2011: 695)
International Regulations officially recognized by International Bodies indicate the
possibility of improving the quality of services in hotels, through measures we already
have named above, such as rationalization of services, resource and use the excellent
organic products (inventory, cleaning products, food products, environmentally sound
products, whose quality has been recognized by the EU-Eco-label or national eco-labels
instead of the traditional ones etc.).
182
In last five years Romania increased interest in applying the principles of sustainable
development and sustainable tourism in the last 6-7 years too. ( tef nic :ă2013:620)
Services are considered areas where you can make as many improvements. These
improvements may include elements of organization or technology. We can talk about
this after are discovered the losses or defects, after installation of biological treatment
plants, and after the costs it will be reduced through:
- Design, construction of buildings, furniture, and inventory purchase with eco-
friendly materials;
- Design and implementation of energy-saving and water installations;
- Using sensors to turn on / off the light and water or other energy consumers;
- Electrical installations that operate with magnetic keys;
- Use of renewable energy sources etc;
- Increased use of recyclable products.

Conclusion
The relationship between tourism and the environment is particular complex, since these
two factors are interrelated, and each of them are at their turn characterised by
complexity and variability. Milestones of sustainable tourism are the three spheres
(ecology, economy, and environment) and related concepts enclosed in Sustainable
development Matrix.
The fundamental premise for a friendly, high quality tourism is harmony on the one
hand, with the operators (for sustainable development) and secondly with tourists (for a
correct use of the facilities).
Specifically in a eco hotel, environment protection issue should still allow the levels of
services to remain high to ensure customer satisfaction. It would be helpful if the tourist
customer would be sensitive to this problem would involve he himself. He must be
informed about the initiative taken by the hotel concerning compliance principles to
sustainable environment, and to customers it may be asked to cooperate in this regard.
Obviously the local community would react to such initiative, and the image of such an
organization would be well received, and more, obtaining environmental quality label
(EU-Eco-label) would be a double guarantee, both for quality and for interest in
sustainable tourism.
The ability of operators to promote the protection and conservation of resources that
presenting their main activity will be the strength of development in tourism business
and competition in tourism. No doubt the use of eco-labels, internationally visible, can
be seen as a positive thing by the hotel, only if are accompanied by economic benefits,
competitive and commercial, that can add value to such initiatives, as the European
Eco-label is for instance.
In terms of environment, the life cycle stages, on that we should focus, are those that
precede the services (emplacement and construction of the hotel building), but also
involves the current services. Generally the structure of the location is considered an
important aspect, but in particular only as initiative of this branch.
Activities taking place in an eco certificate hotel are under the sway of the principles of
sustainable tourism development.

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[January, 20, 2014];

183
Bohdanowicz, P.; Churie-Kallhauage, A.; Martinac, I.(2001) -”Energy-Efficiency and
Conservation in Hotels-Towards Sustainableă Tourism”,ă ină Proceedingsă ofă 4-th
International Symposium Asia; Pacific Architecture, Hawai, pp.1-12;
Bohdanowicz-Godfrey,P.;(2013) http://www.greenthehotels.com/eng/handenv.htm [21,
Dec.,2013];
Edgell,ăL.,ăD.;ă(2006)ă”ManagingăSustainableăTourism:ăAălegacyăforătheăFuture”,ăHaworthă
Hospitalty Press Inc.;
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environment-initiative-ihei [Decembre,2, 2013];
Mattews, R. (2012) http://www.thegreenmarketoracle.com/2012/07/fractal-frontier-
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sustainable.html [15 of Jan. 2014];McDonough, W.; Brungart, M.; (2002) - „Cradle to
Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things”, Macmillan; 25 November 2010.
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development-fractal/ [12 of Feb. 2014];
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Swarbrooke,ăJ.,(1999)ă”SustainableăTourismăManagement”;ăEd.ăCABIăInternational;
tef nic ,ă M.,ă C.;ă (2013),ă ”Ecologicală Certificationă andă Labellingă ofă Touristă Services”,ă
Centre for European Study Working Papers, – Volume V, Issue 4, Universitatea
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2012).

184
SUB-SECTION: ECONOMICS
FROM INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTS TO FIRMS NETWORKS: THE ITALIAN CASE

Colantonio Emiliano, Perrucci Antonella, Odoardi Iacopo

Department of Philosophical, Pedagogical and Economic-Quantitative Sciences,
University of Chieti-Pescara, Italy
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract: The local source for competitiveness is vital to achieve static and dynamic
economies of scale for firms; it is useful to interact with the aim of learning and
innovating. The local system can create benefit by opening to international markets and
it should be a good source of knowledge and technology. Nowadays, the concept of
industrial district, usually characterized by the spatial proximity of the involved firms,
may evolve into firms network; this may emphasize the advantages deriving from
cooperation, without the need of spatial proximity. Firms networks may represent the
evolution of industrial districts, where territoriality is overcome by the dissolution of
borders. The importance of firms networks is increased since they intensify information
exchange, continuous learning, stimulate economies of scale, allow economic
development and give more market opportunities. Firms networks share different aims,
resource, common interests and factors, like material and immaterial inputs and
outputs. This new form of cooperation may allow to overcome physical distance and
replicate knowledge and information. Firms networks may represent a success
organizational forms that may give impetus to development in an economy. They are
based on mutual trust between partners and are created over time to facilitate
information circulation, knowledge dissemination and innovation. Trust reduces
uncertainty and transaction cost and limits the opportunistic behaviour by free-rider
agents. The aim of the paper is to assess the determinants for firms networks training in
the Italian context using regional data. Particularly, the firms networks development
needs key factors such as ICTs diffusion, high rate of social security, open capability,
R&D activities. These factor constitute the basis for a new kind of capital, the so called
“network capital”. It consists of collaborative practices in a network as the result of
cooperation in the ICTs era. Network capital may be considered as social capital
evolution in a globalized context. The entrance in the knowledge economy era, in which
technological advancement runs very quickly and the pace of innovation is intensified,
significantly reduces the exploitation of competitive advantages. Industrial districts,
therefore, should develop, improve and change their shape in a new competitive
environment, where the globalization of markets cancels the boundaries of many firms
that collaborate beyond national boundaries. The paper analyzes the firms networks
determinant for Italian regions and the role of network capital as pre-condition for their
development. The multidimensional scaling analysis it the chosen methodology that
allows us to identify the relations among Italian regions in terms of proximity/distance
with respect to considered determinants, and to provide a spatial representation of
them.

Keywords: Industrial districts; Firms networks; Network capital; Multidimensional

scaling;

JEL classification: D71; L22; R23.

1. Introduction
In this paper we want to investigate the firm network as possible evolution of the
industrial district, in which firms compete and cooperate in a global context and
187
territoriality is overcome by the annulment of the boundaries.
The concept of industrial district is quite complex for many economic and social
aspects, closely correlated. In this aggregated form there is a population of small firms
that orbit around a local production, in a specific geographical area in which agents
interact. The notion of industrial district can be traced back to Alfred Marshall, who was
the first that observed the phenomenon of concentration of production in the space and
its persistence over time in 1891.
The district is characterized by temporal and geographical stability: the core of firms
that belong to it, is concentrated in a certain area. The industrial district expands and
grows in a stunning way until it occupies most urban centres or by conquering the
peripheral areas. Thus, a fundamental characteristic that distinguishes the industrial
districts is the spatial element, where firms carry out production activities with a strong
tendency towards specialization. The competitive ability depends on area, on socio-
cultural conditions and on tacit knowledge. The territory influences innovation
processes. The spatial proximity certainly distinguishes the industrial district: it allows
information dissemination as source of innovation, and the concentration of experts in a
certain field, who work in a specific area, increasing the average level of productivity.
The concentration of firms in a specific geographic area simplifies the dissemination of
the exchange of information, the circulation of new ideas and it facilitates knowledge
and innovation diffusion. The distinctive factors of an industrial district are different,
such as the concentration of productive an R&D activities at the sectorial and regional
level. Moreover, an industrial district is characterized by common environment at social
and cultural level, by relations among economic agents, both in formal and informal
networks. Economies of agglomeration are also crucial; their strength and effects
depend on the interaction among actors operating in the area.
In the recent literature Cainelli and Iacobucci (2005) argue that the benefits of
agglomeration are changing. The concentration of the local systems is leading to new
agglomerative forces that operate in specific contexts. The authors, therefore, argue
that the new economies of agglomeration are characterized by a lower cost to acquire
information related to competitors or suppliers. These types of economies can be
characterized by a greater ease to develop new knowledge in a particular context and
this is expected to promote the growth and development for firms.

Globalization has led to substantial changes in the way of compete and communicate
and it has led a new formăofăcapital,ătheăsoăcalledă“networkăcapital”ă(Simpson,ă2005).ăItă
is a global development driver that may allow firms to create cooperative relationship
even if there are located far from each other. Network capital has positive outcomes,
such as providing income generation opportunities, avoiding criminal activities or the
diffusion of intolerant social values. Network capital may also favourite the formation of
a firms networks, able to create cooperative forms and share knowledge on a large
scale. This may allow to generate new business in competitive markets even if firms are
far from each other, to intensify information sharing, to stimulate continuous learning.
This new cooperative structure allows a faster flow of information, a shared knowledge,
and an efficient and rapid exchange of resources. Firms networks ensure, moreover,
specialization, efficiency, and therefore, high levels of productivity (Porter, 2010), and
the may be considered as an evolution of industrial districts without the need of spatial
proximity.
The paper deals with the possible evolution of industrial districts into firms networks and
analyze the role that network capital can play as key factor of this evolution (see par. 2).
In the third section we present a data analysis using a multidimensional scaling
methodology, in order to identify groups of Italian regions that show similar
188
characteristics with respect to the determinants of the network capital (see par. 3). In
par. 4 conclusions are provided that summarize the results achieved by the statistical
analysis.

2. The evolution of industrial districts: firms networks and network capital

Becattini (2007) is the greatest researcher in Italy in the field of industrial districts. He
supposed that the territory is an hidden dimension of crucial importance since it
includes a large number of places in a non-random way and it is the element that
characterizes the production. The district, therefore, can be thought as a set of goods
produced in a specific place. The socio-cultural context is intertwined with the
productive phenomenon: in an area the living and working relations coexist in in a
complementary manner.
There are three essential advantages interpreted as externalities for firms located in a
district. The first one is a shared market for skilled workers with specific capabilities.
The second advantage is the availability of obtaining non-negotiable input provided by
local suppliers. The third advantage derives from a simple and easy transmission of
new knowledge, ideas and information spillovers. This allow a better production
function through improvements in technology, production and organization.
The agglomeration is supported by factors such as the presence of specific inputs at
the local level, the presence of knowledge spillovers and it is encouraged by the job
offers with a high degree of training in the local area. The spatial proximity is an
advantage for firms, given the reduction of transaction costs and the presence of
agglomerations of firms in the area. It facilitates the creation of benefits such as internal
economies of scale, which allow inputs to be easily accessible; furthermore, cost of
subcontracting associated with them are reduced when they are produced in the
considered area.
The training and the creation of the district, according to Becattini, happens if there are
favourable socio-cultural features that drive agents to cooperate, and their development
takes place if there is the presence of local, naturalistic and geography favourable
conditions. Districts are entities characterized by some socio-economic factors: the
presence of active small and medium firms; the presence of a community of people and
the presence of external economies of agglomeration although internal to the district;
regional stability; industrial atmosphere which has strong influences on professionalism
and specialization of workers involved in cooperation; natural area circumscribed and
historically determined; specialization of products and sectors in each area; the
wrapped relations among firms and the presence of high predisposition to technological
innovation and predisposition to optimization. District, therefore, is a local development
and industrial organization model, based on the union of small and medium-sized firms
that are located in geographically defined areas. In this contest, in which social
interactions are located, the so called social capital plays and important role: cognitive
resources, standards and information that are expressed in the trust, which leads to the
achievement of objectives that are difficult to reach. Social capital in the industrial
districts generates economic advantages and allows leaner and faster circulation of
information.
Each local system is also created through the integration of codified knowledge, that is
more explicit, and tacit knowledge, that is contextualized and more difficult to learn, but
it is crucial since the two types of knowledge are mutually reinforcing in the socio-
economic process of their production, in which all types of knowledge coexist and
circulate. The fluid knowledge circulation occurs since tacit knowledge, not coded and
non conventional, once entered into the system and once codified, can be easily
transmitted. The local community of firms operating in the area and then in the district,
189
is the main vehicle of a common values system that involve different levels, such as
work, reciprocity relationships, dissemination of new knowledge and elements of
evolution and change.
Nowadays, there is a new phase of economy: the Information Age, and its functional
structure is the network society (Van Bavel, Punie, Tuomi, 2004). Network capital may
therefore become an important asset for economic and human development.
Cooperation among firms is an accelerator of development process, and the investment
in network capital is essential for new models of collaboration in the globalized society
(Wellman, 2001). Network capital can be considered a combination of different features.
It derives from a cooperation via electronic network and promotes the practice of
collaboration. Such cooperation includes sharing of information and it produces team
work among firms, the creation of common rules and the achievement of shared aims.
Network capital is produced by contributions and wilful actions and it may be actionable
in the firms, although they are localized far from each other. Network capital may be
fundamental for the knowledge generation, and this is an added for intensive processes
related to scientific setting, R&D investment, cooperation and development. In a firms
network, the kind of capital may play a role analogous to whom social capital plays in a
industrial district (se also Colantonio et al., 2012).
In this context, the firms network may represent the evolution of the districts. The
transformations on structure and organization for firms are a specific need. Industrial
districts, therefore, may develop, improve and change their form in a new competitive
environment, where the market globalization annuls the boundaries of many companies
that collaborate beyond regional territory. Firms are thus operating in dynamic
scenarios.
Soda and Zaheer (2009) argue that networks are composed of several elements: the
"nodes" that indicate the entrepreneurs involved in the network, and the "links" that
represent the relationships that are created among them; the entrepreneurs cooperate
and use shared rules.
The nodes can also be interpreted as network systems and can be constituted by
different entities. They are legally autonomous units, such as the case of consortia and
professional associations and they are entities internal to firms, such as offices, and
they represent individuals. The nodes, independent entities, interact with others to
exchange energies and values. Firms networks, therefore, are a set of nodes and
relationships that connect and coordinate firms located in a large area, giving them the
opportunity to reach a increasing global development. The networks are stable forms of
coordination among firms, they have common goals and are located in an intermediate
position between the market and the hierarchy. The objectives of the firms networks
are: working together even if firms are located far from each other; sharing resources
and expertise; reaching a common goal.

190
3. Data, methodology and results
To reach our purpose, which consists in identifying the key factors (socioeconomic
development, R&D resources, security and ICTs diffusion) that could facilitate the
formation of firms nodes and the development of firms networks in the Italian regions,
we use a multidimensional scaling analysis. Multidimensional scaling is a useful tool
through which it is possible to produce a graphical representation of a pattern of
objects, in this case the 20 Italian regions, based on the degree of similarity/dissimilarity
between them. The goal is to provide a representative map that best approximates the
distances observed among Italian regions, concerning the presence of factors that
determine development through network capital. This statistical method attempts to
build a configuration of the various entities, merged in a small number of dimensions
(two in our case).
This is done by defining relations between regions in terms of proximity/distance with
respect to the considered indicators.
The resulting positioning map has the property to partition the regions into
homogeneous groups, so as that the degree of association between two regions is
maximal if they belong to the same group and minimal otherwise.
We considered a matrix of 20 regions and 12 indicators, representing four sets of
variables: those related to economic development, R&D, security and ICTs diffusion
(see Table 1). Data refer to the period 2010-2012. Data were normalized within each
considered variable, in order to avoid possible distortions due to different ranges and
magnitudes.ăTheămodel’săgoodnessăofăfităwasăassessedăviaătheăRSQ (0,986), that
indicates the proportion of variability explained by the corresponding dissimilarity
distances, and the Stress Index (0,053).
As a general rule, results are found to be robust when the size k achieves an Stress
Index value lower than 0,15. A two-dimensional model was judged to be acceptable
according to the values of the previous indexes.
The correlations between dimensions and variables for the selected period (see Table
1) was useful for naming the axes. The resulting two-dimensional images are shown in
Figure 2. The horizontal axis represents the variables concerning economic
development; the vertical one is mainly related to security.

191
Figure 1: S-stress dimensions diagram
Source: Our elaborations on Istat data

Table 1: Correlations between variables and dimensions (r > |0,5|)

Variables Dimension 1 Dimension 2
GDP per capita 0,90
Industry labour productivity 0,86
Export capabilities 0,75
Innovative capabilities 0,82
Graduates in sciences 0,68 -0,53
Employed in R&D 0,97
Illegal work rate -0,91
Petty crime index in cities -0,70
Racquet index -0,68 -0,53
Level of Internet use in firms 0,91
Web site diffusion in firms 0,84
PC diffusion in firms 0,79
Source: Our elaborations on Istat data

192
Figure 2: Cluster of 20 Italian regions in a two dimensional space
Source: Our elaborations on Istat data

In this chart the Italian regions and the numbers of the firms nodes are represented. On
the right of the chart there are the northern Italian regions characterized by an
advanced socioeconomic development. This regions have high levels of labour
productivity, openness towards international markets, greater opportunity to innovate
and better infrastructure. In the centre of the chart there are central Italian regions, with
levels of economic development close to average values of the sample; southern Italian
regions are located on the left part of the chart, in which there are lower level of
economic development. In the lower area of the chart there are regions with lower level
of security.
From the chart appears that only in few of disadvantaged regions of southern Italy there
are an high number of nodes of firms. This could be a factor to improve the
competitiveness of enterprises in the territories that no encourage it. We note however
that, apart from a few outlier cases, north and central regions have a high number of
nodes, probably due to the presence of higher levels of network capital and its
determinants. These relations, intentionally formalized, seem also to be typical of those
regional economies characterized by small firms, without official R&D activities, highly
specialized in international export, with a great added value.

4. Conclusions
In the current social and economic context, globalization has introduced a new way of
collaborating among firms. The industrial districts have been a very efficient cooperative
form for a long time. Firms that are part of the industrial districts are located in
neighbouring areas. The spatial proximity, allows information dissemination, that are a
source of innovation, and the concentration of experts in a certain field, who work in a

193
specific area, increasing the total level of productivity.
Over the past years, substantial changes have been in the way of communicating and
cooperating. This happened thanks to the ICTs advent and globalization. Firms
networks have been generated as evolution of Industrial districts, even though firms are
located far from each other. In firms networks the capital structure changes and it
becomesă“networkăcapital”ă whichămayăbeăthoughtăasă aădeterminantăofădevelopmentă ată
global level. Network capital could become an important asset for economic and human
development. It can be considered a combination of different features. Network capital
derives from a cooperation via ICTs and promotes cooperation.
Firms in the networks operate in dynamic scenarios, characterized by a number of
factors such as integrated markets and innovation. The flow of knowledge exchange
takes place on a global scale and firms of the networks exchange information and
create lasting relationships. In this paper we have identified a number of variables that
may promote the formation of nodes of firms and it is important to emphasize that the
presence of high network capital supports the creation of firms networks. The
multidimensional scaling method showed how the most dynamic regions in Italy have
the highest economic development level and usually the highest number of nodes (with
the exception of some outliers). Many other aspects of firm networks training and
development should be investigated in further analysis.

References
Becattini, G. (2007) Il calabrone Italia. Ricerche e ragionamenti sulla peculiarità
economica italiana, Il Mulino, Bologna.
Cainelli, G. and Iacobucci, D. (2005) "I gruppi di impresa e le nuove forme organizzative
del capitalismo locale italiano", L’industria, XXVI, No. 2, April-June.
Colantonio, E., Crociata, A., and Perrucciă A.ă (2012)ă “Fromă socială capitală toă networkă
capital:ăsomeăevidenceăforăEurope”,ăGlobal & Local Economic Review, 16, pp. 57-72.
nd
Marshall, A. (1891) Principles of Economics, 2 edition, Macmillian, London.
Porter, M.E. (2010), Microeconomics of competitiveness, Faculty Workshop, December
13, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, Mimeo.
Simpson, L. (2005) "Community Informatics and Sustainability: Why Social Capital
Matters", The Journal of Community Informatics, Vol.1, pp. 102-119.
Soda, G. and Zaheer, A. (2009) "The evolution of network structure: where do structural
hole came from?", Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 45, No.1, pp. 1-94.
Van Bavel, R., Punie, Y., and Tuomi, I., (2004) ICT-enable Changes in Social Capital.
The IPTS Report 85.
Wellman, B., (2001) Living Networked in a Wired World: The Persistence and
Transformation of Community. Report to the Law Commission of Canada, Wellman
Associates, Toronto, Canada. (p. 120)

194
RESTORATION AND SUSTAINABLE VALORIZATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE
AND REGIONAL POLICY IN NORTH-WEST REGION OF ROMANIA. CASE STUDY
OF REVITALIZATION OF THE ORADEA FORTRESS
1
Dodescu Anca ,
1
Department of Economics, Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Oradea,
Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: The paper presents cultural heritage, cultural tourism potential of North-West
Region of Romania face to face with restoration and sustainable valorization of cultural
heritage as a major domain of intervention of regional policy in Romania. Due to
Romanian regionalization form, the Regional Operational Programme (ROP) is currently
the only programme of regional policy in Romania in 2007-2013. One of the major
domains of intervention of ROP 2007-2013 in Romania was restoration and sustainable
valorization of cultural heritage. The first paper specific objective is to explore projects
contracted until 31.12.2013 in the field of restoration and sustainable valorization of
cultural heritage in North-West Region of Romania and their regional development
relevance in the context of existing regional development strategies. The second paper
specific objective is to present a model of restoration of cultural heritage in a sustainable
way throughout the case study of Revitalization of the Oradea Fortress in order to
introduce it in the tourism circuit - that could become an example for other cultural sites
around the region and a succes story in the field of cultural tourism based of ROP 2007-
2013 experience. Exploring rich cultural heritage of the North-West Region face to face
with poor condition of cultural heritage sites and investments required in order to
introduce them in touristic circuit, the paper concludes that all contracted projects are
relevant for sustainable valorization of regional cultural heritage and cultural tourism
potential in the context of existing regional development strategies, but they contributed
only partially to regional specific needs. Also, the paper concludes that number of ROP
2007-2013 projects implemented in the field of cultural heritage is surprisingly small,
area of interest of these projects is rather narrow and analyzes the most important
causes for these gaps. Based on the case study presented, the paper suggests that a
combination between devoting substantial own resources, perseverance and
innovativeness in implementing and promoting projects could be an important condition
for success for highly expensive, long lasting and highly innovative cultural heritage
projects.
.
Keywords: cultural heritage, cultural tourism, regional policy, Regional Operational
Programme 2007-2013, North-West Region of Romania, Revitalization of the Oradea
Fortress Case Study

JEL classification: O22, L83

1. Introduction
Over the past 20 years, cultural tourism becoming one of the most dynamic elements of
the international tourism and a major area of growth (Zeppel and Hall, 1991). Despite
global economic challenges, international tourist arrivals grew by an average of 4-5% a
year (WTO, 2014). According to the latest UNWTO World Tourism Barometer,
international tourist arrivals grew by 5% in 2013, Europe led growth in absolute terms
(WTO, 2014) and remain “theăworldțsăNoă1ătouristădestination” (EC, 2010), Central and
Eastern Europe being one of the leading sub-regions with 7% growth well above

195
European average (+5%) (WTO, 2014). In this context, cultural tourism is seen more
and more as a quality tourism and a desirable market, because it is generally high-
spending tourism - tourists that practice cultural tourism spend more per day and stay
longer than tourists who practice traditional forms of tourism, and is usually undertaken
by highly educated individuals who stimulate cultural activity in the destination (EC,
2014; Richards, 2007; Richards, 2001). Consequently, cultural tourism has become a
major issue in regional development policy, a main challenge being how to market the
attractiveness of a certain region in order to generate growth of tourist arrivals and
spending (Giaoutzi and Nijkamp, 2006). This challenge is stronger in Central and
Eastern Europe, including in Romania, due to difficulties to transform cultural heritage in
competitive tourism products, packages or destinations at global level, considering
major investments needed, limited resources, poor condition and low accessibility of
cultural heritage objectives (Hall, Smith and Marciszewska, 2006; Coles and Hall, 2005).
The sustainable development of cultural tourism is highly dependent in Central and
Eastern Europe of EU funds and public administration capacity to develop effective
management strategies for conservation, sustainable valorization and responsible
introducing in touristic circuit of cultural resources (Spenceley, 2008; Mowforth and
Munt, 2008; Robinson and Picard, 2006). Also, an important challenge for Central and
Eastern Europe is to identify and develop cultural tourism niches (creative tourism,
educational tourism, cultural volunteer tourism, gastronomic tourism, religious tourism,
wellnessăandăspaătourismăetc.)ăinăplaceăofăaă“massămarket”ăforăculturalătourismă(CEăandă
EC, 2013).
The present paper has been developed in the framework of a larger research about the
evaluation of the EU Regional Policy through Regional Operational Programme (ROP)
2007-2013 for the North-West Region of Romania (Dodescu and Chirila, 2013a;
Dodescuă andă Chirila,ă 2013b;ă St nciulescu,ă Dodescu and Chirila, 2012). One of the
major domains of intervention of Regional Operational Programme 2007-2013 in
Romania was restoration and sustainable valorization of cultural heritage. The present
paper specific goal is to explore projects contracted and completed until 31.12.2013 in
the field of restoration and sustainable valorization of cultural heritage in North-West
Region of Romania, to evaluate these projects relevance for sustainable valorization of
regional cultural heritage and cultural tourism potential in the context of existing regional
development strategies. The paper presents a model of restoration of cultural heritage in
a sustainable way throughout the case study of Oradea Fortress (North-West Region,
Romania) that could become an example for other cultural sites around the region and a
succes story in the field of cultural tourism based of Regional Operational Programme
2007-2013 experience.

2. Cultural heritage and cultural tourism potential of North-West Region of

Romania
Even is large recognized as notorious problematic to define cultural heritage, that can
has both global and local importance (Smith, 2009), based on UNESCO, Romanian
Ministry of Culture and North-West Regional Development Agency data, without the
intent of an exhaustive list, some milestones of North-West Region cultural heritage are:
- 8 Wooden Churches of Maramures included in UNESCO World Heritage: Barsana,
Budeşti,ăDesesti,ăIeudăDeal,ăPoienileăIzei,ăSurdesti,ăPlopiş,ăRogoză(UNESCO, 2014);
- 4.017 heritage buildings, out of which 995 are designated as national interest
objectives (RNWRDA, 2013), out of which: 4 urban historic centers: Cluj, Oradea, Dej,
Gherla (RMC, 2010), 10 urban ensembles of particular architectural value: "Bistritz"
medieval fortress, "Kornmarkt" Bistrita, Turda, “Canonicală string”- Oradea, "Oradea II"
,”SamuilăVulcanăMarket”ă- Beius, " Mihai Viteazul Market" - Cluj-Napoca, "Storehouse of

196
Salt”- Sighetu Marmatiei, "Freedom Market" - Sighetu Marmatiei, "Freedom Market"-
Satu Mare (RMC, 2010), 19 important urban streets of particular architectural value
declared as urban ensembles in Sighetu Marmatiei, Zalau, Satu Mare, Carei (RMC,
2010), numerous monuments and architectural ensembles, archaeological sites, Roman
forts (Porolissum; Militar Castrum and Vicus; Fort of Bologa, Fort of Romita), medieval
fortresses (Oradea, Ardud, Satu-Mare,Bogdand, Liteni, Bologa etc.) (RNWRDA, 2014;
RMC, 2010),ă fortifiedă settlementsă (Şimleuă Silvaniei,ă D baca,ă Bonţidaă etc.)ă (RNWRDA,
2013; RMC, 2010), castles (Wesselenyi - Jibou, Karolyi - Carei, Csaky-Almaşuă etc.)ă
(RNWRDA, 2013), historic cities trade fairs (Gherla, Crasna) (RNWRDA, 2013) etc.;
- religious objectives with historical or architectural significance: 4 cathedrals (Greek
Catholic Cathedral "St. Nicolae" Oradea, Orthodox Archdiocese Cathedral Cluj-Napoca,
Armenian Catholic Cathedral Gherla, Roman Catholic Cathedral Satu Mare), Merry
CemeteryăS pânţa,ăchurches, monasteries etc. (RMC, 2010);
- museums and public collections, art galleries, artistic events etc. (RNWRDA, 2013;
RMC, 2010);
- popular cultural heritage of great originality: specific architecture of the villages from
Northern Transylvania, wood, popular costumes and everyday utility objects decoration
art, unchanged traditions and customs, traditional rural life, traditional ethno-cultural and
religious manifestations (RNWRDA, 2013).
Wooden Churches of Maramures included in UNESCO World Heritage, picturesque
towns with historic centers and urban ensembles of particular architectural value, wealth
of historical monuments, Roman forts, medieval fortresses, castles with stylistic
authenticity, multi-confessional religious objectives, churches with historical or
architectural significance, popular cultural heritage of great originality etc. represent a
high potential for developing cultural tourism in the context of an integrated regional
tourism. Even if the importance of developing an integrated regional tourism is
acknowledged (Regional Development Plan 2007-2013, Regional Development Plan
2014-2010, many projects financed from structural funds, cross-border cooperation for
Bihor and Satu-Mare counties and spill-over effects of cultural tourism development in
the neighboring county of Hungary etc.), the number and diversity of information tools to
promote the cultural tourism are obviously insufficient and there are not yet diversified
integrated tourist packages. Although there were increases in gross investments in
tourism, they have focused mostly on accommodation infrastructure and, eventually,
gastronomy and food components, but far less the tourist services and activities that
tourists can carry on the cultural heritage potential offered by the different areas the
region. The capitalizing of cultural heritage potential requires major investments for
conservation and restoration of cultural heritage objectives (majority of them has been
severely affected in time), solving the problems related to reduced availability of
sightseeing, especially due to poor road infrastructure, the infrastructure and
functionality problems in order to introduce these objectives in tourist circuit (lack of
parking spaces, lack of facilities for visiting cultural tourist attraction: access roads,
landscaped stairs, lookout points etc., lack of tourism promotion centres, point of
information and specific tools for promoting cultural tourist attraction etc.) and coherent
regional cultural preservation planning.

3. Regional policy in North-West Region of Romania and restoration and

sustainable valorization of cultural heritage
In the context of low regional attractiveness for foreign tourists (the North-West region
ranks fourth nationally, foreigners preferred almost exclusively Cluj, Bihor and
Maramures counties), low use of tourist accommodation capacity (under 40% in all
counties in the region) and decreasing trends of tourist arrivals, overnight stays (drastic
drops of tourist arrivals in motels, tourist chalets, villas, camps, school camps) under the
197
impact of the economic-financial crisis (RNIS, 2012), the development of cultural tourism
became of particular importance. Compared to more advanced forms of regionalization
from other EU Member States such as Germany, Belgium, Austria, Italy, Spain, France,
Romania’să existingă “regionalizationă formula”ă isă limitedă bothă ină termsă ofă resourcesă andă
competences – existing regions of development were created more as units of
observation for collecting data according to regional standards of EU policies and
operational response to the requirements of EU regional policy in accordance with
criteria that allow absorption of structural funds than for larger functions or purposes at
regional level such as: urban development, infrastructure development, environmental
protection, improvement of social services, supporting the business environment or
cultural heritage. The Regional Operational Programme 2007-2013 (ROP) was in the
currentă“formula”ăofăregionalization,ătheăonlyăprogrammeăofăregionalăpolicy in Romania in
2007-2013 (RMRDPA, 2014). One of the major domains of the Regional Operational
Programme of Intervention 2007-2013 in Romania is restoration and sustainable
valorization of cultural heritage. The objectives of this major domain of intervention were:
increasing the importance of tourism and culture as factors that stimulates economic
growth and sustainable development; extending the tourist season; increasing the
number of tourists through valuing local and regional cultural tourism potential on
national and international tourist market (RMDPWH, 2008). Consequently, this major
domain of intervention finances projects aimed at the preservation, restoration,
strengthening, rehabilitation, protection of tourism potential of UNESCO heritage and
national cultural and local urban heritage according with UNESCO World Heritage List in
Romania and Romanian Ministry of Culture List of historical monuments. In North-West
region, at 31.01.2014, according to the North-West Regional Development Agency data
(RNVRDA, 2014b), the ROP 2007-2013 absorption rate for the major domain of
intervention 5.1 - Restoration and sustainable valorization of cultural heritage and the
creation or modernization of related infrastructure is 32,56%, for the total financial
allocation of 31,45 mil. Euro, the situation of applied, contracted and completed projects
being as follows: 21 applied projects – financial allocation requested: 55,63 mil. euro; 11
contracted projects – financial allocation requested: 31,10 mil. euro;4 completed projects
– amount reimbursed: 10, 24 mil. euro. According with North-West Regional
Development Agency data (RNVRDA, 2014c), the projects contracted through ROP
2007-2013, on the 5.1. MID Restoration and sustainable valorization of cultural heritage
and the creation or modernization of related infrastructure in the chronological order of
the contracts’ăsigningăareăas follows4:
 11.04.2009: Circuit of medieval fairs in Northern Transylvania - Karolyi Castle
from Carei, Karolyi from Ardud, Beneficiaries: Carei Municipality Territorial
Administrative Unit, Ardud Town Territorial Administrative Unit, Total value of the
project: 23.179.393,00 lei, out of which grant assistance: 18.371.945,00 lei;
 11.06.2009: Revitalization of the Oradea Fortress in order to introduce it in
the tourism circuit, Beneficiary: Oradea Municipality Territorial Administrative
Unit, Total value of the project: 36.780.329,12 lei, out of which grant assistance:
28.717.702,60 lei;
 16.12.2009: Restoration of historical and cultural heritage of Salaj County
Council - Buildings of the County Military Centre, County History Museum and
Art Gallery, Beneficiary: S lajăCountyăTerritorialăAdministrativeăUnit, Total value
of the project: 25.424.792,84 lei, out of which grant assistance: 17.740.229,06
lei;

4
According with National Bank of Romania, annual average exchange rate in 2009- 2013 was between 4,2 -
4,4 lei/Euro.
198
  21.06.2010: Restoration and sustainable valorification of Calvaria Roman
Catholic Church, Beneficiary: Romanian language Roman Catholic Parish,
Satu-Mare, Total value of the project: 6.550.619,62 lei, out of which grant
assistance: 5.408.206,44 lei;
 30.06.2010: Restoration and rehabilitation of the wooden church of St.
Archangels Michael and Gabriel-Rebrisoara, in order to introduce it in the
tourism circuit, Beneficiary: Orthodox Parish Gersa, Gersa,ă Bistriţa-N s ud,
Total value of the project: 1,729,129.25 lei, out of which grant assistance:
1,424,891.58 lei;
 30.06.2010: Circuit of wooden churches in Northern Transylvania,
Beneficiary:ă Maramureş County Council, Total value of the project:
19.099.090,52 lei, out of which grant assistance: 15.160.569,62 lei;
 12.04.2012: Restoration of the wooden church Buzesti from Farcasa village,
Maramures, in order to introduce it in the tourism circuit, Beneficiary: Farcasa
Hall,ă Farcasa,ă Maramureş,ă Total value of the project: 3.940.916,86 lei, out of
which grant assistance: 2.384.907,00 lei;
 26.10.2012: Circuit of Roman forts from Salaj county, Beneficiary:
Partnership of Salaj Territorial Administrative Unit, Buciumi Territorial
Administrative Unit, Mirsid Territorial Administrative Unit, Total value of the
project: 35.859.112,00 lei, out of which grant assistance: 25.431.180,00 lei;
 29.01.2013: Structural and architectural rehabilitation of the Reformed
Church CJ-II-mA-07759 and related wall inside from Sic, Cluj county;
Beneficiary: Reformed Parish Sic, Sic, Cluj, Total value of the project:
10.029.034,00 lei, out of which grant assistance: 7.671.817,00 lei;
 25.04.2013: Creating the German center of Bistrita by rehabilitating historic
building "Silversmith House", Beneficiary:ă Bistriţa-N s udă Territorial
Administrative Unit, Total value of the project: 2.458.680,00 lei, out of which
grant assistance: 1.765.986,00 lei;
 18.09.2013: Rehabilitation of Reformed Church CJ-II-MA-07380,16
Kogalniceanu Street. 16 of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj County, Beneficiary: Central
Reformed Parish nr. 1, Cluj-Napoca, Total value of the project: 18.912.243, 00
lei, out of which grant assistance: 14.951.382, 00 lei.
4. Case Study of Revitalization of the Oradea Fortress
Description of project: Former medieval fortification Oradea turned 900 years from the
first documentary attestation and is considered one of the most representative Italian
Renaissance Fortresses in Central and South-Eastern Europe. The "Revitalization of the
Oradea Fortress in order to introduce it in the tourism circuit" is an on-going project
conducted in North-West Region of Romania, between June 2009 - December 2015, by
the Oradea Municipality Territorial Administrative Unit, total value of the project:
36.780.329,12 lei (around 879.9121,77 EURO at June 2009), out of which grant
assistance: 28.717.702,60 lei, contribution of the beneficiary: 7.477.075,65 lei. The
project aims to reintroduce the Fortress of Oradea in tourism circuit at regional, national
and international level as a representative centre for regional cultural heritage, creating
additional revenue at regional and local level and new jobs in the field of culture, tourism
and related economic sectors. Potential target groups will be: tourists, local government,
local institutions, cultural institutions and NGOs and their employees currently located in
Oradea Fortress who will benefit from improving working conditions, Oradea residents,
cultural NGOs and their members etc. (RNVRDA, 2014c, Oradea Municipality internal
data, Revitalization of the Oradea Fortress project website).
Context: The analysis of statistical data on tourism activity in Bihor (BCDS, 2012)
indicates the following trends for 2007-2011: the number of tourist arrivals in the
establishments of tourists' reception with functions of tourist accommodation in Bihor
199
County increased slightly (0.44%) in 2011 compared to 2007, but significantly from 2010
(17.63%) while the lowest was recorded; number of tourist arrivals in accommodation
structures related to tourism or adventure tourism: tourist chalets, villas, camps, school
camps, however, is almost insignificant (numbers in the thousands of tourists per year);
the number of foreign tourists in Bihor county is low - 38 939 in 2011, but an increase of
30.65% comparing with 2010, the number of nights spent by tourists in the
establishments of tourists' reception with functions of tourist accommodation in Bihor
County increased by 13.42% in 2011 compared to 2010, respectively with 18.02% for
foreign tourists, though the values from 2011 are lower than in 2007; net use index of
tourist accommodation capacity in operation in Bihor county is low - 38.4% in 2011, with
a slight increase compared to 2010, but a big drop from 2007, when register 47%.
Problem addressed: On the one hand, rehabilitation of the Oradea Fortress, that on
starting date of the project, was abandoned by the military garrison and had reached an
advanced stage of ruin; on the other hand, attracting new tourists for a longer stay, even
in the winter months, especially foreign tourists, for the following forms of tourism:
cultural, religious and heritage (organized groups that come with a specific purpose of
visiting the city, especially due to the tomb of St. Ladislau), thermal tourism (Baile Felix,
Baile 1 Mai are thermal spas nearby Oradea), events tourism (festivals), ecotourism
(youth, especially foreign tourists for organized excursions), business, exhibitions and
conferences tourism (business meetings, professional meetings, exhibitions,
conferences, symposia, book launching etc.)
(Oradea Municipality internal data, Revitalization of the Oradea Fortress project
website).
Approach: This project uses an integrated approach that provides: strengthening,
preservation, restoration and functionalizing of 8 buildings totalling approx. 13,514.7
square meters building, about 190 rooms and 13514.25 square meters exterior
surfaces; the reintroduction of functions compatible with the monument by creating 19
touristic and cultural functions: City Museum, Lapidarium, Bread Museum, Fortress
Library, exhibition spaces, traditional centres (medieval restaurant, centre for promoting
crafts and traditional art) etc.; increasing the accessibility of the monument: the
restoration, development of access roads, outdoor lighting and decorative landscaping;
creating and hosting a cultural consortium, holding 2 annual festivals and other 20 small
cultural events; extending tourist season by introducing Oradea Fortress in European
tourist and cultural circuit; revitalization of traditional economic activities in the Fortress
etc. (Oradea Municipality internal data, Revitalization of the Oradea Fortress project
website).
Impact: 27.028 square meters proposed interventions (buildings, green spaces and
access roads), 119 new jobs created, increase energy efficiency by 100%, facilitate the
access of tourists at rehabilitated heritage objective with 100%, 10.125 visitors
until 2015, extension with 200% of the tourist season (more visitors in the winter
months), increase the number of tourists in 2015 with 300%, 10 annual festivals
organized, 60 small cultural events conducted by in first 3 years after implementation
(Oradea Municipality internal data, Revitalization of the Oradea Fortress project
website).
Considerations for success: The most important issue for the project success is, in
our opinion, good governance of Oradea Municipality reflected in the capacity to
generate and co-finance a cultural heritage tourism project at this scale. The project was
declared best practice example for ROP Axis 5: Sustainable development and tourism,
DMI 5.1. Restoration and sustainable valorization of cultural heritage and the creation /
modernization of related infrastructure, and Oradea Municipality - an institution example
of good practice for developing unique combination of communication tools to promote
the "Fortress of Oradea" (conferences and press releases, leaflets, brochures, guides,
200
multimedia virtual tour, project website etc.) (RNVRDA, 2014c, Oradea Municipality
internal data, Revitalization of the Oradea Fortress project website). Also, the project
responds in an innovative way to the challenges of cultural tourism nowadays,
developing cultural tourism niches (creative tourism, wellness and spa tourism,
gastronomic tourism, religious tourism, educational tourism, cultural volunteer tourism
etc.)

Conclusions
Exploring rich cultural heritage of the North-West Region and considering that most
cultural heritage sites are in poor condition and require investments for rehabilitation,
infrastructure, access and functionality in order to introduce them in touristic circuit,
number of ROP projects applied and implemented in the field of cultural heritage is
surprisingly small and area of interest of these projects is rather narrow: 5 churches
restoration/rehabilitation projects (2 orthodox wooden churches, 2 reformed churches, 1
roman catholic church), 3 circuit tourism projects (circuit of medieval fairs in Northern
Transylvania, circuit of wooden churches in Northern Transylvania, circuit of Roman
forts from Salaj county), 2 rehabilitating historic buildings projects (Salaj County Military
Centre, History Museum and Art Gallery; "Silversmith House" from Bistrita), 1 fortress
rehabilitation project (Oradea Fortress).
Nevertheless, all above projects are relevant for ROP 2007-2013 as sectorial program in
Romania of EU regional policy, for North-West Regional Development Plan 2007-2013,
are in accordance with region potential for cultural tourism development, but contributed
only partially to regional needs in the field of cultural heritage. In our opinion, the most
important causes are: amounts allocated were insufficient for this area of intervention
that demands major investments, projects ranging from a value of 1,7– 85 milion lei
(around 0,37 – 18,88 mil. euro), minimum percentage of the applicant's own
contribution being 2% (RMDPWH, 2008), the impossibility of involvement of the private
sector as far as local and central public administration authorities, religious
establishments, NGOs and partnerships between these were the eligible beneficiaries
(RMDPWH, 2008), low inclination and practice in the field of partnerships in local public
admininistration, lack of expertise in project writing and project management and lower
ability of local public administration, especially in smaller towns and communes, to
generate cultural heritage tourism projects.
However, it is also true that the ROP 2007-2013, the only operational program managed
at regional level in Romania, determined important steps in the direction of know-how
transfer, multi-level governance and partnership culture in regional cultural tourism. The
experience of beneficiaries and regional development agency in the implementation and
monitorization of restoration and sustainable valorisation of cultural heritage projects can
substantiate in our opinion, both North-West Regional Development Plan 2014-2020,
and regional decentralization of regional cultural tourism, at least for UNESCO cultural
heritage and national heritage.
Finally, is there a role for local governance in regional cultural tourism relative to other
actors (European, national, regional authorities)? The situation in the field of cultural
heritage in North-West Region of Romania suggests the fact that the Romanian local
government has limited resources to act outside the EU funds in the broader cultural
tourism field. The case study of Revitalization of the Oradea Fortress in order to
introduce it in the tourism circuit presented suggests that, in a climate of competition
between local governments at regional level to attract tourists and investors, will earn
only those who devote substantial own resources and prove their perseverance and
innovativeness in implementing and promoting projects, knowing that cultural heritage
projects are highly expensive, long lasting and highly innovative projects.

201
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Coles, T. and Hall,ă D.ă (2005)ă “Tourism and European Union enlargement. Plus ça
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Cultural Routes on SMEs’ innovation and competitiveness (Provisional Edition), [Online],
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Dodescu, A. and Chiril ,ăL.ă(2013a)ă“TheăimpactăofăRegionalăOperationalăProgrammeăonă
the economic development and regional competitiveness of North-West region of
Romania.ă Partială findingsă andă emergingă challenges”, in Lengyel I. – Vas Zs. (eds)
Regional Growth, Development and Competitiveness, University of Szeged, Doctoral
School in Economics, Szeged, pp. 77-89.
Dodescu, A. and Chiril ,ă L.ă (2013b) “Business environment development and regional
policy in North-West Region of Romania”, communication at International Conference
Emerging Markets Queries in Finance and Business EMQFB2013, Petru Maior
University of Tîrgu-Mures, ROMANIA, October 24th - 27th, 2013.
European Commission (EC) (2010) Europe, the world's No 1 tourist destination – a new
political framework for tourism in Europe, COM(2010) 352 final, [Online], Available:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2010:0352:FIN:en:PDF [20
January 2014].
European Commission (EC) (2014) EC – DG for Enterprise and Industry – Tourism -
Cultural Tourism, [Online], Available:
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/tourism/cultural-routes/index_en.htm [20 January
2014].
Giaoutzi, M. and Nijkamp, P. (2006) Tourism and Regional Development: New
Pathways, Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.
Hall, D.R., Smith, M.K. and Marciszewska. B. (eds.) (2006) ăTourism in the New Europe:
The Challenges and Opportunities of EU Enlargement, Wallingford: CAB International.
Mowforth, M. and Munt, I. (2008) Tourism and Sustainability: Development,
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Oradea Municipality internal data.
Oradea Municipality website: http://www.oradea.ro/ [18 February 2014].
Revitalization of the Oradea Fortress project website: http://www.oradea.ro/cetatea-
oradea/ [13 April 2014].
Richards, G. (ed.) (2001) Cultural Attractions and European Tourism, Wallingford: CAB
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203
EDUCATIONAL IMPACT ON THE ROMANIAN’S MACROREGIONS

Florea Adrian
University of Oradea, Faculty of Economics, Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: In the conditions of continuous changing of educational systems from all

around the world, we notice these systems are becoming less a public good and merely
a manifestation of an economic sector. Meanwhile a part of the Romania’s population
develops concerns for perfecting their own education and also the education of their
family’s members, it is observable how mass-media give us some series of “examples”
trying to prove right the idea of succeeding in life without “studying too much”. In order to
give a pertinent opinion regarding this matter, I decided to carry on this study, aiming to
identify a link, a pattern, between the level of education existing in a region and the level
of development of that region.

Keywords: education, economic development, macroregions, PIB per capita, income

per capita
JEL classification: A13, I21, I25, J11

Generally, the education is considered one of the main factors generating and promoting
economic growth and development. If some years ago there was a high consideration
for the necessity of benefiting from the educational system for the most of the
population, without any regard for the schooling level, nowadays it seems there is a
focus on the higher education. This one is considered to have a greater impact on the
national economy, not only because of the higher taxes on the revenue received by the
national budget (the revenues are direct proportional with the years of studying), but due
of the connected effects generated: the increase in the savings and investments rates,
the development of the entrepreneurial behavior, the concerns regarding health, the
decrease of natality andăalsoătheăpressureăputăonătheăenvironment’săresources,ăetc.
Evenă ifă theă education’să roleă isă generallyă accepted being one of the fundamental
elements which allow economic growth and development acceleration, there still are
several questions needing to be carefully answered: which of the three levels of
education influences mostly the economic environment? Primary school, gymnasium,
high school, higher education or post university? If education presents such a great
importance for the economic environment, for the economic growth and development,
why is the Government so little involved in supporting it?
The answers were given in various ways during the time by several economic schools.
Some of the researchers chose to apply some rigid accountancy methods with regard to
macroeconomic data, analysing the correlations between the identified changes in the
schooling levels and the alteration of the aggregate production.
Although I managed to find a wide bibliography concerning this matter, the applied
methods, also extremely varied, lead to pretty fragile results. The common element for
the most of the analysed studies implied a systematic research of the connections
between the rates of economic growth and tuition (William E. Becker, D.R. Lewis 1993 :
51).
Another approach insisted on the necessity of conducting a series of analysis in the
specific industrial branches’ăfieldă ină orderă toăfindăoută theăpossibleăconnectionsăbetweenă
theăincreaseăofălabourăproductivityărateăandătheăworkers’ăeducationalăperformancesăofătheă
workers.ăTheăconclusionsăofătheăstudies’ăauthorsăareăpointingăoutătheăideaăthatăeducationă
204
has a positive influence on the economic growth (William E. Becker, D.R. Lewis 1993:
53).
Another interesting approach is in the terms of costs and benefits generated by
education, supposing these are affected by the noticeable personal and family features
and other unobservable factors as well, all of them having the possibility to affect in
various ways the potential profits and the estimated costs (Charlotte Lauer 2005: 63).
Actually, soon after World War II there is a sheer explosion of the theories analysing the
benefits of education on the individuals and also on the society in general. It has to be
highlighted that in those times the role of the higher education in the poverty decrease
had been neglected. Nowadays it is insisted on the idea that higher education is the
”engine of development in the new world economy”ă(D. Bloom, D. Canning, and K. Chan
2006: 1).

My aim in this paper is to study if there really is a connection between the level of
graduatedă studiesă andă theă levelă ofă Romania’să macroregionsă development. The data
used to conduct this study are provided by National Institute of Statistics (NIS). The
interpretation of data, comments and also the graphics represent personal opinions. The
studies are conducted on the same macroregions given by the NIS, as it shows:

Figure 1: Macroregions of Romania

Source:ăhttp://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi ier:România_Macroregiuni.svg

The 1st Macroregion consists of: The North – West development region and the Central
development region. It consists of the following counties: Alba, Bihor, Bistri a-N s ud,
Bra ov, Cluj, Covasna, Harghita, Maramure , Mure , Satu Mare, S laj and Sibiu
The 2nd Macroregion consists of: The North – East development region and the South –
East development region. Ităconsistsăofătheăfollowingăcounties:ăBacau,ăBoto ani,ăBr ila,ă
Buz u,ăConstanta,ăGalati,ăIasi,ăNeamt,ăSuceava,ăTulcea,ăVasluiăandăVrancea
The 3rd Macroregion consistsăof:ăTheăSouthădevelopmentăregionăandătheăBucure tiăandă
Ilfov development region. Ită consistsă ofă theă followingă counties:ă Arge ,ă Calarasi,ă
Dâmbovi a,ăGiurgiu,ăIalomi a,ăPrahova,ăTeleorman
The 4th Macroregion consists of: The South – West development region and the West
development region. It consists of the followingă counties:ă Dolj,ă Gorj,ă Mehedin i,ă Olt,ă
Vâlcea,ăArad,ăCara -Severin,ăHunedoaraăandăTimi
The study takes into account the stable population over 10 years and the given values
represent the last graduated level of education.

205
 Figure 2: Graduates of primary level
Source: Graphic designed by the author using data provided by the Bihor County
Statistics
nd
Figure 2 shows that the 2 macroregion has the highest rate of graduating a maximum
st
of 4 grades, the lowest rate being registered in the 1 macroregion, only 12,32% of the
total population settled for more than 10 years graduated 4 years of school in this area.
rd th
In the 3 and the 4 macroregions, the rate, in the population settled for more than 10
years and graduated only 4 grades, registers the value of 13,02 % and 14,22%.

Figure 3: Graduates of high school

Source: Graphic designed by the author using data provided by the Bihor County
Statistics
rd
The 3 macroregion has the highest rate of high school graduates and registers a value
nd
of 26,06 %, meanwhile the lowest rates belongs to the 2 macroregion, only 20,75% of
st th
the population managed to graduate 12 grades in this area. For the 1 and the 4
Macroregions, the rates register very similar values, such as 25,58% for the first and
25,82% for the other one.

206
 Figure 4: Graduates of higher education
Source: Graphic designed by the author using data provided by the Bihor County
Statistics

Figure 5: Graduates of post university studies

Source: Graphic designed by the author using data provided by the Bihor County
Statistics

Analysing figure 4 and figure 5, we can notice that, regarding university studies and also
rd st th
post university studies, the 3 macroregion is leading, whereas the 1 and the 4
nd
macroregions are following. The last one in this ranking is the 2 macroregion.

Putting all together the values presented by the earlier graphics, I designed the following
table, in order to outline the characteristics of each macroregion in terms of the
graduatedăstudies’ălevelăofătheăpopulationăsettled for more than 10 years.

Table 1: The population settled for 10 years or more by level of education

primar high higher post
y school education university
st
1 Macroregion 12,32 25,58 12.03 1.92
nd
2 16,83 20,75 9,62 1,28
Macroregion
rd
3 Macroregion 13,02 26,06 16,56 2,52
th
4 Macroregion 14,22 25,82 12 1,50
Source: Figure designed by the author using data provided by the Bihor County
Statistics

207
Analysingă theă macroregions’ă levelă ofă developmentă Iă tookă intoă accountă theă Grossă
Domestic Product per capita and the average income per capita. According to these two
indicators,ătheăsituationăofătheăfourăRomania’sămacroregionsăisătheăfollowing:

Figure 6: GDP per capita

Source: Graphic designed by the author using data provided by the site
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/mapToolClosed.do?tab=map&init=1&plugin=1&lan
guage=en&pcode=tgs00003&toolbox=types – accessed at 21.04.2014
rd
The 3 macroregion registers the highest levels for the GDP per capita, while the
nd
opposite, the 2 macroregion, registers the lowest level, less than a half of the value
rd st th
registered by the 3 macroregion. The 1 and the 4 macroregions register almost
equalăvalues,ăsuchăas:ă5500ă€ăandă5700ă€ăforătheăother.
Analysing the income per capita, there are not such great differences between the four
rd
macroregions. Even if the 3 macroregion keeps the leading position with a value of
nd
953,39 lei per capita, the 2 macroregion has the last position in ranking, registering a
rd
value of 740,41 lei, which also means 77,66% of the 3 macroregion income, whereas
nd
in terms of GDP per capita, formerly presented, the same 2 macroregion produces
rd
only 44,68% of the GDP per capita registered by the 3 macroregion.

Figure 7: Income per capita

Source: Graphic designed by the author using data provided by the Bihor County
Statistics
Conclusions
Analysing the presented data we are able to assert that it is true, there is a correlation of
direct proportionality between the level of graduate studies and the level of
macroregions’ă development,ă howeveră ită certainlyă needsă additională analysisă ină orderă toă
highlight the extra benefits associated with the graduation of each level of studies.
208
In the conditions of the globalization which focuses more than ever on the involvement
of a highly qualified labour force, the link between education and economic productivity
has to be stronger: the policymaker factors have to pay more attention to the business
sector’săneeds,ăassuringăsoăaăprioritizationăofătheăeducationalăsystems.
Considering that education has a varied contribution on the economic system, also
starting with favouring a rapid industrialization and ending offering a highly qualified
labourăforceăandăalsoătheăpossibilityăofăattitude’săchangeăregardingătheăsocietyăinăgeneral,ă
in my opinion all these have to become a priority for any developing economy.
The higher is the level of education of a nation, the capacity of producing knowledge
increases. This knowledge, these information are not only assimilated through the
educational system, but they are directly or indirectly transmitted to all the members of
the society.
The differences related to the level of education between the macroregions of Romania
reflect thus the economic differences between these zones as well. The measures to be
taken into account in order to reduce these differences must be of political nature and
must focus on continuing the reform of the national educational system.

References
Charlotte Lauer, (2005) Education and Labour Market Outcomes: A French-German
Comparison, Munchen
D. Bloom, D. Canning, and K. Chan (2006), Higher Education and Economic
Development in Africa: Harvard University February
Direc iaăjude ean ădeăstatistic ăBihor,ăavailable:ăhttp://www.bihor.insse.ro/main.php
Institutulăna ionalădeăstatistic ,ăavailable:ăhttp://www.insse.ro/cms/
Macroregiunile României :http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroregiunile_României
William E. Becker, D.R. Lewis, (1993) Higher Education and Economic Growth, New
York

209
THE USE OF GREEN CERTIFICATES IN THE BANAT REGION

Perțicaș Diana – Claudia

Economic Department, Faculty of Economics, University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: The economy has developed and specialized itself in different fields of
activity and great economists have had the possibility to observe the polluting effects of
mankind’s activity (which nowadays develops its activity within some local, state and
world business enterprises heading at present towards a globalization of the economic
activity). Even though the harmful influence of the economic agent's activity on the
environment has been noticed for over a century now, only in the last decades new
span concepts and actions appeared, such as: sustainable development and national
and international policies regarding the environment.Sustainable development pursues
and tries to find a stable theoretical framework for making decisions in any situation in
which a man/environment type relationship is found (whether it is about the
environment or the economic or social medium) and it constitutes the main objective of
sustainable development. At present, the concept comprises both the solving of the
ecological crisis ensuring the quality of the environment and that of life quality in its
complexity, including social and economic aspects. One of these solutions is the
introduction of the "green certificates" concept. Its emergence led to the appearance of
a competition in the field of energy production from renewable resources. Each green
certificate must contain the following information: the quantity of produced energy and
its source, a unique registration number and other additional information, if it is
required. The validity period of the green certificate is the date on which the energy was
already produced and consumed.

Keywords: green certificates, sustainable development, renewable energies.

JEL classification: Q01, E01, F64,

The problems related to the population have drawn the attention of scientists ever since
ancient times. The main analyzed issues were those related to the depletion of food
resources than those of the land and the environmental degradation. If the food
resources depletion problems have been solved using scientific progress, the issues
related to land resources depletion and those regarding the environmental degradation
are currently awaiting resolution.
Man, in his double role as consumer and producer able to create his own resources
outside the natural ones compared to the other living beings, does not just represent an
environmental component but also a factor modifying it. In this sense, the main
economic structures, which are described in Figure 1.2. can be determined, by
analyzing the relationship between man and nature.

210
 Figure 1: The interdependence of the population with the natural and economic
structures
Source: Vert Constantin, Geografia populaţiei, teorie şi metodologie, Mirton Publishing
House,ăTimişoara,ă2001,ăp.ă11
The population of the XXI century lives longer and has a higher level of education.
Precisely, the increase of the level of education has determined the emergence and
diversification of some new needs and desires of the people. Successful economic
results recorded during history have bore and still borne a burden, which presses the
environment and the quality of life, a burden that grows by the day. Despite the fact that
population growth rate registers values that are increasingly smaller, global threats on
the ecosystem are more numerous and pressing. Table 1.1. presents the global status of
the environment since 1927 up to now as well as the forecasts until late 2050.
Table 1: Global status of the environment 1927 – 2050
Global status of the
environment 1927 - 1927 1950 1972 1997 2009 2025* 2050*
2050
Population 2 2,5 3,8 5,8 6,8 8 9,4
Megacities - 2 9 25 40 60 90
Food - 1980 2450 2770 3100 3400 4000
Fishing - 19 58 91 120 150 -
Used water - 1300 2600 4200 6000 7100 9000
Coverage rate of
- 100 85 70 60 45 -
tropical forests
Elephants - 6,0 2,0 0,6 0,14 - -
CO2 emissions - 1,6 4,9 7,0 10 - -
Ozone layer - - 1,4 3,0 4,0 - -
Legend
6. Index of planet coverage with forests
1. Billions of people
1950 = 100
2. Cities with a population larger than
7. Billions of animals
8 billion people
3. Daily average food production 8. Annual CO2 emission in billion tones of
expressed in calories/inhabitant carbon
4. Annual fish catch in million tones 9. Ozone concentration in the atmosphere
5. Annual water consumption in
* - forecasts
cubic meters

Source: WBCSD Global Scenarios 2000-2050, Exploring Sustainable Development

http://www.wbcsd.org/DocRoot/FFiAJwjBGGNjlawOAipD/exploringscenarios.pdf
accessed on the 25.10.2010 and Population Reference Bureau 2009 available on-line at
http://www.prb.org/pdf09/09wpds_eng.pdf accessed on the 25.10.2010

More specifically, global threats on the ecosystems have begun to be more and more
stronger, of these we will try to mention those we consider to be the most menacing,
namely: soil erosion, desertification and infertility or low fertility of it, massive
deforestation, where world statistical data shows that on average about 10 million
211
hectares per year disappear from the land surface, massive extinction of plant and
animal species mainly due to natural habitat destruction, case in which biologists inform
us that about 1,000 species of plants and animals disappear or are about to go extinct
due to overfishing and water pollution, situation in which 25 of the main fishing areas not
to be left without fish; climatic changes and acid rains occur mainly due to increased
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is a threat not only to plants
and animals but also for human health (especially for those in highly industrialized
areas) and, not least, the pressure on the natural resources beside the fact that their
attainment is highly polluting, they are on the list of exhaustible (WBCSD Global
Scenarios 2000-2050, Exploring Sustainable Development, available online at
http://www.wbcsd.org/DocRoot/FFiAJwjBGGNjlawOAipD /exploringscenarios.pdf)
Energy is one of the most important physical concepts discovered by man. The correct
understanding of the energy concept is a necessary condition for the completion of this
paper as well as for the analysis and interpretation of the economic effects deriving from
its making, both for ensuring electricity and thermal comfort of the people.
According to the explanatory dictionary of the Romanian language (Dicţionarul Explicativ
al Limbii Române, available online at http://dexonline.ro/definitie/energie) by energy we
understand "the capacity of a system to perform mechanical work, when changing from
one state to another". Another definition still given by the Romanian dictionary is the one
which states that energy means "force, power, strength, vigor, the ability to act". As the
definition says, energy means power, which inevitably in our economic analysis makes
us think growth, development and economic progress. Even more, if we compare the
rate of energy consumption growth in comparison to the Gross Domestic Product, we
will observe that between these there is a directly proportional connection. For
example, in the United States of America, for each dollar of the GDP corresponds on
averageă95.000ăBTU’să(one BTU equals 1055 joules) of used energy, phenomenon that
occurs not only in the USA but also in other countries of the world as can be observed
from the below figure (Simon L. Andrew, Energy Resources, Pergamon Press
Publishing House, London, 2011,)
Furthermore, we could say that energy is for some time now a basic need of humanity,
without which under the current circumstances set by modern society the individual
could barely survive.

Figure 2: GDP versus used energy

Source: Simon L. Andrew, Energy Resources, Pergamon Press Publishing House,
London, 2011, p. 6

212
Simon Andrew defined energy as "a key element in economic development", which he
considered it will register an upward almost without stopping tendency, as long as we
will want the achievement of a growth, of a development or of an economic progress,
the only difference will be the way to accomplish it (Simon L. Andrew, Energy
Resources, Pergamon Press Publishing House, London, 2011)
In respect to the cataloguing of the resources necessary for the production of energy, we
believe that the most important criterion besides their classification is their degree of
renewability and according to it we will group the resources in two categories: renewable
and nonrenewable. Renewable resources are those that can be cyclically exploited and
are practically inexhaustible, while nonrenewable resources can only be used in a single
production cycle and they are limited as quantity, so their use leads to exhaustion. Fossil
fuels are part of this category.
First of all when we refer to the classification of the non-polluting resources we take into
account the source of these. In the following, we will list the main types of
unconventional resources, which we will detail in the next pages: solar energy, fossil
fuels energy, hydropower, wind power, geothermal and nuclear energy.
World Council of Energy (Comitetul Național Român al Consiliului Mondial al Energiei,)
presented numerous scenarios, which meet future energy requirements and that put the
emphasis on economic development, technological progress, environmental protection
and international ethics. Between 1990 and 2050, the consumption of primary energy is
projected to increase by 50% in line with the other real solutions of environmental
protection and by 275% in line with the highest rate of economic growth. In scenarios
that take into account environmental protection, carbon emissions are expected to
slightly decrease below the 1990 level, compared to the high rate of economic growth
scenarios that lead to the doubling of the carbon emissions.
Aware of how important is the development of a clean energy sector, overall
investments in renewable energy have increased in recent years from 39 billion dollars
in 2005 to 55 billion dollars in 2006, in 2007 100 billion dollars and it is expected to
continue its upward trend. According to an EU directive Member States must gradually
hybridize traditional fuel used in biofuels transport, so that by 2020, biodiesel will
represent 20% of the diesel market (Antal Cornel, coord., Utilizarea durabilă a resurselor
regenerabile de energie. Energia geotermală, Risoprint Publishing House, Cluj Napoca,
2010)
Unlike conventional forms, unconventional energy starts from the extremely simple idea
that in the directly accessible to human knowledge space there is insufficient energy that
manifests itself in one form or another. It just needs to be identified, captured and
possibly transformed in the desired form. Simplifying things eventually all comes down
to cost issues and conversion efficiency.
The green certificate is, according to the OPCOM-Romanian Gas and Electricity Market
Operatoră definition,ă aă “documentă whichă attestsă thată aă quantityă ofă 1MWHă electricityă wasă
producedăusingărenewableăenergyăsources”.
Green certificates have been defined for the first time in the Electricity Act made in 1998
in order to support energy production by using hydropower, wind, solar and biomass
resources but without using fossil fuels. At the beginning these resources were meant
only for internal usage, but due to the fact that for 6 months only in Germany these
certificates were used, situation in which the European target regarding the reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions could not be reached, the training of these extended
internationally but in accordance with the following principles ( Lovinfosse de Isabelle,
Varone Frederic, Renewable Electricity Policies in Europe. Tradable Green Certificates
in Competitive Markets, Press Universitaires de Louvain Publishing House, Belgium,
2004): reciprocity, double subvention is not accepted, the careful checking of the data

213
and of the manner in which the energy is produced, the attestation of the country's
ability to import green certificates, etc.
As regards the price of these green certificates this ranges between a minimum and
maximum variant established by Government Decision. Setting a minimum price has as
purpose the protection of the producers while the minimum one the protection of the
consumers. More precisely, for the 2008-2014 period the trading value of green
certificates in Romania registers a minimum value of 27 Euros/certificate and a
maximum of 55 Euros/certificate. As for the value of the exchange rate at which the
transaction is made, it was taken into account the exchange rate in the last month of the
previous year set by the National Bank of Romania.
Another important aspect of these certificates is the features that they must have,
features that were identified and detailed by the economist Halfdan Wilk and namely
(Wilk Halfdan, Green Certificate Systems and a Greenhouse Gas Emission Permit
Trading Systems, Nordic Council of Ministers Publishing House, Copenhagen, 2003):
1. to have a unique registration number, by means of which the used energy
source to be identified,
2. the certificate must be issued by a competent authority,
3. each certificate has a maximum validity period of one calendar year (Lovinfosse
de Isabelle, Varone Frederic, Renewable Electricity Policies in Europe. Tradabile
Green Certificates in Competitive Markets, Press Universitaires de Louvain
Publishing House, Belgium, 2004),
4. the certificates must be issued electronically.

In Romania, based on the Decree no. 15-2005 of the Regulatory Authority for Energy,
OPCOM-Romanian Gas and Electricity Market Operator operates and whose role is to
trade, coordinate and making efficient these certificates as well as to determine their
th
price. It was set up on the 15 of August 2000 as a joint stock company.
A "system of mandatory shares" was set in order to promote the attainment of clean
energy, which works like this:
 a certain share of energy from unconventional resources is set by the competent
authority, which subsequently is sold by the energy producers,
 producers receive for each 1MWh of produced and delivered energy a green
certificate, which can be marketed on the Green Certificates Market,
 the need to have green certificates arises from the obligation of each
manufacturer to achieve an amount of energy equal to the number of held
certificates,
 as for the price of the obtained energy, this is determined on the energy market.

For the 2008-2020 period the mandatory shares of green certificates are presented in
the table no. 2.

Table 2: The evolution of the mandatory shares of green certificates during 2008-2020
Year Share Year Share
2008 5,26% 2016 12,0%
2009 6,28% 2017 13,2%
2010-2012 8,3% 2018 14,4%
2013 9,0% 2019 15,6%
2014 10,0% 2020 16,8%
2015 10,8%
Source: Operatorul Pieţei de Certificate Verzi, available online at
http://www.opcom.ro/opcom/uploads/doc/PCCV/PCV_Descriere.pdf, accessed on the
24.08.2012
214
The necessity to set mandatory shares for a longer period of time represents a way to
attract foreign investors, because based on these shares the necessary forecasts
regarding their price can be made(Kyritsis S., 1st Word Conferences on Biomas for
Energy and Industry, James&James Publishing House, Germany, Munich, 2000).

Case study
Banat region is a territorial-administrative unit, which covers the territories of the
followingă counties:ă Timiş,ă Caraş-Severin and part of Arad County. As regards the
resources of fossil fuels existent in this region, coal and methane gases are the most
abundant, especially in the sub- regionăofăReşiţa.

Figure 3: National energetic production structure on resources

Source: S.C. Enel Distributie S.A.

As expected, the greatest amount of energy from this region is produced by burning coal
and gas or by the use of fossil fuels. What we believe is worth appreciating is the great
quantity of energy from renewable resources produced within this region such as: wind
power and hydro energy, which added up represent over 30% of the produced and
consumed energy in the entire region. More specifically, the total installed electric
capacity at the end of 2012 in the accredited units for the production of energy from
renewable resources was of 2327.76 MW.

Figure 4: Annual mandatory acquisition cotes of CV for period 2005 – 2012

Source: S.C. Enel Distributie S.A.

215
Even if the annual mandatory shares of green certificates showed a strong upward
trend, according to the plan developed by the Green Certificates Market Operator in
Romania, the emergence of the economic crisis, the lack of some funding sources
maybe even the slight decline of the energy demand have determined some annual
shares of green certificates significantly lower than initially established. For example, in
2010 annual mandatory shares set by OPCOM were over 0.0800 CV/MWh, while
annual shares were under the value 0.02000. The only year in which the two shares
were equal was 2010 being made 0.01200 CV/MWh.

Figure 5: CV impact evolution in final price

Source: S.C. Enel Distributie S.A.

All efforts to promote and achieve energy from renewable resources in absolute terms
mean money. This money is either obtained from the state budget or from the final
consumer. In our case, as can be seen from the above figure, the financial effort made
to promote energy from renewable resources and increase of the price at the final
consumer were directly proportional, situation that we consider it to be a heavy burden
placed solely on the final consumer. Specifically, if we look at the 2005-2012 period, we
can see that energy prices increased, 2012 being considered the peak due to an
increase of 28.81 lei per MWh consumed was registered.
In conclusion, we can say that the implementation of an energy strategy for the
valorization of the renewable energy resources is included in the coordinates of the
medium and long term energy development of Romania, by providing the appropriate
framework for making decisions regarding energy alternatives and the entry in the
acquis the European law in the field.
The strategic objective for 2010 is that the contribution of the renewable energy sources
in EU Member States to be of 12% from the total consumption of primary resources. All
these objectives represent an ideal hard to fulfill goal, however the when the entire effort
to achieve it is made only by the final consumer this target is even more difficult to
reach.

Refereces
Antală Cornel,ă coord.,ă Utilizareaă durabil ă aă resurseloră regenerabileă deă energie.ă Energiaă
geotermal ,ăRisoprintăPublishingăHouse,ăClujăNapoca,ă2010
Kyritsis S., 1st Word Conferences on Biomas for Energy and Industry, James&James
Publishing House, Germany, Munich, 2000
Lovinfosse de Isabelle, Varone Frederic, Renewable Electricity Policies in Europe.
Tradabile Green Certificates in Competitive Markets, Press Universitaires de Louvain
Publishing House, Belgium, 2004
216
Lovinfosse de Isabelle, Varone Frederic, Renewable Electricity Policies in Europe.
Tradable Green Certificates in Competitive Markets, Press Universitaires de Louvain
Publishing House, Belgium, 2004
Simon L. Andrew, Energy Resources, Pergamon Press Publishing House, London, 2011
Simon L. Andrew, Energy Resources, Pergamon Press Publishing House, London, 2011
Wilk Halfdan, Green Certificate Systems and a Greenhouse Gas Emission Permit
Trading Systems, Nordic Council of Ministers Publishing House, Copenhagen, 2003,
Comitetulă Na ională Română ală Consiliului Mondial al Energiei, available online at
www.cnr-cme.ro/ accessed on the 13.05.2011
Dicţionarulă Explicativă ală Limbiiă Române,ă availableă onlineă ată
http://dexonline.ro/definitie/energie, accessed on the 21.08.2012
Electricity Act 1998, available online at http://www.e-
laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_98e15_e.htm#BK0, accessed on
the 24.08.2012
Operatorulă Pieţeiă deă Certificateă Verzi,ă availableă onlineă ată
http://www.opcom.ro/opcom/uploads/doc/PCCV/PCV_Descriere.pdf, accessed on the
24.08.2012
Operatorulă Pieţeiă deă Certificateă Verzi,ă availableă onlineă ată
http://www.opcom.ro/opcom/uploads/doc/PCCV/PCV_Descriere.pdf, accessed on the
24.08.2012
WBCSD Global Scenarios 2000-2050, Exploring Sustainable Development, available
online at
http://www.wbcsd.org/DocRoot/FFiAJwjBGGNjlawOAipD/exploringscenarios.pdf
accessed on the 25.10.2010

217
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY AND THE MARKET COMPETITION

Sîrghi Nicoleta
Departament of Economics and Economic Modelling, Faculty of Economics and
Business Administration, West University of Timisoara, Timişoara, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: Evolutionary theory study of processes that transform economy for firms,
institutions, industries, employment, production, trade and growth within, through the
actions of diverse agents from experience and interactions, using evolutionary
methodology. Evolutionary theory analyses the unleashing of a process of technological
and institutional innovation by generating and testing a diversity of ideas which discover
and accumulate more survival value for the costs incurred than competing
alternatives.This paper presents study the behavior of the firms on the market used the
evolutionary theory.The paper is to present in full the developments that have led to the
re-assessment of theories of firms starting from the criticism on Coase's theory based
on the lack of testable hypotheses and on non-operative definition of transaction costs.
In the literature in the field studies on firms were allotted a secondary place for a long
period of time, to date the new theories of the firm hold a dominant place in the firms’
economic analysis. In an article, published in 1937, Ronald H. Coase identified the
main sources of the cost of using the market mechanism. The firms theory represent a
issue intensively studied in the literature in the field, regarding the survival,
competitiveness and innovation of firm on the market. The research of Nelson and
Winter, “An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change” (1982) is the starting point for a
modern literature in the field which considers the approach of the theory of the firm from
an evolutionary perspective. Nelson and Winter have shown that the “orthodox” theory,
is objectionable primarily by the fact that the hypothesis regarding profit maximization
has a normative character and is not valid in any situation. Nelson and Winter
reconsidered their microeconomic analysis showing that excessive attention should not
be paid to market equilibrium but rather to dynamic processes resulting from
irreversible economic exchanges. This paper is focused on the market competition. In
this market the firms must define its behaviour and formulate strategies for future
actions affected by risk and uncertainty. The conclusions of the paper reveal that using
a theory of the firm as reference framework regarding the representation of the
economic agent’s on market structure, opens the way for a new field of investigation.

Keywords: market structures, market competition, firm, evolutionary theory

JEL classification: D41, D42, D43

1. Introduction
Evolutionary theory is part of mainstream economics as well as a heterodox school of
economic thought that is inspired by evolutionary biology. Much like mainstream
economics, it stresses complex interdependencies, competition, growth, structural
change, and resource constraints but differs in the approaches which are used to
analyze these phenomena.
A term coined by Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929), an American economist and sociologist.
Veblen's evolutionary economics drew upon anthropology, sociology, psychology and
darwinian principles. Evolutionary economists believe that economic organization is a
dynamic process involving ongoing transformation, and that economic behavior is
determined by both individuals and society as a whole
218
The evidence suggests that it could be adaptive efficiency that defines economic
efficiency. Mainstream economic reasoning begins with the postulates of scarcity and
rational agents (that is, agents modeled as maximizing their individual welfare), with the
"rational choice" for any agent being a straightforward exercise in mathematical
optimization. There has been renewed interest in treating economic systems as
evolutionary systems in the developing field of Complexity economics (Longuet S.,
2011).
Theă researchă ofă Nelsonă andă Winter,ă “Ană Evolutionaryă Theoryă ofă Economică Change”
(1982) is the starting point for a modern literature in the field which considers the
approach of the theory of the firm from an evolutionary perspective. Nelson and Winter
haveă shownă thată theă “orthodox”ă theory,ă isă objectionableă primarilyă byă theă factă thată theă
hypothesis regarding profit maximization has a normative character and is not valid in
any situation (Dosi, G., R. R. Nelson, S. G. Winter, 2000). Secondly, Nelson and Winter
reconsidered their microeconomic analysis showing that excessive attention should not
be paid to market equilibrium but rather to dynamic processes resulting from irreversible
economic exchanges.
Evolutionary theory does not take the characteristics of either the objects of choice or of
the decision-maker as fixed. Rather its focus is on the non-equilibrium processes that
transform the economy from within and their implications. The processes in turn emerge
from actions of diverse agents with bounded rationality who may learn from experience
and interactions and whose differences contribute to the change (Longuet S., 2011). The
subject draws more recently on evolutionary game theory and on the evolutionary
methodology of Charles Darwin and the non-equilibrium economics principle of circular
and cumulative causation. It is naturalistic in purging earlier notions of economic change
as teleological or necessarily improving the human condition.

2. The firms theory

In the literature in the field studies on firms were allotted a secondary place for a long
period of time, to date the new theories of the firm hold a dominant place in theăfirms’ă
economic analysis. In an article, published in 1937, Ronald H. Coase identified the main
sources of the cost of using the market mechanism. The firms theory represent a issue
intensively studied in the literature in the field, regarding the survival, competitiveness
and innovation of firm on the market (Coase R., 2002).
The theory presented by R.H. Coase was based on generalizing organizational
situations in an environment dominated by the market where trading costs are
significant. Defining firm existence within the marginal theory of the firm is one of the
important issues raised by Ronald H. Coase. He analyzed the reasons why
organizations exist and survive in an economy of exchange in which resource allocation
is governed by the price system. Ronald H. Coase analyzes both the natural reasons of
theă firm’să existence,ă and the implied contractual costs, the law on market transactions
and the costs of market utility. Thus, a firm becomes even greater as additional
transactions (exchanges coordinated by the price mechanism) are effectively organized
by the entrepreneur (Giovanni Dosi, Teece D., S. Winter, 2008).
Formed in accordance with the values promoted by the neoclassical school (along with
his contemporaries Friedrich von Hayek and Milton Friedman), Ludwig von Mises
publishedă ină 1940ă hisă workă “HumanăAction”ă ină whichă heă statedă thată theă economyă isă aă
social science. There were many reactions against this way of considering the economy
and hence the calling into question the entire neoclassical paradigm. In this context, the
firm, the enterprise, represents a form of human action, namely the creation of the
entrepreneur. It is an integrative part of the market, and should be integrated into the
general theory on price formation and market process.

219
Authors like O.E. Williamson (1971), S.G. Winter (1982), S. Ross (1973) H. Demsetz
(1972), a.o., developed the approach initiated by R. Coase in 1937 and discovered new
areas for its application. Alchian and Demsetz (1972) argued that the neoclassical
theory of the firm does not actually refer to firms, but to the industry. Individual firms will,
in general, follow routines described by researchers, but in fact the industry is complying
with the marginal principles. The industry tends towards the optimal decision, but not
because of changes occurred in the behavior of firms, where profit maximization is the
result of an evolutionary process which took place in the industry. Langlois (2003) show
that firms with identical production functions transform homogeneous inputs into
homogeneousăoutputsăaccordingătoăwellăknownătechnicală“plans”.
Machlup (1947) and Stigler (1947) also defended the marginal principle, as a reaction to
these studies. Machalup argued that firms use established routines in decision making.
Alchian and Demsetz (1972) argueă thată theă hierarchicală structureă ofă theă firm’să controlă
does not minimize transactionă costs,ă onlyă monitoringă costs.ă Theă ideaă ofă theă firm’să
behavior put forward by Demsetz and Alchain is not much different from the market
behavior, suggested by Jensen and Meckling (1976) who introduced the idea of agency
costsă asă aă sourceă ofă theă firm’să structure. Ină thisă regardă theă firm’să behavioră isă similară toă
that of the market; it is the result of a complex balancing process. E. Fama (1988) stated
that the separation of share ownership and their control can be explained as an effective
form of economic organizationăinătheăperspectiveăofătheă“setăofăcontracts”.ăEveryăfactorăofă
production within the company is to be found in inputs, which put together can create
final outputs. The contractual theories of the firm are based on the importance of
property rights, asymmetric information and moral hazard. Continuing the reflection of R.
Coase, O. Williamson analyzes the situations in which the exchanges reflect a large
opportunist potential. Using the sources of sustainable competitive advantage has
renewed the resource-based firm theory.
The resource-based firm theory explains performance differences between firms. Thus,
the capabilities are the firm's knowledge base (they belong to the firm and not to
individual agents). From this perspective, the firms are heterogeneous, the competitive
advantage is translated in terms of efficiency of annuities, and the sustainability is based
on the difficulty for the competitors to imitate. The need to integrate the two approaches
to the theory of the firm – the contractual perspective and the one based on capabilities
– is underlined by other theoreticians on this issue stating that for a better understanding
of the firm, more attention should be given to the problem of distribution of knowledge /
production knowledge among companies, and especially to their character (Demsetz).
The corporation is not only a contractual entity, it is in the same time an entity that both
learns and innovates, seeking competitive advantages from economies of scale and
scope based on superior capabilities. Continuing the idea of coordinating knowledge,
some authors (Cremer 1990, Radner 1992, 1996, Bolton and Dewatripont 1994) identify
the firm with a network of communication set up to minimize both the cost of processing
new information as well as its communication cost between agents.
Based on these considerations we find that in the literature in the field there are two
significant approaches in studying enterprise theories. The first refers to the economic
approach, which developed the economic theory of the enterprise, and the second
relates to their managerial approach, which developed the entrepreneurial theory of the
firm. Alchian and Demsetz (1972) challenge Coase's theory, arguing that the hierarchical
structure of the enterprise does not minimize the transaction costs of the company, but
its monitoring costs. Jensen and Meckling (1976) study the enterprise behavior on the
market, based on results of the research conducted by Alchain and Demsetz, and
introduce the idea of agency costs at enterprise level (Jensen M., Meckling W., 2009).
Continuing the research of R. Coase, O. Williamson examines situations where
exchanges reflect a high opportunistic potential. Thus, contractual theories of the
220
enterprise are based on the importance of property rights, asymmetric information and
moral hazard (Fama E., 1988).
Theă researchă ofă Nelsonă andă Winter,ă “Ană Evolutionaryă Theoryă ofă Economică Change”ă
(1982) represents the starting point and main reference of the current literature in the
field on addressing enterprise theories from an evolutionary perspective (Dosi G.,
Nelson R., S. Winter, 2000). The microeconomic analysis is reviewed, insisting not so
much on market equilibrium as on the dynamic processes arising from irreversible
economic exchanges.
The crisis of the Marshall firm theory raises the question of cooperation between
enterprises and the need to address it from a dynamic perspective. There is research in
the field developed on this subject among which the transactional analysis, applications
of the game theory based on an analogy to intra-enterprise cooperation and inter -
enterprise, the combination of the two (inter- and intra- enterprise). Cooperation
between firms (Geoffrey A. Jehle, Philip J. Reny, 2000), as a current issue, attested by
various empirical studies, is the subject of a relatively small number of studies in the
literature in the field.

3. The market competition and the transactions between firms

The market competition notion was and continues to be strongly related on the one
hand,ă toă hypothesesă ofă economică agent’să behaviors,ă andă toă relativeă hypothesesă ofă
market functioning, on the other hand (Geoffrey A. Jehle, Philip J. Reny, 2000). The
capacity of putting pressure on price depends on the power of each supplier, on the
market characteristics within opposition rapports. In parallel with price deciding or
influencing, every supplier is preoccupied with increasing the market share (the
percentage from the accomplished offer of industry) as a premise in maximizing the total
profit. Reală marketsă areă generallyă characterizedă byă imperfectă competition.ă It’să beenă
concluded that there is imperfect competition in a specific field (industry) if salesmen
themselves decide or influence the price levels to their offer individually.
The market with pure and perfect competition represents the theoretical pattern, an ideal
situationăwhichăemphasizesătheăintrinsicăvirtuesăofătheă„ăinvisibleăhand”ăasăbeingătheăbestă
natural mechanism of economy functioning and adjusting. Although considered as
theoretical pattern, the market with perfect competition stresses upon the market
strengths which naturally lead to the most rational and the best possible fulfilling of both
producers and consumers interests.
Market forces are not impersonal and the reduced number of economic actors leads to
adoptingă aă strategică behavioră byă anticipatingă competitor’să reactions.ă Thereă areă someă
rules that need to be followed, rules given by the free game of economic actors. The
interdependence principleă ofă differentă actor’să behaviorsă representsă oneă ofă theă minimală
rules of imperfect competition policy.
The literature in the economics field identifies two important characteristics in the
delimitation of the firms frontiers: on one hand the diversity of production and on the
other hand the diversity of portfolios. This shows that the activities of the enterprise are
based on a high level liaison, which is called coherence in the literature in the field. The
consistency of the enterprise is different from the specialization, the latter being a
particular case of the first. For this reason an enterprise can provide real coherence
without necessarily being specialized. Thus, a firm can prove consistency when its
activities are closely related and share several features .
If the standard neoclassical theory of the enterprise argued isolate the question of
consistency, an explicit approach is currently presented not only in terms of production,
exchange and transaction costs but also in terms of innovation. Thus, the degree of
coherence is manifested by the dependence between knowledge, constraints regarding

221
enterprise expansion and opportunities on one hand, and additional assets acquired and
reinvested in the enterprise on the other hand (Foss Nicolai Juul, 2006).
The specificity of this competition type can be realized with the help of the games theory.
Markets with imperfect competition are of huge diversity, but they are never in pure
pattern. Therefore, on imperfect markets, consumers are confronted with particular
product brands, with a finite range of substitution products, etc. Thus, the modality in
which competitive companies choose quality, quantity, price, etc should be studied first.
Unlike free entering and exiting the market postulated by the perfect competition, this
hypothesis is not verified for the imperfect competition. There already are companies on
this market which impose entering barriers for other new companies. Augustin Cournot
studied in 1838 the operation of the duopoly markets where each company takes action
knowing that its volume of production affects the market cost (Sîrghi N., 2008). In 1833
J. Bertrand studied the operation of the oligopoly markets where the companies with
constant efficiencies produce the same product settling the selling price. The result
mentioned by Bertrand is known as Bertrand paradox. In 1934 Stackelberg shows that
some companies can be leader and that are able to impose the price to the others. The
leader company, as a barometer company, knows best the market situation and has the
meansă necessaryă ină orderă toă controlă theă counteră party.ă Thisă doesn’tă meană thată theă
company is the most powerful but well informed and organised. The following question
comes up: Which of the behaviours mentioned above should be followed? In order to
answer this question, a theory was needed which could explain the interactions between
companies. This is the great contribution of the game theory. It allows the elaboration of
an analytical framework regarding the situations when an agent’să decisionsă cană affectă
the earnings of the other agents.
In the market, price changes lead to different transactions of exchange. Within the firm
thereăareătwoăalternativeămethodsăofătransactions’ăcoordination:ăinternalăcoordinationăandă
external coordination (Kirzner I.M., 2007). The essence of cooperation agreements is
the fact that the parties agree to a system of guarantees and contractual clauses. There
are therefore transactions between firms at lower costs than the real market costs
imposed by an open market. In this case transaction costs between firms are lower than
market transaction costs on the open markets. Thus can be identified the dimensions of
the relationship of firms – market, which are related to the analysis of the economic
activity coordination.
The market structures vary depending on: the influence on the costs settlement; the
companies’ă productionă ofă standardizedă oră nonă - standardizedă products;ă theă companies’ă
possibilityătoăenterăonătheămarket;ătheăpublicity,ătheăproducts’ăfeatures, etc. The duopoly
means a market structure controlled by a two producers, the actions of each producer
affectingătheăothersăcompetitors’ăactions.ăIfăaăproducerăcutsătheăpriceăinăorderătoăincreaseă
the sales, then its competitors will react by cutting their price too, thing which will
determine a profit decrease for the first company. Before making the decision regarding
the price cut, the duopoly company would have to analyse first the future reaction of its
competitors and the consequences upon it. In the first works on oligopoly, Cournot
(1838) and Bertrand (1883), write about the elements used by the theory of games for
analyse of the imperfect competition (Cowen T, D. Parker , 2010).
Studying the situations of imperfect competition, especially the one of duopoly where the
buyers’ă decisionsă areă interdependent,ă cană beă achievedă withă theă helpă ofă nonă –
cooperative games. Important applications of the game theory reside in different aspects
of the duopoly competition, for example: secret agreements or price forming study in a
closed economic system (Neamtu M., Sirghi N., Babaita C., Nitu R., 2010). In designing
and testing models of evolution and revealing the firm's performance in a competitive
environment affected by risk and uncertainty can be used stochastic mathematical
models. Below we briefly present one of these models including finite stochastic
222
differences, namely the Behrens-Feichtinger model. A number of “physical” models were
developed as an extension of the nonlinear microeconomic Richardson model. The
firm’săreactionătoătheăpriceăcutăisălikeăităwouldăbeătheăresultăofăaăproblemătheăcompetitorsă
deal with. They have to operate in order to make the competitors believe in the penalty
in case of agreement breakage. Updating the credibility of the menaces is important in
order to respect the agreement as longer as possible. On this kind of markets, from time
to time, price war can occur, which can end with the exclusion from the market of the
weaker competitors.
The analysis of firm development in a competitive market is essential for the reassessment of
firm theory from a news perspective. The neoclassical theory of the firm views the firm as a
black box rational entity. The transactions cost theory of the firm focuses on problems of
asymmetric information in the market. The evolutionary theory of firm places emphasis on
production capabilities and process as well as product innovation.

4. Final conclusions
The economic level of the competition can be considered as a mechanism of resources
allocation which allows, in many cases, the promotion of the economic efficiency. For
this reason the notion of competition was and is related first to the behaviour hypothesis
of the economical agents and second to the relative hypothesis of the market operation.
When the coordination of the individual actions is adjusted by competition, each
economicăagentămustăforecastătheăotherăagents’ă actionsăandăthenămaximiseădependingă
on the results their own behaviour.
Some of the economic agents have a different behaviour on the market affecting the
otheră economicăagents’ăbehaviour.ăThisătypeă ofărealityăresidesă ină theă“marketăstructure”ă
concept. The meaning of market structure represents the features of a market by the
number and the relative power of the companies which operate on the market having
the purpose of settling their behaviour and its consequences on the economic efficiency
of the economic system.
Competition was and is related to the behaviour hypothesis of the economic agents and
to the relative hypothesis of the market operation.Market forces are not impersonal and
the reduced number of firms leads to adopting a strategic behavior by anticipating
competitor’să reactions.ă Theă interdependenceă principleă ofă differentă actor’să behaviorsă
represents one of the minimal rules of imperfect competition policy. In economy,
structural changes and oscillations are the rule and not the exception and the stationary
states become instable when certain parameters vary. The economic actors have
different behaviours on the market which have different consequences depending on the
number, relative size and strategies approached by the other economic actors.

223
References
Alchian A., Demsetz H. (2002), Alternative Theories of the Firm, Edward Elgar
Publishing Limited, Cheltenham, SUA.
Coase R. (2002), The Nature of the Firm, Edward Elgar, Publishing Limited,
Cheltenham, SUA.
Comet Catherine (2011), Pour une theorie des processus entrepreneuriaux, Revue
francais de socio-economie, premiere semestre, 7-13.
Cowen T , D. Parker (2010) ,Markets in the Firm: A Market Pocess Approach to
Management, Institute of Economics Affaires, London
Dosi, G., R. R. Nelson, S. G. Winter (2000), The Nature and Dynamics of Organizational
Capabilities. Oxford University Press, Oxford,UK.
Endres A.M., C.R. Woods (2009), Modern Theories of Entrepreneurial Behaviour: A
Comparison and Appraisal,, Small Bussines Economics, vol.23,189-202.
Fama E. (1988), Problems and the Theory of the Firm, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited,
Cheltenham, SUA.
Foss Nicolai Juul (2006),Capabilities and the Theory of the Firm, Revue d`economie
industrielle, nr.77,7-28
Geoffrey A. Jehle, Philip J. Reny (2000), Advanced Microeconomic Theory, second
edition, Addison Weslwy Longman, London, 543-548.
Jensen M., Meckling W., (2009), Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs
and Ownership Struture”, Journal of Financial Economic,oct.76,vol.3 Issue 4, SUA.
Kirzner I.M. (2007), Entrepreneurial Discovery and the Competitive Market Process: an
Austrian Approach, Journal of Economic Literature, vol.35, 60-85.
Knight, Frank H. (2006), Risk, Uncertainty and Profit. Mineola, New York: Dover
Publications, Inc.
Langlois R., Foss N. (2002), Capabilities and Governance: The Rebirth of Production in
the Theory.of Economic Organization, în în Alternative Theories of the Firm, Edward
Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham, SUA.
Longuet Stephane (2011), L`entrepreneur et la coordination. Les limites paradoxales
des approches autrichiennes, Revue francais de socio-economie, premiere semetre,
103-117
Neamtu M., Sirghi N., Babaita C., Nitu R., (2010), Discrete-time deterministic and
stochastic triopoly game with heterogeneous players, The 5th WSEAS, EMT '10, 24-26
oct. 2010, Timisoara, pp. 692-698.
Ravix Jacques (2009), L'émergence de la firme et des coopérations inter-firmes dans la
théorie de l'organisation industrielle: Coase et Richardson, Revue d'économie
industrielle. Vol. 51. 1er trimestre,102-109.
Sîrghi N. (2008), Microeconomics Advanced, Mirton Publishing House Timişoara

224
SECTION: FINANCE, BANKING, ACCOUNTING AND AUDIT

SUB-SECTIONS: ACCOUNTING, AUDIT

THE SAMPLING PROCESS IN THE FINANCIAL AUDIT .TECHNICAL PRACTICE
APPROACH

Grigore Marian
Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Faculty: Accounting and Management
Information Systems-Doctoral schools
[email protected]

Abstract To ensure an optimum level of the sampling process in the financial

audit,professional ,the one that performes the audit work has to comply to principles
and procedures, such that to obtain, with minimum expenditures collecting the audit
evidence edifying in the process of opinion expression.
So,in time have developed and diversified the sampling techniques regarding the
studiedă populationă (Theă audită internatională standardsă defineă theă populationă termă likeă “ă
representing a whole data set among a sample is selected and whereof an auditor
wants to make conclusions. For example, all the events within the account or the
transactionsăclassărepresentsăaăpopulation.”ăCAR- “FinancialăAudită2000”,2000)ăthatăcană
lead to a significant time relief needed for audit checking operations. Population
example inside the audit mission, careless of the audited entity nationality : invoices,
receipts, providers, clients, budgeted expenditures etc.
“Audită sampling”ă (sampling)ă assumesă appliancingă audită procedures for less than 100%
of the elements within an account or a trasaction class balance, such that all the
samples will be selected. This will allow the auditor to obtain and to evaluate the audit
evidence on some features for the selected elements, in purpose to assist or to express
a conclusion regardind the population within the sample was extracted. The sampling in
audit can use both a statistical or a non-statistical approach. (THE AUDIT
INTERNATIONAl STANDARD 530 –THE SAMPLING IN AUDIT AND OTHER
SELECTIVE TESTING PROCEDURES)

Key words : audit ,sample,risks ,audit tests, statistics methods

JEL Classification : M40,M41,M42

In order that the auditor will get enought reasonable evidence, the auditor has to do the
necessary work with professionalism and efficiency.
Afer the sampling process we can say that it represents the application of some audit
procedures on a part of the population subjected to auditing total, for obtaining safe
evidence, to characterize the whole population. ( Financial audit Marin Menu,Iuliana
Panaitescu,Constantin Afanase,Dan Vilaia ,Editura Tehnica-Info,Chisinau ,2009).
We can applu the audit tests in the following way:
1-for all population components elements;
Example : we verify all the raw acquisition invoices, example in an entity from the estate
construction domain, the auditor verifyes every cement acquisition invoice, because
from the general estimate afferent to the relative building construction resulted an 35%
exceed of the initial cement a necessary and more it hasn’tăfoundănoăaddăorăenlargeăofă
the initial construction, for this is required that every document will be checked, more,
when a loe level population shows up in the discution, we can use this sampling
techniqueă becauseă ită doesn’tă requiresă aă hightă timeă volume, and the expenses are
minimum,ăforăexampleăcheckingăaăthirdăthatăhasn’tăansweredătoăbalanceăconfirmationăată
the year end.
2- for a non-representative sample;

227
Example : in this cases the pro knows the checked operations particularities and is
capable to find an enough number, really small of evidence, needed in the audition
process.
If in an entity, the intern control sistem has the objectiv to attach thes short period loan
contracts comming from the asociations for covering the stringent needs, ,the prior
request of the treasory responsable person with the essay that contains the loan
explaining(covering with cash the rent paiment when the entity has to receive amounts
from clients) if in this procedure are missing over 10% accompanying documents, we
can name the sample unrepresentative, there for can exist fraud.
3-for a representative sample.
Example : a sample is representative or has a high representativeness if the necesary
and missing documents from a intern falls in the limit of 5% .
We can conclude that selecting some elements that have a high frauding probality or a
cashădefalcationăetc,ăităcan’tăbeămistakenăwithătheăsamplingăprocess,ăbecauseăweăcan’tă
generalize the result on the population which the checking was performed.
Along time there were developed a series of sampling methods and techniques in the
audit process, like this:
1. Random selection;
2. Systematic selection;
3. The hazard technic selection;
4. The profesional judgment selection;
a) Random selection represents a technique where every element of an investigated
objectiv can be the selection objectiv in equal way with the other elements.
Example : In the entity Construct S.A. case , the entity sunjected to the audit process , is
checked the vericity of the dates regarding the invoice emission process (income)
chronologically and systematic, consistent with the ledger, jurnal papers and VAT, in our
case we can select 10 invoices out of 850, so the numbers
10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90,850 or 1,2,3,4,500,600,700,800,840,850.
To mention that the pro can use this method in case of the elements (populations) when
the list presents abnormlities in the electronic format or when the operations are not
homogeneous.

b) Systematic selection repesents eror detection by choosing aleatory to one or two

elements from the checked sample and later as adding the medium sampling mode so
that you can select the other probative elements, so that the auditor can appreciate
fraudă andă ită caă beă appliedă andă ită hasă applicationă whenă it’să checkedă theă taxă sumsă andă
retention regarding wages including payment and payment approval.
Exampleăă:ăinăcaseăofătheăentityăGRIGOREăS.A.ăăit’sărandomlyăselectedăanăwageăelementă
no.8, the medium sampling range being 3, the next wage elements ar selected by
adding 3, like: 8,12,15,18. A win of this method when monetary values are auditated,
asures a plus to the auditor , becuse the big sums are checked.

c)ăTheăhazardătechnicăselectionăităcan’tăbeărecognisedălikeăaămathematicalătechnic,ăbutăină
technical-practicalăapproachăit’săusedăbyăprofessionals when they verify small amounth
populationsăandăinătheăcaseăofăcheckingăaălargeăamounthăpopulationăelementsăităcan’tăbeă
reached a real conclusion for the whole audited population.

d) The profesional judgment selection represents the checking redress on elements

where the probability existing an error or material fraud is very high, for this reason in
can appear subjectivism cases from the auditor.
Example : the auditor can use professional reasoning in determinating the sample size,
for example if the auditor wants to check the supplier liabilities and sees that we have
228
liabilitiesăforăoveră1.500.000ăleiătoă10ăsuppliers,ăandăforă25ăsuppliersătheăliabilitiesădoesn’tă
totals 250.000, the auditor can check all the suppliers or only the ones that represents
85% from the liabilities, this means the 10 suppliers.
The sampling process steps in financial audit:
1. Sampling palnning and setting;
2. Setting the sampling size;
3. Selecting the elements that do the object of the sample;
4. Establish and evaluate the finnal result.

 Sampling palnning and setting – in this step the financila auditor has the obligation
insurancing that these samples are enough for achieving the audit objectiv, has to
follow the following steps:
a) the objectives in cas of audit tests;
b) population (example :incomes,coasts,clients etc.) from which the samples are
selected;
c) representativeness of the population elements;

a) the objectives in cas of audit tests – in this case the auditor sets the procedures,
methods and technics uses in reaching the objectives and has to know the nature of the
audit evidence, the ones that are significant in descovering erors and fraud.
The financial auditor has to straighten his attension on the choosen population for
sampling, so the error searching and checking process or the negative facts will be
efficient and useful.

b)population (example : incomes,coasts,clients etc.) from which the sampling will be

selected we can define like a financial and material data useful instrument on that the
financila auditor will head his attention to get the finnal conclusion. Example: the auditor
can apply some procedures only the selected population is homogeneous, so in the
example of the entity GRIGORE S.A. , the financial auditor considers like a
homogeneous population an element segment like cliets, receipts, invoices, delivery
note(wood materials) – special document according H.G. no. 996/2008 etc.
Financial auditor, according to the objectives that he had regarding auditor process, can
divide a population in divisions or a segment of supporting documents.Example : in case
of the same entity (wood materials) – special document according H.G. no. 996/2008
etc. Can be considered a population, those notices that shows wood cantity larger than
100 c.m. and another notice categories that have values from 1 to 5 c.m., or it can
consider a category all the sent invoices with semnificative sums that are over 10.000 lei
andăanotherăcategoryăwithăsumsăunderă10.000ălei“ă.
We can see in case of the entity GRIGORE S.A. the fact that, the more population
monetary values are lower , both the sampling size is lower too. Another population
dividing or subdividing method is clasificating them by risk. Example : liquidities can
have high risk rank, the existing value as cash for the pay of extern allowences, also can
have a high risk rank regarding a tangible asset, that we frame it in low risk rank,
because the entity injury with this kind of immobile is allot harder to acheve, because the
alienation will asume closing some notarial acts, cadastral drawings and intabulation for
right of the property in real estate transcriptions registers etc.
c) Representativeness population elements assumes choosing them according the
importance and the level of satisfaction in relation with reaching the financial audit
objective and the posibility of expresing an oppinion.
2. Setting the sampling size

229
The financial auditor has to target the sampling size so it can bring him a high level of
relevance in decovering the errors, of course the auditor has to establish true reasoning
the admission level of an error.
More than this the pro has to asure that the choosed sampling gives the possibility to be
a repersentative for all the checked population elements. The auditor can accept or not
a sampling risk and has to link this with the audit risk : control risk, nondetection error
risk and inherent risk.
Also we can apreciate the fact that the auditor sampling risk, if we look at it as an error
margin, we can apreciate it according significance level.

Example regarding the sampling size at the entity GRIGORE S.A.(T1)

Tabel nr. 1
Tolerance
%
Insurance level 8 5 3
96 38 84 119
92 34 66 109
81 27 54 99
75 25 50 94
73 14 23 47
60 9 11 21

Regarding the statements above we can remark the following:

-financial auditor has to determinate correctly the torelable error marge

-the sampling dimension varies proportional with the sampling insurance level proposed
by the financial auditor.

3.Selecting the elements that will do the object of some tests framing the sampling it has
to be specified in the audit schedule prepared at the begining of the audit mission and
have the responsability in choosing and selecting population elements, of their
component(clients, invoice, statements etc).
No matter of the method, technic or the way that instrumentes the sampling, the
financial auditor has to apply directly and without deviations the selection method and
moreă importantă heă shouldn’tă removeă asă evidenceă aă samplingă elementă ifă ită hasă beenă ină
another checking procedure, or that the checking will be har to accomplish.
It can exist situations that appear in the document checking process such as lack of
documents for some echonomic operations. For example: the last sent invoices are
missing, or the invoice annex are missing also is missing an invoice book etc. Elements
like this can lead to the conclusion of error generator or fraud or they will be interpreted
by the financial audit regarding every feature.

4. Establish and evaluate the finnal result.

We have to take into account the significantly aspect of the errors, if they determine or
generates monetary hijackings or they have a low impact in taking an expression
decision for a professional oppinion, the financial auditor will quantify the error cause
and the effect resulted for the other steps of the audit.
230
The auditor will check if the discovered errors behind undertaken checks exceed the
tolerable error and in this cases we have to reanalize the sampling risk or we will extend
audit procedures.

According to the auditor results, he can ask the entity to investigate the distortions he
found or to make the necessary corrections. The auditor can extend the sampling size
according to the undertaken checking he can test an alternativ control, only when he
considersăthatătheăsamplingăwasn’tătheăeloquenceăone.

References:
1.ă Laurentiuă Dobroteanu,Cameliaă Lilianaă Dobroteanuă “Financial audit concepts and
practices, national and international approach “,Ed.ăEconomicaă,2002.
2. Ana Stoian ,Eugeniu Turlea “Audit accounting “,Ed.ăEconomicaă,2001ă.
3.ă Tomaă Marin,Mariusă Chivulescuă “Practical guide for auditing and certification of
balance sheets “,CECCAR,1995.
4. Minimum standards for audit, Ed. Economica,2001 ;
5. Financial audit Marin Menu,Iuliana Panaitescu,Constantin Afanase,Dan Vilaia ,Editura
Tehnica-Info,Chisinau ,2009
- OMFP 3055/ 2009 for the approval accounting regulations consistent with the
European Directives;
- Accounting law, law no. 82/1991, republished in the Official Gazette, first part no. 454
din18/06/2008;
- H.G. no. 996/2008.
- THE AUDIT INTERNATIONAl STANDARD 530 - THE SAMPLING IN AUDIT AND
OTHER SELECTIVE TESTING PROCEDURES

231
THE STOCK AUDIT OF THE ENTITIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION FIELD

Grigore Marian
Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Faculty: Accounting and Management
Information Systems-Doctoral schools
[email protected]

Abstract The stocks undergo a continuous cycle of aquisition, the use of the production
and respectively sale, in both cases, both the producing entities and the merchants- the
stocks and the sale cost are significant for the financial situations and for the
apreciation of the achieved performances.
The financial audit has to have certainty that the stocks are properly highlighted in the
accounting records according to proper legislation applicable to the audited entity and
the applicable accounting standards.
Key word: audit, stocks recognition,inherent and checking risks, detail tests
JEL Classification : M40,M41,M42

Introduction

The general frame regarding stocks, entities exaamples and particulaties of construction field
- OMFP 3055/ 2009 for the approval accounting regulations consistent with the
European Directives;
- Accounting law, law no. 82/1991, republished in the Official Gazette, first part no. 454
din18/06/2008;
- Law no.571 / december 22nd 2003 regarding Tax Code with the subsequent
modification;
- IAS 2: Stocks

In an entity of the construction field the stocks mainly consist of raw materials,
production and merchandise, example :
-cement;
-rebar of different categories;
-timber and wood material;
-nails;
-brick and different materials for brickwork ;
- mortar and casting materials
-tyne, plaster boards, mineral wool, boards etc.

In stocks category we also find assets with long term of manufacturing, allocated for sale
or proposed to be sold by the producting entities for example residential or
nonresidential buildings assemblies made by entities with main activity obtaining and
selling houses).
If some constructions are made in purpose of long term exploitation, by the entity who
made them, they are assets.
Of course, when a land is bought in purpose of building on it buildings meant of selling,
it’sărecordedăinăstocksăandăsoldălikeăaămerchandise(ăexample:ăweărecordăinăaccountă371ă
“Merchandise”ăandănot ină2111”Lands”ă).
It may be there situations when an tangible asset will be inproved in prospect of sale, at
theă momentă ofă mackingă aă decisionă regardingă theă modificationă ofă it’să destinationă andă
localization, in accountancy the transfer of the asset framed in tangible assets category
it’să recordedă ină stocks.ă Theă transferă isă recordedă ată unamortizedă valueă revaluedă ofă theă

232
relative asset and if the asset was revalued we record the account closing 105
“RevaluationăReserves”ă.
When an entity decides to sell a tangible asset without being modernized, she continue
toă treată heră likeă aă tangibleă assetă untillă it’să disposedă ofă bookkeeping,ă andă notă likeă stockă
element.
Modernization has the semnification of the subsequent expenses recognized like an
asset component.
If an entity purchase lands and they are not used in building residential building
assemblies and prorposed to be sold, according to the rights and obligations of each
part submitted in the purchase-saleăcontract,ăthaălandăvalueăit’săincludedăinătheăvalueăofă
the builtăasset,ăorăit’săhightlightedăinămerchendiseăstocks,ăatătheăaccountancyărecordingă
value.
If the land was reviewed, simultaneous with the change of the asset nature we close the
Revaluation Reserve account.
In case of assets from the nature of residential building assembles who initial where
asigned to sale but they changed theyr destination, being used by the entity on longer
period, or being rented to other entities, in accountancy we record it like a transfer from
stocks to tangible assets.
The transfer is made at the date of the destination change, at the value that the assets
where recorded in accountancy.

Summary
Stockes Recognitions
The recording in accountancy of the stock entrance is made at the date of risks and the
benefits thansfer.
In general, the tranfer dates of the property and the delivery are the same. Yet it can
exist time gaps, for example:
-ină theă momentă thată goodsă areă soldă ină consignmentă oră stocksă thată areă pută ată client’să
availability;
- pledged stocks delivered to the beneficiary creditor of the pledge; stocks that remain in
debtor evidence untill they are sold.
- received goods for which the supporting documents where not yet received, which has
to be recorded in the buyer assets;
- delivered and uninvoiced goods , that have to be out of management, properly transfer
taking place;
- soldăgoodsăbutănotădeliveredăyet,ăforăwhichătheăpropertyătransferădidn’tătookăplace.ăForă
example,ăatătheăsalesăthatăhasătheăconditionăofădeliveryă“ex-work”,ătheăsoldăgoodsăareăoută
of the salesman stock inătheămomentăofătheirăimplementationăforătheăbuyer’săavailability,ă
etc.
Oher aspects regarding the stocks recognition and accountin
a) the stock goods that are received for manufactured, in custody or consignment, are
received and recorded as inputs in entities heritage, in accountancy for example the
value of these goods is recorded in accounts outside of the balance(8 th class of
accounts)
b) in the situation of existing a gap between the stocks supply and reception moment,
which are in certain way in the entity’săproperty,ăareăproceedălikeăthis:
- the stocks that arrive without supporting documentation, respectively invoice, these are
recorded as entrances in administration both at the place where they are stored and in
accountancy, on reception and accompanying documents;
- the stocks that arrive and are unreceptioned are distinctly recorded in accountancy as
management enrty;

233
c) in case of a gap between the sale and delivery of the goods moment, they are
recordedas entity exit, no longer being considered the entity property, for example:
- the sold and nondelivered stocks are recorded distinctly in management, and in
accountancy in accounts outside the balance
- the delivered but noninvoiced stocks are registered as management exits, both at the
places they are stored and in accountancy, on documents that certify acording to the law
the management exit.
d) the stocks supplied by entities or sold with terms regarding property right are
recorded in entrance and exits, both in administration and accountancy, suitable to the
concluded contracts.

The audit objectives

a). The auditor has to have the certainty that the stocks are properly highlighted in
accordance with the corresponding legislation applied to audited entity and applicable
accountancy standards;
b). The auditor has to have the certanty that the stocks recorded in accountancy exit and
belong to the client;
c). The auditor has to have the certanty that the stocks owned by the company where
included in the end of the year stock;
d). The auditor has to have the certanty that the stocks where evaluated according to
the company accounatncy policies and that they are consistent applied;
e).The auditor has to have the certainty that quantitative stock submitted in balance at
the end of the year are correctly highlighted;
f). The auditor has to have the certainty that distinct financial years between raw
materials, production in progress and finished materials, and stocks, acquisitions and
sales where performed correctly;
g). The auditor has to have certaintly that the stocks with slow movement, damaged and
obsolete where identified and evaluated in appropiate;
h). The auditor has to have the certainty that including the costs in time evaluation in
progress is comply with accounting policies;
i). The auditor has to have the certainty that any transfers in the profit and loss account
about the production in progress long term contracts, where recognized on credible
estimate of the income and expenses untill finalisation;
j). the auditor has to have the certainty that indirect cost allocation included in stock and
productionă ină progressă evaluationă isă reasonableă andă it’să madeă takingă intoă accountă theă
normal level of activity of the company;
k). The auditor has to have the certainty that previsions recognition for losses regarding
the short term production in progress was adequate.

Inherent and central risks specifically for stocks

Stocks undergo a continous acquisition cycle, utilisation in production and sales, in boh
cases, both producing entities and merchants – stocks and sales cost are significant
both for financial situations and the apreciation for the realised performances.
Risks factors that can affect stocks(1):
-volume of the transactions regarding acquisitions, if the productions and sales are big,
it contribute the risk of errors in accounts;
-it always exists neuralgic points regarding the stock evaluation as identification, sizing
and allocation of indirect expenses the accountancy treatment of rezidual products, the
apreciation of deviations from standard costs, correct allocated for the cost in case of
making some complementary products;

234
-are necessary specific products for the determination of stock quantity and value as
that the stock evaluation where made by other experts;
-many times the stocks are stored in different locations, so we have difficulties in control
achieving, so we can prevent theft degradation;
-stocks can make the object of for return contracts ;
Mentioning that the auditor in stock audit process has to be aware of the high risk of the
managemet afirmation regarding the stock existence and evaluation, because the
company leathership is forced to overstate that to undervalue.
Background and detail procedures apliable in stocks audit
Application of initial procedures on balances and registration that will be submited to the
following tests:
- analize and check the stock analytical balances and we confrunt them with the
balances
- analize the stocks on component groups and subgroups
-analize and identify the stock analytical operating mode in the computer application
used by the entity so we ensure that the final result is corectly highlighted;
- the auditor will prepare a comment in which he explaines that the stock balances
component comparing the past years;
- analize and exam the significant changes in the stock values and levels when you
compare it with the previous period.
Detail test regarding stock audit
If the stocks are significant for the anual financial situation, the auditor has to obtain
enough aggregate audit evidence regarding the stock existence and condition thru:
- in the moment that the physical inventory occurs the auditor has to participate, except
in the case that this thing is impossible
However in some cases, the participation at the stock physical inventoryă ită can’tă takeă
place because of the stock nature and location.
The difficulty time and cost aspect is not viable base for the auditor to emit an audit
procedureă,ăforăwhatăitădoesn’tăexistăanotherăalternativeăorătoăsettleăwithăaălessăcompellingă
audit sample.
In some cases in which the participation is impractical, the alternative procedures, for
example the inspection of the sale documentation of the specific stock elements
acquired before the inventory of the stocks, can provide enough appropiate audit
evidence regarding the stock existence and condition.
Ină otheră casesă ită can’tă beă possibleă obtainingă enoughă audită evidenceă thruă executionă ofă
alternative audit procedures. In those cases, ISA 705 provides that the auditor should
modify his opinion in the report as a result of limiting the application of the area.
The detail tests allowed the auditor to note if the stock entrances and exits where
correctly accounted and they belong to the current exercice, so they can be correctly
highlighted and evaluated in the balance.

Theăinventoryăparticipationăit’săbecause:

- to evaluate, analize and observ the producers of the control management for the result
of the physical inventory entity stocks;
- to evaluate and observ the function of the procedures of the control management;
- to inspect the stocks in the entity administration;
- to take tests to the inventory.
Observing the procedures for the management inventory, for example the ones about
the control about the stock movement before, during and after inventory, assists the
auditor in obtaining the audit evidence, according to which the management inventory
instructions and procedures are suitable set and implemented.
235
More, the auditor can obtain copies of the informations about year end, details about
stock movement, that asists the auditor.
Stock inspection when participating to physical stoc inventory asists the auditor, in
setting stock existing, and identification for exampleof old stocks, deteriorated or
impaired.

Alternative procedures
If the stock physical inventory is performed on a different date as the financial situation,
the auditor has to perform additional audit procedures to obtain audit evidence regarding
the measure in which the stock changes between the inventory date and the financial
situation are recorded properly;
- Ifă theă auditoră can’tă participateă ată theă stockă physicală inventoryă becauseă theă unforseenă
circumstances, the auditor has to perform or to observe some physical inventory at a
different date;
- The auditor selects a sample of elements from the final lists of the stocks and we
trasnpose them in the stock lists;
- The auditor checks the transactions and the events that were registered and are
characteristic to the entity.

Obtaining the documents regarding to inventory

- We obtain a complete list of shipping documents for the unsent merchandise at the
inventory date, and check if they were included in the inventory;
- we determinate if the articles from the storehouse are included in inventory;
- we write the inventory lists number used so the auditor to make sure that none is on or
out at a past date;
- all transactions and events that had to be recorded where recorded;
- we verify that there are no stocks in the storehouse without being recorded in
accountancy;
- we verify thru invoice that the purchased stocks where recorded;
- we verify if the end of the year/ begining of the year invoices;
- we verify if the evoluation policy at stock entrance is comply with OMFP 3055/2009.

Uncertanties regarding accountable estimates

In manyă casesă theă entityă leathershipă doesn’tă haveă enoughă informationă toă transposeă aă
situation in the accounting balance, for example, or he can make a decision on an
insuficiency information. For example: in the moment of signing the audit report, there
are risksă regardingă someă operationsă thată can’tă beă provisionedă withă aă responsableă
aproximation, because:
-theire amounth is unsure or unknown
-the probability of the achievement is unsure;
Evenă ifă theă riskă isă provisionedă oră not,ă theă auditoră couldn’tă obtaină suficient probative
elements to justify the provisioned amount or the absence of the provision formatio. This
is a particulary case of the limitation of obtaining the probative elements.
When the possible incidence is significant but not enough to deny the financial situation
ensemble the auditor certify whit the spare one.
In the paragraph that he exposes the reasons for the refusal it will be specified all
information elements about the uncertainty:
-risc nature;
-the post or the posts of the accountant balance;
-theămaximumăvalueăofătheărisk,ăwhenăităisăpossessed,ăorătheăfactăthatăităcan’tăbeă
given;

236
 -the incapacity he is into, to determinate the evolution of the uncertainty and to
evaluate the eventual consequences of this situation;
-provisions insufficiency for the stock and receivables depreciation;
-overstated or undervaluated stocks because of an error in the production casts
or in determination of stock size calculation;
-failure to the principle of the exercices independence;
-failure consideration of the past events that confirm a refute a situation at the
closing year date;
-failure consideration of the principle prudence by assets overvaluation.
“Whenătheăuncertaintyăhasăanăimportanceăthruăwhoăachievementăcanăreturn in discution
the accounting balance ensemble, the auditor mentions that he is not able to grant the
certification”

References:
1.ă Laurentiuă Dobroteanu,Cameliaă Lilianaă Dobroteanuă “Financial audit concepts and
practices, national and international approach “,Ed.ăEconomicaă,2002.
2. Ana Stoian ,Eugeniu Turlea “Audit accounting “,Ed.ăEconomicaă,2001ă.
3.ă Tomaă Marin,Mariusă Chivulescuă “Practical guide for auditing and certification of
balance sheets “,CECCAR,1995.
4. Minimum standards for audit, Ed. Economica,2001 ;
- OMFP 3055/ 2009 for the approval accounting regulations consistent with the
European Directives;
- Accounting law, law no. 82/1991, republished in the Official Gazette, first part no. 454
din18/06/2008;
- Law no.571 / december 22nd 2003 regarding Tax Code with the subsequent
modification;
- IAS 2: Stocks

237
SUB-SECTIONS: BANKING, PUBLIC FINANCES
TAXPAYERS AND TAX AUTHORITIES INTERACTING WITHIN THE MENA REGION:
THE NEXUS BETWEEN TRUST, POWER AND COMPLIANCE

Bǎtrâncea Larissa
Faculty of Business, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: Any type of interaction climate, be it synergistic or antagonistic, is delineated

by a tandem of dimensions: trust in authorities and power of authorities. Advocates for
this assumption are the manifold of empirical studies testing the “slippery slope
framework” which subsumes the two dimensions. A major proffer advanced by the
framework is that tax authorities’ approach towards citizens poses great influence on
compliance, either fuelling or hindering it. Irrespective of whether tax burden level is
high (e.g., Scandinavian, Continental welfare states), medium (e.g., East European,
Anglo-Saxon welfare states), minimum or completely lacking (e.g., tax havens), tax
authorities and taxpayers establish a connection in which the former’s actions are
mirrored in the latter’s perceptions about leadership’s benevolence in public good
provisions (i.e., trust) and efficiency in deterring tax evasion (i.e., power). The tandem
trust-power and the specific features of such connections within some countries of the
Middle East and Northern Africa tax climate (i.e., Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait,
Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates) are the thrust of the
present study. The methodology spans a multidisciplinary approach, from explaining
trust and power via governance indicators proposed by the World Bank, investigating
economic development with chain base indexes and examining tax compliance process
on country-level. The MENA region is source for novel and relevant insights on the
nexus between trust, power and compliance, as it hosts countries which vary greatly in
terms of economic development (transition to developed), fiscal policy (low to no taxes)
or economy drivers (oil exporters, oil importers) and where tax compliance gains
importance amid diminishing hydrocarbon resources. Nowadays economic realities
constrain MENA authorities to refocus their governing strategies and perceive taxation
as a viable future solution for budgetary expenses. Therefore, analyzing trust in
authorities and power of authorities within MENA serves both national authorities in
their quest to identify new strategies of financing state budgets and taxpayers in
understanding the key role they play for securing the common good. Regarding both
trust in and power of authorities, oil exporters are better off than oil importers,
registering higher levels. Nevertheless, oil importers strive to improve perceptions of
trust and power among citizens, benefiting from international assistance.

Keywords: tax behavior, MENA interaction tax climate, trust in authorities, power of
authorities

JEL classification: F30; F62; G18; G28; H26.

1. Introduction
th
Ină theă eleventhă Surahă (calledă “Hud”)ă ofă theă Qur’an,ă theă 85 verseă advisesă thată “ină
fairness,ăgiveăfullămeasureăandă weight”ă(Haleem,ă2005).ăConsideringătheăimportanceăofă
the message and extrapolating it to the tax environment, one could opine that the
verse’să pieceă ofă adviceă appliesă notă onlyă toă individuals,ă bută toă authoritiesă asă well.ă Theă
former are expected to pay their fair share in relation with the governing authorities. The
latter are ultimately called to guide their decisions on equity principles when designing
tax policies or interacting with citizens.

241
An equitable approach defines a tax climate where on one hand authorities serve
taxpayers and on the other hand taxpayers follow legal prescriptions, perceive
authorities as willing to supply quality public goods and capable of spotting, sanctioning
and deterring noncompliance. In such a climate, acknowledged by the tax literature
(Kirchler, Hoelzl and Wahl, 2008) as synergistic, contributors to the public budget invest
high levels of trust in decision makers and regard authorities as having a high power to
hinder tax dodgers. When interaction climates recede far from this set of prescriptions,
they become antagonistic and display clear signs of mutual distrust and diminished
power. Irrespective of whether taxation is burdensome (e.g., Scandinavian, Continental
welfare states), moderate (e.g., East European, Anglo-Saxon welfare states), low or
completely lacking (e.g., tax havens), the tandem trust in authorities – power of
authorities delineates the type of interaction between contributors and decision makers.

The current research addresses the tandem within the Middle East and Northern Africa
(MENA) tax climate defined by ten countries (i.e., Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait,
Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates), because MENA region is
source for novel and relevant insights on the nexus between trust, power and
compliance. Both novelty and relevance stem from the great variety of countries it
comprises in terms of economic development (transition to developed), fiscal policy (low
to no taxes) or economy drivers (oil exporters, oil importers). As the topic of tax
compliance gains importance amid diminishing hydrocarbon resources, MENA
authorities are called to refocus their governing strategies and perceive taxation as a
viable future solution for budgetary expenses. The assessment of trust and power within
MENA serves national authorities in identifying new strategies of financing state
budgets, but also taxpayers in understanding the key role they play for securing the
common good.

The following sections are considered in the paper. Section 2 outlines the MENA tax
systems. Section 3 discusses the tandem trust in - power of authorities via a set of
governance indicators. Section 4 highlights concluding remarks.

2. MENA tax systems: A curt outline

Hosting a population of 355 million, out of which 8% dwell in high-income states, 85% in
middle-income states and 7% in low-income ones (The World Bank, 2013: 23), the
MENA region finds itself between two poles, in terms of tax systems. At one end, oil
exporters drive economic growth through levers other than taxation: except for banks
and oil/gas production companies which pay corporate fees between 35%-85%, regular
businesses are taxed at the lower rates of 10-15% (where applicable), plus labor taxes
and social contributions; personal income is not subject to levying. Moreover, some
countriesă areă deemedă“taxă havens”ăbyă internatională organizations.ăTableă1ădisplays the
ranks of two MENA countries placed among the states with the most secretive financial
systems, according to the Financial Secrecy Index.

242
Table 1: MENA tax havens, according to the Financial Secrecy Index developed by the Tax
Justice Network
2009 2011 2013
th th th
Bahrain (14 ) Bahrain (10 ) Bahrain (13 )
United Arab Emirates (Dubai) United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates
st th th
(31 ) (Dubai) (18 ) (Dubai) (16 )
st
Saudi Arabia (31 )
Source: www.financialsecrecyindex.com (Retrieved 01.03.2014).

At the other end, oil importers count on taxation to finance state budgets, but struggle
due to narrow tax bases, nascent compliance systems and high shadow economy
levels. Overall, the MENA region has one of the least demanding tax systems (Paying
Taxes 2013).

Regarding corporate taxpayers, Saleem (2013) notes that: 80-90% of businesses are
micro, small and medium size, especially in countries with large underground
economies; overall, there are 19-23 million formal and informal businesses in the region;
non-GCC countries employ 67% of workers informally, while GCC members only 6% of
workers. Limited access to finance hinders most of the times economic growth, as only
20% of small and medium size enterprises are credit eligible (Rocha, Arvai and Farazi,
2011: 9).

On the ground of dwindling monetary resources due to global financial crisis and political
unrest, MENA countries face significant changes in terms of fiscal policies. Insufficient
tax revenues which finance low levels of public good provision suggest there is
considerable space for improvement. For example, according to a World Bank report
(2013: 12), MENA tax systems have registered some of the lowest levels of government
spending on health (8.2% of GDP) compared to education (18% of GDP), in the period
2006-2011, with taxpayers covering 40% of health costs by out-of-the-pocket money. As
a first step, many countries have reduced governmental subsidies in the attempt to
lower exceedingly high fiscal deficits. As a second step, they have broadened the tax
base by lowering thresholds for minimum taxable incomes and taxing consumption
through VAT and sales taxes (e.g., Egypt, Jordan).

Hypothetically, oil exporters have been considering taxying consumption as a viable

solution to boost revenues and have been working to design a common VAT system
(Paying Taxes 2013). Since 2008, it has been rumored that GCC members would
introduce VAT, but until today no measure has been taken in this respect.

Regarding MENA tax climate, the country-sample comprises: Bahrain, Egypt, Iran,
Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates (UAE). As
can be noticed, the economic and political alliance known as the Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) is fully represented in the sample, the Mashreq region counts half of its
members and the Maghreb region one member (IMF, 2013).

Because the majority of its countries harness substantial hydrocarbon resources, MENA
tax climate has registered significant economic growth during the last two decades,
surpassing world values, as shown by the average GDP per capita

243
 (grap
h 1).
Graph 1: Three decades of MENA GDP per capita with respect to world GDP per capita
(current $US)
Source: Author’săcalculusăwithăWorldăBankădataă(1980-2012).

While the world GDP per capita has increased slowly but steadily, the GDP level of the
MENA tax climate has been registering quite substantial gaps from one decade to
another, mostly due to fluctuations of crude oil price caused by a manifold of crises.

Table 2: Chain base indexes analysis regarding

MENA and World average GDP per capita (1969-2011)
1980-1989/ 1990-1999/ 2000-2011/
1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999
MENA 72.96% -8.67% 107.13%
World 106.21% 68.25% 52.25%
Source:ăAuthor’săcalculusăwithăWorldăBankădataă(1969-2011).
Table 2 displays variations across decades, computed through chain base indexes.
While the world average peaked during the decade 1980-1989 (compared to the
st
previous one), in case of the MENA countries the onset of the 21 century brought the
highest economic growth, as the crude oil price increased fivefold between 2004 and
2008. Fluctuations during the remaining analyzed decades have been caused by other
economică downturns,ă likeă theă 1970să oilă andă energyă crises,ă theă 1980să “oilă glut”ă (whichă
dropped prices by 46%) and the 1998-1999 price collapse.

Withină theă MENAă taxă climate,ă aă pictureă ofă taxă authorities’ă approachesă towardsă theă
economică environmentă andă taxpayers’ă perceptionsă ofă theseă approachesă isă offeredă
through the set of Paying Taxes indicators: number of tax payments (NP), number of
hours to comply with principal taxes, namely corporate, labor, mandatory contributions,
consumption taxes (NH); total tax rate (TTR). For the 10 countries pertaining to MENA
region average values of NP, NH and TTR were determined and highlighted in three
graphs, after selecting data from eight Paying Taxes reports (2006-2013).

244
Graph 2: Average values for MENA and Graph 3: Average values for MENA and
World Number of Tax Payments (NP) World Number of Hours to Comply (NH)
Source: Author’săcalculusăbasedăonă Source: Author’săcalculusăbasedăon
Paying Taxes reports (2006-2013). Paying Taxes reports (2006-2013).

With respect to the average number of tax payments (graph 2), MENA tax climate
follows the global decreasing trend, reaching a total of 13 payments in 2012. The
principal cause for the overall decrease of almost 50% is the introduction of electronic
taxpaying systems in many countries. Specifically, during 2005-2012, mitigations
exceeding the 50% threshold were registered in Morocco (from 28 to 6), Saudi Arabia
(from 14 to 3) and United Arab Emirates (from 15 to 4). The average number of hours
for the MENA sample follows the same declining trend. Except for Iran and Jordan
which increased compliance time by 18% and 49% respectively, all the other countries
have exempted their taxpayers from losing more time with bureaucratic procedures.
Hence, Egypt mitigated it from 536 hours to 392, Kuwait from 118 to 98, and Morocco
from 468 to 232 hours.

Graph 4: Average values for MENA and World Total Tax Rate (TTR)
Source: Author’săcalculusăbasedăonăPaying Taxes reports (2006-2013).

It is of note that MENATTR amounts for almost half the WTTR. Labor taxes and
mandatory contributions account for the greatest component of the TTR over the eight
years of study, fluctuating very little, from an average of 17.31% in 2005 to an average
of 16.37% in 2012. Corporate taxes register a contraction, from an average of 16.35%
ină 2005ă toă 8.11șă ină 2012.ă Theă MENAă governments’ă decisionsă ofă reducingă profită taxesă
are based on the fact that these mitigations are conducive to business environment.
The outlier is Kuwait, where the corporate tax abated from 44.7% in 2005 to 0% in
2012.

Among the top 10 economies from the world ranking concerning the easiness of paying
taxes, determined by averaging percentile ranks of NP, NH and TTR, five countries
belong to the MENA region (i.e., UAE, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Oman) (Paying
Taxes 2013: 15). It is a consequence of the fact that MENA countries have phased a
number of reforms, like: 1) extending the tax treaty network; 2) training tax authorities

245
staff to meet international tax requirements; 3) designing a common platform for the VAT
regulation (within the GCC); 4) streamlining compliance systems through the
introduction of electronic filing and e-payment (e.g., Oman, Qatar, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia) (Paying Taxes 2013, 2014). Some of the aforementioned steps point out the
endeavorsă madeă byă MENAă authoritiesă toă improveă complianceă viaă gainingă taxpayers’ă
trust. The current status of the strategies used to deter noncompliance leaves room for
substantial improvement, as more taxpayers chose the informal sector to make ends
meet.

3. MENA tax climate fashioned by trust in and power of authorities

In the present section, the tandem of dimensions trust in authorities – power of
authorities will be considered following the path suggested by Batrancea and Nichita
(2014), i.e., utilizing a set of world governance indicators (Kaufmann, Kraay and
Mastruzzi, 2010). Namely, the trust dimension will be discussed in conjunction with
regulatory quality and government effectiveness, while the power dimension will be
tackled via rule of law and control for corruption. The values of the world governance
indicators (i.e., percentile ranks among all countries) extend from 0 (lowest end) to 100
(highest end). The country-sample will be analyzed during a time span of eleven years
(2002-2012).

Graph 5: Evolution of the Regulatory Quality (RQ), 2002-2012

Source: World Bank data (www.worldbank.org).

Ină termsă ofă regulatoryă quality,ă whichă measuresă perceptionsă ofă authorities’ă efficiencyă ină
supporting private sector, the majority of countries rank above the middle of the range.
The outliers are Iran, with values approaching the minimum threshold, followed by
Egypt, with ranks wavering between 20 and 50. The data represented in graph 5 reveals
a wide variety. As stated before, MENA tax climate has witnessed extensive opinions: in
some countries, taxpayers have credited authorities with low trust based on their
reduced capacity to incentivize private sector businesses; in others, taxpayers have
regarded decision makers worthy of high trust based on the fact that economies thrive.
The end of the year 2010 constitutes a reference point, marking the onset of massive
political unrest and changes in the MENA region (i.e., the revolutionary wave come to be
knownă asă theă “Arabă Spring”ă oră “Arabă Awakening”)ă whichă triggeredă severeă economică
downturns characterized by high inflation and staggering fiscal deficits in several
countries like Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait or Morocco.

Despite serious hardships induced by the unrest, MENA authorities are striving to
resumeă theă normală courseă ofă actions,ă regaină citizens’ă trustă andă counterbalanceă
weakened state budgets. Thus, redesigning tax policies has become a major priority on
the MENA political agenda, with more and more governments appealing to taxation. On
this line, Egyptian authorities will introduce a 10-12% Value Added Tax (VAT) by the end
246
of 2014, set to replace the current Sales Tax and estimated to bring more than LE 126.5
billionă (USDă 18.2ă billion)ă foră theă country’să treasury.ă Unitedă Arabă Emirates,ă aă fară more
stable and thriving economy, has implemented fiscal measures to boost internal
commerce and tourism. Namely, Dubai introduced on March 31, 2014, a daily tourist tax
calledă “Touristă Dirham”ă ofă upă toă AEDă 20ă (approx.ă USDă 5),ă payableă byă anyă visitoră
depending onătheăaccommodationăcategoryă(i.e.,ăhotel’săstarănumber).ăWithăaăten-million
annual tourist inflow and 80,000 hotel rooms, Emirati authorities estimate to raise at
least AED 330 million (approx. USD 90 million) for its budget.

Graph 6: Evolution of the Government Effectiveness (GE), 2002-2012

Source: World Bank data (www.worldbank.org).

Inătheăanalyzedăsample,ăcitizens’ăperceptionsărelatedătoătheăqualityăofăpublicăgoodsăandă
toă government’să exactitudeă ină implementingă strategyă setsă (i.e.,ă government
effectiveness) extend between 20 and 90. Five members of GCC plus Jordan occupy
the first positions in the ranking. In particular, United Arab Emirates is perceived as the
country which provides the highest standards in the public sector from the whole
sample. For the year 2012, the results are mirrored also by the Human Development
Index (Human Development Report Office, 2013). According to it, two countries in the
th
sampleăareăratedăwithă“veryăhighăhumanădevelopment”,ăviz.ăQatarăranksă36 and United
st
Arab Emirates 41 ,ă fiveă countriesă areă deemedă asă havingă “highă humană development”ă
th th th th th
(i.e., Bahrain 48 , Kuwait 54 , Saudi Arabia 57 , Iran 76 , Oman 84 ) and three nations
th th
areă assessedă withă “mediumă humană development”ă (Jordană 100 , Egypt 112 , Morocco
th
130 ).

Improvingătheăpublicăgoods’ăqualityăhasăincreasinglyăgainedăimportanceăalsoăamongălessă
thriving MENA countries and current efforts are promising. With international assistance
from the World Bank, several countries in the region including Egypt, Jordan and
Morocco founded in 2013 the MENA Network of Public Procurement Experts. Members
of the network advocate for enhancement of capacities among procurement staff and
modernization of procurement instruments in order to ultimately boost accountability,
transparency,ăpublicăoutlays’ăefficiencyăandăgoodăgovernance.ăăă

247
Graph 7: Evolution of the Rule of Law (RL), 2002-2012
Source: World Bank data (www.worldbank.org).

The rule of law indicator, measuring perceptions regarding compliance with the law for
MENA, is captured in graph 7. Iran has registered the lowest values, substantially
dropping towards the end of the period due to political instability and forthcoming
change of power. As a general trend, during the eleven-year time span, the vast majority
of countries (all GCC members and Jordan) have registered values from 50 to 90.
These results suggest that oil exporters generally manage to ensure compliance better
than oil importers, as they rely on and capitalize hydrocarbon resources more than
taxation revenues. Therefore, tax evasion levels (if applicable) are low.

Egypt and Morocco are two countries depending on tax revenues, with state budgets
seriously affected by tax evasion and which have to identify viable solutions of
increasing tax compliance. In this respect, Moroccan authorities enacted in 2013 a tax
amnesty and called on citizens to pay their fiscal obligations, in an attempt to alleviate
the economic downturn.

Graph 8: Evolution of the Control for Corruption (CC), 2002-2012

Source: World Bank data (www.worldbank.org).

Citizens’ă perceptionsă regardingă theă extentă toă whichă MENAă authoritiesă useă poweră foră
acquiringăpersonalăgainsăareămeasuredăbyătheăindicatoră“controlăforăcorruption”ădisplayedă
in graph 8. Mainly, two clusters stand out: non-oil vs. oil driven economies. As expected,
non-oil driven economies are less better off than oil exporters. In almost all GCC
countries (i.e., Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE) and Jordan,
authorities are deemed more committed to mitigate any form or corruption, be it grand or
petty, than in the rest of the MENA region. For that matter, the 2012 Transparency

248
International Corruption Perceptions Index rates the analyzed countries in a parallel
manner, assigning them scores from 28 (more corrupt) to 68 (less corrupt) on a scale
between 0-100: Qatar and UAE score 68, Bahrain 51, Jordan 48, Oman 47, Kuwait and
Saudi Arabia 44, Morocco 37, Egypt 32 and Iran 28.

In the MENA region, the corruption phenomenon is positively correlated with the large
subsidy packages that have been granted for decades, especially for energy and food,
as a measure of social protection but often assisted high-income earners than low-
income ones. According to IMF (2013: 42), in 2011 the energy subsidies alone
amounted to USD 237 billion (8.6% of regional GDP), namely 50% of global subsidies.
Besides yielding huge costs of more than 5% of GDP (especially in GCC oil-driven
economies), energy subsidies have exceeded those for basic food (0.7% of GDP) and
have mitigated outlays on education (approx. 4% of GDP). As a result, the staggering
fiscal deficits have determined national governments to enact subsidy reforms, i.e.,
especially lowering energy subsidies since 2011 and lessen the impact of such
measures on the low-income groups.

4. Conclusions
Thisăpaperăendeavorsătoăexplainătheămainădimensionsăofătheă“slipperyăslopeăframework”ă
within the MENA tax climate comprising Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco,
Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates. Using the line of thoughts from
Batrancea and Nichita (2014) as benchmark, trust in authorities is highlighted by the
WorldăBankăgovernanceă indicatorsă“regulatoryă quality”ăandă“governmentăeffectiveness”,ă
whileăpowerăofăauthoritiesăviaă“ruleăofălaw”ăandă“controlăforăcorruption”.ăMENAătaxăclimateă
is underlined through a comprehensive methodological apparatus so that it pays
benefits to all sides: tax authorities, in their quest of detecting new strategies to boost
public revenues; taxpayers, in being aware of their role for the common good; investors
in being acquainted with the regional market. Although taxes do not constitute the
lifeblood of all economies within the MENA region, because of the staggering fiscal
deficits, high inflation, inefficient public procurements and underfinanced basic needs
(e.g., health, education, social security), national authorities turn to taxation as a means
to overcome challenges. Despite substantial natural resources, GCC members do not
disregard the introduction of consumption taxes in the upcoming years.

The tandem trust in authorities - power of authorities is regarded as a relevant tool which
can be used by authorities to master tax compliance. Financing public goods and
services of high quality leads ultimately to increased levels of trust and higher
tendencies to pay the fair share. In this respect, the GCC national authorities are
regarded as more trustworthy than authorities from non-GCC states. Nevertheless, oil
importers join efforts via the MENA Network of Public Procurement Experts to boost
accountability,ă transparency,ă publică outlays’ă efficiencyă andă goodă governance.ă Theă
significant levels of oil-based resources make the difference in terms of rule of power
perceptions. Once again, GCC members are deemed as more efficient in deterring
corruption and noncompliance than non-GCC members. The strategies used by
taxation-based economies to reduce the tax-gap collection are amnesties or mitigation
of government subsidies.

5. Acknowledgements
This workăwasăsupportedăbyăaăgrantăofătheăBabeş-Bolyai University through the Grants
for Young Researchers Programme, project no. GTC 34048/01.11.2013.

249
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250
DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS WITHIN LOCAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
1 2
Bențe Florina Maria , Bențe Corneliu
1
Bihor County Council, Oradea, Romania
2
The Department of Finance and Accounting, Faculty of Economics, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract: This study aims to explore citizens’ satisfaction regarding the communication
process within local public administration. In order to extend satisfaction research in the
public sector, were analyzed citizens’ expectations and perceptions considering local
public administration within Crisana Region.
Design/methodology/approach- Using a quantitative methodological approach, a survey
based on SERVQUAL instrument was applied in order to evaluate local public
communication. Data from a sample of 380 citizens within Western Romanian were
analyzed. Specific demographic predictors that can influence citizens' satisfaction
regarding the quality of communication are analyzed.
Findings-By analyzing data it was possible to determine citizen satisfaction and to
assess its relationship with different demographic characteristics. The results illustrate
that gender does not significantly affect satisfaction, instead age, marital status,
residence location (urban versus rural), income, education and occupational status of
the respondents significantly affect satisfaction regarding local public communication. In
addition, the findings confirm a relationship between the citizens' satisfaction and the
age, income, education and occupational status of the respondents.
Research limitations/implications- Owing to the budget and time limits, only a one-shot
survey was conducted, therefore the comparison between “before” and “after” analysis
could not be performed. In addition, further research should investigate the local public
communication within national contexts.
Practical implications -The adapted SERVQUAL scale may be used by institution
managers to objectively assess communication performance and local authority service
quality.
Originality/value- There continues to be a lack of research regarding the communication
process within local public administration and the effect of demographic predictors of
communication satisfaction. This paper examines both the perceptions and the
expectations of citizens regarding public communication. The results offer insights into
residence location, age, income, education and occupational status effects on
evaluations of communication satisfaction. Finally, the study contributes to studies of
perceived service quality by bearing out the link between communication efficiency and
several demographic characteristics in a public-sector context.
Keywords: satisfaction; communication; expectations; perceptions; demographic
characteristics

JEL classification: H83

1. Introduction
The assessment of communication as a determinant of satisfaction appears in several
studies on satisfaction with health services (Mazzei, Russo, Crescentini, 2009), police
services (Chu, Huey-Long Song, 2008), service quality in public sector (Agus et. al.,
2007, Wisniewski 2001).
Service quality is an abstract concept considered by many specialists in quality and
251
marketing as being particularly difficult to define and measure. Parasuraman et al.
(1988, p.12)ă developedă “aă 22-item instrument (called SERVQUAL) for assessing
customerăperceptionsăofăserviceăqualityăinăserviceăandăretailingăorganizations”.ăAlthoughă
the SERVQUAL model was accredited by marketing and management academics, the
model has attracted critics who have motivated that cannot be used the same model for
all the different contexts and situations in which service quality operates (Agus et. al.,
2007, Bowers et al., 1994; Brady and Cronin, 2001; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Gronroos,
1982; Lehtinen and Lehtinen, 1982; Rust and Oliver, 1994).

2. Method
Before data collection, the developed survey instrument was pre-tested and validated
(Cronbach’să alphaă coefficientsă wereă aboveă 0,7).ă Theă statementsă fromă theă
questionnaires used a five-point Likert type scale (1 -strong disagreement, 5 - strong
agreement). Data from the socio-demographic questionnaires were used to
characterize respondents by using nominal and interval scales.
Data were collected this year over a one month period. The face to face survey was
used in order to collect data from a 380 sample of citizens. The representative sample
was chosen using a stratified multistadial sampling design. Of the sample, 51 percent
live in residencies, 52 percent were females, their average age was 39, 54 percent
were currently employed, and they had an average of 12 years of education. In terms of
income 32 percent earn less than 600 RON; 35 percent earn between 600 and 1000
RON; 26 percent earn between 1001 and 2000 RON; 0,5 percent earn between 2001
and 4000 RON; and 0,01 percent earn more than 4001 RON. After collecting the
questionnaire data analyzed using SPSS version 20.0.
Three statistical analysis methods were employed to test the research hypotheses:
- Cronbach’săalphaăcoefficients:ătoămeasureăscaleăreliabilities;
- Independent Samples Test to investigate the relationship between perceptions of
satisfaction, gender and citizens` provenance;
- Spearman's rho: to investigate the relationship between perceptions of satisfaction
level of education, occupational status, age, and income.
In our opinion, satisfaction represents the gap between citizens` perceptions regarding
local public communication and their expectations on this concern. The SERVQUAL
score is:

SERVQUAL Score= Perceptions- Expectations

3. Findings
H1.There are significant differences on the five dimensions of citizens' satisfaction
(tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy) on the communication
of local public administration depending on the citizens` gender.

252
Table 1: Independent Samples Test - to test de perceptions differences depending on
the citizens` gender
Independent Samples Test
Levene's t-test for Equality of Means
Test for
Equality of
Variances
F Sig. t df Sig. Mean Std. 95% Confidence
(2- Differen Error Interval of the
tailed) ce Differenc Difference
e Lower Upper
EVA* .185 .667 -.311 378 .756 -.02778 .08939 -.20353 .14798
TP_E 376.48
EVNA* -.311 .756 -.02778 .08919 -.20315 .14759
0
EVA* 1.659 .199 .206 378 .837 .01819 .08838 -.15559 .19198
FP_E 377.99
EVNA* .207 .836 .01819 .08789 -.15461 .19100
9
EVA* .892 .346 .804 378 .422 .06841 .08508 -.09888 .23571
RP_E 370.82
EVNA* .803 .423 .06841 .08523 -.09919 .23601
9
EVA* .019 .889 .727 378 .468 .07704 .10596 -.13131 .28538
SP_E 376.05
EVNA* .728 .467 .07704 .10577 -.13094 .28501
6
EVA* .010 .920 .526 378 .599 .13148 .25016 -.36040 .62336
EP_E 375.71
EVNA* .526 .599 .13148 .24980 -.35969 .62266
2
EVA*-Equal variances assumed
EVNA*-Equal variances not assumed

Source: Processed by authors

H4.a. There are significant differences on the tangibility dimension of citizens'

satisfaction regarding the communication of local public administration depending on the
citizens` gender.
Using equal variance assumed test, t is equal to - 0,311 with a degree of freedom 378
and a significance level p=0,756, so because this value is more than 0,05 and this
shows that the mean of the two groups -0,975 and -0,947 does not differ statistically
significant. The 95% confidence interval of difference between the mean which is from -
0,203 to 0,147. Since the interval includes 0,00 the difference is not statistically
significant two-tailed 5%, therefore the research hypothesis H1.a. is rejected.
H4.b. There are significant differences on the reliability dimension of citizens'
satisfaction regarding the communication of local public administration depending on the
citizens` gender.
Using equal variance assumed test, t is equal to 0,206 with a degree of freedom 378
and a significance level p=0,837, so because this value is more than 0,05 and this
shows that the mean of the two groups -1,126 and -1,144 does not differ statistically
significant. The 95% confidence interval of difference between the mean which is from -
0,155 to 0,191. Since the interval includes 0,00 the difference is not statistically
significant two-tailed 5%, therefore the research hypothesis H1.b. is rejected.

253
H4.c. There are significant differences on the responsiveness dimension of citizens'
satisfaction regarding the communication of local public administration depending on the
citizens` gender.
Using equal variance assumed test, t is equal to 0,804 with a degree of freedom 378
and a significance level p=0,422, so because this value is more than 0,05 and this
shows that the mean of the two groups -0,951 and -1,019 does not differ statistically
significant. The 95% confidence interval of difference between the mean which is from -
0,098 to 0,235. Since the interval includes 0,00 the difference is not statistically
significant two-tailed 5%, therefore the research hypothesis H1.c. is rejected.
H4.d. There are significant differences on the assurance dimension of citizens'
satisfaction regarding the communication of local public administration depending on the
citizens` gender.
Using equal variance assumed test, t is equal to 0,727 with a degree of freedom 378
and a significance level p=0,468, so because this value is more than 0,05 and this
shows that the mean of the two groups -1,343 and -1,420 does not differ statistically
significant. The 95% confidence interval of difference between the mean which is from -
0,131 to 0,285. Since the interval includes 0,00 the difference is not statistically
significant two-tailed 5%, therefore the research hypothesis H1.d. is rejected.
H4.e. There are significant differences on the empathy dimension of citizens' satisfaction
regarding the communication of local public administration depending on the citizens`
gender.
Using equal variance assumed test, t is equal to 0,526 with a degree of freedom 378
and a significance level p=0,599, so because this value is more than 0,05 and this
shows that the mean of the two groups -3,300 and -3,431 does not differ statistically
significant. The 95% confidence interval of difference between the mean which is from -
0,131 to 0,285. Since the interval includes 0,00 the difference is not statistically
significant two-tailed 5%, therefore the research hypothesis H1.e is rejected.

Table 2: Independent Samples Test- to test de perceptions differences depending on

the citizens` provenance

Independent Samples Test

Levene's Test t-test for Equality of Means
for Equality of
Variances
F Sig. t df Sig.( Mean Std. 95%
2- Differenc Error Confidence
taile e Differen Interval of the
d) ce Difference
Lower Upper
EVA* .640 .424 .884 378 .377 .07887 .08924 -.09660 .25435
TP_
371.07
E EVNA* .882 .378 .07887 .08945 -.09702 .25477
6
EVA* .015 .901 -.380 378 .704 -.03353 .08831 -.20717 .14011
FP_
376.72
E EVNA* -.380 .704 -.03353 .08826 -.20707 .14001
0
EVA* 1.212 .272 1.094 378 .275 .09292 .08496 -.07413 .25997
RP_
373.76
E EVNA* 1.092 .275 .09292 .08506 -.07434 .26018
3
SP_ EVA* 1.328 .250 2.934 378 .004 .30735 .10477 .10134 .51336

254
E 374.21
EVNA* 2.931 .004 .30735 .10488 .10113 .51357
1
1.2346
EVA* 1.093 .296 3.030 378 .003 .74876 .24709 .26292
EP_ 1
E 374.26 1.2350
EVNA* 3.027 .003 .74876 .24733 .26243
1 9

EVA*-Equal variances assumed

EVNA*-Equal variances not assumed
Source: Processed by authors

H2.There are significant differences on the five dimensions of citizens' satisfaction

(tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy) on the communication of
local public administration according to the citizens` provenance.
H2.a. There are significant differences on the tangibility dimension of citizens'
satisfaction regarding the communication of local public administration according to the
citizens` provenance.
Using equal variance assumed test, t is equal to 0,844 with a degree of freedom 378
and a significance level p=0,377 so because this value is more than 0,05 and this shows
that the mean of the two groups -0,923 and -1,002 does not differ statistically significant.
The 95% confidence interval of difference between the mean which is from -0,096 to
0,254. Since the interval includes 0,00 the difference is not statistically significant two-
tailed 5%, therefore the research hypothesis H2.a. is rejected.
H2.b. There are significant differences on the reliability dimension of citizens'
satisfaction regarding the communication of local public administration according to the
citizens` provenance.
Using equal variance assumed test, t is equal to -0,380 with a degree of freedom 378
and a significance level p=0,704 so because this value is more than 0,05 and this shows
that the mean of the two groups -1,151 and -1,117 does not differ statistically significant.
The 95% confidence interval of difference between the mean which is from -0,207 to
0,140. Since the interval includes 0,00 the difference is not statistically significant two-
tailed 5%, therefore the research hypothesis H2.b. is rejected.
H2.c. There are significant differences on the responsiveness dimension of citizens'
satisfaction regarding the communication of local public administration according to the
citizens` provenance.
Using equal variance assumed test, t is equal to 1,094 with a degree of freedom 378
and a significance level p=0,275 so because this value is more than 0,05 and this shows
that the mean of the two groups -0,939 and -1,032 does not differ statistically significant.
The 95% confidence interval of difference between the mean which is from -0,074 to
0,259. Since the interval includes 0,00 the difference is not statistically significant two-
tailed 5%, therefore the research hypothesis H2.c. is rejected.
H2.d. There are significant differences on the assurance dimension of citizens'
satisfaction regarding the communication of local public administration according to the
citizens` provenance.
Using equal variance assumed test, t is equal to 2,934 with a degree of freedom 378
and a significance level p=0,004 so because this value is less than 0,05 and this shows
that the mean of the two groups -1,231 and -1,539 differs statistically significant. The
95% confidence interval of difference between the mean which is from 0,101 to 0,513.
Since the interval includes 0,00 the difference is not statistically significant two-tailed
5%, therefore the research hypothesis H2.d. is confirmed.

255
H2.e. There are significant differences on the empathy dimension of citizens' satisfaction
regarding the communication of local public administration according to the citizens`
provenance.
Using equal variance assumed test, t is equal to 3,030 with a degree of freedom 378
and a significance level p=0,003 so because this value is less than 0,05 and this shows
that the mean of the two groups -3,001 and -3,750 differs statistically significant. The
95% confidence interval of difference between the mean which is from 0,262 to 1,234.
Since the interval includes 0,00 the difference is not statistically significant two-tailed
5%, therefore the research hypothesis H2.e. is confirmed.
H3. There is a statistically significant positive correlation between the citizens` level of
education and their satisfaction regarding marketing communications from local
government institutions.
As is evident from Table 3 there is a weak positive relationship between the citizens`
level of education and their satisfaction regarding the marketing communications from
local government institutions( r = 0,189, p= 0,000 and is less than 0,05) so that the null
hypothesis is rejected. The higher is level of education, the higher the citizens`
satisfaction regarding marketing communications from local government institutions.
Accordingly, we can say that the satisfaction of marketing communications in local
government institutions increases with the education level. Therefore the research
hypothesis H3 is confirmed.

Table 3: Correlation between the citizens` level of education and their satisfaction
Correlations
GAP_ Education
Perceptions_
Expectations
Correlation **
GAP_Percept 1.000 .189
Coefficient
ions_Expecta
Sig. (2-tailed) . .000
tions
Spearman's N 380 380
rho Correlation **
.189 1.000
Coefficient
Education
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .
N 380 380
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: Processed by authors

H4. There is a statistically significant negative correlation between the citizens` age and
their satisfaction regarding marketing communications from local government
institutions.
From the correlation analysis presented in Table 4 there is a weak negative relationship
between citizens` age and their satisfaction regarding the marketing communications
from local government institutions( r = -0,167, p= 0,001 and is less than 0,05) so that the
null hypothesis is rejected. As expected, younger and older individuals ranked differently
satisfaction. The younger the citizen it is, the higher the citizens` satisfaction regarding
marketing communications from local government institutions. Accordingly, we can say
that the satisfaction of marketing communications in local government institutions
decreases along with aging process. Therefore the research hypothesis H4 is
confirmed.

256
Table 4: Correlation between the citizens` age and their satisfaction
Correlations
GAP_ Age
Perceptions_Expe
ctations
Correlation **
GAP_ 1.000 -.167
Coefficient
Perceptions_
Sig. (2-tailed) . .001
Expectations
Spearman's N 380 380
rho Correlation **
-.167 1.000
Coefficient
Age
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .
N 380 380
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: Processed by authors

H5. There is a statistically significant negative correlation between the citizens`

occupational status and their satisfaction regarding marketing communications from
local government institutions.

Table 5: Correlation between the citizens` occupational status and their satisfaction
Correlations
GAP_ Occupation
Perceptions_
Expectations
Correlation *
GAP_ 1.000 -.128
Coefficient
Perceptions_E
Sig. (2-tailed) . .013
xpectations
Spearman's N 380 380
rho Correlation *
-.128 1.000
Coefficient
Occupation
Sig. (2-tailed) .013 .
N 380 380
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Source: Processed by authors

As is evident from Table 5 there is a weak positive relationship between the citizens`
level of education and their satisfaction regarding the marketing communications from
local government institutions( r = -0,128, p= 0,013 and is less than 0,05) so that the null
hypothesis is rejected. Thus, the employed citizens are more satisfied with marketing
communications from local government institutions than the citizens who do not have a
job (unemployed, retired people or students). Therefore the research hypothesis H5 is
confirmed.

Table 6: Correlation between the citizens` income and their satisfaction

Correlations
GAP_ Income
Perceptions_
Expectations

257
 *
GAP_ Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .111
Perceptions_ Sig. (2-tailed) . .030
Spearman's Expectations N 380 380
*
rho Correlation Coefficient .111 1.000
Income Sig. (2-tailed) .030 .
N 380 380
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Source: Processed by authors

H6. There is a statistically significant positive correlation between the citizens` income
and their satisfaction regarding marketing communications from local government
institutions.
From the correlation analysis presented in Table 6 there is a weak negative relationship
between citizens` income and their satisfaction regarding the marketing communications
from local government institutions( r = -0,111, p= 0,030 and is less than 0,05) so that the
null hypothesis is rejected. The higher is the citizens' income, the higher the satisfaction
regarding the marketing communication of local government institutions. Therefore, the
research hypothesis H6 is confirmed.
4. Conclusions
The present study analyzed the specific demographic predictors that can influence
citizens' satisfaction regarding the quality of communication. The analysis leads to a
clearer awareness of the general appreciation regarding local public communication.
Considering that citizens` expectations have not been encountered by their perceptions
regarding communication of local government, the SERVQUAL Gap was negative (-
1,07).
Accordingly to other studies (Benedict et al., 2000, Chermak et. al., 2001, Davis, 1990,
Huang and Vaughn, 1996, Worall, 1999) it can be mentioned that gender has no effect
on perceptions of the quality, thus the first hypothesis was rejected. After testing the
second hypothesis on the assurance and empathy dimension of communication quality
there were differences in citizens` perceptions regarding local public communication
according to the citizens` provenance. The results indicate that residents from urban
communities appreciated the communication process within local public administration
more negatively. Likewise, there some studies which indicated that residents of urban
communities view the police more negatively than residents from rural residents (Huang
and Vaghn 1996, Worall, 1999). The third, fourth, fifth and sixth hypotheses were
confirmed, thus citizens` age, level of education , occupational status and income affect
their satisfaction regarding marketing communications from local government
institutions.
The academic research concerningă theă effectsă ofă aă person’să incomeă andă levelă ofă
education is ambiguous. The research that focused on police services has found that as
aăperson’săincomeăincreased,ăsoădidătheirălevelsăofăconfidenceăinătheăpoliceă(Frankăetăal.,ă
2005; Murty et al., 1990). Instead, Dowler (2003) found that as income increased,
confidence in the police decreased while Cao (2001) noticed that there was no
statistically significant correlation between the two variables.
Further research should investigate less investigated predictors of satisfaction. The
emotions that consumers feel when consuming a service, past experiences, the
frequency of the citizens` contact to local authorities, types of contact have not been
explored in either perceived service quality or customer satisfaction models.

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Murty,ă K.S.,ă Roebuck,ă J.B.ă andă Smith,ă J.D.,ă 1990.ă “Theă imageă ofă theă policeă ină blackă
Atlantaăcommunities”,ăJournalăofăPoliceăScienceăandăAdministration, Vol. 17, pp. 250-7.

Parasuraman,ăA.,ăBerry,ăL.ăandăZeithaml,ăV.A.,ă1988.ă“SERVQUAL:ăaămultiple-item scale
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1, pp. 12-40.

Rust,ăR.T.ăandăOliver,ăR.L.ă,ă1994.ă“Service quality: insights and managerial implications

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Theory and Practices, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 1-19.

Zamble, Edward; Annesley, Phyllis, 1987. Some determinants of public attitudes toward
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Issue 1, pp 47-66

260
TAXATION.FAIRNES. EQUALITY.

Morar Ioan Dan

Department of Finance Accounting
Faculty of Economics
University of Oradea
[email protected]

Abstract:
The issue of taxation is a phenomenon long past barriers fiscal regulations and
procedures, as in the contemporary period is a phenomenon with multiple implications
of economic, social and political. Tax procedures also were upgraded and complicated
that not only specialists but also taxpayers need the jurisdictional knowledge, informatics
and especially in the economic field. Dealing over the jurisdictional and procedural
measure, it seems that the other side of the relationship between tax authorities and
taxpayers, the economic and psycho-behavioral was neglected.
Tax authorities as part of the administrative system, whose main objective
attracting tax revenues to the Exchequer in terms of data legislation, legislation that
reflects the vision of the governments policy in operation. One must ask if the official
fiscal policies, take into account the coordinates of the report psychobehavioral tax? The
answer to this question and some comments to address this issue, this paper covered
together.
The tax will not ever paid with pleasure, but it is known that fiscal equity confers a
degree of acceptance by payers of the tax burden. Modern fiscal policies are marked by
complicated structure of tax systems, more sophisticated procedures and rush image of
politicians that do not retain as little detriment to promote populism reality.
Another problem is the invasion of of social security, namely the objective is also
looking to be promoted on account of fiscal policy without taking into account the fact
that the two policies, the fiscal and social security are still their primary objective. The
combination of the two types of , the purely fiscal and social, administrative approach is
undoubtedly affected, and the effectiveness of the two policies may be affected
taxpayers reactions is recognized in the literature are controversial.
Taxpayers are vexed not only the size of the tax burden but also its structure,
especially the way the official division of the tax burden between them, depending on
how the tax base, depending on the type of taxpayer and according to other criteria.
Another coordinated taxation is part of contemporary consumerist polticilor new
tax, taxing certain income, especially income individuals is marked by the overall
objective of capitalist society, that consumption growth. Fiscal policies are policies the
new contemporary consumerism. And this phenomenon influences the distribution of the
tax burden among taxpayers, more or less fair.
What is tax fairness and how we can quantify? Here's a question that I try to
raspunt from equality before the law tax payers. Equality before the tax law is not a
primary goal of modern tax policy, it losing ground to tax efficiency goals and its
economic and social components. On the other hand though fiscal phenomenon
can help to ensure social peace through taxation to keep Sean absolute size of the tax
burden and the fact that all are equal before the law, tax law and within given social
policies in broadly, social security or insurance in respect restrains can be promoted by
themselves and less by fiscal policy.

261
Content:
Considerations generale.Complexitatea fiscal phenomenon.
Taxation in the current language is understood as more acceptable, ie taxation as a
set of taxes imposed at a time in a company engaged in tax taxation, taxation as
jurisdictional regulation and taxes in the fourth , taxation as a science, as a discipline of
study.
First meaning, taxation, as a set of taxes and duties imposed on society by the legal
laws in the context of our literature specialist is a misconception, this overlapping
conceptual fiscal system. The tax system includes all taxes imposed at a point in society
and the relationships between them, within and as part of the financial system.
A second meaning, so that taxation is understood that fiscal activity. This sense only
partially reflect economic content of taxation, procedural aspect of taxation is an
important, but not with the manifestation of the phenomenon in its entirety. Leave aside
the theoretical component, conceptual content sic her economic phenomenon with its
implications on taxpayers.
Third acknowledge that the taxation, that legal regulation of the field, or in tax
legislation restrains sense. And this is a partial view of the phenomenon, the
phenomenon is broader fiscal, economic content, social and psycho-behavioral and
penetrates into the deepest springs of society, family and individual.
The fourth accepted that science, discipline of study, is a vision developed over fiscal
phenomenon. "Maintenant, taxation est une science," says fiscalism France, Maurice
Laure.
Regarded as a science, taxation is part of financial science, detached relatively late,
with the development and modernization of fiscal phenomenon fiscal procedures.
Taxation as a subject of study is well defined object and use methods outlined and
defined the scope of the phenomenon, the methods used are specific issues such as
fiscal procedures, and common to other disciplines of study, common social sciences
and the exact such as the calculation of mathematical, statistical comparisons,
synthesis and the like.
Fiscal phenomenon is a more complex social phenomenon, the extent of tax
revenue, the taxable structure of matter, the complexity of the procedures used and the
deeper implications of all taxpayers

Economic and psycho-behavioral component of taxation.

Promotes contemporary Taxation taxes placed so that the state to promote the fiscal
policies they own. Responding elements of modern tax policy objectives of the
legislature and taxes looming fiscal levers at hand as the state to promote public policies
in all branches of social life.
Efficiency of taxation is a principle that was the basis for imposing ever, states,
sovereigns, governments are by their nature existential Vero governed by this objective,
fiscal procedures have been continuously modernized, but always at the expense of the
taxpayer, which will incur a task overwhelming.
What kinds diversified revenue, capital grew, consumption grew large and diversified
tax base in this context and the various taxes has been adapted so as to bring the state
income increasingly greater. Tax base and other elements of the tax, especially quotas
and tax benefits (tax benefits can be grouped into two categories, namely: tax deduction
from the taxable base parts that are not required or necessary light and secondarily the
reductions in tax payments as part of the tax computed which will be paid partially or not
at all) were established in fiscal policy instruments used to influence taxpayer behavior,
for different purposes, economic and social.
If efficiency tax depends on the settlement thereof, ie, if their location repect the
principles of fiscal efficiency, ie, productivity taxation, universal taxation, taxation
262
stability, size of tax revenue is directly proportional to the size of the tax base, the size of
income, wealth estate and securities, consumption size.
The size and structure of the tax base on the real economy, the structure of the real
economy, the absolute level of capital, size and income structure, size and structure of
consumption, but they can be influenced by the taxpayer, whose behavior can be
modeled just by the way tax settlement.
Taxpayers are targeted to be encouraged to eat, to work harder and more efficiently
or more jobs can be influenced to save and then invest in certain sectors or activities.
Using tax as leverage was generalized in fiscal years keinesian interventionism and
intervention methods were perfected so that national tax systems of the developed
countries have become some bushy systems with many rules and exceptions, benefits
and fiscal constraints. In our legislation corporation tax only if covered over twenty-six
deductible expenses and other exceptions in the calculation of the tax base.
In the case of personal income taxation are notorious exceptions, for example in the
French regulations, taxpayers, individuals or individual families receive over fifty
exceptions as deductible and discounts from taxes.
In order maintenance and consumption growth, fiscal authority waive part of annual
revenue from the individual income tax by providing such a facility, but will receive
during each expense generated by the facility consumption tax in the form of VAT ,
excise receipts you complete the budget revenues. This kind of policies that pursue
modeling and selecting consumption by providing benefits to pay income tax, but only
on condition that a part of these revenues to be spent as legal selection are described in
the literature and these concerns political consumerism especially income individuals.
Unlike fiscal policies consumerism what production targets are called policies they
offer and ipozitului handling is based on income from capital fruition, especially
corporate income tax. Usually offer discounts or exemptions from corporate income tax
for reinvested. The only problem arises when such measures relate to the viability and
reliability of such investments based on tax incentives, investments that can be validated
by asking such products made on account of such investments.
Fiscal policy measures, whether on account of consumption or production due
primarily targeting individual taxpayers or commercial society, myself, whose behavior
will shape or function of fiscal policy objectives.
The promotion of such policies are based on "bait" economic, but is based on psycho-
behavioral predictability taxpayer in such situations.
Fairness and equality before the tax law.
Tax fairness is one of the principles of taxation and perhaps most played. Tax fairness
is invoked by tax policies, and social policies promoted by certain segments of its taxes.
It talks about vertical equity, vertical equity in the context of the tax treatment of income
earned by individuals, but also businesses.
Literature usually presents as representing fiscal equity tax treatment depending on
ability to pay. This in turn requires taking into account the taxpayer's income, his wealth,
social status, health status, family situation and other such variables depending on the
taxpayer to benefit from tax advantages as lower rates, taxable income higher
deductibility of expenses incurred during the fiscal year, all in order to reduce the
amount payable as income tax.
This vision materialized fiscal equity so by granting tax benefits, which in fact are
exceptions to the basic rule, exceptions promoted in order to ensure a certain level of
social security taxes waters account, it is really about positive discrimination.
The goal is a noble one that we all subscribe to that course to our peers with health
problem, family, hardships of all kinds, should help. We put the question but if this effort
to ensure social security tax payers do not distort their behavior and those who do not
receive such benefits? We must ask the question whether the benefits of social
263
purposes may be provided by state social security networks, with the same purpose, but
without affecting the behavior of taxpayers.
In this context, I believe that the basis of comparison when it comes to fiscal equity
must be equal before the tax authority. Absolute equality when taxpayers pay the same
amount of money to the tax authority is focused on tax procedure using fixed rates, but
currently hard to believe that such an approach would have succeeded. Relative
equality before the tax authority requires that the table be imposed on the taxpayer
shares in proportional, at least relatively speaking, taxpayers would bear the same rate,
in absolute obligation to pay is directly proportional to the mass taxable.
Component of social security should be left to specialists in these networks would
not disrupt the process of taxation, and, on the other hand, fiscal policy should be more
visible.
Sophisticate fiscal policies promoted and populist reasons sometimes affect the fair
treatment because they will always be the exceptions to taxation.
Laws fiscal adjustment measures, especially in our legislation have a frequency
higher price and create legal instability and uncertainty for taxpayers. These changes
are mainly promoted di tax efficiency considerations, it takes increasing amounts from
the public budget, but such measures affect the fair treatment of taxpayers, ie tax equity
yield to impose efficiency.
Lack of fiscal equity generates inappropriate reactions from taxpayers regarding
appetite for work, for taxable migration, usually in our case the imposition of capital and
labor to impose such other reactions too often taxpayers in fiscal policy measures.
Fiscal equity succumb in the face discriminatory treatment of various forms of taxable
bzei such as imposing more severe than income from wages, if we take into account the
social obligations that accompany the income tax from capital fructification, in our case
is about imozitul about profits or income tax companies micro and dividend tax.
Also, it can highlight the different treatment of personal income by source of income
and depending on whether the taxpayer obtained other income in the current situation
when the annual income not subject to globalization.
Given these considerations it appears that the official fiscal policy could be more
supple, more efficient and invisible if it were handled observing as many of the principles
underlying taxation.
Some fiscal policy measures that affect or could make or influence taxpayer
reporting fiscal authority. The most serious problem businesses have to bear the tax
legislation is instability legislation.
Measures taken in the previous year on reduced TVA rate bakery products
apparently only partially achieved its goal, the advantage being mostly large retail
networks.
To prevent mass migration from the imposition of taxable wages to impose outcome
would be achieved by imposing wage adjustment measures regarding social
contributions.
Reduce wages by using quotas progressive taxation, but less than 16%, I do not give
the expected results for a given introduce progressive rates, can roll and get back to
egalitarian taxation methods. Small income taxation problem can be solved more
elegantly and efficiently by increasing the minimum taxable income, personal deductions
at a higher fixed amount depending on the objective.
Another issue official tax policy is its predictability, measures changing tax legislation
may be announced from time to warn taxpayers who are calculi for the future. Impozitu,
tax law should not be considered the criterion of choice to invest or save, give work
more or less, to redesign and cash flows needed to repay loans or even monthly income
and expenses of individuals in their capacity as taxpayers.

264
Bibliography:
1. Fiscal Code, Law 571/2003, republished;
2. ConstantinăI.ăTulai,ă“ăPublic finances and fiscality “ă,ăScinceăBookă
Publishing House , Cluj Napoca, 2005;
3. Ioan Dan Morar, “ă Theă Romaniană fiscal system. Tradition and capacity of
adaptation “ă,ăDaciaăPublishingăHouseă,ăClujăNapoca,ă2000;
4. Fiscal Code, Law 571/2003, republishe
5. www.anaf.ro;
6. www.bnr.ro;

265
BUDGET AND PUBLIC DEBD

Morar Ioan Dan

Department of Finance Accounting
Faculty of Economics
University of Oradea
[email protected]

The issue of public budgeting is an important issue for public policy of the state, for
the simple reason that no money from the state budget can not promote public policy.
Budgetary policy is official government Doctrine vision mirror and also represents a
starting point for other public policies, which in turn are financed by the public budget.
Fiscal policy instruments at its disposal handles the public sector in its structure, and
the private sector. Tools such as grant, budgetary allocation, tax, welfare under various
forms, direct investments and not least the state aid is used by the state through their
budgetary policies to directly and indirectly infuence sector, and the private.
Fiscal policies can be grouped according to the structure of the public sector in
these components, namely fiscal policy, budgeting and resource allocation policies for
financing the budget deficit.
An important issue is the financing of the budget deficit budgetary policies. There are
two funding possibilities, namely, the higher taxes or more axles site and enter the
second call to public loans. Both options involve extra effort from taxpayers in the
current fiscal year when they pay higher taxes or a future period when public loans will
be repaid.
We know that by virtue of "fiscal pact" structural deficits of the member countries of
the EU are limited by the European Commission, according to the macro structural
stability and budget of each Member State. This problem tempers to some extent the
governments of the Member States budgetary appetite, but does not solve the problem
of chronic budget deficits.
Another issue addressed in this paper is related to the public debt, the absolute
amount of its relative level of public datoriri, about the size of GDP, public debt financing
and its repayment sources.
Sources of public debt issuance and monetary impact on the budget and monetary
stability are variables that must underpin the justification of budgetary policy official.
Volume and structure of public debt will strike in the future state finances and
income citizens who in turn will pay these debts. Regarding payment of public debt in
the future, in literature often put morality issue grevarii income of future generations of
rulers moment.
Another issue addressed in this paper is that of public debt issuance conditions in
international financial markets, the international financial institutions or domestic.
Substantiating the link between the amount borrowed and realizing their destination
in credit is needed to determine the economic and social effects on the budget and on
income taxpayers will bear the burden of public debt.

Contents:
Consolidated budget, functional or outdated.
When talking about the public budget, we consider the state budget, namely
centralized budget of state social insurance budget, budget health insurance and
unemployment fund budget.

266
 We know that reforming the budget structure undertaken in 1999, lasted only three
years until 2002 when budgets mentioned above were again pooled into a large bag and
bottomless called consolidated public budget.
The term "enhanced" is mostly a deconsolidation, because to make a budgetary
resources raised by way of taxation, centralized state budget, resources from
contributions and social contributions, the latter being money "semi" contributions of the
insured to network state pension paid by the insured in accordance with the principle of
solidarity between generations, contributions to the health and unemployment, in the
name of solidarity with those who temporarily lose their health or work.
In fact the so-called consolidation follows the government to handle these resources
and the network in which the insured state pension at the health insurance and
unemployment. These resources could otherwise be capitalized than the budgetary
resources available to the government. Such a situation is anachronistic and such a
view is outdated.
Reforming the budget, by splitting the social insurance budget, budget health
insurance and unemployment insurance budget, which would generate a large deficit for
some of the four budgets and surpluses for others. It requires therefore a rearrangement
of the tax burden and social security contributions, a reform of the distribution of the tax
burden and social security contributions, so as to allow independent operation of these
budgets.

Current budgetary situation.

Consolidated budget revenue budget components
-mil lei-
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Total, of which: 181.920 193.146 205.964 216.808 230.169 242.083
1. State budget 79.379 81.171 95.318 100.932 106.491 112.145
2. Social Security
Budget 48.144 48.858 50.242 52.200 54.334 57.545
3 Unemployment
Budget 2.407 1.915 1.875 2.072 2.069 2.099
4 Budget health
insurance 17.821 19.085 22.830 22.560 22.617 23.202

Source: MFP, www.mfinante.ro.

Evolution budgets consolidated budget revenues in the period 2011-2014 is positive

and also prefigures the same trend in the coming years.
This has to be seen in the context of evolution of GDP in this period and forecasts
for subsequent years.
Current prices - billions Lei-
-------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------
- Percentage change over the previous year -
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
-------------------------------------------------- -------
GDP 625.6 658.6 692.2 730.3 771.6
- Real growth,% 2.2 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.3
-------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------
Source: MFP, www.mfinante.ro.

267
 To achieve transparent mirror as current budgetary situation of our country, it is
necessary to present the same time and the evolution of the budget deficit for this
period.
Budget deficits during 2012-2016
Budget deficits 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Deficit ESA 3,0 2.6 2.2 1,4 1,4

Structural Deficit 2,7 2,0 1,7 1.0 1,0
Deficit cash 2,5 2,5 2,2 1,4 1,4
Source: MFP, www.mfinante.ro.

As can be seen, the evolution of the nominal budget deficit, but the structural and,
also is positive, that deficit drops to around this period.
Current budgetary situation is incomplete if you do not analyze and funding sources
abugetului, ordinary ones we leave aside for this analysis, and we take into account only
the Extraordinary sources, namely, public loans, internal and external, embodied in
public debt situation our country to date.
Romania's public debt at the beginning of the year 2014.
Debt situation of our country is presented below based on data provided by the
Ministry of Finance, in the year 2013 and in January 2014, namely:

Foreign debt at January 31, 2014 *

and external debt service in January 2014
- milioane euro -

External debt
External debt
service in
Balance at Balance at
p p January 2014p
31.12.2013 31.01.2014

IExternal debt and long-term 76951 78354 1302

I.1. Direct public debt of which: 28353 29509 509

I.1.1. Loans from the FMI 1121 1135 0

I.2. Publicly guaranteed debt 1218 1195 19

I.3. Non-guaranteed debt 36219 36494 509

I.4. Medium and long-term e

6453 6499 157
deposits of non-residents

268
 - milioane euro -

External debt
External debt
service in
Balance at Balance at
p p January 2014p
31.12.2013 31.01.2014

I.5. Loans from the FMI 4708 4657 108

e
II. Short-term external debt 19491 18291 3270

Total external debt (I + II) 96442 96645 4572

The balance is calculated on a cash basis (excluding accrued interest not matured);
Also not included in the FMI's DST allocations.
a) external loans directly from the MFP and local authorities under the law on public
debt, including Government Emergency Ordinance. 99/2009 ratifying the Stand-By
Arrangement between Romania and the IMF;
b) Loans guaranteed by MFP and local authorities under the law on public debt;
c) loans from the IMF under the Stand-By Arrangement with Romania, excluding the
amount received from the IMF PFM according to OUG. 99/2009 (section I.1.1. of the
table)
Source: MFP, www.mfinante.ro
Foreign debt at January 31, 2014 is EUR 96.645 million, consisting of: external debt
and long-term in the amount of EUR 78.354 billion (81.1 percent of total external debt),
up by 1.8 percent compared to December 31, 2013 and short-term external debt of the
euro 18.291 billion (18.9 percent of total external debt), down 6.2 percent from
December 31, 2013.
External debt service ratio in the medium and long term was 27.9 percent in
January 2014 compared to 41.4 percent in 2013.
Foreign debt rose from 15 bn euro in 2001 to 101 billion in March 2013 to 96.6
billion euros at the end of January 2014.
Currently, the state owes out to about 41.7 billion euros, while banks and private
companies 54.9 billion.
In December 2008, when the crisis began, the country's total external debt was 72
billion in public debt was 11 billion and private debt was 61 billion euros of additional
foreign debt accumulated during the crisis , the accumulated extra 26 billion, while the
private sector has increased external debt only 3 billion euro.
In other words, four-year, 90% of the money coming from abroad in Romania are loaned
by the state and private companies and banks only renew their debts.
In late 2008, public external debt was around 11 billion euros, representing more than
15% of total debt, and now heading for 30% of total external debt.
Evolution is influenced by borrowing record of almost 20 billion euro, Romania
contracted since 2009 from foreign donors.
Compared to other countries in the EU, at the end of 2013, the external debt is as
follows: in EU countries had the highest public debt as a percentage of GDP, were:
Greece (169.1%), Italy (133, 3%), Portugal (131.3%) and Ireland (125.7%) and the
lowest public debt as a percentage of GDP were recorded in Estonia (9.8%), Bulgaria
(18%), Luxembourg (23.1%), Romania (38.6%), Latvia (38.7%) and Sweden (40.9%).
269
 In this comparative context, our country has a dire situation, only this debt in the
biggest part of it is the medium and long term contracts and effort will largely be passed
to future generations, a situation that raises the question of burdening our children and
mortgaging a portion of their income.
In the same context, we have to put the problem of ability to pay and arrears rates
generated by these loans. Perhaps in future years, as has happened in previous years
the government will resort to debt rescheduling policy, given caare growth will not cover
the entire public debt service and the executive will call back the other to repay loans
from some of the oldest and maintain debt service running. In terms of this work is the
inevitable question "if the country's balance of payments will also withstand public debt
service and that is unbearable threshold of debt repayment."

Bibliography:
1.www.mfinante.ro
2.www.anaf.ro;
3.www.bnr.ro

270
CREDIT RATING AGENCIES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON CRISIS

Petris Sorina Ioana

Department of Finance and Accounting, Faculty of Economics, University of Oradea,
Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: Credit ratings have a significant impact on the functioning of markets and the
confidence of investors and consumers, investors using them to assess credit risk.
Having a major role in the proper functioning of financial markets, it is vital for these
rating agencies to operate in a manner more objective and credible as possible. In the
world there are several rating agencies, but in reality counts only 3 (The Big Three):
Moody's, Standard & Poor's and Fitch, who account for almost 95% of the market.
Rating agencies have been the subject of intense criticism because of the role they
have had in the trigger of financial crisis. Given that the major rating agencies are
American, the U.S. having a particular interest in the euro area can raise the question
whether this wave of downgrades is not a part of the scenario under which the U.S. has
managed to export its own crisis around the world.

Keywords: credit rating agencies, rating scores, crisis, sovereign risk, investment.

JEL classification: G240, F340.

1.Introduction
Credit rating agencies play an important role in global banking and securities markets,
because their credit ratings are used by investors, borrowers, issuers and governments
in making investment and financing decisions. According to the Regulation no.
1060/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16.09.2009 on credit rating
agencies, the term " credit rating " is defined as " an opinion, granted on a well
established and defined classification system of rating categories on the
creditworthiness of an entity a debt or financial obligation, a debt security or preferred
stock or other financial instrument or an issuer of such debt or financial obligation, debt
or preference shares and other financial instruments". Rating is actually an assessment
of the financial health of an entity. Any entity may have a rating, from a company to a
country. On the other hand, the term "credit rating agency" means a "legal person
whose business includes providing professional basis of credit ratings" (Official Journal
of the European Union L 302/1 of 17.11.2009 - Regulation 1060 /2009 on credit rating
agencies).
A credit rating refers only to credit risk, other risks such as market risk and liquidity risk
are not considered.
Credit ratings have a significant impact on the functioning of markets and the confidence
of investors and consumers. Therefore, it is essential that credit rating activities to be
carried out with the principles of integrity, transparency, accountability and good
governance to ensure that credit ratings are independent, objective and of adequate
quality.

2. Rating agencies and credit ratings issued

In the world there are several rating agencies, but in reality counts only 3 (The Big
Three): Moody's, Standard & Poor's and Fitch, who account for almost 95% of the
market. Credit ratings given are expressed on a scale of letters and numbers.

271
Figure 1. Rating description: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_rating, accessed on
April 2014.

Moody's S&P Fitch

Long- Short- Long- Short- Long- Short- rating description
term term term term term term
Aaa AAA AAA Prime
Aa1 AA+ AA+
A-1+ F1+
Aa2 AA AA High grade
P-1
Aa3 AA- AA-
A1 A+ A+
A-1 F1
A2 A A Upper medium grade
A3 A- A-
P-2 A-2 F2
Baa1 BBB+ BBB+
Baa2 BBB BBB Lower medium grade
P-3 A-3 F3
Baa3 BBB- BBB-
Ba1 BB+ BB+
Non-investment grade
Ba2 BB BB
speculative
Ba3 BB- BB-
B B
B1 B+ B+
B2 B B Highly speculative
B3 B- B-
Caa1 CCC+ Substantial risks
Not prime
Caa2 CCC Extremely speculative
Caa3 CCC- C CCC C Default imminent with
CC little
Ca prospect for recovery
C
C DDD
/ D / DD / In default
/ D

Ratings have particular importance in financial markets, investors using them to assess
credit risk. Ratings affect the interest rate that the borrower must pay the lender. A
reduction in rating will result in a higher interest rate.
For a country, credit rating reflects the risk of its business environment and is used by
those who want to invest abroad. It takes into account political risk. A low rating
indicates the opinion of agency that the company or country has a high risk of
bankruptcy, the rating based on analysis of the entity's history and long-term economic
forecast.
Credit rating agencies play an important role in financial supervision institutions. In the
EU, to cover certain risks, financial institutions are required to hold a minimum level of
financial resources. This capital will be used for the emergence of unexpected losses,
also protect depositors and contribute to financial system stability. The key role of
agencies is emphasized by the fact that banks often require that certain assets have a

272
certain level of rating to be accepted as collateral, if certain financial institutions will
require a loan to the central bank. For example, until recently the European Central
Bank demanded that certain assets to have a credit rating of at least BBB- (Jackob de
Haan, Fabian Amtenbrink, 2011).
Having a major role in the proper functioning of financial markets, it is vital for these
rating agencies to operate in a more objective and credible as possible.
In the early twentieth century, the ratings were based on subscriptions and were
purchased by investors. Now the agencies are paid by issuers of financial instruments
for the rating. Amounts paid by issuers for providing these ratings represent almost two
thirds of the total income of a credit rating agency. However, there are some ratings that
are provided free of charge, but they are not as accurate because it is based only on
certain dates / public information.
But this system in which financial product issuer pays the rating agencies is very
dangerous. On the one hand, agencies are tempted to overestimate the credibility of
issuers of financial products, considering that the main source of income represents
amounts paid by issuers and thus want to maintain a good relationship. On the other
hand, agencies must retain credibility in the market, otherwise their ratings would have
no market value. Concrete example is the case of the U.S. in the previous period of the
subprime mortgage crisis in 2007, when credit agencies have rated to high for risky
mortgages, just because they put first incentives received and not their reputation in the
market.

3. Sovereign credit rating

Credit ratings of credit rating agencies to countries is an assessment of the government
regarding its ability and willingness to pay its debts and interest on time. In perspective,
these ratings measure the probability of default of credit by the government of a country.
A credit default refers to the inability to pay on time the debt of countries and the
interest. Figure below shows the countries credit ratings issued by major rating agencies
3.

Figure 2. Long term sovereign debt ratings

S&P Rating Moody's rating Fitch Rating
COUNTRY

ALBANIA B STABLE B1 STABLE

ARGENTINA CCC+ NEGATIVE Caa1 Stable CC
AUSTRALIA AAA STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE
AUSTRIA AA+ STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE
BELARUS B- STABLE B3 NEGATIVE
BELGIUM AA STABLE Aa3 STABLE AA STABLE
BOSNIA AND
B STABLE B3 STABLE
HERZEGOVINA
BRAZIL BBB- STABLE Baa2 STABLE BBB STABLE
BULGARIA BBB NEGATIVE Baa2 STABLE BBB- STABLE
CANADA AAA STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE

273
CHILE AA- STABLE Aa3 STABLE A+ STABLE
CHINA AA- STABLE Aa3 STABLE A+ STABLE
COLOMBIA BBB Stable Baa3 POSITIVE BBB STABLE
CROATIA BB Stable Ba1 NEGATIVE BB+ Negative
CUBA Caa1 STABLE
CYPRUS B- Stable Caa3 POSITIVE B- NEGATIVE
CZECH
AA- STABLE A1 STABLE A+ STABLE
REPUBLIC
DENMARK AAA STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE
EGYPT B- STABLE Caa1 NEGATIVE B- sTABLE
ESTONIA AA- STABLE A1 STABLE A+ STABLE
FINLAND AAA NEGATIVE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE
FRANCE AA STABLE Aa1 NEGATIVE AA+ STABLE
GERMANY AAA STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE
GREECE B- STABLE Caa3 STABLE B- STABLE
HONG KONG AAA STABLE Aa1 STABLE AA+ STABLE
HUNGARY BB STABLE Ba1 NEGATIVE BB+ STABLE
ICELAND BBB- STABLE Baa3 STABLE BBB STABLE
INDIA BBB- NEGATIVE Baa3 STABLE BBB- STABLE
IRELAND BBB+ POSITIVE Baa3 Positive BBB+ STABLE
ISRAEL A+ STABLE A1 STABLE A Positive
ITALY BBB Negative Baa2 Stable BBB+ Negative
JAPAN AA- NEGATIVE Aa3 STABLE A+ NEGATIVE
LIECHTENSTEIN AAA STABLE
LITHUANIA A- STABLE Baa1 STABLE BBB+ POSITIVE
LUXEMBOURG AAA STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE
MEXICO BBB+ STABLE A3 STABLE BBB+ STABLE
MOLDOVA B3 STABLE
MONTENEGRO BB- NEGATIVE Ba3 STABLE
NETHERLANDS AA+ STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA NEGATIVE
NEW ZEALAND AA STABLE Aaa STABLE AA STABLE

274
NORWAY AAA STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE
POLAND A- STABLE A2 STABLE A- Stable
PORTUGAL BB Negative Ba3 STABLE BB+ POSITIVE
PUERTO RICO BB+ Negative Ba2 Negative
QATAR AA STABLE Aa2 STABLE
REPUBLIC OF
B+ STABLE Ba3 STABLE B+ STABLE
THE CONGO
ROMANIA BB+ POSITIVE Baa3 NEGATIVE BBB- STABLE
RUSSIA BBB NEGATIVE Baa1 RUR- BBB NEGATIVE
SERBIA BB- NEGATIVE B1 STABLE B+ STABLE
SLOVAKIA A STABLE A2 STABLE A+ STABLE
SLOVENIA A- STABLE Ba1 Stable BBB+ NEGATIVE
SPAIN BBB- STABLE Baa2 Positive BBB Stable
SWEDEN AAA STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE
SWITZERLAND AAA STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE
TURKEY BB+ Negative Baa3 NEGATIVE BBB- STABLE
UKRAINE CCC NEGATIVE Caa3 Negative CCC
UNITED ARAB
AA STABLE Aa2 STABLE AA STABLE
EMIRATES
UNITED
AAA NEGATIVE AA1 STABLE AA+ STABLE
KINGDOM
UNITED STATES AA+ STABLE Aaa STABLE AAA STABLE
URUGUAY BBB- STABLE Baa3 POSITIVE BBB- STABLE
VENEZUELA B- NEGATIVE Caa1 NEGATIVE B NEGATIVE
VIETNAM BB- STABLE B2 STABLE B+ Positive
Source: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/romania/rating, accessed on April 2014.

Rating agencies have a complex set of qualitative factors which analyzes such as
institutional strength, political, fiscal and monetary stability, economic and environmental
vitality, also the history of a country in terms of total debts. These qualitative factors are
added some quantitative factors such as the level of debt, international reserves, the
composition of debt and the cost of credit, also (Jackob de Haan; Fabian Amtenbrink,
2011).
Credit rating of a country influence the development of the financial market, directly
affecting the price of bonds. Effect of credit rating is felt well on the stock market.

275
Moreover, the reduction in the credit rating of a country's financial market influences
other countries, too.

4. Rating agencies and crises

Rating agencies have been the subject of intense criticism, because of the role they
have had in the financial crisis. They were given the highest rating for 11 significant
financial institutions, that later either failed, either had serious problems.
Financial giant "AIG" received the "AA" rating, even though he had serious problems.
Investment bank Lehman Brothers maintained its rating on the investment until a few
days before the collapse.
Untill the beginning of the subprime crisis in 2007, the three ratings agencies have
maintained "AAA" to thousands of instruments, which soon proved to be very risky.
Moody's, for example, was a factory for ratings "AAA". From 2000 to 2007, awarded this
rating for 42 625 securities based on subprime mortgages. In 2006 the value of these
securities with maximum rating was of 869 billion dollars, 83% of which will be lower six
months later. (Emily McClintock Ekins and Mark A. Calabria, 2012).
Senate Permanent Subcommittee dealing with research into the causes of the crisis had
several hearings. Those who were interviewed were the heads of Moody's and S & P,
which contributed greatly to the deepening crisis. Some of the conclusions of U.S.
Senators are:
(http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri-finante_banci-11211417-agentile-rating-jocurile-culise-
care-distrug-sau-coafeaza-economie-vezi-cat-castiga-cum-iau-deciziile-comitetele-
rating.htm):
1) The rating models used were inaccurate. Between 2004 and 2007, Moody's and
Standard & Poor's used "inappropriate" numbers to estimate how big the risk in
residential mortgages was.
2) Competitive pressure made the employees of rating agencies to rate false the
performance of their clients.
3) Although we knew that the ratings provided could mislead investors, rating agencies
continued to operate with incorrect numbers and models.
4) Despite strong gains, rating agencies have not invested in resources to improve the
scoring.
5) When they lowered the massive ratings of thousands of companies in July 2007 and
then in January 2008, they caused a financial market shock, causing substantial losses
and contributing to the deepening crisis. Sometimes ratings were lowered from AAA to
junk directly. In other cases, though employees do not recommend good ratings, the
management of the rating agencies rated certain products with the best rate (AAA),
because they wanted to keep their client.
Regarding the debt crisis, for a decade rating agencies have systematically ignored the
structural problems of the economies. Only in 2009, after the Greek government
admitted that he lied about its public deficit, it began the cycle of the degradation .
At the time, Greece was rated with A, the fifth scoring out of 20. In May 2009, Standard
and Poor's downgraded Greece's bond hedge, this action was followed shortly by the
Fitch and Moody's agencies. The same thing happened in Ireland and Portugal,
although their debt still stood above the speculative
(http://www.romanialibera.ro/exclusiv-rl/documentar/esecuri-rasunatoare-ale-agentiilor-
de-rating-269207.html#top_articol).
Theădeclineăofătheăagency’săratingăhasăanăimmediateăeffect.ăWhenăaădebt is not denoted
with a safe investment rating (A), banks, pension funds and insurance must sell, fueling
the fall of their interest and thus increasing the financial markets. So follows another
degradation of the rating agencies and therefore new sales. A chain maintained by these
agencies, by monopolizing European economic environment.
276
On 5 August 2011, S & P downgraded U.S. debt for the first time in history. "AAA" rating,
the best possible, was reduced by one notch to "AA+ (http://www.zf.ro/business-
international/incepe-decaderea-daca-sua-ar-fi-fost-in-europa-acum-ar-fi-mers-dupa-
bani-la-ue-si-fmi-8173129).
On 13 January 2012, after a prior warning, S & P downgraded the rating of 10 eurozone
countries, attracting numerous critics.
(http://placeduluxembourg.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/sp-rating-action-
13_01_2012.png?w=419&h=423).

5. Controversies and penalties

Given that the major rating agencies are American, the U.S.A. having a particular
interest in the euro area, can raise the question whether this wave of downgrades is not
a part of the scenario under which the U.S. has managed to export its crisis around the
world. Is possible that U.S.A. to use any means to maintain its current dominance and to
restore the European market at the level of a simple market place.
The disappearance of the eurozone and of the single currency could be beneficial for
those who hunt for some time the European market. Dividing this market into initially
markets allows easy control and new rules dictated by global business leaders who can
be in such a situation, the real winners of the European crisis. The disappearance of the
eurozone and the single currency would mean dividing the European market, and this
would allow business leaders to establish new global rules and easy control; the real
winners in this scenario of the current European crisis would be U.S.A. (financiarul.ro,
2012).
Since the financial crisis in 2008 and the emergence of economic problems in the PIIGS
(Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Greece, Spain), criticism of European governments to the rating
agencies have been increasingly vocal.
After the mass ratings downgrade of European countries, many European leaders have
criticized the rating agencies, giving them the credibility and good faith and once again
bringing into question the necessity of establishing a European rating agency.
Rating agency Standard & Poor's (S & P) has been found guilty of the Federal Court of
Australia for having misled investors paying the highest rating, "AAA" of financial
derivatives that were devalued during the financial crisis. It is the first time that such an
agency is sued and convicted for the evaluation of financial derivatives. Following the
decision of the court of Australia, councils will receive compensation of 16 million
Australian dollars, but the total cost charged to the accused parties could rise to 30
million Australian dollars, including costs and interest. (Michael Hedtstueck, 2012).
Credit rating agencies contributed to outbreak and deepening global financial crisis,
giving numerous inaccurate ratings.

References

Emily McClintock Ekins and Mark A. Calabria (2012),ă“Regulation,ăMarketăStructure,ă

andă Roleă ofă theă Credită Ratingă Agencies”,ă Catoă Institute.ă Paperă availableă online:ă
http://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/regulation-market-structure-role-credit-
rating-agencies

JackobădeăHaanăandăFabianăAmtenbrinkă(2011),ă“CredităRatingăAgencies”,ăDNB Working
Paper No. 278. Paper available online:
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1760951.

277
MichaelăHedtstueckă(2012),ă“SȚPăVerdict:ăBigăBlowătoăRatingăAgencies”.ăPaperăavailableă
online: http://www.cfo-insight.com/markets-economy/capital-markets/sp-verdict-big-blow-
to-rating-agencies/

Official Journal of the European Union L 302/1 din 17.11.2009 – Regulation 1060/2009
on credit rating agencies. Internet source: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:302:0001:0031:RO:PDF

Financiarul.ro, (2012): Paper available online:

http://www.financiarul.ro/2012/06/16/moodys-calaul-europei-mai-crede-insa-cineva-in-
valabilitatea-ratingurilor-ei/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_rating

http://www.tradingeconomics.com/romania/rating

http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri-finante_banci-11211417-agentile-rating-jocurile-culise-
care-distrug-sau-coafeaza-economie-vezi-cat-castiga-cum-iau-deciziile-comitetele-
rating.htm

http://www.romanialibera.ro/exclusiv-rl/documentar/esecuri-rasunatoare-ale-agentiilor-
de-rating-269207.html#top_articol

http://www.zf.ro/business-international/incepe-decaderea-daca-sua-ar-fi-fost-in-europa-
acum-ar-fi-mers-dupa-bani-la-ue-si-fmi-8173129
http://placeduluxembourg.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/sp-rating-action-
13_01_2012.png?w=419&h=423

278
ASSETS AND LIABILITIES DEPENDENCE: EVIDENCE FROM AN EUROPEAN
SAMPLE OF BANKS

Trenca Ioan *, Zapodeanu Daniela **, Cociuba Mihail-Ioan **

* Babes-Bolyai University, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration,
Department of Finance, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
** University of Oradea, Faculty of Economics, Department of Finance, Oradea,
Romania
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract: In this paper we analyzed the correlation between asset and liabilities using
the canonical correlation method, in the case of correlation we analyze the
interdependence between two variables, by using canonical correlation analyses we
study the interdependence between two groups of variables, X consisting of p variables
and Y with q variables from which the best linear combination can be constructed to
maximize the correlation between X and Y. While on the financial markets the relation
between variables may be linear or non-linear and although canonical correlation
analyses only the linear combination of variables it is a more efficient tool than then
simple correlation.
The asset group which we analyze is composed of different types of loans, derivatives
and other earning assets, while in the group of liabilities we have deposits (short and
long term), interest bearing liabilities and trading liabilities. We find that the assets and
liabilities in the banking sector are directly linked. In the context of the global financial
crisis (2007-2008) and the afterwards financial recession this direct correlation between
assets and liabilities created a vicious cycle in which the losses from assets had a direct
impact on the liabilities which also influenced the levels of assets.
The behavior of different variables is important, especially in the financial markets,
mainly due to the structure of financial markets. The banking sector and the systemic
risk associated with it can affect the financial system and even the whole economy so
the study of the correlation of assets and liabilities may give us insights on the causes of
the financial crises. We use a panel of fifty-nine European banks for the 2004-2011
period and we analyses the correlation between assets and liabilities. We find that there
exists a direct and strong connection between different classes of assets held by banks
and the structure of liabilities. The impact of the economic crisis on the banking sector
has shown that this kind of connection between the structure of assets and liabilities is
not the best choice because a negative fluctuation in assets generates a negative
impact on the structure of liabilities. The direct connection between assets and liabilities
amplifies the systemic risk of the banking sector and can also have an impact on other
markets due to their spillover effects.

Keywords: asset-liabilities interdependence, canonical correlation, bank profitability

JEL codes: G21

1. Introduction

Asset liabilities management is defined as the strategic management of the

balance sheet (Rosen & Zenios 2006), it is the management of income and expenses
with respect to maximizing earnings, adjusted to risk factors, given the long term interest
of the shareholders (Uyemura et al. 1993) also ALM manages the risk due to
279
mismatches between assets and liabilities. (Al-Shubiri 2010) considers that the main
goal of assets and liabilities management is the control of the net interest margin;
usually the goal of assets and liabilities management is view from the context of
enterprise risk management having as final objectives the level of profitability, liquidity
and capital.
The assets liabilities management models are classified as: single period-static
models, multiple period static model, single period stochastic model, multi period
stochastic model (Zenios & Ziemba 2007). One of the first period-static model is
presented in the seminal paper of (Markowitz 1952) which analyses assets allocation
from a risk-return perspective, a model which incorporates the leptokurtic characteristic
of financial series is developed by (Zenios 1995). One example of multiperiod stochastic
models is the stochastic programming models of (Carino et al. 1994). (Alexiou &
Sofoklis 2009) while investigating the effects of bank-specific and macroeconomic
determinants of bank profitability in Greek bank, from a Structure-Conduct-Performance
framework, finds that the banks specific variables influence banks profitability.
While in the case of macroeconomic factors the influence is ambiguous with
some variables (inflation, GDP growth) having a positive connection with bank
profitability. (Alper & Anbar 2011) found that for banks operating in Turkey there is a
connection between bank-specific determinants and profitability and the significant
macroeconomic factors influencing profitability are real interest rate.
In the case of South European countries (Athanasoglou et al. 2006) observed
that financial reforms and the structure of credit institutions are the determinants of
banks profitability. (DeYoung & Yom 2008) uses canonical correlation analyses to study
the assets-liabilities dependency, while (Memmel & Schertler 2010).
This paper analyzes the structure of the assets and liabilities and the connections with
the profitability in the banking sector on a panel of 30 European countries using the
canonical correlations methodology. The remaining of the article is organized as follows:
Section 2 presents the methodology, Section 3 presents the dataset and the results,
Section 4 concludes.

2. Methodology

Ină hisă seminală paperă „Relationsă betweenă twoă setsă ofă variates”ă Hotellingă (1936)ă
presents the theoretical framework of canonical correlation analyses, if in the case of
correlation we analyze the interdependence between two variables when using
canonical correlation analyses we study the interdependence between two sets of
variables.
The canonical correlation analysis has the following mathematical background
(Hotelling 1936), for two groups of variables, X consisting of p variables
and Y with q variables from which the following
linear combination can be constructed (Hardle & Simar 2007):
(1)
(2)
where and are the canonical coefficients vectors
and the linear combinations of a'X and b'Y are the canonical variables.
The linear combinations are build such as the two vector a' and b' will maximize the
following correlation:
(3)
For the X and Y variables we will define the mean and the variance-covariance
matrix so that we will have:

280
 and

From equation 3 and using the definition of correlation as a ration between the
covariance of the series and their standard deviations we have:
(4)

The maximum of the correlation is at where the standard

deviations of X and Y was normalized so that and , in
order to maximize equation 4 the singular value decomposition (SVD) will be applied on
the matrix so that the SVD is
Where
(5)

and the rank of (K) = k, are the eigenvalues of ,

respectively and , are the eigenvectors of ,respectively .

The first pair of canonical correlation vectors will be , respectively

, the variables of the canonical correlation are for the X series,
respectively for the Y series.

The second pair of canonical correlation variables maximize the correlation

between the two set, equation 4, from the all the possible option that are uncorrelated
with the first pair of canonical variables. If p>q we will have a maximum number q of
correlation between the two variables set.
The canonical variables have the following statistical properties (Johnson & Wichern
2002):

1.
2.
3.
4.
for k, l =1, 2, ..., p.

The canonical loadings are defined as the correlation between the canonical variables
and the initial variables:

281
The interdependence between canonical variables can be interpreted (DeYoung & Yom
2008) in the following manner: if there is a strong canonical correlations between the
canonical variables U and V and also a strong canonical loadings between X i ,Yj and U,
V there will be a dependence between the Xi and Yj variables (Figure 1).
Figure. 1 Assets and liabilities dependency

3. Data analyses

The dataset consists of annually financial information for a panel of 59 banks; the data
are obtained from the Bankscope database and covers the period between 2004 until
2011.

When looking at a panel of individual banks (Figure 2.b.) we can observe that the Greek
(Eurobank, National Bank of Greece, Alpha Bank) and Cypriot banks (Cyprus banks,
Bank of Cyprus) have the lowest level of net income on assets, this is a widespread
trend for the analyzed banks because for all of them net income has decreased. For
most of the analyzed banks the level of loans has decreased from 2004 until 2011 (Fig.
2.a).

282
 Figure 2 a) Total Loans, b) Net income/ Total Asset
In the asset group we analyse the impact of different types of loans, derivatives and
other earning assets, while in the group of liabilities we have deposits (short and long
term), interest bearing liabilities and trading liabilities.
The assets and liabilities in the banking sector (Fig.3) have mostly a direct connection,
in the case of the assets structure this positive connection is stronger than in the case
of liabilities, also the cross-correlation between assets and liabilities shows that these
variables are positively correlated. In the context of the global financial crisis (2007-
2008) and the afterwards financial recession this direct correlation between assets and
liabilities created a vicious cycle in which the losses from assets had a direct impact on
the liabilities which also influenced the levels of assets. In the case of all of the analysed
283
banks the level of profits and income have decreased, most of the banks suffering high
losses due to the mismatch in maturity between assets and liabilities, high leverage and
over indebtedness. This situation demanded a response from Central banks and State
and in some cases large bail-out and debt restructuring programs were necessary in
order to keep the banks from bankruptcy, but these restructuring programs also had a
negative impact on the national economies.
Figure 3. Correlation between asset-liabilities

284
4. Conclusions

In this paper we analyzed the correlation between asset and liabilities using the
canonical correlation method, while in the case of correlation we can observe the
connection between two variables by using canonical correlation different types of
assets and liabilities can by analyzed at the same time. In the financial markets the
relation between variables may be linear or non-linear and although canonical
correlation analyses only the linear combination of variables it is a more efficient tool
than then simple correlation. The behavior of different variables is important, especially
in the financial markets, mainly due to the structure of financial markets. The banking
sector and the systemic risk associated with it can affect the financial system and even
the hole economy so the study of the correlation of assets and liabilities may give us
insights on the causes of the financial crises. We use a panel of fifty-nine European
banks for the 2004-2011 period and we analyses the correlation between assets and
liabilities. We find that there exists a direct and strong connection between different
classes of assets held by banks and the structure of liabilities. The impact of the
economic crisis on the banking sector has shown that this kind of connection between
the structure of assets and liabilities is not the best choice because a negative
fluctuation in assets generates a negative impact on the structure of liabilities. The direct
connection between assets and liabilities amplifies the systemic risk of the banking
sector and can also have an impact on other markets due to their spillover effects.

References

Al-Shubiri, F., 2010. Impact of bank asset and liability management on profitability:
Empirical investigation. Journal of Applied Research in Finance (JARF), II(2).
Alexiou, C. & Sofoklis, V., 2009. Determinants of bank profitability: Evidence from the
Greek banking sector. Ekonomski anali, 54(182), pp.93–118.
Alper, D. & Anbar, A., 2011. Bank specific and macroeconomic determinants of
commercial bank profitability: empirical evidence from Turkey. Business and Economics
Research Journal, 2(2), pp.139–152.
Athanasoglou, P., Delis, M. & Staikouras, C., 2006. Determinants of bank profitability in
the South Eastern European region. Bank of Greece, Working Paper No. 47, pp.1–31.
Available at: http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/10274/
Carino, D.R. et al., 1994. The Russell-Yasuda Kasai model: An asset/liability model for a
Japanese insurance company using multistage stochastic programming. Interfaces,
1994(February), pp.29–49.
DeYoung, R. & Yom, C., 2008. On the Independence of Assets and Liabilities: Evidence
from U.S. Commercial Banks, 1990-2005. Journal of Financial Stability, 4(3), pp.275–
303.
Hardle, W. & Simar, L., 2007. Applied multivariate statistical analysis, Springer.
Hotelling, H., 1936. Relations between two sets of variates. Biometrika.
Johnson, R.A. & Wichern, D.W., 2002. Applied multivariate statistical analysis, Prentice
hall Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Markowitz, H., 1952. Portfolio section. Journal of finance, 7, pp.77–91.
Memmel, C. & Schertler, A., 2010. The dependency of the banks’ assets and liabilities:
evidence from Germany. European Financial Management, 49(4), pp.602–619.
Rosen, D. & Zenios, S.A., 2006. Enterprise-wide asset and liability management: issues,
institutions, and models. Handbook of Asset and Liability Management: Theory and
Methodology, 1, p.1.
Uyemura, D.G., Van Deventer, D.R. & Foundation, B.A.I., 1993. Financial risk
285
management in banking: the theory & application of asset & liability management,
Bankers Pub. Co.
Zenios, S.A., 1995. Asset/liability management under uncertainty for fixed-income
securities. Annals of Operations Research, 59(1), pp.77–97.
Zenios, S.A. & Ziemba, W.T., 2007. Handbook of Asset and Liability Management:
Theory and Methodologies, North Holland.

286
SECTION: MANAGEMENT, MARKETING, ECONOMIC INFORMATICS AND
CYBERNETICS

SUB-SECTIONS: MARKETING I, II

ECONOMIC INFORMATICS AND CYBERNETICS

DEVELOPING A SEVEN METAPHORS MODEL OF MARKETING FOR
UNIVERSITIES

Coita Dorin-Cristian
Management-Marketing Department, Faculty of Economics, University of Oradea,
Oradea, Romania
[email protected]

Abstract: The concept of marketing applied in education offers a lot of possibilities of

social innovation. It is a tool helping educational organization to acquire resources and
to provide value. In this article presented a model of seven metaphors to be used by a
universities in order to acquire resources and to provide value to its stakeholders and
applied it in the case of a Romanian university called The University. The aim of the
paper is to identify sources of social innovations by using this model in the field of
educational marketing.

Keywords: educational marketing, Romanian higher education, marketing metaphors,

seven metaphors model, social innovation.

JEL classification: M390

1. Introduction
In 2012 in Romania were 107 higher education institutions. 88 of them are accredited by
The Romanian Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ARACIS). All these
universities competed for a market of 464 592 enrolled students (INSSE 2012), including
an estimated number of 10 000 foreign students in Romania and about 30-50 000 of
Romanian students abroad. The number of the enrolled students in Romania in 2012
was the lowest number from 2000. Five years ago the number of the student was almost
double as it is seen in the following table.

Table 1: Evolution of the number of the students enrolled in Romania from 2000 to 2012
Year Number of the students
enrolled
2000 533.152
2001 582.221
2002 596.297
2003 620.785
2004 650.335
2005 716.464
2006 785.506
2007 907.353
2008 891.098
2009 775.319
2010 673.001

289
 Year Number of the students
enrolled
2011 539.852
2012 464.592
Source: INSSE (2014) Romanian National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies-
INSSE, Tempo Online Database on www.insse.ro

Due to the huge decrease of the number of enrolled students, Romanian universities are
forced to consider marketing as a function to acquire resources and to provide value.
Therefore it is not random the increasing of literature on higher education marketing,
especially after 2007.

In this paper we developed a model for understanding marketing in higher institutions

and presented its potential for the case of a Romanian university.

1. Literature review on marketing higher education in Romania.

There has been a consistent literature on the educational marketing and in particular on
higher education (HE) marketing. Hemsley-Brown and Oplatka reviewed literature on
HE marketing and concluded that there is a need of theoretical models to reflect the
particular context of HE and the nature of their services (Hemsley-Brown and Oplatka,
2006).
In Romania there is a growing interest in the marketing academic education, particularly
in higher education marketing. Analyzing the literature on higher education marketing in
Romania, we found that there has been a promising literature on marketing orientation,
especiallyăafteră2007ă(Nicolescu,ă2009,ăEnacheă2011,ăDiaconuăandăPandelic ă2011,ăFilipă
2012, Gordan and Pop, 2013), on using marketing research (Dumitru, 2013), on
relational marketing in higher education (Iordache-Plati ,ă 2010),ă onă students’ă behavioră
(B cil ă etă al.,ă 2009),ă onă qualityă ofă educatională servicesă (Bundaă et.ă al,ă 2010),ă onă
marketingă strategiesă ofă universitiesă (Micuă 2009,ă Munteanu,ă 2010,ă Gorun,ă 2010,ăTan uă
et al, 2011, Popescu 2012).
All of the authors in the field consider the necessity of marketing to be important for
universities given to its potential in acquiring resources (students, researchers,
professors, public funds and public recognition) and providing value (quality of
education, position in rankings, prestige to stakeholders) .
Education is very important to society and its importance increases as world become
more complex and integrated. As important actors in education and in society,
universities always looking for ways to continuously improve their business. Even if
some universities tend to adopt behavioral elements of public institutions and of great
inertia in terms of innovation, increasingly powerful forces environmental factors force
them to innovate, to seek and attain excellence. Universities, on the one hand, must
keep up with the increasing competition for home based and overseas students, with
changing generations of students, with developments in the field of education, with
globalization, with the influence of technology, with the changing needs of society, with
changing the way public resources are allocated, and also with the shift paradigm in
understanding of market orientation, e.g. marketisation.

2. A metaphorical approach
We consider marketing to have two major tasks for any organization, (1) to acquire
resources for the organization and (2) to provide value to its stakeholders (Coita, 2008).
Due to the complexity of the universities as organizations, it is a challenging endeavor to
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describeă howă theă modelă it’să functioning,ă howă doă universitiesă acquire resources, what
kind of resources they need, to whom they provide value and what is exactly value for
every category of stakeholders. We share the opinion that it is absolutely wrong to
consider higher education as commodity traded to the interaction of many suppliers and
many buyers at a variable price but instead, as a concept that respects the benefits of
social and economic capital (Maringe and Gibbs, 2009).
We further propose a model of understanding of marketing based on the use of seven
metaphors. Metaphors are widely used in marketing to deliver content and facilitate
understanding of customer benefits (Bremer and Lee, 1997). In addition, metaphors in
marketing theory help when business environment and market conditions are in a state
of ambiguity and needs both critical and creative thinking (Fillis, 2008)
The model we propose aims to facilitate understanding the benefits of marketing and
also its functionality to universities. It is supposed to be adopted by both managers and
the ones who want to broaden their understanding of marketing in higher education. The
model is based on the assumption that marketing has a complex role for organizations
in modern world and is inappropriate to transpose the classical marketing concept in the
higher education market. The model opens up the possibility of its use for social
innovation.
3. Seven-metaphors-model of marketing higher education.
We further propose a model of understanding marketing. Each of the seven metaphors
describes how a university can use marketing to fulfill its mission and accomplish its
goals.
3.1 Marketing as a magnet of an organization.
The main function of a magnet is that produces a magnetic field to attract certain
objects. We believe that a university may use marketing to be responsible for producing
that kind of field that is a medium of attraction resources and opportunities: for example,
to attract people (students, staff, faculty, partners, and sponsors), to attract money
(funding, projects, longer payments terms, research funding, endowments, investments,
funds for scholarships, loan funds and even students to attract loans to bear the costs of
education), to attract projects (as main applicant or as a partner organization) and also
other elements creating good reputation (positive references from the media, positive
reports made by supervisory authorities and regulators, willingness and support of the
authorities, parents, public attention, participants to discussions, visitors to the campus,
visitors to Internet site, alumni, Likes on Facebook etc.)
Once the magnet position was understood, the management and all those responsible
foră marketingă shouldă askă questionsă suchă as:ă “Whată areă theă constituenciesă ofă theă
magneticăfieldăthatăweăhaveătoăproduce?”ă“Whatăareătheăotherăconditions that we have to
fulfilă ină orderă toă attractă manyă ofă theă itemsă above?”,ă “Whată elseă shouldă weă doă toă attractă
moreăofătheăabove?”,ă“Whatădrawsăallăthese?”
3.2 Marketing as an arrow of the organization.
An arrow could be used as a projectile or as a carrier. As a projectile, the arrow is the
main element to reach target. As a carrier, the arrow is the vehicle for delivering certain
elements, for instance, messages, answers to questions, announces of new
opportunities, type-reactions to specific stimulus or situations etc. In addition, the use of
arrows implies the need to identify one or more targets and the bow – the mechanism to
send the arrow to the target.
Arrow function of marketing involves the organization identifies its targets, then use
different mechanisms to send different elements in their direction. There are different
targets for marketing: target markets, target results, target opportunities. Towards these
goals the organization sends its products and its offer, its promotional messages, its
marketing activities, resources and attention.
Considering marketing as an arrow leads people to ask questions such as: Whom we
291
offer our products? Who we are aiming our product / service? Whom shall reach / who
we are aiming to reach with our messages? Which carrier (which promotional vehicle)
can be used to send messages, items of value to customers? What else can we target
customer attention and money? What targets (customer - target, market, or results)
should we determine?
3.3. Marketing as a hook of the organization.
The main function of a hook is to catch, to grasp, to cling, to bring objects close to the
user or to his attention. By marketing universities must bring its public closer, must close
resources and grasp opportunities.
Another function of a hook is that it provides stability as an anchor. Marketing can be
understood as an anchor which provides safety and stability to organization. Marketing
helps school organization to "anchor" itself in its mission, in the area of knowledge,
culture and values of civilization and community.
3.4. Marketing as a window of the organization.
Windows (and doors, as well) are communication interfaces; they provide access and
communication with the external environment. They also provide exposure of results or
performance of the university, presenting them to the public. They allow those inside to
lookă oută andă findă oută what’să happeningă ină theă businessă environment.ă Theyă alsoă allowă
outsiders who are interested to look within the organization to know what is happening
and even get involved encouraging them to providing value.
Having in mind all the possible windows universities could use, we mention (1) the
Internet site and (2) tools of online access via computers or mobile devices, e.g. e-
learning platforms, (3) utilizing Social Media for communicating, (4) open days and other
academic events, (5) the responsiveness of the university to different requests of the
outsiders, (6) newsletter and any academic journal, (7) any other means to
communicate relevant things about the activities and the performances of university,
participants to projects, conferences, round tables, problems debated and solutions
found.
3.5. Marketing as an organization binoculars.
A pair of binoculars is a tool with which the viewer can look away, can scan the horizon.
Marketing acts as binoculars for organization that helps to look carefully and see the
exterior and interior environment, the changes, the opportunities and the threats. The
binoculars should empower organizations to know the trends and future developments.
Through activities such as marketing research, scanning the marketing environment,
marketing forecasts, the university can more clearly see the outside and its future.
3.6. Marketing as a strap.
A strap is a rope with the role of flexible connecting element. With this tool universities
link dynamically and flexibly to different situations, developments, trends and
opportunities. For example they links to projects opportunities, to technologies, to local
community and economy, to employers, to interests of local authorities and other
partners.
The strap is a metaphor for intelligent and flexible relationships (Porumb, 2000), a tool to
operationalize relational marketing of universities.
3.7. Marketing as a cobweb.
Cobweb is the symbol of a network of connections and interests consciously constructed
and planned. Universities must develop their network connections and interests to
ensure their access to resources and ability to deliver greater value to their audience
categories. Like a spider, a university must initiate, establish and use links, partnerships,
networks, relationships with various external entities (other universities, network of
universities, network of research institutes, NGOs, employers, suppliers and more
others). All these networks provide benefits to teachers, to students, to educational
process, to school board, and to other partners, as well.
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Besides the understanding of a network of partnerships we emphasis on informational
integration, e.g. marketing research through the network.
In the networks, university could play roles as: the network maker, the network
administrator, the feeder, the amplifier, the evaluator, the public-agenda- setter, the
concentrator, the facilitator or the hub.
Using cobweb as a marketing model is not new, but in this seven-metaphoric-model, the
concept of cobweb has nothing to do with the cobweb model (Dieci and Westerhoff
2009).

4. Social innovation potential of the seven metaphors model in the case of the
University
Given the complexity of the higher education environment, the use of model could
generate several innovations.
First of all, it will help academics to understand their role in marketing higher education
which is not only the responsibility of the marketing department. The model promotes
understanding of the broader situation of the university as a network node and leads
them to engage in relationships and partnerships between universities and third parties.
The model emphasis on the necessity for universities to create mechanisms for
attracting funding, reputation, researchers, staff and other resources as a part of global
marketing effort. It underlines, also, the necessity for universities to equip themselves
with the necessary marketing tools, intelligence and information not only about the
market of prospective students but also to identify and monitoring those areas where
resources come from.
Increase the magnetism! Understanding marketing as a magnet suggests that
universities and staff should consider a large range of possibilities to attract people,
resources, opportunities and good reputation.
Without claiming to make an exhaustive list, we consider marketing tools to be diverse
and also traditional.
Using brands
There are several entities to be branded within universities. The University itself should
be branded as an umbrella brand for all the brands of its constituencies. Its faculties,
departments, extensions and research centers could be branded, as well.
Open Windows
Market orientation of the University implies not the possibility of making visible what is
happening within university but the obligation to become an open institution.
There are some situations that can be considered as windows such as Open Days,
organizing campus visits, MOOC- Massive Open Online Courses, Webinars, and Open
Workshops.
Social Media, also, helps the University to open the windows to several categories,
empowering them to get closer to young minds, to prospects, to students and partners,
to alumni and to their staff.
Organizing academic events
Universities could consider academic events to be a variety of reasons for different
audiences to come, to stay, to participate, to research, to become acquainted with them
and to become more preferable. From summer schools or summer camps, contests for
students, professors, entrepreneurs, artists, from conferences or scientific reunions
aiming to attract researchers.
Inviting contributors for academic journals
Contributions to academic journal attracting articles and scientific ideas, from services
and benefits offered to community actors such as free access to libraries, access to
universities facilities.
Another means for drawing attention of the public opinion are the universities sport
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teams and their performances in sport championships. Universities attract also
employers for the students and graduates trough workshops, projects, job fairs and
projects. Universities could attract resources, opportunities and money for the students
and graduates being active contributors to mechanisms as loans for the students and
jobs-getting facilitation. Understanding of marketing as a magnet for universities opens
new and unexpected opportunities of using tools to attract resources and increase
interest and involvement of stakeholders.

6. Conclusions
The benefits of using the seven-metaphors-model start with the profound understanding
of the mission of marketing applied in modern universities. In this respect, the model
allowsă managementă ofă theă universityă toă actă asă marketers,ă eventă theyă don’tă have the
marketing formal training.
Using the seven-metaphors-model allows also the researchers and the faculty to
understand themselves as marketers of the institutions, as they are responsible to
acquire resource ad deliver value in the name of the university they work for.
Having this model in mind could be useful for any marketing responsible of a university
to answer to questions as: (1) Which are our current marketing targets; (2) Which should
be our marketing targets? or (3) Which could be our marketing targets?. Further, it
allows marketers to identify and also use an extended mix of marketing elements to be
used for educational academic institution.
We consider that the seven-metaphors-model could be also applied in educational
institutions, local authorities, nonprofit organizations and other social economy entities in
order to stimulate social innovations to serve the public good.

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IT&C FOR TIME MANAGEMENT
1 2
Mares Valerica , Mares Daniel
1
The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Faculty of Accounting and
Management Information Systems, department Management Information System,
Bucharest, Romania
2
SPIRU HARET University, Faculty of Management, Finance and Accounting,
Bucharest, Romania
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract: The efficient management of time is essential in any profession and in any
activity domain. Anybody can increase his capacity to organize his time and get
important benefits from it. The way in which one organizes his time will always have a
direct impact on the objects of his work (resources and activities), so that it is worth
allocating time for developing some instruments and techniques that could help
planning and organizing time efficiently and attaining the objectives while meeting the
deadlines.

Keywords: efficient management of time, benefit, meeting, planning, project

JEL classification: M54

Introduction
While being the most exercised of the human skills, communication is also the main
source of misunderstandings and human failures, even in our times. This happens at all
levels of the social life. People are different and these differences (education, temper,
environment, genetics etc) can affect communication when they are not understood.
That is why we say that there are no receipts for communicating efficiently and that a
conscious adaption effort is needed. If it is controlled in time, the communication
process contributes to reducing stress, and the desired result can be achieved easier,
saving time and energy.
Time has the following characteristics:
 ităisăinelastică(ităcan’tăbeăaccumulatedănorăsaved);
 ităisăatypicală(ităcan’tăbeăcomparedătoăanyăotherăresource);
 it is equally available (anyone has the same amount of time everyday – 24
hours);
 it is indispensable;
 ităcan’tăbeăsubstituted.
How well we organize our time is up to each of us, it shows how disciplined we are, how
we control our desires, how we refrain that need for immediate reward which we all
know brings us more regret than satisfaction most of the time. A way to keep it under
control is to motivate ourselves continuously, to think about the consequences of our
actions and to communicate to groups, to masses of people. One can rise the question if
using the informational technology and communication (IT&C) technologies bring us
closer when we want to communicate or they bring us apart ?
Scheduling the program from the previous day can be done by using various softwares,
like Microsoft Outlook, Mozilla Sunbird and also online, by using Google Calendar etc.
These programs like Outlook, Sunbird or Google Calendar offer the possibility to
efficiently manage time and activities, by offering a list with the days and the hours of the
day,ă andă onă thată listă weă cană chooseă whenă we’llă doă certaină activitiesă andă theă hoursă ată
296
which they will occur. The fact that we see and arrange the activities help us to keep
focused and to not loose time, because we know that at the hour x we have another
activityă andă betweenă theă hoursă xă andă yă andă we’reă thusă forcedă toă stayă concentrated.ă
Moreover, there are ways to alert the user, in the form of a reminder: Outlook and
Sunbird display a window together with a sound with some time before the scheduled
activity has to start, and Google Calendar sends an email.
Time management skills are the abilities to recognize and solve personal time
management problems. With good time management skills you are in control of your
time and your life, of your stress and energy levels. You make progress at work. You are
able to maintain balance between your work, personal and family life. Depending on
personal situation, such obstacles may be the primary reason why you procrastinate,
have difficulties saying no, delegating, or making time management decisions.
By a professional management of time we understand the process by which the daily
activity is scheduled with the aim to make the most out of the allocated time, to solve the
tasks assigned to each person performing a job in an organization, but also to solve his
personal problems. That is why we have to know how to prioritize actions on a certain
period of time, in order to meet the personal as well as the profesional goals.
Thus the management of time has the following main objectives:
 defining tasks at home and at work;
 determining the time constraints;
 overcoming obstacles that impend us from doing what we wish;
 identifying the advantages of managing time and anticipating oportunities;
 scheduling and acting acording to priorities;
 fulfilling tasks successfully and on time;
 avoiding excuses and blaming failures on certain actions;
 creating a feeling of freedom and control over the personal phsychic;
 activities;
 maintaining excelent relationships with the family and the society.
Time constraints can be separated in 2 main cathegories
 constraintsădueătoăone’săownăfault;
 constraintsădueătoăsomeoneăelse’săfault.
Theăconstraintsădueătoăone’săown fault are:
 disorganization or lack of organization
 slowness or delaying tasks;
 lack of capacity to say no;
 unproductive discussions;
 useless perfectionism;
 an excessive preocupation for what others have to do.
The constraints due to someone else’săfaultăare:
 uninvited visitors;
 unexpected phone calls;
 useless correspondence;
 directive waiting;
 unproductive meetings;
 crises and useless reports.


The repercussions of a wrong time management are:


not completing tasks on time;


delaying meetings and coming late to meetings;


maximum stress at work and at home;
inefficiency and lack of results;

297


lack of planning;


personal disorder;


the attempt to do too many things in a short amount of time;


unclear responsibilities;


people and resources that are not adequately organized;


useless discussions;


useless documents;


badly organized meetings;


tasks are not finalized;


inadequate controls;


weak socialisation with the surounding people;


unexpected visitors;
delaying solving problems etc.

Literature review
Time is a resource that is absolutely neccesary for all human activities and the
key for the success of every person is the way in which he knows how to manage his
time (see figure below).

Source: Http://www.mindtools.com
Figure 1 Ways to manage time

DavidăAllenă(2001)ăsaysăthată“ourăproductivityăisădirectlyăproportionalătoăourăabilityă
toă relax”.ăTheă moreă timeă youă spendă managingă youră system,ă theă lessă timeă youțllă spendă
reaping the rewards of increased productivity. Studying time management has been an
extremely worthwhile endeavor. While the claims made by people selling products in this
field are often exaggerated and overhyped, I did realize some genuine productivity
benefits from applying the best ideas. The sad truth is that most people are so incredibly
298
bad at managing their time that rock-bottom personal productivity is simply accepted as
normal. So anyone who can consistently invest 80% of their time each day in intelligent,
productive activities is going to look like an overachiever by comparison. The average
college student in particular is probably operating at only 20-30% of their capacity, and
I'm referring to their social life in addition to academics. Most people are completely
unaware of just how poor they are at time management until some "overachiever" enters
their lives and makes them look bad by comparison. The essence of time management
is the following:
 Decide what to do
 Do it
These appear to be very simple steps at first glance. Even a child can do them.
However, when we look at them through the lens of optimization, they become much
more complicated. In order to optimize these steps, we must concern ourselves with
identifying the "right" or the "best" way to complete each step. We can easily see that
some decision-action combinations produce better results than others. So our question
becomes, "What is the best action to take right now, and what is the best way to do it?".
Answering this question should be the main purpose behind any time management
system. Yes, there are side benefits like getting organized, becoming more clear-
headed, and reducing stress. But ultimately these benefits all contribute to the decision-
action process.
OneăstudyăofăSteveăPavlinaă(2008)ăshowedăthatătheă„bestămanagersăinătheăworldă
tendă toă haveă ană extremelyă highă toleranceă foră ambiguity”.ăAfteră Steveă Pavlinaă thereă areă
seven principles total: truth, love, power, oneness, authority, courage, and intelligence.
All of these are universal principles, so they can be applied to any area of your life --
health, relationships, spiritual development, finances, daily habits, etc.
Truth, love, and power are the primary principles. The other principles are
secondary because they can be derived from the first three. The diagram shows how
this works:
 Oneness = Truth + Love
 Authority = Truth + Power
 Courage = Love + Power
 Intelligence = Truth + Love + Power

Figure 2 The Core Principles of Personal Growth

299
 What arises from this model is a new definition of human intelligence:
Intelligence is one's degree of alignment with truth, love, and power.
Multitasking means doing several things in the same time, more concurrent
tasks. Nowadays almost everybody does multitasking, from the kid that plays lego and
watches TV to the grandma who cooks while listening to the radio. We all do
multitasking, from time to time. We check the email while listening to the radio, or we
even work and listen to the radio, to music or we talk in the same time on chat, we drive
and talk on the phone, we walk while listening to music etc. Although we have the
impression that we can do more in a shorter amount of time, we deceive ourselves,
because we do them worse and they take us slightly more time to perform. Mark
Forester,ăinăhisăbookă„DoăităTomorrow”ăconsidersăhisăprincipleăofădoingăoneăthingăatăaătimeă
as fundamental. When people do multitasking, they combine an pleasant with an
unpleasant activity (i.e. homework + music) in order to feel the time passing faster and
to feel that work is done by itself. They try to feel the pleasure from the thing they like
and to minimize the disconfort from the thing they dislike.
Whenă youă don’tă doă multitasking you will feel more free, more concentrated,
calmer, more efficient, because the mind will not be disrupted by so many activities.
There are studies that prove the negative effects of multitasking, as for example the fact
that the more productive employeesădon’tăcheckăemailăeveryă5ăminutes,ăorăthatăkidsăthată
do their homework while watching TV do them worse. The psychologist David Meyer,
from the University of Michigan discovered that multitasking favours the secretion of
stress hormones and adrenaline, which, if not controlled, can create health problems on
the long term. It was discovered that workers that get too much email and too many
phone calls suffer from a decrease in IQ that is twice bigger than the one found at
marijuana addicts.

Methodology
The key elements of time management are:
 planning and programming time;
 Planningătimeădoesn’t.
Planningă timeă doesn’tă neccesarilyă supposeă complicatedă techniques,ă bută weă
have to try to predict activities and their execution time. If planning means defining what
we will do and when the action will be completed, to program means to decide when we
will act and what resources we will use.
The method of the 4 quadrans is a concept of Stephen Covey. This ia a method
that helps you do what you have to do and toă leaveă behindă whată youă don’tă haveă to.ă
Whenăweăhaveăsetăaăprogramăorăwhenăthereăareămoreăthingsătoădo,ăorăwhenăthereăisn’tă
enough time we have to ask ourselves if an activity can be put into one of the
cathegories from the below figure:

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 Figure 3 Four quandrans of time management

When analysing a situation from a time management perspective we have to:

 understand why open and direct communication can bring many positive results;
 communicate better to work more harmoniously and constructively with others,
thus contributing to creating better teams;
 recognise the behavioral profile of the interlocutor;
 understand what is behind some arguments, messages or motivations;
 manage more practical information in order to process both verbal non-verbal
messages;
 recognise aggresive or pasive behavior tendencies;
 acquire a series of techniques for approaching misunderstandings and
confrontations;
 proactively open communication channels.
There are 6 types of communication blockings:
1) when people create opinions based on too little information;
2) when they leave the impression that they understood everything after little information
was communicated; 3) when they use in their speach principles that are not accepted by
everybodyă(„ităisănotăgoodătoătalkăwhenăyouăwereănotăasked”);
4) when they have a tendency to exagerate;
5) when one of the participants in communication has strong beliefs about things he
didn’tăevenătriedătoăstudy;
6) when suppositions are made that are many times misleading.
The development of planning techniques became important after the second
world war. The best known planning techniques are:
 the technique of Gantt diagrames or bars;
 the technique of networks of type: PERT (Program Evaluation and Review
Technique), CPM (Critical Path Method), PDM (Precedence Diagram Method), GERT
(Graphical Evalluation and Review Technique).
When planning a project, in order to use a network technique, the project has to
be divided in the component parts: activities and events. The activities represent an

301
effort and demand resources: human, time, financial and equipment. In the framework of
a project the activities have to be performed in a certain order, which can be: serial or in
paralel. The event represents fulfillment of one or more activities at a certain moment in
time.ăTheăeventăisălikeăaă„milestone”ăorăaăverificationăpointăforătheăstageăofătheăprojectă(foră
example finishing a training, handing over a program, receiving spare parts etc). The
events can be seen as goals reached, while the activities represent means to attaining
these goals.
Companies and person that expand internationally have a number of challenges
to overcome; and one of the biggest is to change their perspective to adapt to their new
markets. A personal digital assistant (PDA ) allows you to efficiently access, organize,
collect, store, and process various kinds of information, and work with it on the run. It is
small in size, like a pocket calculator or a pocket address book. Being a hand-held
electronic device, it is designed to fit your palm as easily as your pocket. Unlike an
ordinary computer, it is always with you.

Results
In business and in the current activity, the days are too short. The lack of time if
alwaysăaăproblemăandăthat’săwhyătheăoneăwhoăusesăhisătimeăwellăisăeasyătoărecognise as
oneă whoă isă neveră ină aă hurry,ă spendingă moreă andă moreă hoursă ată work,ă andă thisă doesn’tă
helpă himă meetă deadlines.ă Theă peopleă whoă don’tă manageă theiră timeă wellă changesă hisă
prioritiesă allă theă time,ă neveră setsă deadlinesă andă doesn’tă haveă hisă objectivesă quantified
and there is an enormous difference between doing things well and doing only the
neccesary things.
For better organizing the time of a day, the simplest way is the following:
3. noting tasks that have to be acomplished
4. evaluating the length of each activity
5. booking time for unpredicted cases
6. grouping similar activities
7. classifying activities according to priorities
8. delegating activities when it is possible
At the end of the working day, can be perfomed the following activities:
 nothing obtained results;
 realocating time for unfinalized activities (reprogramming according to priorities);
 archiving documents that are not neccesary;
 verifying activities delegated to other coworkers or subordinates.
There has to be a clear separation between: INPUTS (what we do with our time)
– OUTPUTS (results of our efforts) and RESULTS (relevance of all that was done for
attaining the established objectives). The efficient management of time means to be
able to realistically estimate the neccesary time for fulfilling a task depending on its
complexity. Also, the efficient management of time supposes setting priorities when
performing tasks depending on their importance, urgency and/or results. Moreover the
efficient management of time implies organizing the activities so that to meet the
deadlines and to delegate responsabilities to adequate persons in order to help meeting
deadlines.
For an efficient use of time, the following should be taken into account:
 Information – without information, there is no accumulation of knowledge, and
withoutătheseăaădecisionăcan’tăbeătakenăandăanăactivityăcan’tăbeăperformed.
 ItăisăessentialătoăsetătheăOBJECTIVES,ăwhenăyouădon’tăknowăwhereăyou’reăgoingă
youăcan’tămeetăyourăobjectives.
 Activities have to be always oriented toward the desired objectives;

302
 Results – supposeă thată aă taskă representsă 100ș,ă we’reă notă onlyă interestă ină theă
whole, but also if a portion of the task is acomplished;
 Concentration – one can work efficiently, in a short time interval, in a single
directionă(oneăcan’tăsolve well and efficiently more tasks at a time);
 Initiative – if one thing is desired to happen, someone should take the initiative
and act accordingly;
 Programming – when an activity is programmed, we can suppose for sure that it
will happen before others;
 Respect for time – ifăyouădon’tărespectăyourătime,ădon’tăexpectăothersătoădoăit;
 Simplicity – when chosing between more alternatives, it is always preferable to
choose the simplest.
Some simple principles govern the efficient management of time:
 setting the objectives clearly;
 transforming them in SMART objectives;
 knowing the tasks;
 knowing the constraints;
 establishing priorities;
 planning tasks.
In order to manage well the time allocated to a project, a manager has to:
 always have available up to date information about the progress of activities and
the stages of the project, including the problems encountered;
 periodically analyse the progress of the project withthe personel and all the
factors involved;
 have alternative partners and providers for the project;
 redefine the priorities of the stages, the critical path etc.
 create alternative plans for bringing back the project to normal parameters if the
situation in which the activity has been disrupted;
 to be an example for meeting deadlines, without forgeting the goals that need to
be attained.
When programing time, one has to have in mind the following rules:
 to program first the time and then the activities that have to be executed;
 to adapt the rythm of work, if possible, to the bilogical rythm of each person;
 to use the travel time and the waiting time;
 to include in the daily program time for personal issues;
 to create a resume of the following day in the last minutes of the day;
 to have the activities programmed according to the envisaged objectives;
 to allocate at least half a day per week to reading items of professional interest.

Conclusions
Being a limited resource that is dynamically unidirectional, time has to be
planned in such a way that it can be used with maximum efficiency. Being one of the
resources that gets consumed irrevercibly, the efficience of using it is very important.
It is neccesary that the importance of each activity is understood, including
planning time resources in a project and developing knowledge and the hebits of
efficient planning of the goal and of the objectives of any activity.
The good communication inside a project team, regarding the planning of
current activities is a step in achieving an efficient management of time.
Using the most suitable methods and techniques of managing time depending
on the specifics of it, using the newest IT&C tools, like those that represent diagrams of
time (Gantt graphic) or activities (Work Breackdown Structure).

303
 References

David Allen (2001) Getting Things Done: The Art of Stress-Free

Productivity, Penguin books

David Meyer, Jennifer M. Executive-process interactive control: A unified

Glass et. al. (2001) computational theory for answering 20 questions
(and more) about cognitive ageing, European
Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 2001, 13 (1/2),
123–164

Jean- Denis Menard Cum să ne adminstrăm timpul, Editura Polirom,

(2002) Iaşi

Jean Servan- Schreiber Noua artă a timpului împotriva stresului, Editura

(2000) Albin

Mark Forester (2006) Do it Tomorrow and Other Secrets of Time

Management, Hodder&Stoughton, London

Stephen Covey (2004) Managementul timpului,ăBucureştiăEdituraăALL

Steve Pavlina (2008) Personal development for smart people: the

conscious pursuit of personal growth, Hay
House Inc.

304
THE IMPACT OF ONLINE ENVIRONMENT ON THE DECISION OF THE CONSUMER
OF HEALTH SERVICES

Bodog Simona-Aurelia, Daina Lucia-Georgeta

Department of Management-Marketing, Faculty of Economic Science, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
Faculty of Medicine and Farmacy, University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract: The online environment has opened new opportunities for consumers of health
services, both in terms of the need for information on identified health problem and the
possibilities of solving them and choosing the desired health service, resulting in a
significant impact on decision of the consumer of health services. The consumers of
health services use the internet to get information on identified health problems both
before consulting a health service or its buying decision, because of their desire to be
informed when acquiring health service, and its subsequent purchase to verify the
correctness of service received. In this context, the health care provider cannot create
and promote his own desires and beliefs if he wants to be the top choice of the
consumers of health services. This paper aims to analyze the impact of the online
environment on the decisions of the consumer of health services. The study was
conducted on a sample of 223 patients admitted to two public hospitals in Oradea. The
patients were given a questionnaire with 20 items, which mainly focused on: information
sources, accessing sites with medical content, the moment of accessing the site,
verification of information and information from the online influence on their behavior.
From the analysis it appears that the information sought by patients online are general,
fewer patients frequently access sites of medical institutions, health care facilities or
health blogs and forums. The decisions of the Consumers of health care services are
influenced to a lesser extent by the information from the online environment, the
decisive role in terms of making a decision represent the information received from the
doctor. Finally, for the consumer of health care services is difficult to choose because, to
some extent even if the needs are becoming increasingly difficult to satisfy a substrate
remains related to the personality and mentality of each, of the personal factors
regarding buying decision that cannot be changed as easily as it may seem at first
glance.

Keywords: online environment, health, information, buying decision, health services,

consumer of health services

JEL classification: M31, I11

1. Purpose
The paper aims to analyze the impact the online environment has on the consumer of
health services.

2. Material and methods

The population group studied was one composed of people over 15 years, hospitalized
in two public hospitals in Oradea. Based on statistical data on patients hospitalized on
July 4 2013 and its structure by sex and age groups, we calculated a sample of 223
subjects, stratified by sex and age group (Figure 1)
305
Figure 1. Distribution of the study group by gender and age group

Within each layer, the choice of subjects was random, the only exclusion criteria was
patients who do not use the Internet. The education level of the subjects and
background is shown in Fig. 2 and 3.

Figure 2. Distribution of the study group by level of education

Most hospitalized patients have an average level of schooling 63.22% and 24.66%
higher studies.

306
Figure 3. Distribution of study group after environment of origin

Patients come predominantly from urban environment (56%).

Declaratively approximately 69.05% of the patients have a "good" health condition,
14.34% "bad" health condition and only 9.41% "very good". Compared to the health of
the European population, where the population's perception of good health is 49% ,nor
bad nor good 20%, good 24%, the population of patients admitted to two hospitals have
the perception of good health in a higher percentage and very good at a rate much
lower than the European population (figure 4).

Figure 4. Distribution of study group on perception of actual health status

As a data collection tool used original questionnaire, self-administered, including the

main socio-demographic data of respondents and 20 specific items (factual questions,
referring to knowledge and opinion, in closed, open and mixed form).
3. Results and discussions
Of the analysis and interpretation of the responses to the questions individually applied,
it can be found that there is insufficient knowledge of the role of the Internet as a source
of information, less than half of the patients surveyed (43%) using the Internet (Figure
5).

307
Figure 5. Distribution of the study group after the source of information used to influence
a decision on health

Those who take decisions on health, by accessing the Internet are young people and
adults (81% younger than 49 years), over the age of 60 as source of information prevails
the medical staff (93%). There are no significant differences by gender or backgrounds.
Accessed online source for obtaining health information is diverse, 84% of patients
surveyed accessing multiple sources. Frequently accessed sites with various medical
content (86%), compared to sites of medical institutions (83%) or medical facilities
(hospitals, clinics, offices) ((62%) (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Distribution of the study group after the source accessed online to get health
information

About half of the surveyed use blogs or forums. Declaratively these sources are more
accurate since the interaction and the feedback that they realize.

308
Figure 7. Distribution of the study group by type of information requested by accessing
blogs / medical forums

Type of information requested on blogs / forums are diverse, most frequently people ask
for advice on lifestyle: diet, what efforts are allowed to do, what treatment to take for the
health problem, how to prevent the occurrence of disease (included in the chart to
others) which doctor to choose.
Another question concerned the time they accessed information by visiting the doctor.
Only 22% of patients access online environment before the visit to the doctor, if signs of
disease appear, and half of the patients (51%) say they use the Internet both before and
after visiting the doctor (figure 8).

Figure 8. Distribution of the study group after when accessing the Internet reported to
visit the doctor

Before the visit to the doctor declarative patients access information online in the desire
to stay healthy or to have physical and good mental capacity (72%), because it takes too
long to be scheduled in consultation or spend too much time in line for a referral or
prescription (included in other) (23%), a small percentage (3%) rely on low accessibility
(office or hospital too far, problems with transportation in the area where they live)
(figure 9)

309
Figure 9. Distribution of the study group after when accessing medical information
Before the visit to the doctor

After visiting the doctor the patient seeking medical information on the internet to obtain
information (declaratively - I like to be informed to know more about the disease or
treatment) (72%), 24% access the internet for explanations about the disease received
from the doctor are summary. A small proportion (4%) is not satisfied with the
information received and implicitly the doctor who gave this information (4%) (Figure 10)

.
Figure 10. Distribution of the study group after when accessing health information after
visiting the doctor
The doctor-patient relationship deteriorates at a rate of 31% when the patient does not
obtain additional information from the doctor (Figure 11), and is forced to look for this
information on the internet. Patients do not return to the doctor for a new visit to discuss
with your medical information obtained from the internet, or to not to upset the doctor or
the doctor believes that he is not interested. Half of the patients (53%) declaratively do
not realize the extent to which obtaining new information on the Internet have influenced
the relationship with their doctors.

310
Figure 11. Distribution of the study group after the online influence exerted on the
doctor-patient relationship

The degree of understanding of the information obtained from the Internet differs
depending on the level of education of patients. Those with high school and higher
education perceived much better information access, stating that this information are the
same as those received from the doctor, but they were better understood from the
Internet, or the physical state of consultation time that prevented understanding correct
information (figure 12). In a small proportion of patients (6%) have been confused by
online information, whether they did not fit the correlation between the diagnosis given
and the signs and symptoms of the disease, or accessible information made it possible
for the patient to assume a more serious diagnosis than it actually was.

Figure 12. Distribution of study group after the understanding level of the information
obtained from the Internet

The decisions taken by patients after obtaining access to online medical information are
different (Figure 13).

311
Figure 13. Distribution of study group based on the influence of informtaion obtained
from the Internet

A large number of patients are turning to a healthy lifestyle in terms of diet (37%), to give
up some vices (18%) practice sports (10%). 35% of patients initially dissatisfied with the
information received from the physician decide to follow the treatment, 26% decide to
make further investigations and 10% request another medical opinion.

The usefulness of the Internet is considered very good and good 60% of patients,
satisfactory by 29% patients. 11% of patients are not satisfied with the usefulness of the
Internet, stating that the information provided is often contradictory, alarmist, do not
explain many medical aspects.

Figure 14. Distribution of study group after the usefulness of Internet concerning health
issues

4. Conclusions
From the analysis it appears that the information sought by patients online are general,
few patients frequently access sites of medical institutions, health care facilities or blogs
and health forums. Consumer health care decisions are influenced to a lesser extent by
the information from the online environment the decisive role in terms of making a
decision has the information from the doctor. Finally, the consumer of health care is in a
difficult position of choosing because, to some extent even if the needs are becoming
312
increasingly difficult to satisfy, a substrate remains related to the personality and
mentality of each of the personal factors regarding the buying decision that cannot be
changed as easily as it may seem at first glance.

References
Johnson, D. (2007)ăPeopleădon’tălikeăprerollăvideoăads,ăexecutivesădon’tăeither, în Lost
Remote, disponibil online la adresa: http://lostremote.com/people-dont-like-preroll-video-
ads-executives-donteither_b4076
Milut C. (2014) Pacienti mai destepti ca doctorii? Medicina moderna are un nou inamic –
internetul, disponibil online la adresa: http://www.caplimpede.ro/pacienti-mai-destepti-ca-
doctorii-medicina-moderna-are-un-nou-inamic-internetul/
Olaru D. (2009) perceptia consumatorilor asupra publicitatii online, Revista de Marketing
Online – Vol. 5 nr. 4, pp 80-93
Seceleanu, A. (2008), UE: Romania are cel mai mare procent de populatie care nu
foloseste deloc Internetul, Ziarul Financiar, 21 aprilie, disponibil online la adresa:
http://www.zf.ro/business-hi-tech/ue-romania-are-cel-mai-mareprocent-din-populatie-
care-nu-foloseste-deloc-internetul-3095866/poze.
Vivi.ro (2006) Harta publicitatii online din Romania: Intrebari si raspunsuri, disponibil
online la adresa: http://vivi.ro/publicitate/index.php?c=faq

313
DEVELOPMENT EGOVERNANCE INSTRUMENTS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
LOCAL INSTITUTIONS IN BIHOR COUNTY
2 2 3
Săveanu Tomina Gabriela , Abrudan Maria-Madela , Săveanu Sorana Mihaela
1 Research Center for Competitivity and Sustainable Development, Faculty of
Economics, University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania
2 Department of Management and Marketing, Faculty of Economics, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
3 Research Center on Social Transformations, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Oradea, Oradea, Romania
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract: In our paper we focus on a broadly debated topic regarding the need of
public administrations to improve their processes using new ICT technology. This topic
can be analyzed in the light of adherence to f e-governance instruments. Developing
websites and the usage of different online resources are both tools for a better public
management as well as legal conditions for transparency and public accountability.
International comparisons place Romania on an average classification of e-governance
tools development, however Romania is considered to have a very good (high speed)
internet access. In our paper we analyze the existence and level of development of the
websites of all 101 Mayor’s Offices from Bihor County. The data was gathered in March
2014 in order to assess the development of e-governance instruments at local level.
The grid for the data collection was constructed on consistent literature review as well
as on previous similar analysis of the authors. The main hypotheses tested in this paper
were: (1) 90% of Mayor’s Offices at local level from Bihor County are at the first stage
of development of e-government instruments; (2) 70% of these websites respect the
legal regulations of transparency regarding the information posted; (3) less than 30% of
Mayor’s Offices reached a two-way communication level of e-governance instruments
development. The paper starts with a brief outline of the theoretical framework of this
topic, and reviews the most important recent findings regarding e-governance,
especially in Eastern Europe and Romania. The empirical section highlights our main
results, testing the above formulated hypothesis. There is a significant improvement in
the existence of websites at local level public administration institutions; nonetheless in
most cases we found one-way communication development level. All of our hypotheses
were refuted by our data, as the level of development of online tools is lower at local
level in Bihor County. The concluding section proposes both some explanations
regarding the current state of affairs regarding e-governance instruments development
in Romania, as well as proposals for future research and policy improvements.

Keywords: e-governance, public administration, transparency, public accountability,

online processing of public affairs.
JEL classification: D73, H80, H83, L38

314
1. Theoretical background
1.1. Why do we talk about e-governance? E-governance instruments and their
measurement
The use of ICT is proved to increase the efficiency of many processes due to access to
more information, rapidity, and flexibility. More and more governments, national and
local public institutions, use ICT in their processes with long-term positive effects
(Colesca &Dobrica, 2008).
e-Government is a concept referring to the use of ICT in the delivery of the public
services, while e-governance involves also the dimension of digital democracy
(Carrizales et. al, 2011). While we acknowledge the significant difference (Godse &
Garg, 2007) between the two concepts, we consider that to a greater extent our article
reflects both aspects and thus we will refer to e-governance. We are looking to several
facets of the interaction of the public authorities with the citizens using ICT, specifically
internet.
e-Governance instruments are proven to the strengthening of governance processes,
since it is considered to ensure transparent information for the public and consequently
to increase public’s competence. However, as the UN synthesis shows, citizen
involvement still varies across countries (UN Report 2010: 25-27).

The most common measurement scale for e-government instruments is developed at

world scale by United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs in 2003. This
index is a wide spread methodology used in assessments at both national and local
(municipal) levels. As Moura e Sa reports (2011) the scale for evaluating the different
levels of web site development for governmental institutions as follows:
 0 level – the absence of a web site for the public,
 level 1 – information: the website provides the information necessary for


fulfilling procedures,
level 2 – one-way interaction: the website offers the possibility to download


forms,
level 3 – two-way interaction: the website offers the instruments to initiate
procedures, fill in forms on-line, apply for certificates and check taxes payment


and make on-line payments,
level 4 – transaction: full electronic procedures (Moura e Sa 2011).

One must note that evidence shows that these levels are intertwined in practice, it is
possible that a website includes components that are characteristic for a specific level,
yet the previous levels are not fully developed (Stoica & Ilas, 2009).
The development of e-government instruments as well as their usage, are influenced by
several factors: national and regional policies or programms (Pandzo & Taljanovic, 2012;
Carrizales et. al, 2011), the transparency and friendliness of the available data
(Grimmelikhuijsen, 2012), citizens’ positive experiences increase trust and readiness to
use such instruments (Colesca &Dobrica, 2008), level of development and size of the
locality (Abrudan et. al, 2012). In the following section we will focus on Romania’s
position at a global scale regarding e-government.

315
1.2. E-governance in Romania
The United Nation’s 2012 e-Government Report reveals the discrepancies between
different regions of the world, using a four-stage online service development scheme
(UN Report, 2012 pp. 123): emerging, enhanced, transactional and connected The e-
government development index, measured repeatedly since 2003, is based on the
thorough analysis of national governmental websites for the following dimensions: e-
participation, e-Governance, human capital development, on-line services provision and
national infrastructure.
This study showed that, as far as the level of development of e-Government
instruments is concerned, Romania ranks 62 out of the over 193 nations included in this
research, a lower position than the one reached in 2010. Nonetheless most of Eastern
European countries have a lower index, consequently Romania is ranked third in this
area (after Moldova, world ranked 69 and Ukraine, ranked 68). Romania’s mean score is
0.55, a little higher than the 0.44 world mean score. When referring to Romania’s
position in Eastern Europe, we consider the following figure relevant as it details the
scores obtained at each analyzed dimension (Figure no. 1), for all Easter European
countries.

Figure 1. Indexes of e-Governance development in Eastern Europe 2012, based on UN

E-Governance data downloaded from
http://unpan3.un.org/egovkb/datacenter/countryview.aspx – own analysis

Romania has a weak point in e-participation, an index that covers e-information sharing
(provision of information to citizens), e-consultation (online interactions) and e-decision
making. In the light of general analysis on this topics (Bratu & Nastase, 2007) we would
argue that Romania should improve its participative decision making processes and after
that to make efforts in using ICT in these processes.
316
The following figure (no. 2) shows the evolution of different indexes in Romania. The
surprising fact is that after a slow increase in most measured dimensions, 2012 shows a
decline in two of them: e-participation and human capital index. This may be the
consequence of adjustments done by the researchers, yet the low score gained for e-
participation raises important questions regarding the utility and importance attributed
to this dimension. The e-participation measures how well the government prepares and
makes use of e-information sharing, e-consultation and e-decision making.
As shown in figure no. 2, the scores for human capital index, though one of the highest
for Romania, is in 2012 the lower. In this particular case it may be the effect of changes
in measurement procedures. Human capital index is a composite measure with two
dimensions: adult literacy and school enrolment at different levels. Nonetheless policy
makers in this field should pay attention to such negative trends.

Figure 2. Evolution of indexes of e-Governance development in Romania, 2005-2012,

based on UN E-Governance data downloaded from
http://unpan3.un.org/egovkb/datacenter/countryview.aspx – own analysis

Several studies conducted on Romania, prove the improvement made in this field in last
years (Stoica &Ilas, 2009; Glavan & Matusescu, 2012, Vrabie, 2011). The development
of national e-government portals should (Banciu, 2009), in time, stimulate the
adaptation of such instruments at local level as well. Yet, as Stoica and Ilas (2009)
shows Romania still has to solve several problems related to data protection and
security of website. E-democracy is still an underdeveloped dimension, both in terms of
openness on behalf of public institutions and as actual participation from citizens.
Transparency is a dimension showing improvements, as it is regulated by Law no.
52/2003, yet it is still lacking behind compared to other cities (Vrabie, 2011).
In our analysis we continue these efforts by analyzing the local websites, yet in a more
concentrated area – Bihor County. We surpass the limits of the existent literature by
looking also at the rural communities which have benefited of much less attention in
this area of research.
We will explore the level of development of local public administration e-governance

317
instruments, expecting that: (1) 90% of Mayor’s Offices at local level from Bihor County
will have a web site at the first level of e-governance instruments development; (2)
70% of these websites respect the legal regulations of transparency regarding the
information posted; (3) less than 30% of Mayor’s Offices reached a two-way
communication level of e-governance instruments development (level 3).
2. Research methodological framework
The data presented in this paper was collected in March 2014, following an improved
structure then the one used in 2012 (Abrudan & Saveanu, 2012b). There are 101
localities as administrative units in Bihor County. For each we have searched an official
website maintained by Mayor Offices. In the cases where there are websites,
information was collected whether different type of information or services are available
on the website. A dichotomous yes/no scale was used in most cases, nonetheless the
data collector used also the “non-functional” response where a section exists yet no
information can be downloaded, or the service was not actually available. In the
analysis, in most cases we recoded the “non-functional” into the “no” category.
The data was collected by a volunteer, a MA student at our faculty. The gathered
information was first introduced in an excel workbook, and then transformed in an SPSS
data base. The SPSS statistical package was used by the authors of this article to
analyze the data.

3. Analysis
3.1. Level of development of e-governance instruments in Bihor County
Since 2012, when we conducted a similar study, most Mayor’s Offices developed
websites (Abrudan et al, 2012a). While in 2012, 70% of all the 101 communities in
Bihor County had an official website, in 2014 this percent increased to 96%, a total of
97 localities. With this information we would validate our first hypothesis that more than
90% of localities, both urban and rural, have an official website. All of the urban
localities (large and small) have their official website.

Figure 3. General information available on Mayor’s office websites, own analysis

As shown in figure no. 3, most of the Mayor’s Offices have on their websites merely
general information such as the presentation of the locality and contact information

318
(including e-mail contact). This type of information has little relevance for the online
management of the public affairs. Having access to local official decisions is one of the
relevant information; however it is accessible online in 49% of the Mayor’s Offices which
have websites. Relevant data both for transparency of the decisional process and for the
understanding of the public regarding the management of the public affairs are less
present online. We consider that the official decisions, the planned budget, the financial
report, along with activity reports are more important yes less accessible online
especially at rural level. All this information reflects the transparency dimension. We
would consider that the difference between level 0 and 1 of development is not merely
observed in the existence of an official website but also on the relevance of the
information available. We can conclude that even if 96% of localities of have a website,
only 72% have one or more of relevant information as defined above .
If one looks solely at the urban localities, as presented in table no. 1, may note that
even in this case, we cannot say fully that 90% of the communities have developed a
site to level 1. Consequently we will refute our first hypothesis.
Table no 1. Information available on websites on type of locality, own analysis
Urban Rural
no. of cases no yes no yes
Local decisions 1 9 45 42
Planned budget 6 4 79 8

Financial report 6 4 55 32

Activity reports 5 5 76 11

3.2. Transparency
The second hypothesis stated that, as long as transparency related aspects re clearly
regulated by Law no. 52/2002, we would expect that this type of information would be
available in at least 70% of the cases. As shown in figure no. 4, this hypothesis can be
also refuted.

Figure 4. Online transparency at local level, own analysis

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Even looking at the urban communities, this percent does not rise to the expected 70%.
The municipalities (large towns with higher administrative responsibility) we can talk of
a high transparency level (all four have access to declaration of assets, complaints
sections and local meetings minutes; three of them have transparency reports online as
well as the list of public interest documents; while two have the PR department visible
online).
This data suggest that more effort should be made in promoting online instruments as
tools to increase transparency of the institutions. This lack may be linked to both
understanding, on behalf of public officials, of the importance and usefulness of such
tools, as well as the acknowledgement of the importance of transparency per-se,
independent of the communication tool used. Better monitoring and enforcement of
existent legislative frame may help in improving this aspect.

3.3. Development of e-government specific instruments

Turning to the last aspect analyzed in this paper, as expected we can hardly talk of the
two-way communication level of development (level 3). Surely these aspects should be
taken into account in the light of the usage of such instruments, information that was
not accessible in our study. Nonetheless, the mere existence of such instruments online
proves the readiness and interest of the public institution in using them. However, as
shown in Figure no. 5, in 32% of the Mayor’s Offices websites there are online forums,
and 22% offer the possibility of checking and payment of taxes online. With this
information we can refute the final hypothesis of our analysis.

Figure 5. E-government instruments development at local level, own analysis

Looking at these differences on type of rural or urban locality, we may note that the
situation of municipalities and town is not much more developed. The data is presented
in table no. 2 below. One interesting aspect is the integration of web forums on such
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large number of website, yet this is an aspect that needs further investigation regarding
the topics discussed on these forums.

Table no 2. e-government instruments on type of locality, own analysis

Urban Rural
no. of cases no yes no yes
Online forum 59 28
5 5
Online complaints section 84 3
9 1
Possiblity to send online requests 85 2
9 1
Check and pay taxes online 67 20
8 2

The interesting aspect related to these results derive from the fact that, while two of the
urban Mayor’s Offices website offer the possibility of verification and payment of taxes
online, 20 of the rural ones have this function suggesting a better development in rural
areas. Nonetheless, this can be explained by the fact that most rural websites are
developed by a few web development companies, using the same format for each of
them. In this case these websites are developed by one company (SITCO Plus) which
integrated this service to all their websites.
We must also note that, as Stoica and Ilas (2008) noted, the development levels should
not be seen in an evolutionary manner. As seen by our data, even if most of the
websites do not have downloadable forms, which mirror the second level of
development, some do have online forums which would be specific to the third level.
Integrating different components in websites is done by companies developing these
websites in a more opportunistic manner choosing from existent services. These do not
necessarily use an integrated approach for all components.

4. Concluding remarks
Our paper investigated the level of development of e-government instruments at local
level, both urban and rural, in Bihor County. This type of analysis fills a gap in the field
mostly by looking at the rural level. Surely comparisons can be made solely between
similar types of communities; consequently it would be interesting to compare rural
Mayor’s Offices websites between Romanian and other developed countries.
All of our hypotheses were refuted by our data, as the level of development of e-
governance instruments are less developed at local level in Bihor County. It is true that
96% of communities have official websites, nonetheless the information available on
this websites are no that relevant. In most cases the websites present the locality
(historical, geographical and demographic perspectives) and have some contact
information. The relevant information from a public management perspective can be
noted in around 40% of the existent websites. The same can be noted regarding online
transparency and the availability of e-government services. Improvements should be
made in these directions both in enforcing the existent legislation and in the increase
awareness on behalf of public officials regarding these aspects. Continuously efforts
should be made in assessing the level of usage of these instruments by the citizens.
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From this last observation derives the main limit of our analysis: these type of studies
should include reflections regarding the users of online public administration services.
Relevance, level of usage, and readiness to use such tools are important aspects that
should be accounted for in order to fully understand this phenomenon
One interesting finding of our study refers also to the fact the development of these
instruments is rather opportunistic and should not be seen in an evolutionary
perspective. We have found that websites that lack components that define the second
level, do have instruments specific to the third level. An integrated analysis of these
instruments should note this observation, and maybe qualitative research approaches
would account for the reasons for this state of affairs.

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