Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 38–42

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Construction and Building Materials

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Bending strength and nondestructive evaluation of structural bamboo

Ruy A. Sá Ribeiro a,⇑, Marilene G. Sá Ribeiro a, Ires P.A. Miranda b
a
Structural Engineering Laboratory, National Institute for Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, AM 69067-375, Brazil
b
Laboratório de Estudos em Palmeiras, INPA, Brazil

h i g h l i g h t s

Density, stiffness, bending strength properties and nondestructive evaluation of bamboo.

Bamboo culms used on the construction of a prototype ecological and sustainable village.

Bamboo culm density and dynamic modulus of elasticity can be used to determine its strength and stiffness.

SWT can be used for nondestructive evaluation of bamboo culms strength and stiffness.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Optimization on the use of bamboo requires comprehensive understandings of the physical, mechanical,
Received 10 April 2016 and chemical properties. When using bamboo as a building material, one needs to know its specific grav-
Received in revised form 1 April 2017 ity, stiffness and bending strength properties. This work investigated density, stiffness, bending strength
Accepted 10 April 2017
properties and nondestructive evaluation of four-year old Bambusa vulgaris ’Vittata’, very common in
Available online 17 April 2017
Manaus, used on the construction of an ecological and sustainable village for Amazonia. Flexural bending
strength samples were cut from eight culms in three 3-m segments (base, middle, and top). The 3-m long
Keywords:
culms were first tested nondestructively through axial sonic vibration of a Stress Wave Timer (SWT), then
Bamboo bending strength
Density
in thirdpoint loading static bending with a clear span of 2.71 m. The average moisture content and den-
Bambusa vulgaris ’Vittata’ sity of the bamboo culms tested were 12.95% and 646 kg m3, respectively. The average dynamic modu-
Amazonia lus of elasticity was 17.3 GPa. The average ultimate load, modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity
Bamboo nondestructive evaluation were 7.9 kN, 88 MPa and 9.6 GPa, respectively. Analysis of the results showed that bamboo culm density
and dynamic modulus of elasticity can be used to determine its strength and stiffness. Also, SWT can be
used for nondestructive evaluation of bamboo culms strength and stiffness.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction distribution of fibers around the vascular bundles [5]. Density

increases from the center to the periphery of the culm [6,7] and
1.1. Bamboo as a green structural material also from the base to the top of the culm [8]. The maximum density
is attained in about three-year-old culms [9–12].
Building with bamboo is a long tradition in the world’s tropical Bamboo is a renewable resource with low weight and high
(with Brazil being an exception) and sub-tropical regions, as cited strength properties, especially tensile strength. Most of the proper-
by Sá Ribeiro et al. [1]. Bamboo is largely utilized as a construction ties depend on the species and the climatic conditions under which
material, mainly in rural housing. Bamboo constructions are easy they grow [13,14]. Strength varies along the culm height [4]. Com-
to build, resilient to wind and even earthquake forces when given pressive strength increases with height, while bending strength
the correct detailing. Construction process applications involve decreases with height [6,9–11,15–17]. An increase in strength is
bamboo based panels [2,3] and bamboo reinforced concrete [4], reported to occur at 3–4 years, and thereafter it decreases [9–12].
among others. Therefore, the maturity period of bamboo may be considered as
The density of bamboo is found to vary from 500 to 800 kg m3, 3–4 years with respect to density and strength. Maturity of culm
depending on the anatomical structure such as the quantity and is a prerequisite for the optimum utilization of bamboo in con-
struction and other structural uses.
⇑ Corresponding author. Bamboo culms critical load is hard to determine due to the vari-
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R.A. Sá Ribeiro), [email protected]
ation along the culm axis of the modulus of elasticity (MOE), wall
(M.G. Sá Ribeiro), [email protected] (I.P.A. Miranda). thickness and diameter, and by the presence of nodes and the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.074
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 R.A. Sá Ribeiro et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 38–42 39

variations of the said factors around the nodes. Culm characteristic 2.2. Nondestructive testing of the culms
crookedness induces early load-displacement effects. The random
Determination of moisture content, density (mass by volume) and bending
nature of this load-displacement effect is mobilized by the lateral strength properties of the bamboo culms were done according to the standard
displacementss of the structure under lateral loads and governed ISO 22157-2 [26]. The 3-m long culms were first tested nondestructively through
by the culm initial deformations [18]. axial sonic vibration of a Metriguard 239A Stress Wave Timer, as illustrated in
Test results of clear specimens are not directly transferred as Fig. 1. The testing procedure was the following:
those of full culms, because the culm tends to fail in the weakest
1. Attach the bamboo culm ends to the stop and start clamps of the SWT. Measure
link (the nodal regions), and to develop high tensile parallel stres- the distance between the start and stop accelerometers.
ses. Both factors are very much random in nature. The culms initial 2. Impact the start-end of the specimen with the pendulum ball-hammer device.
deformations would also lead to low rigidity at the start of the Read the time (in microseconds) it takes for the stress wave to travel the prede-
termined distance and record it.
load-displacement path [18].
Bambusa vulgaris is the most common cultivated bamboo spe-
cies in Manaus (03°060 0700 S, 60°010 3000 W, 93-m). In spite of its 2.3. Flexural bending test
plentiful, the properties of B. vulgaris grown in this region are yet
to be researched in detail. Vetter et al. [8] investigated the season- Flexural bending test of full bamboo culms was done using a Universal Testing
ing, density and shrinkage characteristics of Bambusa vulgaris ‘Vit- Machine with a 500-kN load cell capacity at a speed of 30 mm min1 up to rupture.
Test specimens were loaded with a third point loading and simply supported over a
tata’ grown in Manaus. B. vulgaris was used for the construction of
2.71-m clear span, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Deflections were measured at mid-span
a sustainable ecological village in the Amazon in 2007 [2]. The pre- using a potentiometer. The potentiometer was Celesco position transducer with a
sent work aimed to attain data on density, stiffness, bending measuring range of 254 mm and a position sensitivity of 94 mV V1 inch1.
strength properties and nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of full
culm B. vulgaris ‘Vittata’ and how these properties are related.

1.2. Axial sonic vibration (longitudinal stress waves)

Stress wave emission or acoustic emission represents the tran-

sient elastic wave generation caused from an impact on a solid
material. Proper detection and analysis of stress wave emission
signals can permit remote identification of wave properties and
the associated structural alteration of solid materials. Hence, this
can increase understanding of material behavior, can be used as
a quality control method for processing and fabrication of materi- Fig. 1. NDT of a bamboo culm using the Metriguard SWT.
als, and can serve as a NDE technique for assessing the structural
integrity of materials under service conditions. Several researchers
used NDE techniques to assess structural wood properties [19–22].
The determination of the dynamic modulus of elasticity (Ed) by
a longitudinal stress wave propagation technique involves the
impacting of the specimen by a hammer and measuring the time
it takes the stress wave to travel a predetermined distance, as
described by Sá Ribeiro and Sá Ribeiro [19]. From the measured
time and length, the velocity (v) of the stress wave can be calcu-
lated. The velocity of the longitudinal stress wave is proportional
to the square root of Ed and the mass density (q) of material
[23]. Therefore, the dynamic modulus of elasticity can be
expressed as

Ed ¼ qv2 ð1Þ
Chen et al. [24] applied NDE techniques by means of a Stress
Wave Timer (SWT) to determine the moisture content (MC) at fiber
saturation point (FSP) for three bamboo species: Dendrocalamus
giganteus Munro, Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro, and Bambusa
stenostachya Hackel. More recently, Lin et al. [25] used NDE tech-
niques to determine Ed of Phyllostachys edulis lamina.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Sampling and conditioning

Eight culms from two clumps were collected from a plantation at the Brazilian
National Institute for Amazonian Research (INPA) in Manaus (latitude 3°060 0700 ,
longitude 60°010 3000 , altitude 93 m), Amazonas. The culms were approximately
four years old with 87-mm average diameter.
Each culm was cut into three segments (base, middle, and top) of 3-m long,
labeled, measured, and conditioned according to the standard ISO 22157-2 [26].
These culms were conditioned for nondestructive testing (NDT) and for the flexural
bending test. Some specimens were discarded due to cracks along the length of the
culm, and were not substituted due to time constrains. Samples for MC determina-
tion and density were taken from each culm immediately after the completion of
the bending test. Fig. 2. Third-point loading bending strength test for bamboo culm.
40 R.A. Sá Ribeiro et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 38–42

A small piece was cut from each specimen near the point of failure for MC and acquired by the researchers. Cumbersome adjustments (mainly
density determination. MC was determined by oven-dry method and volume by
for MC and geometries) would be necessary, and are beyond the
water-displacement method.
scope of this present work.
A plot for the load-displacement of the bamboo culm – bases,
3. Results middles, and tops tested on third-point loading flexural bending
is illustrated in Fig. 3. As expected, the base-culms carried more
Physical and mechanical characteristics of the bamboo culms
are given in Table 1.
The average Ed was 17.3 GPa. The average MC and density of the 18
bamboo culms of B. vulgaris tested were 12.95% and 646 kg m3, 16
respectively. The average ultimate load, modulus of rupture 14
(MOR) and MOE of full culms tested in third-point loading bending
12
were 7.9 kN, 88 MPa and 9.6 GPa, respectively. Other findings
10
attained from several researchers are summarized in Table 2.

Load (kN)
8
While the average density of B. vulgaris from different places in
the world shows similar values, bending strength properties 6

(MOR and MOE) vary widely. The researchers certainly used the 4
same well known standard procedure to determine the density 2
of the bamboo. If this is true, B. vulgaris average density may not 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
vary significantly with the location. On the other hand, the deter-
Displacement (mm)
mination of the bending strength properties was attained by the A1B A3B A4B A2M A3M A2T A3T
researchers using different standard procedures including dissimi-
lar test specimens and MC. Therefore, it is not possible to make a Fig. 3. Load-displacement diagrams for bamboo culms – base-middle-top from
straight comparison on the bending strength property values cluster A.

Table 1
Physical and mechanical properties of the bamboo culms tested.

SAMPLE D t MC r Pmax I MOR MOE Ed

CULM (mm) (mm) (%) (kg m3) (kN) (mm4) (MPa) (GPa) (GPa)
A1Ba 87.99 12.84 12.61 719 12.259 2.2E + 06 111 10.890 16.859
A1Ma 88.86 7.57 1.6E + 06 Outlier
A1Ta 66.57 6.11 5.4E + 05 Outlier
A2M 87.64 6.98 10.94 717 8.238 1.4E + 06 113 11.560 22.296
A2T 71.88 6.12 10.43 708 5.590 6.9E + 05 132 14.255 20.607
A3B 98.19 11.64 18.23 655 12.161 3.0E + 06 89 9.712
A3M 96.31 7.34 14.15 771 10.592 2.0E + 06 113 11.374
A3T 76.39 5.98 10.48 799 5.080 8.3E + 05 106 12.652 20.080
A4B 103.98 11.74 15.31 630 16.770 3.7E + 06 107 9.828 18.981
A4M 102.95 7.71 2.6E + 06 Outlier
B1Bb 89.13 11.14 15.24 613 5.100 2.1E + 06 48 6.136 14.727
B1Mb 82.34 5.46 10.31 554 3.089 9.8E + 05 59 7.217 14.185
B2B 87.63 10.63 11.35 604 7.041 1.9E + 06 72 8.004 13.726
B2M 81.36 6.16 10.76 533 3.531 1.0E + 06 63 7.673 13.725
B3B 94.60 13.09 15.72 578 9.219 2.9E + 06 69 7.279
B3M 89.38 6.93 10.81 587 5.639 1.5E + 06 74 7.849 18.102
B4B 82.71 10.41 15.01 579 6.080 1.6E + 06 72 10.614
MEAN 87.52 8.70 12.95 646 7.885 1.8E + 06 88 9.646 17.329
STD. DEV. 10.17 2.68 2.59 83 3.897 8.8E + 05 26 2.371 3.147
COV (%) 11.62 30.79 20.03 12.90 49.43 48.84 29.12 24.58 18.16
a
A1B/M/T: bamboo culm 1 from cluster A base/middle/top.
b
B1B/M: bamboo culm 1 from cluster B base/middle.

Table 2
Physical and bending strength properties of B. vulgaris full size culms.

Researchers Location Physical Properties Bending strength

properties
D t MC Density MOR MOE
(mm) (mm) (%) (kg m3) (MPa) (GPa)
Sattar et al.1992 [27] Bangladesh 12.50 680 75 14.318
Prawirohatmodjo 1990 [28] Indonesia 17.00 84
Palisoc and Bello 1996 [29] Philippines 104.30 630 39 7.080
Ghavami 1988 [30]* Rio de Janeiro 69.50 7.50 16.05 650 78 5.900
Present work Manaus 87.52 8.70 12.95 646 88 9.646
MEAN 78.51 8.10 32.56 652 73 9.236
STD. DEV. 12.74 0.85 40.15 21 19 3.731
COV (%) 16.23 10.48 123.31 3.20 26.73 40.40
*
Small test specimens.
 R.A. Sá Ribeiro et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 38–42 41

Table 3 140
Regression analysis for tested structural bamboo culms. 120 (a)

MOR (MPa)
100
Regression r2 Equation/Model 80
60
MOR = f(MOE) 0.8338 MOR ¼ 0:0098 MOE  7:1701 40 MOR = 0.0098 MOE - 7.1701
MOR = f(q) 0.6570 MOR ¼ 0:2481 q  72:716 20 R² = 0.8338
MOR = f(Ed) 0.6964 MOR ¼ 0:0075 Ed  41:919 0
MOE = f(Ed) 0.6569 MOE ¼ 0:6843 Ed  2250:7 5000 7000 9000 11000 13000 15000
MOE = f(q) 0.6174 MOE ¼ 22:344 q  4796:3 MOE (MPa)
Ed = f(q) 0.7724 Ed ¼ 22:253 q  3031:3 MOR x MOE Linear (MOR x MOE)

140
120 (b)
load than the middle-culms, and the latter carried more load than
100

MOR (MPa)
the top-culms. The tube-like bamboo is a structurally efficient 80
beam with a cross-section comparable to a steel beam I-profile. 60
The bending failure mode is by longitudinal splitting of the mate- 40
MOR = 0.2481 ρ - 72.716
rial due to the fracture of the weaker lignin bonding the fibers 20
R² = 0.657
0
together [31]. After load removal, the bamboo beam returns to 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
its original straight form, which is an advantage in case of an earth- Apparent density, ρ (kg/m3)
quake or a hurricane. MOR x ρ Linear (MOR x ρ)

140
120 (c)
4. Discussion

MOR (MPa)
100
80
This work emphasizes the use of statistical relationships 60
between variables, considering analysis of covariance and analysis 40
MOR = 0.0075 Ed - 41.919
R² = 0.6964
of residuals of the variables for the determination of bending 20
13000 15000 17000 19000 21000 23000
strength properties of bamboo culms by means of NDE. MOR,
Ed (MPa)
MOE, Ed, and apparent density were analyzed statistically. Correla-
MOR x Ed Linear (MOR x Ed)
tions between mechanical and physical properties were deter-
mined. Linear regressions were run to see which NDE factors 15000
would predict MOR and MOE efficiently. (d)
12500
MOE (MPa)

The linear regression analyses between MOR and MOE, MOR

and q, MOR and Ed, MOE and Ed, MOE and q, Ed and q presented 10000
significant coefficients of determination (r2) as described in Table 3. 7500
MOE = 0.6843 Ed - 2250.7
R² = 0.6569
The regression equations for MOR, MOE and Ed, depicted in Fig. 4
5000
and Table 3, proved to be good predictors, and the coefficients were 13000 15000 17000 19000 21000 23000
considered good estimators with 95% confidence. Thus, these mod- Ed (MPa)
els can explain 83% of the variation in MOR from MOE, 66% in MOR MOE x Ed Linear (MOE x Ed)
from q, 70% in MOR from Ed, 66% in MOE from Ed, 62% in MOE from
q, 77% in Ed from q. 15000
(e)
12500
MOE (MPa)

10000
5. Conclusions
7500 MOE = 22.344 ρ - 4796.3
In order to simplify the use of bamboo culm strength properties R² = 0.6174
5000
this work suggests applying the average values among base, mid- 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Apparent density, ρ (kg/m3)
dle, and top parts. The MOR values of the tested bamboo culms var-
MOE x ρ Linear (MOE x ρ)
ied from 48 to 132 MPa, MOE varied from 6.1 to 14.2 GPa, and Ed
varied from 13.7 to 22.3 GPa (Table 1).
23000
Preliminary analysis of the literature available on physical 21000
(f)
Ed (MPa)

properties of Bambusa vulgaris suggests that the average density 19000

may not vary significantly with location. Average density values 17000
Ed = 22.253 ρ + 3031.3
varied from 630 to 680 kg m3 (Table 2) with a low coefficient of 15000 R² = 0.7724
variation of 3.20%. The average apparent density of 646 kg m3 13000
400 500 600 700 800 900
for B. vulgaris ‘Vittata’ from Manaus at 12.95% MC is very close Apparent density, ρ (kg/m3)
to the average value of 652 kg m3 for B. vulgaris from different Ed x ρ Linear (Ed x ρ)
locations.
MOE can be used to determine full-size bamboo culm MOR with Fig. 4. MOR versus MOE (a) and versus q (b), MOR versus Ed (c) and MOE versus Ed
high confidence (r2 of 0.83). Bamboo culm density can be used to (d), MOE versus q (e) and Ed versus q (f) relationships for bamboo culms.
determine its MOR, MOE, and Ed with reasonable confidence (r2
of 0.66, 0.62, and 0.77, respectively). Also, full size bamboo culm
Ed can be used to predict its MOR and MOE with reasonable confi- The importance of testing bamboo in full size is emphasized by
dence (r2 of 0.70 and 0.62, respectively). Thus, Stress Wave Timer the standard ISO 22157-2 [26]. The predictability of MOR and MOE
can be used for nondestructive evaluation of bamboo culms of full size bamboo culms using density and dynamic MOE shall be
strength and stiffness. The predicted values from the models are verified and confirmed by further testing of different bamboo
good for 3-m culms of B. vulgaris grown in Manaus. species of large, medium and small diameter.
42 R.A. Sá Ribeiro et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 38–42

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