CERTIFICATE

This is certified that Project entitled “MOBILE ROBOT” which is submitted by

Chandan Kumar (EE-20), Shanu Kumar (EE-19), & Saurav Raj (EE-08) of Diploma 3rd
year, Electrical Engineering, Government Polytechnic Kishanganj for the award of the
Diploma is a bonafide record of work carried out by them under the guidance of Er.
RaviRanjan Kumar.

The content of this project has not been submitted to any university or institute for award
of any degree or diploma.

-------------------------- ----------------------

Er. RaviRanjan Kumar External Examiner

Head of Department

(Electrical Engineering)

Date:___ /___ /_____

II
 A PROJECT REPORT

ON

“MOBILE ROBOT”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of

Diploma in Electrical Engineering

Session: 2020-2023

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Government Polytechnic Kishanganj

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Er. RaviRanjan Kumar Chandan Kumar (EE-20)

(Head Of Department) Shanu Kumar (EE-19)

Saurav Raj (EE-08)

 SELF ATTESTATION

This is certifying that, we have personally worked on the dissertation entitled “MOBILE
ROBOT”. A case study and data mentioned in this report was obtained during genuine
work done and collected by us.

Any other data and information in this report, which has been collected from outside
agency, has been duly acknowledged.

STUDENTS:

------------------------------------------------
Chandan Kumar (EE-20)

------------------------------------------------

Shanu Kumar (EE-19)

------------------------------------------------

Saurav Raj (EE-08)

Date:___ /___ /_____

I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my professor Mr. Shekhar

Kumar Biswas as well as our Head of Department Er. RaviRanjan Kumar who gave
me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic “Mobile Robot”.

Who also helped me in completing my project. I came to know about so many new
things I am really thankful to them.

Secondly, I would like also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

Students:

-----------------------------------------
Chandan Kumar (EE-20)

------------------------------------------
Shanu Kumar (EE-19)

------------------------------------------
Saurav Raj (EE-08)

Date:___ /____ /_______

III
 ABSTRACT

A line following robot is a type of mobile robot that is designed to follow a line or track
on the ground or other flat surfaces.

The robot is equipped with sensors that detect the line and enable the robot to stay on
track. The sensors can be either reflection or non-reflective, depending on the type of
line that robot is designed to follow.

Reflective sensors use infrared light to detect changes in reflectivity between the line and
the surrounding surface. Non-reflective sensors use a combination of light and shadow to
detect the line. Both types of sensors can be used in a variety of configurations, such as
arrays or single sensors mounted on the bottom of the robot.

The robot is typically programmed with a set of instruction that tell it how to follow the
line. This can include simple algorithms that keep robot centered on the line, or more
complex algorithms that enable the robot to adjust its speed and direction in response to
changes in the line or other environmental factors.

Line following robots are used in variety of applications, such as automated

manufacturing, transportation, and surveillance.

They are also used in robotics competitions, where teams compete to design and build
the fastest and most accurate line following robots.

IV
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Declaration I
Certificate II

Acknowledgement III

Abstract IV

Table of Content V

List of Figures VI
Reference VII

CHAPTER 1. Introduction 1-4

1.2 Introduction to Robot 1

1.3 Mobile Robots 3

1.4 Line following robot 4

CHAPTER 2. Component and Material Selection 5-11

2.1 Arduino UNO 5

2.2 BO motor and Wheels 6

2.3 L298 motor driver 7

2.4 IR sensors 9
2.5 Lithium-ion Batteries 10
2.6 Cost of Components 11

CHAPTER 3. Connection & Programming 12-16

3.1 Connection Diagram 12

3.2 Code 13

3.3 Final outcome 16

Suggestion for Future Work 17

*****
 LIST OF FIGURES

1. INTRODUCTION 1-4
1.11 INDUSTRIAL ROBOT 2
1.12 HUMANOID 2
1.21 A MOBILE ROBOT 3
1.31 LINE-FOLLOWING ROBOT 4

2. COMPONENT & MATERIAL SELECTION 5-10

2.11 ARDUINO UNO 5
2.21 BO MOTOR 6
2.31 L298 MOTOR DRIVER 8
2.41 IR SENSOR 9
2.51 LITHIUM-ION BATTERY 10

3. CONNECTION & PROGRAMMING 12

3.11 CONNECTION DIAGRAM 12

*****

VI
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOT

Robots are machines designed to carry out specific tasks. They can range in size from
small, handheld devices to large industrial machines. They are typically composed of
several components, such as sensors, actuators, and controllers.

Robots have been used in a variety of industries, including manufacturing, healthcare,

agriculture, and military. They can perform tasks that are dangerous, repetitive, or
require high precision. Some of the robots include welding, assembly, inspection,
packaging, and transportation.

There are different types of robot, each designed to perform specific functions. Some
of the most common types of robots include industrial robots, service robots, medical
robots, and humanoid robots.
Industrial robots are used in manufacturing to perform tasks such as welding,
painting, and assembly.
Services robots are used in a variety of industries to perform tasks such as cleaning,
cooking, and security.
Medical robots are used in healthcare to assist with surgery and other medical
procedure.
Humanoid robots are designed to look and behave like humans, and they are often
used in research and entertainment.

Robots are constantly evolving and improving, with advancements in artificial

intelligence, machine learning, and computer vision making them more capable and
versatile. However, there are also concern about the impact of robots on the job
market and society as a whole.

1
Fig- 1.11 Industrial Robot

Fig- 1.12 Humanoid

2
1.2 MOBILE ROBOTS

A mobile robot is type of robot that is designed to move around and perform tasks in
different environments. These robots are equipped with wheels or tracks that allow
them to navigate through various surfaces and terrains.

Mobile robots can be controlled remotely or autonomously using sensors, cameras,

and other technologies. They can perform a wide range of tasks, including
surveillance, inspection, search and rescue, transportation, and cleaning.

Mobile robots are used in various industries, such as manufacturing, healthcare,

logistics, agriculture, and defense. They are also increasingly used in homes and
offices for tasks such as vacuuming, lawn mowing, and security monitoring.

Recent advancements in mobile robot technology have lead to the development of

more advanced robots with increased mobility, speed, and accuracy. These robots are
equipped with sophisticated sensors and software, making them more intelligent and
adaptable to different environments.

In summary, mobile robots are an essential tool for various applications and
industries, and their importance is expected to grow with the advancement of
technology.

Fig 1.21 A mobile robot

3
1.3 LINE-FOLLOWING ROBOT

A line-following robot is a type of autonomous robot that uses sensors to follow a

line on the ground. The robot typically consists of a microcontroller, motors, an
sensors that detect the line.

The line-following process typically involves using a sensor to detect the line, then
sending a signal to the microcontroller to adjust the direction of the robot. The robot
can be programmed to follow different types of lines, including straight lines, curves,
and even intersections.

There are many different types of sensors that can be used for line following,
including infrared sensors, reflective sensors, and color sensors. Each type of sensor
has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of sensor depends on the
specific application.

Line-following robots are commonly used in industrial automation, robotics

education, and hobbyist project. They can be used for a variety of tasks, such as
material handling, inspection, and surveillance.

Overall, line-following robots are an important application of robotics technology,

and their versatility and ease of use make them a popular choice for a wide range of
applications.

Fig 1.31 Line-Following-Robot

*****

4
 CHAPTER 2

COMPONENT & MATERIAL SELECTION

2.1 ARDUINO UNO

Arduino Uno is a popular open-source microcontroller board based on the ATmega3228P

microcontroller. It is designed for hobbyist, artists, designers, and anyone interested in
creating interactive electronic projects.

The board comes with 14digital input/output pins, 6analog input pins, a 16MHz quartz
crystal, a USB connection, a power jack, and a reset button. The digital pins can be used
for controlling LEDs, motors, and other electronic components, while the analog pins
can be used for reading values from sensors such as temperature, light, and sound
sensors.

The board can be programmed using the Arduino Integrated Development Environment
(IDE), which is available for free on the C++ programming language and allows users to
write and upload code to the board via the USB connection.

Arduino Uno can be used for wide range of projects, from simple LED blinking to more
complex projects such as robotics, home automation, and Internet of Things (IoT)
applications. Its versatility, ease of use, and low cost has made it popular choice among
hobbyists and professionals alike.

Fig 2.11 A Arduino Uno

5
2.2 BO MOTOR AND WHEELS

BO (Brushed DC) motors and wheels are commonly used in robotics and other
mechatronic applications. Brushed DC motors are simple and efficient, consisting of a
rotor, a stator, and a commutator that switches the direction of current flow in the rotor
windings to create rotation.

BO motors are available in a variety of sizes and torques ratings, making them suitable
for a wide range of applications. They can be controlled using various techniques such as
pulse width modulation (PWM), which allows for precise speed control, and H-bridge
circuits, which enable the motor to rotate in both directions.

Wheels are essential component of BO motor system, providing traction and support for
the robot or vehicle. Wheels can be made from various materials such as plastic, rubber,
or metal, can have different sizes and shapes depending on the application.

In robotics, BO motor and wheels are often used in mobile robots, such as rovers, and
drones, to provide propulsion and maneuverability. The wheels can be attached directly
to the motor shaft, or indirectly through gears or pulleys to increase torque or adjust the
speed.

Fig 2.21 BO MOTOR

6
2.3 L298 MOTOR DRIVER

The L298 motor driver is a popular choice for controlling motors in robotics applications
due to its ability to control the speed and direction of DC motors and stepper motors.
Here are some key points to consider when using L298 in a robot applications.

i. Dual H-bridge: The L298 consists of two H-bridge circuit, which means it can
control two motors independently. This is useful in robotics application where
multiple motors need to be controlled.
ii. High current handling: The L298 can handle up to 2A of currents per channel,
which makes it suitable for driving motors of different sizes.
iii. Input signals: The L298 can be controlled using various input signals, including
digital logic signals, PMW signals, and analog voltage signals. This makes it
easy to interface with microcontroller and other electronic components
commonly used in robotics.
iv. Protection features: The L298 includes built-in protection features such as
thermal shutdown, over-current protection, and under-voltage lockout. These
features protect the motor driver and the motors from damage due to excessive
current or voltage.
v. Easy to use: The L298 is easy to use and requires minimal external components
to get started. This makes it a popular choice for hobbyists and beginners who
want to experiment with robotics.

Overall, the L298 is a reliable and versatile motor driver that can be used in a variety of
robotics applications. It provides high current handling, protection features, and easy
interfacing with microcontrollers, making it a popular choice for hobbyist and
professionals alike.

7
Fig 2.31 A L298 MOTOR DRIVER

8
2.4 IR SENSORS

In a line-following robot, IR sensors are commonly used to detect a line on the ground
and guide the robot along its path. IR sensors can detect changes in reflectivity between
the line and the surface of the ground, and the robot can use this information to stay on
the line.

Typically, the IR sensors are positioned underneath the robot, close to the ground, and
space a certain distance apart. The number of sensors and their positioning can vary
depending on the specific robot and the complexity of the line to be followed.

The sensors work by emitting infrared light and measuring the amount of light reflected
back. The reflectivity of the surface of the ground changes depending on the color of the
line, and the sensors can detect this change in reflectivity.

The output of the sensor is then processed by a microcontroller or other control system,
which can make decisions about how to adjust the robot’s movement based on the sensor
readings. For example, if the robot senses that, it is moving too far to the right of the line,
t may adjust its movement to the left to get back on track.

Overall, IR sensors are a popular choice for line-following robots because they are
relatively inexpensive and can provide accurate readings even in low-light environments.
However, they may be less effective on surfaces with low reflectivity, such as black or
very dark lines, and may require some calibration and adjustment to work effectively in
different environments.

Fig 2.41 IR sensor

9
2.5 Li-Ion Battery of Robots

A line following robot is a type of mobile robot that is designed to follow a line or a path,
usually using sensors to detect the line or path and make necessary adjustments to stay
on course. Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used in line following robots because
they are lightweight, rechargeable, and have a high energy density, making them ideal
for powering small, mobile devices like robots.

One of the primary advantages of using a lithium-ion battery in a line following robot is
its ability to provide a consistent and reliable source of power. Lithium-ion batteries can
deliver a steady voltage output over a long period of time, which is essential for ensuring
that the robot can follow the line accurately and reliably.

In addition, lithium-ion batteries are generally much lighter than other types of batteries,
which is important for mobile robots that need to be agile and maneuverable. This makes
them ideal for line following robots, which often need to be able to navigate tight turns
and narrow paths.

Overall, a lithium-ion is a great choice for powering a line following robot because of its
reliability, consistency, and lightweight design. By using a lithium-ion battery, designers
can create robots that are efficient, fast, and agile, with the ability to navigate complex
paths and obstacles with ease.

Fig 2.51 Lithium-Ion Battery

10
2.6 COST OF COMPONENTS

SR.NO NAME OF COMPONENT PRICE ₹ QUANTITY TOTAL ₹

01 ARDUINO UNO 700 1 700
02 BO MOTOR 75 4 300
03 IR SENSORS 90 2 180
04 L298 MOTOR DRIVER 250 1 250
05 WHEELS 40 4 160
06 LITHIUM-ION BATTERY 80 3 240
07 BATTERY CHARGER 150 1 150
GRAND TOTAL ₹ 2280

*****

11
 CHAPTER 3

CONNECTION AND PROGRAMMING

3.1 CONNECTION

Fig: 3.11 CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT

12
3.2 PROGRAMMING / CODE

// Line Following Robot Code

// Define the pins used for the L298 motor driver module

const int ENA = 10;

const int IN1 = 9;

const int IN2 = 8;

const int IN3 = 7;

const int IN4 = 6;

const int ENB = 5;

// Define the pins used for the IR sensors

const int IR_LEFT = A0;

const int IR_RIGHT = A1;

// Define the threshold values for the IR sensors

const int THRESHOLD_LEFT = 600;

const int THRESHOLD_RIGHT = 600;

// Define the maximum motor speed

const int MAX_SPEED = 255;

13
void setup() {

// Set the L298 motor driver pins as output

pinMode(ENA, OUTPUT);

pinMode(IN1, OUTPUT);

pinMode(IN2, OUTPUT);

pinMode(IN3, OUTPUT);

pinMode(IN4, OUTPUT);

pinMode(ENB, OUTPUT);

// Set the IR sensor pins as input

pinMode(IR_LEFT, INPUT);

pinMode(IR_RIGHT, INPUT);

// Set the motor speeds to 0

analogWrite(ENA, 0);

analogWrite(ENB, 0);

void loop() {

// Read the sensor values

int sensor_left = analogRead(IR_LEFT);

int sensor_right = analogRead(IR_RIGHT);

14
// Determine the motor speeds based on the sensor readings

int speed_left = 0;

int speed_right = 0;

if (sensor_left > THRESHOLD_LEFT) {

// Left sensor sees the line, turn left

speed_left = MAX_SPEED / 2;

speed_right = MAX_SPEED;

} else if (sensor_right > THRESHOLD_RIGHT) {

// Right sensor sees the line, turn right

speed_left = MAX_SPEED;

speed_right = MAX_SPEED / 2;

} else {

// Both sensors are off the line, go straight

speed_left = MAX_SPEED;

speed_right = MAX_SPEED;

// Set the motor speeds

analogWrite(ENA, speed_left);

analogWrite(ENB, speed_right);

15
// Set the motor directions

digitalWrite(IN1, LOW);

digitalWrite(IN2, HIGH);

digitalWrite(IN3, LOW);

digitalWrite(IN4, HIGH);

3.3 FINAL OUTCOME / RESULT

This code is for a line-following robot using two IR sensors, a L298 motor driver, and an
Arduino Uno.

In the setup function, the pins for the L298 motor driver and IR sensors are defined as
either input or output pins using the pinMode() function. The motor speeds are set to
zero using analogWrite().

In the loop function, the values of the IR sensors are read using analogRead(). Based on
the sensor readings, the code determines the appropriate motor speeds and directions. If
the left sensor sees the line, the robot turns left by setting the left motor speed to half the
maximum speed and the right motor speed to the maximum speed. If the right sensor
sees the line, the robot turns right by setting the left motor speed to the maximum speed
and the right motor speed to half the maximum speed. If neither sensor sees the line, the
robot goes straight by setting both motor speeds to the maximum speed.

The motor speeds are then set using analogWrite() and the motor directions are set using
digitalWrite(). The robot will continue to follow the line until the program is stopped or
the robot is turned off.

*****

16
 SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE WORK

Here are some suggestions for future work on a line-following robot:

 Advanced Sensors: Consider using advanced sensors like LiDAR, Infrared (IR)
sensors, or Time-of-Flight (ToF) sensors to improve the accuracy and reliability
of the line-following mechanism.
 Machine Learning: Implement machine learning algorithms such as
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) or Support Vector Machines (SVM) to
improve the line-following algorithm's accuracy, adaptability, and robustness.
 Obstacle Detection: Incorporate obstacle detection sensors like ultrasonic
sensors, infrared sensors, or LiDAR to detect obstacles along the robot's path and
avoid them.
 Localization and Mapping: Implement localization and mapping techniques
like Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) to enable the robot to
navigate through complex environments and map its surroundings.
 Autonomous Navigation: Add autonomous navigation capabilities to the robot
using Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Reinforcement Learning (RL) algorithms to
enable it to navigate and follow a line without human intervention.
 Communication and Control: Implement wireless communication and control
mechanisms such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or Zigbee to enable remote control and
monitoring of the robot's activities.
 Power Management: Implement efficient power management techniques like
energy harvesting or rechargeable batteries to extend the robot's runtime and
increase its operational efficiency.
 Modularity and Scalability: Design the robot in a modular and scalable way so
that it can be easily modified or expanded to accommodate new sensors,
controllers, or actuators for future applications.

*****

17
 REFERENCE

 https://www.google.com/search?q=connection+diagram+of+line+following+robo
t+using+4+motor%2C+2+Iar+sensor&rlz=1CDGOYI_enIN955IN955&oq=conne
ction+diagram+of+line+following+robot+using+4+motor%2C+2+Iar+sensor&aq
s=chrome..69i57.19571j1j7&hl=en-GB&sourceid=chrome-mobile&ie=UTF-
8#imgrc=NZSeus5cLUVJNM&lnspr=W10=
 https://blog.technavio.org/blog/top-21-companies-in-the-industrial-robotics-
market
 https://www.electronicshub.org/arduino-line-follower-robot/
 https://robu.in/product/bak-nmc-18650-2500mah-8c-lithium-ion-battery/
 https://robu.in/product/ir-infrared-obstacle-avoidance-sensor-module/
 https://robocraze.com/products/100-rpm-dual-shaft-bo-motor-straight
 https://www.flipkart.com/ds-robotics-wheels-bo-motors-robot-durable-rubber-
tyre-wheel-65mmx30mm-dc-motor-pack-4-educational-electronic-hobby-
kit/p/itm9847cae421c95
 https://chat.openai.com/chat

*****

VII