Remote sensing

Unit 3
Photo interpretation element
Image interpretation (in this case aerial photo interpretation) is the most basic
form of analysis, consisting of manual identification of features in a remote
sensing image through visual interpretation. Image interpretation is based on
elements that are inherent in imagery.
Shape

Shape is the general form or outline of objects. The shape of objects or features
can provide information that can aid in identification. Regular geometric shapes
and straight edges are usually signs of human presence.

Tone/Color

Tone (the variation from white to black) or color is the relative brightness or
color of elements in a photograph. May factors influence the tone or color of
features, include the spectral properties of objects as well as the direction of
illumination. For example, tone or color can be used to distinguish deciduous
from coniferous tree in infrared photography.

Size

The size of objects depends on the scale of the photograph, may need to use
surrounding objects or known objects to help determine scale. The relative sizes
among objects in an image can be considered.

Texture

The “smoothness" or "roughness" of image features is caused by the frequency

of change of tone in photographs. Calm water has a smooth texture; a forest
canopy has a rough texture

Association/Site
Context can often can help identify objects. Features can often be identified by
associating the presence of one object with another, or relating it to its
environment. How objects are arranged with respect to one another; or with
respect to various terrain features, can also aid in interpretation.

Pattern

Pattern is the spatial arrangement of objects, they can be natural or man-made.

The repetition of certain forms is distinct for many features. For example the
ordered spatial arrangement of trees in an orchard is distinct from that of a
natural forest stand.

Shadow

Shadows can useful in identifying objects that may otherwise be difficult to

recognize. Shadows can provide information about object's height, shape, and
orientation.

Mosaics

A mosaic is a combination or merge of two or more images. In ArcGIS, you can

create a single raster dataset from multiple raster datasets by mosaicking them
together. Alternatively, you can create a mosaic dataset and create a virtual
mosaic from a collection of raster datasets.

Controlled and uncontrolled mosaics

Mosaic composed of uncorrected photographs, the details of which have been

matched from print to print, without ground control or other orientation. Accu
rate measurement and direction cannot be accomplished. See also controlled
mosaic. An assemblage of aerial photographs whose edges have usually been
cut and matched to form a continuous photographic representation of the
particular area is called a mosaic. If this assemblage is made without any control,
then it is called uncontrolled mosaic. If, before being laid, the prints have been
properly rectified, i.e., enlarged or reduced and fitted on adequate ground
control, i.e., to fit pre-determined locations of certain important features, the
mosaic is said to be a controlled mosaic.
The controlled mosaic, though more accurate, retains the changes in scale and
displacements due to differences in relief within the individual prints. A
contoured mosaic shows the relief by means of contours, and may be either
controlled or uncontrolled. A semi controlled mosaic may be prepared from
unrectified photograph assembled to have ground control; alternatively
rectified photographs may be used with no ground control. Semi-controlled
mosaics are a compromise between economy and accuracy.

Advantages and disadvantages

Image mosaic is a technique that combines several images with overlapping

parts (the images may be obtained at different times, different viewing angles
or by different sensors) into a large-scale seamless high-resolution image.

One hundred fifty ground farmland remote sensing images collected by UAV are
used as experimental splicing objects, and the image splicing is completed by
the global stitching strategy optimized by Levenberg-Marquardt (L-M).
Experiments show that the strategy can effectively reduce the influence of
cumulative errors and achieve automatic panoramic mosaic of the survey area.

The remote sensing technology of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is a low

altitude remote sensing technology. The technology has been widely used in
military, agricultural, medical, geographical mapping, and other fields by virtue
of the advantages of fast acquisition, high resolution, low cost, and good
security. But limited by the flying height of UAV and the focal length of the digital
camera, the single image obtained by the UAV is difficult to form the overall
cognition of the ground farmland area. In order to further expand the field of
view, it is necessary to mosaic multiple single images acquired by UAV into a
complete panoramic image of the farmland. In this paper, aiming at the problem
of UAV low-altitude remote sensing image splicing, an image mosaic technique
based on Speed Up Robust Feature (SURF) is introduced to achieve rapid image
splicing. One hundred fifty ground farmland remote sensing images collected by
UAV are used as experimental splicing objects, and the image splicing is
completed by the global stitching strategy optimized by Levenberg-Marquardt
(L-M).

Application of mosaic in geology studies

We've developed a logging tool that automates the interpretation of different

rock types in drillcore to enable rapid and reliable geological logging. The result
is faster logging and more accurate 3D geological models. Three-dimensional
(3D) geological models are needed for minerals exploration and to plan for
mining below the surface. These 3D models show the predicted geometry and
distribution of different rock types.

To create them, geologists traditionally relied on manual logging of drill samples

and lab assay results. Working through this process to create a single model is
time consuming, with the accuracy of the result dependent on the experience
of the geologist.

With the development of a plethora of new measurement sensors delivering

greater levels of data, CSIRO mathematical geologist, June Hill, says mining
companies soon found "they had a whole lot of numbers instead of rock types".

What was needed was a solution that delivered more objective results and could
speed up the 3D model building process.

Data Mosaic allows a geologist to model rock types on a broad scale and then
zero down to finer scale details in areas of interest.

Satellite remote sensing

These remote sensing satellites are equipped with sensors looking down to the
earth. They are the "eyes in the sky" constantly observing the earth as they go
round in predictable orbits. In satellite remote sensing of the earth, the sensors
are looking through a layer of atmosphere separating the sensors from the
Earth's surface being observed. Hence, it is essential to understand the effects
of atmosphere on the electromagnetic radiation travelling from the Earth to the
sensor through the atmosphere. The atmospheric constituents cause
wavelength dependent absorption and scattering of radiation.
These effects degrade the quality of images. Some of the atmospheric effects
can be corrected before the images are subjected to further analysis and
interpretation.
Optical remote sensing

In Optical Remote Sensing, optical sensors detect solar radiation reflected or

scattered from the earth, forming images resembling photographs taken by a
camera high up in space. The wavelength region usually extends from the visible
and near infrared (commonly abbreviated as VNIR) to the short-wave
infrared (SWIR). Different materials such as water, soil, vegetation, buildings and
roads reflect visible and infrared light in different ways. They have different
colours and brightness when seen under the sun. The interpretation of optical
images require the knowledge of the spectral reflectance signatures of the
various materials (natural or man-made) covering the surface of the earth. There
are also infrared sensors measuring the thermal infrared radiation emitted from
the earth, from which the land or sea surface temperature can be derived.

Satellite orbiting mechanisms

The path of satellite revolving around the earth is known as orbit. This path can
be represented with mathematical notations. Orbital mechanics is the study of
the motion of the satellites that are present in orbits.
A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force from
the sun and the moon due to their gravitational forces. This force is known
as Centrifugal force (F2) because this force tends the satellite away from earth.
1.general a satellite is a smaller object that revolves around a larger object in
space.For eg : moon is a natural satellite of Earth.
2.Souiet onion had launched the worlds 1st artificial satellite named Sputnik 1
in 1957.
3.Nearly after 18 years , india also launched the Artificial satellite named ,
Aryabhata in 1975.

Multiple spectral scanning

The Multispectral Scanner System (MSS) sensors were line scanning devices
observing the Earth perpendicular to the orbital track. The cross-track scanning
was accomplished by an oscillating mirror; six lines were scanned
simultaneously in each of the four spectral bands for each mirror sweep. The
forward motion of the satellite provided the along-track scan line progression.

The first five Landsats carried the MSS sensor which responded to Earth-
reflected sunlight in four spectral bands. Landsat 3 carried an MSS sensor with
an additional band, designated band 8, that responded to thermal (heat)
infrared radiation.

The scan monitor sensor ensures that the cross-track optical scan is 185 km at
nominal altitude regardless of mirror scan nonlinearity or other perturbations of
mirror velocity.

Cross- track image velocity was nominally 6.82 meters per microsecond. After
9.958 microseconds, the 83 by 83 meter image has moved 67.9 meters. The
sample taken at this instant represented 15 meters of previous information and
68 meters of new information.

Along track and across track scanning

There are two main modes or methods of scanning employed to acquire

multispectral image data - across-track scanning, and along-track scanning.

Across-track scanners scan the Earth in a series of lines. The lines are oriented
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the sensor platform (i.e. across the
swath). Each line is scanned from one side of the sensor to the other, using
a rotating mirror (A). As the platform moves forward over the Earth, successive
scans build up a two-dimensional image of the Earth´s surface. The incoming
reflected or emitted radiation is separated into several spectral components
that are detected independently. The UV, visible, near-infrared, and thermal
radiation are dispersed into their constituent wavelengths. A bank of
internal detectors (B), each sensitive to a specific range of wavelengths, detects
and measures the energy for each spectral band and then, as an electrical signal,
they are converted to digital data and recorded for subsequent computer
processing.
Along-track scanners also use the forward motion of the platform to record
successive scan lines and build up a two-dimensional image, perpendicular to
the flight direction. However, instead of a scanning mirror, they use a linear
array of detectors (A) located at the focal plane of the image (B) formed by lens
systems (C), which are "pushed" along in the flight track direction (i.e. along
track). These systems are also referred to as pushbroom scanners, as the motion
of the detector array is analogous to the bristles of a broom being pushed along
a floor. Each individual detector measures the energy for a single ground
resolution cell (D) and thus the size and IFOV of the detectors determines the
spatial resolution of the system. A separate linear array is required to measure
each spectral band or channel. For each scan line, the energy detected by each
detector of each linear array is sampled electronically and digitally recorded.
Types of resolution
There are 3 types of resolutions available to limited company shareholders:

 Ordinary resolutions – Passed by a simple majority (above 50%) of

shareholders’ votes. Members cast their votes on a show of hands or poll.
Used for all types of decisions, unless the Companies Act, the articles of
association, and/or a shareholders’ agreement stipulates the need for a
special resolution. The majority of ordinary resolutions must be filed with
Companies House.
 Special resolutions – Passed by a 75% majority of shareholders’ votes at a
general meeting. Members cast their votes on a show of hands or poll. Used
for extraordinary business decisions that cannot be passed by an ordinary
resolution.
 Written resolutions – Used when a general meeting is not required to pass an
ordinary resolution or special resolution. Any written ordinary resolution
must be passed by a simple majority of shareholders’ votes. Written special
resolutions require a 75% majority vote. Shareholders cast their votes by
signing the written resolution (if it is distributed on paper) or indicating their
decision via email or online (if it is distributed by email on on a website).

Data acquisition

Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world
physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric
values that can be manipulated by a computer. Data acquisition systems,
abbreviated by the initialisms DAS, DAQ, or DAU, typically convert analog
waveforms into digital values for processing. The components of data
acquisition systems include:

 Sensors, to convert physical parameters to electrical signals.

 Signal conditioning circuitry, to convert sensor signals into a form that can
be converted to digital values.
 Analog-to-digital converters, to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital
values.

Data acquisition applications are usually controlled by software programs

developed using various general purpose programming languages such
as Assembly, BASIC, C, C++, C#, Fortran, Java, LabVIEW, Lisp, Pascal, etc. Stand-
alone data acquisition systems are often called data loggers.
There are also open-source software packages providing all the necessary tools
to acquire data from different, typically specific, hardware equipment. These
tools come from the scientific community where complex experiment requires
fast, flexible and adaptable software. Those packages are usually custom fit but
more general DAQ packages like the Maximum Integrated Data Acquisition
System can be easily tailored and is used in several physics experiments
worldwide.

Data interpretation

Data interpretation is the process of reviewing data through some predefined

processes which will help assign some meaning to the data and arrive at a
relevant conclusion. It involves taking the result of data analysis, making
inferences on the relations studied, and using them to conclude.

Therefore, before one can talk about interpreting data, they need to be analyzed
first. What then, is data analysis?

Data analysis is the process of ordering, categorizing, manipulating, and

summarizing data to obtain answers to research questions. It is usually the first
step taken towards data interpretation.

It is evident that the interpretation of data is very important, and as such needs
to be done properly. Therefore, researchers have identified some data
interpretation methods to aid this process.

References

 Gsp.humboldt.edu

 Desktop.arcgis.com

 www.geographynotes.com
 www.csiro.au>Areas>Resourceful-magazine>issue

 Crisp.nus.edu.sg

 www.sciencedirect.com

 www.rapidformation.co.uk

 www.mccdaa.com