: r n r r r r r r r - r r m

1
Utility Department

Training Unit

Control System Technology

hi

(IIM- 18)

Prepared by: p

Mr. Muwafak Kassim Yahya.^

^ Utility T r a i n i n g Unit n

^ ((2009)) D
-\ P
 CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY

Page
1. Control elements 1
1.1 process 1
1.2 measurement 2
1.3 evaluation 2

2. The closed loop

2.1 instrument uses 4
2.2 the control function 4
2.3 factors of process control 5
2.4 definition 7
2.5 types of signals 7
2.6 control modes 8
2.7 how feedback control system works 12

3. Controllers
3.1 proportional controller responses 21
3.2 proportional plus reset control 27
3.3 proportional plus reset plus rate control 30
3.4 objectives for good process control ^ ^40
3.5 preliminary steps for controller tuning 44
3.6 tuning proportional responses 47
3.7 tuning reset and rate responses 52
3.8 trial and error tuning methods 59
3.9 auto manual switching 70

4. Multielement control
4.1 ratio control loops 73'
4.2 cascade control loops 80
4.3 override control loops 90

5. Commissioning control systems 91

6. Spec 200 Electronic process control 92

7. Computer Controlled Systems 94

8, Trouble shooting 101

1. Control elements:
A process control system consists of four elements
(process - measurement - evaluation or controller - and
final control element)

1.1 Process :
A process is a physical or chemical change of matter or a conversion of
energy. Some examples of process are:
heating - cooling - mixing - smelting - separating - distilling - melting
- filling and emptying - casting - cooking - evaporating - refining.

Instruments are used to monitor a process and to make adjustment to the

process to get the desired output. In order to monitor or control a process,
a characteristic, or parameter, of the process must be measured.
Some examples of process characteristics, or parameters are:
capacitance - inductance - resistance - .
voltage - current - weight - pressure - acceleration -
sound - color - level - temperature - humidity - density
- moisture content - viscosity - dimension ~ pH
concentration - flow rate - speed - thickness -""specific
gravity.

A process usually has many characteristics, or parameters. It is common

practice in process industries to monitor several parameters of a process.
For each parameter that is monitored, there is usually a separate
instrument system.

In general, a process consists of an assembly of equipment and material

that relates to some manufacturing sequence. In example presented in
(fig.l) theUo be placed under control with respect to the fluid level
includes such variables as the liquid, the flow of liquid in and out of the
tank, and the size of the tank itself. Many dynamic variables caifbe
involved in a given process, and it may be desirable to control all these
variables.there are single - variable processes in which only one variable
is controlled, as well as multi - variable processes in which many
variables, some interrelated, many require regulation. /

1.2 Measurement

a. Sensor: The sensor senses the value of the controlled variable.

 b. Transmitter; the transmitter changes the sensed value into a signal
that can be transmitted. The transmitter sends the signal to one of
several components, depending on the function of the instrument
system. The signal may be used to adjust the manipulated variable, it
may be recorded, or used to actuate alarms or interlock as shown in
(fig.2)

In general in order to control a dynamic variable in a process, there

must be information on the variable itself. This information is obtained
from a measurement of the variable. A measurement refers to the
conversion of the variable into analog signal of the variable, such as
pneumatic pressure, an electrical voltage, or current. A device that
performs the initial measurement and energy conversion of a dynamic
variable into an electrical or pneumatic signal is a converter or
transducer. The result of any measurement is the conversion of
dynamic variable into some proportional information required by the
other elements in process control loop.

1.3 Evaluation (controller)

In the process control sequence, the evaluation step examines the

measurement and determines the corrective action to be taken. This part
of the loop is called either the controller or evaluation performed by
controller. The evaluation may be performed manually by an operator
or automatically by electronic signal processing, pneumatic signal
processing, computer, or a combination of all these.
The controller requires both a measurement of the dynamic variable
7
and a representation of the desired value of the variable in order to
function. This desired value of the dynamic variable is called the set
point (sp). There fore, the evaluation consists of a comparison of the
measurement and the set point and then a determination of the action
required to bring the controlled variable to the set point value. This is r-
the essential feature of a process control loop. •

1.4 Final control element (The regulating unit)

j
The final element in process control loop is the device that exerts a
direct influence on the process. This element accepts an input from the
controller and transforms it into some proportional operation performed
on the process. In most cases in the process industry, this final control -'
element will be a control valve that adjusts the flow of the fluidin the
process. Electrical motors and pumps are also used as a final control
element.

Z
 FLUfD INLET

LEVEL DETECTOR LEVEL

AND TRANSDUCER CONTROLLER

K
CONTROL FLUID
VALVE OUTLET

FIGURE 1-
Basic process control example (level).

UPSETS OR DISTURBANCES

MANIPULATED
HI CONTROLLED
VARIABLE VARIABLE
PROCESS

FINAL CONTROL
SENSOR
ELEMENT

SIGNAL BASED SETPOINT

ON ERROR REPRESENTATIVE
OR DEVIATION
AND EFFECTS OF
SIGNALS
^ , —
CONTROL MODES
CONTROLLER -, TRANSMITTER

RECORDER

INDICATOR

ALARMS

INTERLOCKS

3
 2 T H E C L O S E D LOOP

2.1 INSTRUMENT USES

Instrument systems have several applications in process. The most

common uses are:

a. Indication: Readout of the value of a variable.

b. Recording: Keeping a record of a variable.
c. Controlling: Using one variable to control itself or another variable in
the process. p c

d. Alarms: Using a specified value^variable to actuate an alarm when

the variable reaches a c t * * U ' ^ s;aW&

e. Interlocking: Using a variable to cause an action to occur when the

variable reaches a certain value.

2.2 T H E CONTROL FUNCTION :

The control function can be described as having three stages:

a. Gathering information about the process variable.

b. Making a decision concerning the condition of the process.
c. Taking action based on the decision.

Automobile speed control was used as an example of a control function.

The information stage involved measuring the actual speed and knowing
the desired speed. The decision stage involved comparing the two values
to see i f they were equal. The action stage was based on the comparison
of values and involved changing or maintaining the amount of the fuel
supplied to the engine.
To maintain control, information must be gathered and evaluated
constantly because other factors could change the actual value. Constant
evaluation helps to ensure that the desired value is maintained.
Control may be accomplished manually or automatically. In manual
control, the decision made by a person. In automatic control, a device
makes the decision. For^ example, driver may manually control speed of
a car or it may^ontrolfby a device that automatically controls speed. The
primary difference between the two types of control is the decision-maker
when a device makes the decision automatic control is achieved.

4-
 2.3 FACTORS OF PROCESS CONTROL

K» ¥ The basic factors of process control and some of the terminology used in process
sfe'.-: ' control.

Factors of Process Control

In many processes, several instruments are grouped

together to do more than simply indicate the value
of a variable. This group may actually control a
process. The control function of instruments is
important to understand.

In a process control system, the parameter we wish

to control at some desired level is called the
controlled variable. Typical controlled variables are:
temperature, pressure, liquid level, and flow rate.

To accomplish control, two inputs are needed:

• the value of the measured, variable, which is

used to represent the actual condition of the Information is gathered.
controlled variable, and

• the set point of the controlled variable which

represents the desired value.

In some cases, the controlled variable and the

measured variable will be the same parameter. For
example, measuring the speed of a car tells us how
fast it is going. In some cases, however, the con-
trolled variable and the measured variable may be
different parameters. For example, the level of a
liquid in a tank can be found by measuring the
pressure at the bottom of the tank. In this case, we
are measuring pressure to control level.
 In the control process, the set point and the value
A decision is made.. of the controlled variable are compared. A difference
between these two values is called a deviation.

When a deviation exists, action is taken to eliminate

Action is taken. it. This action involves adjusting a manipulated
variable to cause a change in the controlled variable
bringing it back to the set point.

For example, when driving a car, speed is controlled

by comparing the value shown on the speedometer
In this case, speed is both the (measured variable) to the speed limit (set point).
measured variable and the If the two values are not equal, the amount of gas
t

controlled variable. (manipulated-variable) is adjusted to change the speed

(controlled variable).

In addition to the manipulated variable, other factors

can affect the controlled variable. For example,
speed of a car is affected by wind resistance and the
road surface. In a process control system, these
factors are called upsets or disturbances.

To compensate for upsets or disturbances, a constant

circulation of information is needed. In a closed
loop system, information about the process is con-
stantly fed to the instruments. This closed loop of
information is referred to as feedback. All of the
instruments and devices that accomplish the control
of a process are referred to as the feedback control
loop.

In process industries, Another type of control concept is called feedforward

feedforward control is usually control. In feedforward control, sensors measure the
coupled with feedback values of the disturbances and adjust the manipulated
control. variable before a change occurs in the controlled
variable. This control scheme has advantages and
disadvantages when compared to feedback control.
Generally speaking, it is desirable because it prevents
errors from occurring in the controlled variable. But,
a feedforward system requires a complex analysis of
process disturbances and precise mathematical calcula-
tions to work effectively. The number of applica-
tions of pure feedforward control is small in process
industries. But, in many cases, use of feedforward
control is necessary aftd significant.
2.4 DEFINITIONS

a. Response time: Is the time required for a sensor to respond to change

in its input,

b. Accuracy: Refers to how close a sensor comes in indicating the actual

value of the measured variable.

c. Precision: Refers to the consistency of a sensor in responding to the

setme input on different occasions.

2.5 T Y P E S OF SIGNALS

a. Electrical signals: The value of current or voltage represents the value

of measured variable.

b. Pneumatic signals: The value of air or gas pressure represents the

value of the measured variable,

c. Hydraulic signals: The value of fluid pressure represents the value of

measured variable.

d. Telemeter signals: Certain frequencies or amplitudes of radio signals

represent the value of measured variable.
 CONTROL MODES

d
7'The four basic modes of control.
§f?The operating principle of two-position control.
W

Wk Control Modes

1 In a feedback control loop, the controller responds

to deviations by producing an output signal that
determines the positioning of the final control ele-
'CM,*..-
ment. The specific way in which a controller reacts
to a deviation and affects the position of the final
control element is referred to as the mode of control,
or type of control action.

There are four basic modes of control action:

• two-position control

• proportional control Reset and rate control are

often combined with
• reset control proportional control in
industry. .
• rate control.

Two-Position Control

With two-position control, the final control element

niay be in only one of two positions. These two
positions are sometimes on/off or open/closed.
Consequently, it is often called on-off control.

Two-position control is used in many systems, such

as heating and air conditioning, water heaters, and
ovens.
 TWO-POSITION CONTROL

PREVIEW

The function of a controller in a process loop.

The effect of two-position control in a process loop.

REVIEW

Controllers

In a process loop, a sensor senses the value of the

measured variable, This value is transmitted to a
controller.

The controller compares the value of the measured

variable to the set point. If a deviation exists, the Set Point
controller sends an appropriate output signal to the - Controlled Variable
final control element. The position of the final
Deviation
control element is then adjusted to eliminate the
deviation and to maintain the process within
acceptable limits.

The type of controller that is used in a system will

determine the degree to which adjustments will be
made by the final control clement and the effect
these adjustments will have on the process.
 Two-Position Control in a Process Loop

TWO-POSITION
CONTROLLER

STEAM
TRAP

In this example, two-position control is the mode of

/// this case, temperature is control.- The measured variable is the temperature
also the controlled variable. of the process, and the final control element is a
steam valve.

Because this system uses two-position control, the

valve can be in only one of two positions — often
fully open or fully closed. Therefore, when the
temperature of the process falls below the set point,
the valve will open completely (100%). When the
temperature rises above the set point, the valve will
close completely (0%).

V
In a process using two-position control, the value of TEMP
the controlled variable will fluctuate. In the pre- MAX. t
vious example, the temperature would repeatedly
rise and fall. Since a balance could not be main-
tained between heat input and heat output, the
SET POINT
temperature would never stabilize at a specified
value.

MIN. 1 !
VALVE
OPEN

CLOSED-L

Two-position controllers usually have a dead band, TEMP

or dead zone. The dead band is a range of values MAX.
around the set point. When the controlled variable
is within this range, no control action takes place.
The dead band functions to minimize wear and tear DEAD
ZONE <
on equipment, particularly on the final control
element. Without a dead band, the final control
element would cycle continuously.
MIN
•4

VALVE

OPEN

CLOSED J-
 HOW A FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM WORKS

1. The four basic elements of a feedback control system.

2. How the elements of a feedback control system work together.

Elements of a Feedback Control System

A feedback control system is one common type of

process control system. The purpose of a feedback
control system is to produce a product of desired
quality and quantity. In a feedback control system,
a variable called the controlled variable is to be
maintained at a desired value. Information about
this variable is fed back through the system. The
instruments in the system keep the value of the
controlled variable at or near the set point by The set point is the desired
regulating another process variable, called the value of the controlled
manipulated variable. variable.

There are four basic parts of a feedback control

system.

• A process is a physical or chemical change of

matter or conversion of energy. The process
may have many characteristics, or parameters,
that affect the quality of the product. Usually,
the process has a separate instrument system A process is a physical or
for each parameter that must be controlled. chemical change of matter
Some examples of process parameters are level, or conversion of energy.
composition, temperature, flow rate, and
pressure. The controlled variable is the
parameter that is being controlled or maintained
at a desired level.
 e The sensor and the transmitter provide the
means of measuring the controlled variable.
The sensor senses the value o f the controlled
variable. The transmitter changes the sensed
value into a standardized signal that can be *
transmitted to another instrument, such as a
controller, recorder, or indicator, where the
signal can be controlled, recorded, or indicated.

• The controller provides the means of controlling

The controller is the the controlled variable. The controller compares
"brain" of the feedback the measured value of the controlled variable to
control loop. the set point. The deviation determines the
value of the controller output signal.

There are several controller modes that may be

used in a pneumatic feedback control system:
on-off, proportional, proportional-plus-reset,
proportional-plus-derivative, and proportional-
plus-reset-plus-derivative.

• The final control element moves i n response

to the controller output to the position required
to adjust the value of the manipulated variable.
This action should bring the value of the
controlled variable back to the set point.
Examples of common final control elements
are valves, pumps, and dampers.

How the Elements of a Feedback Control System

Work Together

A diagram of a temperature control loop can be

used to illustrate how the elements o f a feedback
control system work together. This loop uses steam
to provide a temperature-controlled supply o f water
for a process. The cold water enters the bottom
of the tank. The water is heated as i t passes the
The water temperature is steam-filled coils in the tank, and hot water leaves
the controlled variable. the top of the tank.
The sensor, transmitter, controller, and final control
element work together to keep the water
temperature as close as possible to the process set
point. In this example, i f the temperature of the
water falls below the set point, the sensor detects
the change in temperature. The sensor is connected
to a temperature transmitter. The transmitter sends
the information about the water temperature to the
controller.

The controller compares the temperature of the

water to , the process set point. I f the water
temperature has fallen below the set point, the
deviation between the temperature and the set point
initiates an output signal change from the controller.
This output signal goes to the final control element.
 In this case, the final control element is a steam
control valve. In order to return the temperature
The flow of steam is the of the water back to the set point, the valve is
manipulated variable. opened further, allowing more steam to enter the
coils. The water temperature rises as the water
passes the hot coils.

As the water temperature returns to the set point,

the controller again takes action to keep the
temperature of the water at the set point. The
controller changes the output signal to the valve.
The new output signal causes the valve to reduce
the flow o f steam to the coils. As a result, the
heating process slows down. This helps to keep
the temperature of the water at the set point.
 How a disturbance or a load change can cause a process to deviate from its set point.

How a process responds to controller action.

Disturbances and Load Changes

The primary function of a controller in a process is

to keep the controlled variable as close as possible
to the set point when process conditions change.
If the value of the controlled variable remained
constant, a controller would not be necessary; the
control valve could simply be set at a position and
left there. However, no process is absolutely
constant. There are factors in any process that can
cause the controlled variable to deviate from the
set point. These factors are called disturbances Disturbances and load changes
and load changes. make controllers necessary.

Aolisturbance is usually an unintentional, temporary

cnange in a process parameter. In this temperature
control loop, one type of disturbance could be a
change in the temperature of the water entering the
tank. This disturbance could cause the controlled
variable - the temperature of the water leaving the
tank — to deviate from the set point.

For example, i f the temperature of the incoming *

water rises, the temperature of the water in the tank
Will probably go above the set point. This is
because the amount of heat produced by the steam
flowing through the coils has not changed, even
though the incoming water is hotter. Since the water
starts at a higher temperature, the resulting
temperature of the water leaving the tank will be
higher.
 A load change may be an intentional change in
a process parameter, Load changes may last longer
than disturbances. One example o f a load change
in this temperature control loop could be a change
in the flow rate of the water leaving the tank. This
load change could cause the controlled variable to
deviate from the set point.

For example, i f the flow rate of the outgoing water

increases, the water entering the tank will pass
through the tank more quickly. As a result, the
water will not be heated as much by the coils and
the resulting temperature will be lower.

In both o f these examples o f a feedback control

system, the controller would' respond to the
disturbances or load changes after the sensor detects
a change in the temperature of the water in the
tank. The deviation from the set point would
initiate a change in the controller output signal.
This output signal would cause the final control
element to be repositioned so that the manipulated
variable — in this case, steam flow — would
compensate for the disturbance or load change.

Process Responses to Controller Action

The controller takes action to compensate for

disturbances and load changes in the system. This
action has the effect of returning the process to
the set point. However, the process does not
respond immediately to controller action, There
are delays, called lags, in all processes that prevent
All processes contain lag. the process from returning immediately to the set
point after controller action has been taken.

Although all processes experience lags, some

processes are slower to respond than others. A n
example of a fast-acting process may be a flow
control loop, A n example of a slow-acting process
may be a temperature control loop.
In the temperature control loop shown previously,
there are several significant lags. The first lag is
exhibited by the sensor. After the water
temperature has changed, there will be a period of
time before the sensor shows a response -to the
change. This delay is called dead time. Dead time
is the interval o f time between initiation of an
input change and the start of the resulting response.

Dead time is often measured in terms of a time

constant. The first time constant is the amount of
time required to register 63.2% o f the change.
Within the next time constant, 63.2% of the
remaining response is registered, and so on. After
five time constants, 99.32% of the change will have
been registered. Since this value is very close to
100%, it is assumed that the entire change has
been registered after five time constants.

The time constant of a sensor varies according to

the type of sensor. A mercury thermometer, for
example, usually responds to changes- quickly. A
filled thermal system is slower; it may take thirty
seconds or more before the change in temperature
is registered. Since the controller cannot take
corrective action until it receives a changed input
signal, the ^temperature of the water in the tank
will probably continue to change during the time
that it takes for the sensor to respond and send a
signal to the controller.

The transmitter and the controller usually respond

almost immediately to information received, so
little appreciable lag occurs in this link in the
instrument system. The controller responds to the
change in input by changing the output signal to
the final control element. For example, i f the
water temperature in the tank falls below the set
point, the controller opens the steam control valve
to allow more steam to enter the coils.
 However, there is another significant lag in the
response of the process to the opening o f the control
valve. This lag is caused by the time it takes
to transfer the heat from the' coils to the process
medium. I t takes a while for the increased steam
in the coils to heat .the water.

Heat Transfer Lag

When the temperature of the water returns to the

set point, the controller will signal the control valve
to reduce the flow of steam through the coils.
At this point, a third significant lag occurs. This
lag is caused by the residual heat in the coils.
Since the coils have been heated previously by the
increased flow o f steam, they will continue to heat
the water in the tank until the excess heat has
been dissipated from the coils. As a result, the
Water temperature of the water will continue to rise
above the set point after the controller has
repositioned the valve to reduce the amount o f
Residual Heat Lag steam flow through the coils.

Because o f the Jags in any process control system,

the controller is not able to bring the process
immediately back to the set point. Instead, the
process will oscillate around the set point as the
controller responds to changes.

(3 r
 2--- ^ r-

Process response to a disturbance and the controller

action can be shown on a process reaction curve, A
process reaction curve shows changes in the value of
the controlled variable over a period o f time. The
oscillations around the set point are caused by the
lags in the system. The initial time that passes
before any response is caused by the dead time of
the sensor.

Controlled
Variable
Oscillations Caused by Process Lags

Set Point

Dead
Time

Time

Process Reaction Curve

Howeve*
 What is meant by the term proportional band.

What is meant by the term proportional gain.

The relationship between proportional band and proportional gain.

What is meant by the term sensitivity.

How changing the proportional band affects controller response.

Proportional Band

The amount of control action in a proportional

controller is adjustable. Different manufacturers use The amount of proportional
different terms to describe the proportional control control action can be
adjustment on their controllers. Two terms com- changed to optimize the
monly used to describe proportional control action control of the process.
are proportional band and proportional gain.

Proportional band is the percentage of input change Input Output

required to provide a full range of output change.
K proportional band of 100% means that it takes
100% of the input change to give a full range o f
)utput change. j
Input Output Reducing the percentage of proportional band is
called narrowing the proportional band. When the
proportional band is narrowed, it takes less of an
•input change to give a full range of output change.
A proportional band o f 50% means that it takes
only 50% of the input- change to give a full range
of output change.

Input Output Increasing the percentage of proportional band is

called widening the proportional band. With a wider
proportional band, it takes more of an input change
to give a full range o f output change. A propor-
tional band of 200% means that it takes 200% of
the input change to give a full range of output
change.

Proportional Gain

Input Output Proportional gain is the change in output resulting

from an input change. Since both o f these changes
are usually expressed as units, proportional gain is
expressed as a number rather than as a percentage.
A proportional gain of 1 means that one unit of
input change results in one unit of output change.

Input Output Increasing the proportional gain means that one unit
of input change will result in more than one unit of
output change. For example, a proportional gain of
2 means that one unit of input change results in
two units of output change.
Decreasing the proportional gain means that it will input Output
take more than one unit of input change to produce
one unit of output change. For example, a propor-
tional gain of 1/2 means that it will take two units
of input change to produce one unit of output
change.

The Relationship Between Proportional Band and

Proportional Gain

Although both proportional band and proportional

gain describe proportional control adjustments on
controllers, the terms are noT equivalent. Propor-
tional band and proportional gain have an inverse
relationship to each other.

• Proportional band relates input change to input change

output change. output change

• Proportional gain relates output change to output change

input change. input change

Because of this inverse relationship, increasing the

proportional band will have the same effect as
decreasing the proportional gain. Decreasing the
proportional band will have the same effect as
increasing the proportional gain.

A proportional band of 100% corresponds to a Input Output

proportional gain o f K It takes 100% of the input
change to produce a full range o f output change.
It also takes one unit of input change to produce
one unit of output change. ,
A proportional band of 50% corresponds to a
proportional gain of 2. I t takes 50% of the input
change to produce a full range of output change,
and it takes one unit of input change to produce
two units of output change.

A proportional band of 200% corresponds to a

proportional gain of 1/2. It takes 200% of input
change to produce a full range of output change.
Two units of input change produce one unit o f
output change.

The following formula can be used to convert

proportional band to proportional gain:

0
Proportional Gain = P r o p o r t }° n a , B a n d

Sensitivity

Another term sometimes used to describe an adjust-

ment for proportional control action on a propor-
tional controller is sensitivity. Sensitivity is defined
as the amount of valve movement per pen move-
ment. The amount of valve movement can be
expressed in terms of the change in the controller
output signal.

Before adjusting the proportional control action on a

proportional controller, you should determine whether
the adjustment on that particular controller is made
in terms of proportional band, proportional gain, or
sensitivity.
Proportional Band and Controller Response

The proportional band (or proportional gain or

sensitivity) setting on a controller affects the con-
troller's response to process disturbances or load
.changes.

A high proportional band setting tends to produce Controlled

a process reaction curve that stabilizes with minimum Variable
oscillations. The curve is said to damp out as the
oscillations decrease. This type of process reaction
curve would be produced by a low setting of propor-
tional gain.

Time

A slightly lower proportional band setting produces Controlled

a curve that damps out, but with more oscillations Variable
before achieving stability. A similar curve would be
produced in increasing the gain.

Set
Pofnt

Time
r

Narrowing the proportional band even more produces Controlled

a curve that oscillates in even cycles around the set Variable
point. This type of curve would be produced by
J
increasing the proportional gain.

Time
2$'
A low proportional, band setting produces a curve in
which the oscillations grow in size as time progresses.
This type of curve is very unstable. A curve of this
type would also be produced by a very high setting
of proportional gain.

Controlled
Variable

Time
 3- 2 PROPORTIONAL-PLUS-RESET CONTROL

Computer Controlled Systems

Computer Controlled Systems are divided into three catogeries

What offset island why it occurs with prafcortional-only control.
l„Direct Digital Control (DDCf

. 3. Dismbuted Control Systems JpCS)

D'/ect Digital Control

In direct digital controllers is one/central computer that has the full
control of the process,
All of the field sensors and firaif control elements are^onnected directly
to the computer^ven those/in remote plant locatipm.
The computer/eceives the information about tWprocess from the
Offsefensors, detehnine what control action is necessary, i f any, and sends this
informatkm to the filial control elements.,
^Sk^ift^o^Sfe \tyj%$kNtybQdw^^ computer. The direct
:
i^W&^&^^SS (SHeffii g^Pb^fflgift-ation because all of the field
. devices are/ionnected around the computer like the points of a star.
;A load change is a change in value of any of the
.variables associated with the balance of a process.
jFor example, a change in gas pressure can change
^the fuel flow to a furnace, or a change in ambient ^
•temperature can affect the energy required to heat
;or cool a reactor. A change in set point can also
Jcause a load change in a process. '
.If a load change occurs in proportional control, the
controller detects the deviation from the set point
jand sends an appropriate output signal to the final i
Control element in response to the change. The r
.output of the controller is proportional to the
[deviation of the measured variable from the set
Ipoint.
 Once proportional control action has stopped the
deviation, the final control element remains at its
new position. Often the measured variable stabilizes
at a value that is above or below the set point. The
deviation between the measured variable and set
point is called offset.

Temperature

Position of Final
Control Element Initial Position

Offset
Measured
Set Point
Variable

Process Load Load Change

Time

For some processes, offset does not present a pro-

blem as long as the process is kept within acceptable
limits. I n other processes, however, offset might
adversely affect the quality of the product and is,
therefore, unacceptable.

Proportional-Plus-Reset • Control

Proportional-plus-reset A mode o f control called proportional-plus-reset or

controllers are often called integral control can help eliminate offset.
two-mode controllers.

Reset control takes over where proportional control

leaves off. After a proportional controller has sent
an output to reposition the final control element,
reset control takes additional action to. eliminate the
offset. The reset control action continues to change
the controller output to the final control element
until the value of the measured variable returns to
the set point.
 Temperature

Position ol Final
Control Element
At Initial Position

Measured
Variable Sel Point

Process Load
Load Change
Time

S he response rate of reset action is a function of the

eviation between the set point and measured
fariable and will be applied at a predetermined rate
The length of time for
$Vtime. This rate is adjustable and can be set in ,
correction depends on the
repeats per minute, or minutes per repeat. This
response rate setting.
calibration is determined by the instrument manu-
facturer, so be sure to check the type of calibration
ifof the instruments in your facility. .

f
 3,3 • DERIVATIVE CONTROL?

t. . The purpose of derivative control.

How proportional-plus-reset-plus-derivative control functions.

Derivative Control

A third mode of control called derivative, or rate

control, can be added to a proportional-plus-reset
controller to improve the control of some processes.
Some process loops may have a considerable dead
• time or transfer lag which can make them difficult
to control. For example, a temperature control
loop often has lag characteristics that make control
: with a proportional-plus-reset-only controller unsatis-
, factory. Because of the lags in process response in
.•'a temperature loop, the.proportional band must be
exceptionally wide and the reset rate very slow in
.'order to avoid excessive cycling. When there is a
' load change, there is often significant deviation
:
from set point and a slow recovery from this devia-
tion with proportional and reset control only. To
, improve the control and recovery rate of processes Derivative control action
latitat have considerable lag, a third mode of control helps to reduce overshoot.
(can be added to the controller. This mode o f con-
trol is called derivative, or rate control.

30
 Derivative control compensates for lags in the
process by reacting to the rate at which the meas-
ured variable is deviating from the set point. With
derivative control, the controller action is similar
to an on-off controller during the initial phase of a
process change and then returns to normal propor-
tional-plus-reset control. This causes the controller
Derivative control may also output to begin responding immediately to process
be called rate control, changes to correct for the deviation and prevent
pre-act control, or hyper overshoot. This immediate response would not be
control. possible with proportional-plus-reset control because
of the wide proportional band setting and slow
reset action that is required to avoid excessive
cycling. Derivative control is based on the time/
rate of the deviation rather than the quantity of
the deviation. So derivative control is calibrated
in time, or frequency, just like the reset adjustment.

Derivative control is usually combined with propor-

Derivative control is rarely tional-plus-reset control to provide proportional-plus-
used alone. reset-plus-derivative control action. This type of
control may also be called three-mode control.
Proportional-Plus-Reset-Plus-Derivative Control
Derivative control action provides a continuous
linear relationship between the rate at which a
deviation of the measured variable from set point
occurs and the position of the final control element.
With this type of control, the movement of the
final control element is proportional to the rate at
which the deviation is occurring.
The input signal representing the value of the
measured variable is transmitted to the controller.
The length of time is
When rapid deviation occurs, derivative'action causes
determined by the derivative
the controller to respond quickly to correct for the
setting on the controller.
rate of the deviation. As the rate of deviation
decreases, derivative action is reduced. Proportional-
plus-reset action then functions to return the value
of the measured variable to the set point.

The adjustments for derivative action will vary for

different processes. These adjustments are based
on the rate at which the measured variable is
deviating from the set point and on the amount of
action the final control element will take in response
to the rate of deviation.
 In the local-remote set version (see-Figure 10),
the above two functions are combined. Two pointers
on the front of the controller indicate both set point TO REVERSE FROM REMOTE
values. A local-remote switch is provided to select SWITCH AND SET POINT
AUTOMATIC SIGNAL
the desired source of the set point. CONTROL UNIT

Derivative Unit (B)

The derivative function (rate) in the 130 Series

Controller affects the measurement signal only;
therefore, there is no derivative response to set-
point changes. Also, the conaol unit will quickly re-
spond to measurement changes on batch processes
without delays inherent in units with derivative in the
controller feedback circuit. During steady-state condi-
tions, the unit acts as a one-to-one repeater; when
there Is a change in measurement, the unit adds a
derivative influence to the measurement change.

The derivative unit is shown schematically in SET KNOB

Figure 11, In this unit the force moment (bellows area
multiplied by the distance from the fulcrum) of bellows Figure 10, Local-Remote Set Point
A is 16 times greater than that of bellows B and the
force moments of bellows B plus bellows C equals that
of bellows A. As the measurement signal increases, matic control unit measurement bellows - reflects the
the immediate change in feedback pressure in bellows change in measurement plus a derivative response added
B is 16 times the change in pressure in bellows A. to that change. The graph at the bottom of Figure 11
Simultaneously, air starts to flow through the restrictor shows the signal that the measurement bellows in the
to bellows C , which gradually reduces the pressure automatic control unit receives from the derivative
needed in bellows B to restore equilibrium. Thus, the unit (a) for the measurement change shown (b).
output of the derivative unit - the signal to the auto-

TO MEASUREMENT POINTER

2s: A A NOZZLE

C Q

- o
DERIVATIVE LINEARIZING
ASPIRATOR -AIR SUPPLY
RESTRICTOR RELAY
MEASUREMENT IN

a. MEASUREMENT AND OEfUVATlVE

RESPONSE

TO MEASUREMENT
BELLOWS IN AUTOMATIC
CONTROL UNIT

b. CHANGE IN MEASUREMENT

TIME

Figure 11, Derivative Unit with Response Graph

 REDUCING rUDE - -

Figure 12, Force-Balance Pneumatic Control Unit

Automatic Control Unit (C) restore the balance of forces (again ignoring reset
action). The 130 Series Controller has a proportional
The automatic control unit design is based upon band continuously adjustable from 5 to 500 percent,
the classic force-balance principle. Four bellows - corresponding to 20 to 0. 2 gain.
for set-point signal, measurement signal, proportional
feedback and reset feedback - bear upon a floating
disc, with two of the bellows on each side of a fulcrum.
The forces multiplied by the respective distances from
the fulcrum (the summation of moments) equal zero
to keep the floating disc in equilibrium. The floating A
disc acts as a flapper of a conventional flapper-nozzle
detector system. The system is Illustrated in Figure 12.

If the adjustable fulcrum could be positioned

directly over the proportional feedback bellows and
the reset bellows, as shown in Figure 13(a), then the
unit would have on-off control action. The slightest
measurement increase above the set point would cover
the nozzle and increase the output to approximately B
supply pressure. Any decrease In the measurement
below set point would uncover the nozzle and cause
a zero output.

If the adjustable fulcrum is moved to the posi-

tion shown in Figure 13(b), throttling control action
would result. If distance b is four times distance a,
then the unit has a 25 percent proportional band, or
a gain of 4. If the measurement increases, the out- C
put of the relay must increase four times the change in
measurement pressure in order to restore the balance
of forces (if, for the moment, the reset action is dis-
regarded). If the fulcrum is moved to the position
shown in Figure 13(c), a 400 percent proportional
band exists, or a gain of 1/4, if distance a is four
times distance b. With a change in measurement Figure 13. Adjustable Fulcrum set for (a) on-off control
pressure, the output of the relay must only increase action, (b) 25 percent proportional band or
one quarter the change in measurement pressure to (c) 400 percent proportional band

3H
r
 O P T I M U M CONTROLLER SETTINGS

Effect of Adding Control Modes to Process.

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35
 5,1
1. Beam.
2. Fulcrum.
3. Noz2le.

Uec&Jiement Oulpul

Supply
RELAY

Fig. 1. On/Off Controller.

' RELAY

Fig. 2. Proportionol Controller.

RELAY

Fig. 3. Proportional Controller at Equilibrium

with M.V. k S.P. in line.

RELAY
Fig. 4. Proportional Controller after
increase in flow rote.

3<S
 B
MV FB S P aI

RELAY
Fig. 5. Proportional Controller after
fall In flow rote.

a t= 4b

Set S 9

MV

Fig. 6. Proportional Controller. 25% P.B.

ofter increose in flow rote.
*****
A-0 A

Set
a Rosel

Adjustable
Reatrictor
FB

RELAY

Fig. 7. Proportional + Reset, or

Proportional + Integral Controller.

Rest!

TV

c b
it

RELAY

Fig. £. Propoftionol + Integral + Derivative.

 THEORY

Summary

There is a need to summarise the different conventional control modes that have
been presented and Table 1 gives the basic description of those available. Table 2
illustrates the response functions i.e., to different changes in the input error
signal. Table 3 gives a summary of the basic characteristics of these controllers.

Symbol Description Mathematic Expression

One Mode

P Proportional m = K! e

Integral ( r e s e t ) m = y fe dt

Two Mode

Proportional — p i u s -
Pi integral m = K (e e + \je d t )
Proportional — p l u s -
PD derivative m = K (e e + T
c ^ e)

Three Mode

Proportional—plus— m = K (e e + ^ / e dt
PID integrol-plus—
derivative + T.&e)

Table 1. C o n v e n t i o n a l C o n t r o l l e r Modes.

Table 2. Response of Controller Modes (shapes vary

with actual values of K , T j , T ) . c d
 THEORY

Summary (continued)

Two-Position :
Inexpensive
Extremely simple

Proportional :
Simple
Inherently stable when properly tuned
Easy to tune
Experiences offset at steady state

Proportion-plus-reset :
No offset
Better dynamic response than reset alone
Possibilities exist for instability due to lag introduced

Proportional-plus-rate
Stable
Less offset than proportional alone (use of higher Kc possible)
Reduces lags, i.e. more rapid response

Proportional-plus-reset-plus-rate
Most complex
Most expensive
Rapid response
No offset
Difficult to tune
Best control if properly tuned

PI — -

PD

PID

Table 3.
 3.4- OBJECTIVES FOR GOOD PROCESS CONTROL

Three objectives for good process control.

How controller response affects product quality.

How the one-quarter decay ratio curve can be used as a guideline for good process
control.

Other guidelines for good process control.

Objectives for Process Control

The purpose of process control is to keep the con-

trolled variable at the desired value (set point),
despite load changes and disturbances in the system.
There are three objectives for control in any process
control system.

• Safety — The process must ensure the safety of

personnel and prevent damage to equipment. (

• Production rate - The process must be able to

meet the production demands of the facility.

• Product quality — The process must be able to

make a product that meets the quality specifi-
cations of the product.

The objectives of process control can be affected by

the controller adjustment. Poor controller response The quality of. the product
to disturbances and load changes can. lower the can be determined by the
quality of the product, even in a well designed way in which the process
system. A properly adjusted controller can help the responds to disturbances
process meet the objectives of the system. and load changes.
 Controller Response and Product Quality

Controller response can affect safety, production

rate, and product quality. Controller response often
affects product quality more often than the other
two objectives.

Controlled A process reaction curve can be used to illustrate

Variable how controller response to disturbances can affect
Quality Decreases product quality. The set point in a process is the
desired value of the controlled variable. A t the set
point, the quality o f the product is ideal. As the
Set value of the controlled variable deviates from the
Point —Quality Limits • set point, the quality of the product decreases.
(Ideal However, a process may have an acceptable range
Quality) within which a quality product will be produced.
This range may be referred to as the quality limits
Quality Decreases or quality specifications for the process. The range
Time of values that will produce an acceptable product
may be quite wide or quite narrow, depending on
the nature of the process.

Controlled For example, the quality limits for a certain

Variable temperature control process may be only 2° on
Unacceptable Prodi ct either side of the set point, or a total range of
temperature deviation of 4 ° . This means that
whenever the process varies more than 2 ° from the
102*
Set Quality set point, an unacceptable product is produced.
9
10D When a disturbance or load change occurs in the
Point , Limits process, the value of the controlled variable may
fluctuate above or below the set point. However,
even though the value o f the variable deviates from
the set point, only product produced outside the
Time quality limits is considered unacceptable. This
unacceptable product is indicated by the shaded
portion on the process reaction curve.

In controlling the quality of a product in a process

control system, it is important to keep the
parameters of the process within the quality limits.
This means that the controller response to
disturbances and load changes should:

• limit the size o f the initial deviation from the

set point, and

• return to the set point as quickly as possible.

One-Quarter Decay Ratio Curve

A commonly used guideline for controller response is Controlled

a process reaction curve with a decay ratio of 1/4. Variable
The decay ratio refers to the size of the peaks in
the reaction curve. In a curve that has a decay ratio
of 1/4, the size of peak B is 1/4 the size of peak A.
The size of peak C is 1/4 the size of peak B, and so
on.

Time

The 1/4 decay ratio curve is used as a guideline for Controlled

good control because i t is said to have a minimum Variable
area under the curve. Since the area under the
curve can be assumed to produce a less than ideal
product, keeping the area to a minimum should
reduce the amount of substandard product produced. Set
Point
The 1/4 decay ratio curve also represents a
compromise between the size of the initial deviation
from the set point and a quick return to the set
point.
Time

The 1/4 decay ratio curve was developed in 1942 by

two engineers named Ziegler and Nichols. This curve
is the basis of two controller adjusting procedures
1
that were also developeq by these men. For many
processes, adjusting the controller to produce a 1/4
decay ratio curve produces the optimum controller
response.

L
i'Z
 Other Guidelines for Good Control

The 1/4 decay ratio curve is one guideline for good

control because it produces the minimum area under
the curve and because it represents a compromise
between the size o f the initial deviation from the
set point and a fast return to the set point.
However, the guidelines for control vary according
to the nature of the process. For some processes,
other considerations are more important.

Controlled • Minimum disturbance ~ Some processes cannot

Variable tolerate oscillations in the process response.

Oscillations may present a problem o f instability

in a process that is subject to frequent
Set
disturbances. A curve adjusted to produce
Point minimum disturbance has an almost immediate
return to stability near the set point. However,
adjusting the controller for minimum
disturbance may produce offset in the process
response and may produce a large initial
Time deviation from the set point.

Controlled » Minimum amplitude — Amplitude is the term

Variable used to describe the size o f the peaks produced
in the process response curve. In some
processes, the product may be severely affected
by large deviations from the set point. Or, a
Set
large initial overshoot may cause stress on the
Point
process system. However, the process may be
able to tolerate a certain amount o f instability
caused by smaller oscillations i n the process
reaction curve. In this case, the process may be
adjusted for minimum amplitude.
Time
The guidelines for good control vary from one
process to another because of the design of the .
process system, the nature of the process, and the
type o f product produced. You should always
follow your facility guidelines when adjusting the
controller response.
 3^5" PRELIMINARY STEPS FOR CONTROLLER TUNING

General preliminary steps for controller tuning.

How to perform an operational check on a transmitter.

How to perform an operational check on a valve.

Preliminary Steps for Controller Tuning \

Adjusting a controller to the process is called tuning • j

the controller. Before tuning a controller, certain j
steps should be performed to ensure that the tuning jj
is done in the safest and most efficient manner. , il

• Examine the chart recorder to analyze the !j-

controller's response to process conditions. It ;!
is important to determine that tuning' is
necessary before making any adjustments to the ii
controller. !

Two common symptoms of a controller

requiring adjustment are continued oscillations
and excessive offset. However, both Of these
symptoms could also be caused by malfunctions
in other parts of the loop. It is important, ;
therefore, to verify that the rest of the loop is
functioning properly before making adjustments
to the controller. I f the problem is in some
other component in the loop, adjusting the
controller will not correct the problem,
 Obtain proper clearance for tuning activities.
Since tuning can cause disturbances in the
process loop, you should be sure that these
disturbances will not have an adverse effect on
process loop performance. Another reason for
obtaining clearance is that disturbances or load
changes that occur during tuning could cause
you to misinterpret your findings. Therefore,
you should be kept informed of any changes in
process conditions as they occur.

9 Examine the loop diagram. Before tuning, you

should know the function o f the loop and of
components in the loop. Y o u should also know
any special design or functional considerations
that could affect the controller settings.

Verify that the loop as a whole is operational.

This procedure will be different for every -loop.
In general, you should verify that all
components of the loop are functioning. For
example, you might check that a temperature
control loop has an operational source o f water
and heat. This general operational check can be
performed by observing the process in the field.

Wear required safety gear

whenever you work in the
field.

Checking Transmitter Operation . -

After verifying that the process as a whole is

operational, an operational check should be
performed on each of the components in the loop.
The operation of the transmitter can be checked by
verifying the correct input and output to and from Check the calibration sticker
the instrument. before you begin.

If the transmitter is equipped with an indicator,

the input to the instrument can be verified by.
comparing the reading on the transmitter with the
reading on the local indicator in the field. The
output can be checked by comparing the reading
on the controller to the reading indicated on the
transmitter. I f the transmitter is not equipped with
an indicator, the reading on the controller should be
compared to the reading on a local indicator in the
field. Any discrepancy between readings should be
noted.

If the transmitter is not functioning properly, it

should be repaired or replaced. Then process
response should again be observed. The controller
may function normally at this point and tuning may
not be required.

Checking Valve Operation

The operation of the final control element should

also be checked before any adjustments are made to
the controller. In most cases, the final control
element is a valve. The operation o f the valve can
be checked by stroking the valve.

Stroking the valve involves moving the controller

output through its range and observing the operation
of the valve.

Any problems encountered in any of the operational

checks should be reported and repaired before the
controller is tuned.
 ,G. . • / TUNING PROPORTIONAL RESPONSE

How to stabilize a process on manual control.

How to obtain the value of Ultimate Proportional Band or Ultimate Gain.

How to calculate the proper setting for proportional band or proportional gain for a
proportional controller.

How to verify the adjustment.

Stabilizing a Process on Manual Control

Before tuning any controller, the controller should

be set for manual control and the process should be
stabilized. I f the process cannot be stabilized in
manual control, the tuning procedure will probably
not be successful. A process that cannot be
stabilized may have other problems that are affecting
the controller. These problems should be identified
and corrected before the controller is tuned.

To stabilize the process, the chart record should be

observed as the output signal to the valve to the
valve is changed. The signal should be adjusted so '
6 J „, . . . .
.
tI .„ , . ... . „„ Stabilize the process on
that the oscillations decrease m amplitude. When
y . . ,
. , . , . ,. . . , manual control
you have a straight line on the chart record, the
process has been stabilized. A t this point,
adjustments to the controller should be stopped.

The output setting to the valve at which stable

control was established should be recorded for
reference. In this way, i f the process starts
oscillating during the tuning procedure, you can put
the controller on manual and the process can be
stabilized again at this output setting.
 After establishing stable control, the controller can
be tuned. Before any adjustments are made,
however, the controller's "as found" setting should
be recorded.

Ultimate Proportional Band and Ultimate Gain

The Ziegler-Nichols tuning procedure is based on a

value called the Ultimate Proportional Band. This
value is the proportional setting that forces the
process to oscillate in even, continuous cycles. I f
the controller uses proportional gain instead of
proportional band, an Ultimate Gain value is used.

The procedure to determine the Ultimate

Proportional Band or the Ultimate Gain of a
controller includes the following steps.

• Set the controller on manual.

Follow the manufacturer's • Eliminate the reset and derivative modes from
procedure for tuning t the controller, i f they are present. This
out reset and derivative procedure varies somewhat from one controller
action. to another. In general, the procedure involves
turning the reset and derivative adjustments to
the setting that will minimize their effect.

• Set the proportional band at its highest value.

I f the controller uses proportional gain, set the
proportional gain at its lowest value.

e Transfer the controller from manual to

automatic, using the procedure suggested by the
manufacturer.
• Move the set point slightly to cause a
disturbance in the process. Keep set point
changes as small as possible, approximately 2-5%
of span.

• Return the set point to its original value as

soon as a change in the variable registers on the
—controller. This will help keep the disturbance
to a minimum.

• Watch the response of the process on the chart Controlled

recorder. A t the high setting of proportional Variable
band or at the correspondingly low setting of
proportional gain, the process response curve
will probably damp out quickly as the
oscillations stop and the process becomes stable, Set
but with some offset. Point

Time

• Reduce the proportional band setting by one-

half, i f the process does not damp out. Or, i f
the controller has a proportional gain setting,
y
increase the setting by one-half.

• Move the set point slightly to create another

disturbance.

L|9
 • Watch the response shown on the recorder. I f
the process starts to dampen out, continue to
decrease the proportional band setting (or
increase the proportional gain setting) gradually
until sustained oscillations occur in the process
reaction curve. I f the process reaction curve
produces oscillations that increase in amplitude,
gradually increase the proportional band (or
decrease the proportional gain) until sustained
oscillations occur.

Time

• Note the proportional band (or proportional

gain) setting that caused the sustained
oscillations in the process. This setting is the
value of Ultimate Proportional Band (or
Ultimate Gain).

Calculating the Proper Setting

In the Ziegler-Nichols tuning procedure, the value o f

Ultimate Proportional Band or Ultimate Gain is used
to calculate the proper proportional band or
proportional gain setting for a controller. There are
several formulas for calculating the proper settings.
The following formulas are for a proportional-only
controller. Since the reset and derivative modes
interact somewhat with the proportional control
action, the formulas change slightly as other modes
are added to the controller.

There are two Ziegler-Nichols formulas for proper

proportional control action on a proportional-only
controller. The formula that is used for a specific
controller will depend on the type of setting found
on the controller.

• PB = PB X 2
U

PB refers to the proper proportional band

setting. PB refers to the value o f Ultimate
U

Proportional Band.

SO
7
 • K = S
c u X 0.5

K refers to the proper proportional gain

c

setting. S refers to the value of Ultimate

u

Proportional Gain.

After the proper setting has been calculated, the

proportional band or proportional gain of the
controller can be adjusted to the correct setting,
following the manufacturer's instructions.

Verifying the Adjustment

The markings on the controller adjustment knob for

proportional band or proportional gain are often not
exact enough to be sure that the adjustment is as
fine as possible. In order to ensure that the proper
adjustment4ias_been made, you should verify the
adjustment by observing the loop response.

A properly tuned proportional controller should Controlled

produce a process reaction curve that has a decay Variable
ratio of 1/4 in response to a disturbance. To verify
the adjustment, you should again make a small set
point change and then analyze the process response.
The reaction curve should show a decay ratio of
1/4. In a proportional-only controller, some offset
will be present. This offset is unavoidable in a
proportional-only controller..

Time
r~
/

If the reaction curve does not exhibit a decay ratio

of 1/4, the proportional band or proportional gain
should be readjusted. I f the curve damps out too
quickly, the proportional band should be decreased
. slightly or the proportional gain should be increased
slightly. I f the curve shows too much oscillation,
: the proportional band should be increased slightly
• or the proportional'gain should be decreased
slightly.
 5.7 TUNING RESET RESPONSE

\. Why offset occurs in a proportional controller.

The difference between reset time and reset rate adjustments.

V How to find the value of Ultimate Period.

How to calculate the proper proportional and reset settings for a two-mode controller.

Offset

Offset occurs in the response to disturbances or load Controlled

changes of proportional-only controllers. Offset is a Variable
deviation from the set point when a system is in a
steady state. Proportional response settings, such as
proportional band and proportional gain, relate input
change to output change. When the change in input
stops, the change in output also stops. Therefore,
when a system becomes stable after a disturbance or
load change, the change inrinput stops, even if the Change in Input Stops When
system has not returned t6 the set point. System Becomes Stable

A controller with proportional-plus-reset response Time

improves control by helping eliminate offset. Reset
continues the corrective action of the controller
until the offset is eliminaf'ed. The resulting process
reaction curve will have a 1/4 decay ratio without
offset.
 Reset Time and Reset Rate

Controllers are adjusted Many controllers have an adjustment for reset. Two
for either reset time or common types of reset adjustments are called reset
reset rate. time and reset rate. Although both adjustments
have the effect of continuing corrective action to
eliminate offset, the settings are not equivalent. As
with proportional band and proportional gain, reset
time and reset rate are inversely related to each
other. Increasing the reset time has the same effect
as decreasing the reset rate.

Reset adjustments repeat the corrective action o f the

controller at a fixed rate. Reset time is expressed
as minutes per repeat. Setting reset time at a high
number will minimize the effect o f reset time.
Reset rate is expressed as repeats per minute.
Setting the reset rate at a low number will minimize
the effect of reset rate.

The following chart shows equivalent reset time and

reset rate settings.

Reset Time Reset Rate

.05 20.0

.1 10.0
Reset Time -
Reset Rate
.2 5.0

.5 2.0

1.0 1.0 .
Reset rate =
Reset Time
2.0 .5

5.0 .2

10.0 .1
Ultimate Period

The proper setting for reset rate or reset time on a Controlled

proportional-plus-reset controller is based on a value Variable
called the Ultimate Period. The value of Ultimate
Period is the time interval between successive peaks
on a steadily oscillating process reaction curve. This
value can be obtained by timing the interval between
peaks as they are formed on the chart record graph.
A stopwatch can be used to time the intervals. Or,
in a slower process, the value o f Ultimate Period can
be determined by analyzing the chart record. The
horizontal axis of the chart record is a measure of
time elapsed.
2 3 4 5 6 7 10
Time (Minutes)

Calculating Proportional-Plus-Reset Settings

When the values of Ultimate Period and Ultimate

Proportional Band (or Ultimate Gain) have been
determined, the proper settings for a two-mode
controller can be calculated using formulas developed
by Ziegler and Nichols. The proportional and reset
modes of a two-mode controller interact somewhat. '
The setting for proportional band or proportional
gain on a properly tuned two-mode controller will
be slightly different from the setting on a
proportional-only controller, ,

The following formulas can be used to determine Use the proper formula for
the proper settings for two-mode controllers. the controller you are
- tuning.

• PB = PB X 2.2 U

PB refers to the proper proportional band

setting. PB refers to the value of Ultimate
U

Proportional Band.

o K = S c u X 0.45

K refers to the proper proportional gain

c

setting. S refers to the value of Ultimate

u

Proportional Gain.
 Tj refers to the reset time. P u refers to the
value of Ultimate Period.

R
• i ~ —
1
u
Rj refers to the reset rate, P u refers to the
value of Ultimate Period.

The proportional response and reset response should

be adjusted to the calculated settings following the
manufacturer's instructions. Then the adjustments
should be verified by making a small set point
change and watching the process reaction curve. The
curve should show a 1/4 decay ratio without offset.
Slight readjustments o f the proportional response
may be necessary to fine-tune the reaction curve to
have a 1/4 decay ratio.

/
 TUNING DERIVATIVE RESPONSE

1. How the addition of derivative mode to a controller can improve control in some
processes.

2. How to calculate the proper settings for a proportional-plus-derivative controller.

3. How to calculate the proper settings for a proportionai-pius-resct-plus-derivative controller

Derivative Control
r
In order to eliminate overshoot, some processes
require a quick initial response to a process
disturbance. Adding derivative response to a
controller can improve the initial response of the
controller and help bring the process back to the set Derivative control is also
point more quickly. called rate control.

Derivative control affects the slope of the process Controlled

Variable
reaction curve. The slope of the curve is one
indication of the speed of the response. The Controller Without Derivative
derivative mode speeds up the response. As a result,
the amplitude o f the initial peak is reduced /and the
process returns to the set point more quickly.

Derivative response improves control on some types

of control loops. Derivative is most useful in slow-
acting process control systems, such as temperature
control loops. Adding derivative to a fast-acting
loop, such as a flow control loop, can make the Time
loop unstable.

S'6
 Calculating Proportional-Plus-Derivative Settings

Derivative response can be added to a proportional-

only controller. To adjust a proportional-plus-
derivative controller, the values of Ultimate
Proportional Band (or Ultimate Gain) and Ultimate
Period must first be obtained from a continuously
oscillating process reaction curve. These values can
be applied to formulas developed by Ziegler and
Nichols. The derivative response is adjusted in terms
of derivative time.

The formulas for adjusting the proportional response

on proportional-plus-derivative controllers are:

• PB = PB U X 1.7

• K c = S u X 0.6

The derivative setting may be calculated using this

-formula:

Tjj refers to the derivative time.

After the appropriate adjustments have been made,

the reaction curve should be examined for a 1/4
decay ratio. The derivative may require fine-tuning
to maximize its effectiveness.

Calculating Proportional-Plus-Reset-Plus-Derivative
Settings

Derivative response can also be added to a

prof)ortional-plus-reset controller. The formulas
developed by Ziegler and Nichols for proportional
response on three-mode controllers are:

Calculate for either • PB = P B X 1.7 n

proportional band or j u
proportional gain. » K = S X 0.6
c u
The corresponding formulas for reset response on
three-mode controllers are:

t Tj = P u X 0.5 Calculate for either reset

time or reset rate.

And the formula for derivative response on

three-mode controllers is:

After the appropriate settings have been calculated,

the three-mode controller can be adjusted. The
proportional response is usually adjusted first. The
derivative response is usually adjusted second.*—This_
is because the derivative response has a more
immediate effect on the process reaction than the
reset. Reset also interacts less with the other two
modes than derivative. When the derivative
adjustment has been made, the reset is adjusted.

The adjustments should again be verified by making

a small set point change and observing the process
reaction curve. The controller should be fine-tuned,
if necessary. I f the process overshoots when
returning to the set point, the derivative time should
be increased slightly. I f the process is slow in
returning to the set point, the derivative time should
be decreased slightly.

s
 T R I A L AND ERROR TUNING - PART I

The general principles of the trial and error tuning method.

How to interpret a process reaction curve to determine i f the proportional setting is

proper.

How to tune the proportional mode o f a controller by the trial and error method.

Trial and Error Tuning

There are many different methods of tuning a

controller. The purpose o f all o f the methods is to
provide a way to determine proper controller
settings. The settings must be appropriate for a
specific process control loop.

The methods vary; some are mathematically based

and some are based on the experience of the
technician. The Ziegler-Nichols methods are
mathematically based. An inexperienced technician
can find the proper controller settings using the
Ziegler-Nichols methods.

An experienced technician, however, can also find

the proper controller settings using the trial and
error method. The trial and error method of
controller tuning does not use mathematical
formulas. I t relies on the knowledge of the
technician. The technician must be thoroughly
familiar with the controller and the process. By
observing the process response to a set point change
at different controller settings, an experienced
technician can find the proper settings.
It is important to be The key to the trial and error method is analysis
able to correctly analyze of process reaction curves. The curve must be
the process reaction analyzed to see whether a particular setting causes
curve in the trial and the controller to respond to properly control the
error tuning method. process. Incorrect settings produce curves that
have predictable characteristics. By examining the
curve produced, an experienced technician can
make the proper adjustments to produce a one-
quarter decay ratio curve.

Interpreting Process Reaction Curves

Using the trial and error method, the technician will

make a small set point change. He will then observe
the process reaction curve. By analyzing the curve,
he will know what adjustment to make.

The following curve patterns are characteristic o f

particular settings. Remember that proportional
band and proportional gain have an inverse
relationships—Therefore, i f the process reaction curve
indicates that the proportional band setting is too
high, the proportional gain setting would be too low.

• A proper proportional setting produces a curve

with a decay ratio of one-quarter. The period
m
cn between the peaks of the curve is usually
c
TO constant. However, in a properly-tuned
JZ
O: proportional-only controller, some offset may
<D
n be evident.
m

>

Time

A proportional band setting that is too high

produces a curve that has a large initial peak.
The curve will return to a stable value'without

J \ J
sustained oscillatipns.

T
 A proportional band setting that is too low is
slow in returning to stability. The curve
produced will oscillate before it becomes stable,
or it may continue to oscillate and not stabilize.

Tuning the Proportional Mode by Trial and Error

Trial and error tuning follows a logical pattern. It

is not a random method. Each successive adjustment
comes closer to the correct setting. One method of
making adjustments follows the basic pattern
explained here. One control mode should be
adjusted at a time. The following steps are
appropriate to the proportional mode. Therefore,
reset and derivative control action should be
eliminated from the controller before adjusting
the proportional band.

• Put the proportional mode at a starting point Starting at a setting that

setting that gives minimum control action. For minimizes control action
proportional band, this would be a setting avoids/ upsetting the process
slightly below the maximum value on the unnecessarily.
proportional band dial. For proportional gain,
this would be a setting slightly above the
minimum value on the gain dial.

• Put the controller on automatic.

• Make a small change in the set point. Observe

the process reaction curve produced,

• Analyze the curve to see whether the

proportional mode setting is too high or too
low.

If an initial proportional band setting was too Remember, proportional band

high, decrease the setting by half. and proportional gain have
an inverse relationship.
Make another small change in the set point and
observe the response on the chart recorder. *

Analyze the curve to see whether the setting

was too high or too low.

Readjust the proportional mode setting by half.

For example, i f the proportional band setting
this time was too low, increase the setting to
a value halfway between the starting point
setting and the first adjustment setting.

Continue to check each successive setting by

analyzing the curve produced by a small set
point change. Readjust the setting each time
by half. The adjustments are always moving
closer to the proper setting.

Stop adjusting the proportional mode when a

one-quarter decay 4*atio curve is produced.
 T R I A L AND ERROR TUNING - PART I I

How to interpret proportional-plus-dcrivativc curves.

How to tune the derivative mode by the trial and error method.

How to interpret proportional-plus-reset curves.

How to interpret proportional-plus-resct-plus-dcrivativc curves.

How to tune the reset mode by the trial and error method.

Interpreting Proportional-Plus-Derivative Curves

The trial and error method can be used to adjust

the derivative mode of a controller. It is more
difficult to recognize the effects of tuning
adjustments on a two-mode controller than on a
proportional-only controller. This is because the
modes interact. Some adjustments to the derivative
mode affect the process response curve in a similar
way to adjustments made to the proportional mode.
When a controller has more than one mode, careful
analysis of the curve is necessary.

There are certain curve characteristics that indicate

whether a derivative setting is too high or too low.
The derivative mode increases the response of the
controller. It should reduce the initial overshoot of
the process after a disturbance.
 I

A properly-tuned proportional-plus-derivative
controller will produce a one-quarter decay ratio
curve. The process should stabilize faster than with
a proportional-only controller. This increased
response reduces the number of oscillations on a
a process reaction curve. The size o f the initial
peak on the curve will be smaller than the initial
peak on the curve of a properly-tuned proportional-
only controller. In the example, the solid line
represents the general characteristics of a properly-
tuned proportional-plus-derivative controller. The
dotted line represents the general characteristics of
a properly-tuned proportional-only controller.

When the derivative setting is too low, the curve

will resemble one produced by a proportional-only
cn controller. The response will not be improved
c
« significantly, and the size o f the initial peak will
JZ
O not be noticeably reduced.
O)
n
m
ra
>

Time

A proportional-plus-derivative controller with a

derivative setting that is too high will exhibit
instability. There will be too many oscillations for
a one-quarter decay ratio curve. This is because a
derivative setting that is too high makes the
controller overreact to the set point change.

r~
Tuning Derivative by Trial and Error

The procedures for trial and error tuning are similar

for derivative and proportional. Both derivative and
reset interact with the proportional mode. Derivative
is often tuned before reset on a three-mode
controller. This is because derivative interacts less
with proportional control than reset does. The same
procedure for tuning derivative can be used on
proportional-plus-derivative and proportional-plus-
reset-plus-derivative controllers. The following steps
may be used to tune derivative by the trial and error
method.

• Properly tune the proportional mode of the

controller with the reset and derivative actions
eliminated.

• Set the derivative time for minimum derivative

control action.

• Put the controller on automatic.

• Make a small set point change and observe the Hold the change so you can
process response on the chart recorder. accurately analyze the
process response curve.

• Examine the resulting curve to see whether the

derivative setting is too high or too low.

• Readjust the derivative setting by half.

• Continue to make a set point change at each

setting and examine the resulting curve to see
whether the setting is too high or too low.

• Stop adjusting derivative when the process

response to a set point change produces a
curve with a one-quarter decay ratio. The
curve should show an improved response time
and a smaller initial peak.

After adjusting derivative, it may improve control if

the proportional band is narrowed slightly. This is
because the proportional and derivative modes
interact.
 Interpreting Proportional-Plus-Reset Curves

Tlie purpose of reset on a proportional controller

is to eliminate offset. A properly-tuned
proportional-plus-reset controller will produce a one-
s 3t PC int
quarter decay ratio curve in response to a set point
A x—s. change. The addition of reset reduces or
\/
/
v
eliminates offset and the process indicator returns
to the set point.

On a proportional-plus-reset controller, the effects of

too little or too much reset action can be observed
on the chart recorder after a set point change.

Too little reset action produces a curve that returns

to the set point too slowly. The end of the curve

A
i i
may appear to trail toward the set point after it
stops oscillating. This type of curve would^be^ —
produced by a reset time setting that was too high.
SelF oint

Too much reset action produces a curve that

oscillates excessively before becoming stable. This
A curve will not have a decay ratio of one-quarter
because of the excessive oscillations. This type of
j A A , SetP oint
\/
A curve would be produced by a reset time setting that
v
/ v / v r~
was too low,

The curve produced by

too much reset action
resembles the curve
produced by too much
derivative action.
 Interpreting Proportional-Plus-Reset-Plus-Derivative
Curves

The addition o f a third mode to the controller

makes the curve more difficult to interpret correctly.
Reset interacts with both the derivative and
proportional modes. Some of the characteristics on
the process reaction curve are similar for reset,
derivative, and proportional adjustments. However,
some characteristics can be recognized as specific
to reset.

A properly-tuned proportional-plus-reset-plus-
derivative controller will produce a one-quarter decay
ratio curve in response to a set point change. The
curve will exhibit the speeded-up response and small
initial peak of derivative control. The addition of
reset changes the curve by reducing or eliminating
offset.

Too little reset action produces a curve that is slow

in returning to the set point after a disturbance.
This type of curve would be produced by a reset
time setting that was too high..

Too much reset action produces a curve that

overreacts to the set point change by producing
• excessive oscillations. , This type of curve would be
.produced by a reset time setting that was too low.
 Tuning the Reset Mode by Trial and Error

The procedure for tuning reset by the trial and error

method is similar to that for proportional-only
controllers. The following steps may be used.

• Properly tune the proportional and derivative

modes of the controller, i f necessary.

• Set the reset at a value that minimizes reset

action. For reset time, this is a setting slightly
below maximum.

• Put the controller on automatic.

• Make a small set point change and observe the

process response on the chart recorder.

o Examine the resulting curve to see whether the

reset setting is too high or too low.

« Adjust the reset setting by half.

» Continue to make a set point change at each

setting and examine the resulting curve to see
whether the setting is too high or too low.

On a proportional-plus- o Stop adjusting the reset when the process

reset controller, you responds to a set point change with a
may have to readjust one-quarter decay ratio curve that has no offset.
the proportional mode
after timing reset.

&2
 OPTIMUM CONTROLLER SETTINGS

Typical Process, Controller Settings.

VARIABLE PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

* Very lost. * Proportional plus reset controllers.
* Moat tags are in the control * Low gain, fast reset.
system. * Derivative hurts.
* Nonlinear (square) * Linear valves for differential
FLOW measurement common.
* Noisy,
pressure measurement.
* Equal percentage valves for linear
measurement.
* Valve is the major dynamic element.

* Fast. * Proportional plus reset controllers.

PRESSURE
* Most lags are in the control system. * Gain near 1, fast reset controllers.
» Nonlinear (square). * Derivative of no volue.
* Noisy. * Linear valve.
Liquid

* Single capacity, •» Self-acting or high gain proportional

PRESSURE
* No dead time. controllers.
* Linear, no noise. * Reset seldom necessary.
* SimpSe process. * Derivative unnecessary •
Gas * Valve characteristic relatively unimportant.

* Dynamics vary. * Three-response controllers.

PRESSURE
* Dead time possible. * Settings vary.
* Slow compered to other pressure * Equal percentage valves.
processes.
Vapour * Linear, no noise.

* Single capacity (Integrating). * Precise control:

* No deod time. High gain or proportional plus reset
» Linear, controllers,
• infrequent noise. < Averaging control:
LEVEL Low gain proportional plus reset or
specialised controllers.
* Valve characteristics unimportant.

* Multiple capacity system. * Three-response controllers.

* Dead lime possible (especially « Settings vory, hut gain usually obove 1.

TEMPERATURE in heat exchangers).

* Nonlinear.
4 Derivative of limited value if deod time
is large.
* No noise. 4 Equal percentage valves.
* Measurement dynamics are important.

* Dynamics vary, 4 Proportional plus reset controller.

* Dead time usually present. * Low gain, variable reset rate.
* Usually linear. * Derivative sometimes useful.
* Sometimes noisy due to poor mixing. * On-line analysers fast, often noisy. pH
COMPOST
IO
IN nonlinear.
* Sampling systems complicate both
measurement and control, add dead time.
* Linear valves.
AUTO MANUAL SWITCHING

a. For controllers without balancing unit

* Change the value of the set point until it equal the value of measured
variable (process variable)

* Keep the control stables i.e. the output of the controller to the final
control element keep the process almost stable.

* Switch the controller to auto.

* Keep your eye on the output of the controller during switching to auto
(The output must not change)

b. For controllers with balancing unit

 AUTOMATIC AUTOMATIC
CONTROLLER
CONTROLLER

TANK -yV^ -X-

1 I ,

AUrOC
' LOSE --^ MAN'CLOSE

AUTOMATIC AUTOMATIC
BALANCING UNJl BALANCING UNIT

\ I 3 ARE I 1 3 Aftg
PNEUMATIC tOOIC U W I S AUTOMATIC CONTROL SECTION PNEUMATIC LOGIC UNITS AUTOMATIC CONTROL SECTION

MANUAL CONTROL SECIIOH MANUAL CONIflOL SECTION

THUMBWHEEL THUMBWHEEL

OUTPUT INOICAIOH
OUTPUT 1NOICAIOH

Figure 15, Automatic-to-Manual Transfer Figure 16. Manual-to-Automatic Transfer

Daianceless, Dumpless Transfer fE) units, is zero. It holds the pneumatic logic units in
the position shown in Figure 15, These logic units
Transfer between automatic and manual control connect the output of the automatic control unit to
is a one-step operation that consists of moving the tire final operator and pneumatically deactivate the
switch to the desired mode of operation. There arc automatic balancing unit described below.
no indicators to balance or pointers to match.
With tile transfer switch in the MANUAL position,
As shown In Figure 15, with the transfer switch the operation is as shown in Figure 16, The output of
in the A U T O M A T I C position, the selector lever in the manual control relay is the controller output!
the manual unit has been moved away from the The switch also sends full air supply signal to the
adjusting wheel to permit the lever and flapper to three pneumatic logic switches. Two of the switches
float freely. The flapper will now follow die pressure are closed and one opened by this signal as shown In
in the manual control bellows which is now the auto- the diagram.
matic control unit output. Thus, the flapper bellows
combination Is balanced at the automatic control 'Flie output of the automatic control unit is discon-
unit output level. When the transfer switch is later nected from the output of the controller. The reset re-
moved to manual, the selector lever Is clamped by stricior is bypassed, and the reset bellows is disconnected
the manual adjustment wheel at the existing output
from the proportional bellows. The input signals to the
level. The transfer is thus smooth and balanceless
from automatic to manual operation. The output automatic balancing unit shown are the automatic control
will be frozen at the last automatic output value of unit output D and the manual control output A. D i a -
the controller. Since the selector lever is mechanically phragm B provides the balancing pressure and C Is the
clamped in this position, the output cannot drift and output to the control unit reset bellows.
will remain constant until adjusted by the operator.
In automatic control, the output of the manual The automatic balancing unit is a simple integrating
controller relay is dead ended in die switch with controller consisting of a single pivoted diaphragm with
the air supply shut off to prevent any air consumption. four air pressure compartments.
The switching signal, sent to the pneumatic logic

7
 l e ) MEASUREMENT* S E T POINT I b)MEASUREMENT< SET POINT

TIME
AUTOMATlC-TO-MANUAL TflflNSFER
(LA5T AUTOMATIC CONTROL OUTPUT
HELD UNTIL. ADJUSTED)

TIME »- TIME

MANUAL-TO-AUTOMATIC T R A N S F E R

Figure 17. Transfer Response Curves

If either the measurement or the set point to response will be injected into the output upon transfer
the automatic control unit changes, die output of to assure a quick recovery. Reset action will then
the automatic control unit must also change, because smoothly ramp the process to the new set point without
it is operating as a proportional only control unit, overshoot.
When the change in pressure in the proportional
bellows is sensed by the balancing unit, the output of If the output of die manual control unit changes,
the unit will change the pressure in the reset bellows then a similar action occurs to force the automatic
of the controller. This in turn will cause the output control unit output to equal the manual control unit
of the control unit to change. Tins change will con- output.
tinue until the pressure in the proportional feedback •
bellows once again equals the output of the manual When a transfer is made from, manual to automatic
control relay or the supply pressure limits arc reached. (see Figure 17), the output will remain at the level
determined by die operator when in manual. If the
The difference between the set point and measure- measurement input is equal to the set point, as shown
ment bellows is being balanced by the difference be- in Figure 17(a), the output remains Constant until
tween the reset and proportional bellows. If the supply corrective action is required. If die measurement does
pressure is reached, the proportional bellows will not equal die set point at the moment of transfer, as
stabilize at a pressure which differs from the output of illustrated In Figure 17(b), the output will ramp from
the manual unit. This condition can only exist when the level of manual operation to the level necessary
a narrow proportional band or a high- or low-level manual to make the measurement equal to set point as a func-
output are being used and a large difference between tion of the reset rate of the controller.
measurement and set point exists. Some proportional

4 1
r
w
p R A
4-S ™ CONTROL

§
I

What a ratio control system is.

How a wild stream ratio control system works.

How a ratio control system with two controlled streams works.

How to tune a ratio control system.

Ratio Control

•Single feedback control loops will provide good

• control for some processes. However, there are
processes that may require control loops that have
different capabilities than single feedback control
loops.
'i

'One type of loop is called a multielement control

;
A multielement control
•loop. It may have two or more interconnected system can also be. called
control loops. A multielement control loop utilizes a multivariate control
.input signals derived from two or more process system.
[variables.
i.. - •
jj-.'.f.
||f.One type of multielement control is ratio control.
ffeWith ratio control, two or more process fluids can
§»'be mixed in a constant proportion to each other.
W,k ratio control system can be used in batch
^'processes to ratio the additives to the reactor.
to - •

$$'
 Wild Stream Ratio Control

One type of ratio control is called wild stream

ratio control. One o f the process streams in a wild
stream ratio control system is actually uncontrolled.
Because there is no final control element, the flow
rate in the wild stream may vary. However, the
ratio between the two process streams is maintained
by adjusting the flow rate in the second stream.

For example, a wild stream ratio control system -has

two process streams. Stream A is the uncontrolled
stream, or wild stream. Stream B is the controlled
stream. There is a sensor and a transmitter in each
stream that measure flow rate. The flow rates in
Stream A and Stream B are the two measured
variables. There is only one manipulated variable,
the flow rate in Stream B. The flow rate in Stream
B is adjusted by changing the position o f the final
control element in Stream B. The flow rate in
Stream B is adjusted to maintain a constant ratio
between the two flow rates. Even when the flow
rate in the wild stream varies, the ratio is
maintained.

Stream A - Uncontrolled

Ratio Controller

• 7 ^

Flow Transmitter

Stream 8
 Information about the two flow rates is sent to the
ratio controller. The ratio controller is designed to
"maintain the ratio between the two streams. The
flow rates are compared to determine the actual
ratio between them. The ratio controller then
compares the actual ratio to the set point of the
controller. The set point of the controller is the
desired ratio between the two streams. The set
point is set by the ratio relay inside the controller.
Adjustments can be made to achieve the desired
ratio.

If there is a deviation between the actual ratio and

the desired ratio, the output signal of the controller
changes. This changed output signal changes the
position of the final control element in Stream B.
By altering the flow rate in Stream B, the ratio
controller keeps the ratio between the two streams
constant.

For example, Stream A and Stream B might have a

2:1 ratio. I f the flow rate in Stream-A increases,
the ratio controller should increase the flow rate in
Stream B until the 2:1 ratio is reestablished.
 Ratio Control with Two Controlled Streams

Ratio control systems may also be designed so that

both streams are controlled. The diagram below
shows one possible arrangement.

Stream A

Flow Controller

Flow
Transmitter
0
Ralio Controller
1
Vr
Ratio >
Relay

Flow 7
Transmitter

Stream B

Stream A is controlled by a conventional flow loop

consisting of a sensor, transmitter, flow controller,
and final control element. Because the flow rate in
Stream A is controlled, it remains fairly constant.

Stream B is controlled by a ratio control loop. This

loop also has a sensor, transmitter, and final control
element. The controller on Stream B, however, is a
ratio controller.

The ratio relay sets Information about the flow rate in both streams is
the set point. The set sent to the ratio controller. The ratio controller
point is the desired compares the actual ratio between the flow rates of
ratio. the two streams to the set point. The flow rate
in Stream B is adjusted to maintain the desired ratio.
This is because the flow rate in Stream A is fairly
constant.
Tuning Ratio Control Systems

Any of the tuning methods presented in this module

can be used to tune a ratio control system. No
special techniques are required. The tuning
procedure for a wild stream ratio control system is
identical to the tuning procedure for a single
feedback loop. There are two separate controllers
to tune in a ratio control system with two
controlled streams.
 M U L T I P L E V A R I A B L E CONTROL LOOP

The preceding pages have dealt with single variable control loops- one controlled variable, one
manipulated variable. In multiple-variable control, the manipulated variable is a function of a
combination of controlled variables. The four commonly encountered multiple-variable loops
are, ratio, cascade, feed forward, and override.

Ratio
In ratio control, the controlled variable is
the ratio of the two measured variables. Wild flow
Control is effected by adjusting one of the (FX2
variables-the controlled variable- to follow
in proportion to a second- the wild variable-
The proportionality constant is the ratio.
Examples of the ratio control systems include
Ratioing reactant flows in chemical processes,
Air-to-fuel ratio in boilers, and simple blending
of fluid streams.
Ratio relays are nothing more than manually-adjustable gain devices, and the ratio
setting is the true set point of the system. If flow measurements are with
differential pressure transmitters, the actual linear ratio setting must be the square
of the required ratio.

The wild flow is not necessarily uncontrolled- it is only wild as the ratio is
concerned. For instance, in air to fuel ratio control in boilers, the wild fuel flow is
controlled by another system, based on steam demand. It is actually the controlled
flow in another ratio system. As shown
Ratio systems are not limited to two components; one wild flow can adjust several
controlled flows, each with separate ratio relays and individual controllers. A
variation of this system permits all components in a blend to be set as percentages
of the required total flow, which can be set by a master pacing signal

steam

fuel

air
In the paper stock blending system shown, the stock chest level controller paces
the flow rate of all components by adjusting individual components flow set points
through ratio relays. Each ratio set points, through ratio relays. Each ratio is set to
the required percentage of that component in the total blend.
 4-*&. CASCADE CONTROL - PART I

Some limitations of single feedback control.

The design of a cascade control loop.

How a cascade control loop works.

Some Limitations of Single Feedback Control

Any process control system contains lags. In some

loops, the lags are minimal. However, the lags can Slow-acting loops
be significant in a slow-acting loop. Significant significant lags.
lags can affect the quality of control.

Loops that control process temperatures are often

slow-acting loops. One of the lags in a temperature
control loop ft sensor response time. Another lag is
the time it takes for heat to be transferred from the
heating element to the process medium. The heat
transfer/lag can show up as a delayed response to p
disturbance in the process.

j
 Controller Transmitter For example, a single feedback temperature control
loop might control the temperature of water in a
tank. A coil containing hot water is used to heat
the water in the tank. The control loop consists of
a temperature sensor and transmitter, a temperature
controller, and a control valve.
Control
Valve
I f the water temperature in the coil drops, the
temperature of the tank water will eventually fall.
It takes time to transfer the heat from the coil to
the tank water. Therefore, the change in the tank
water temperature will not be immediate.
Hot Water

Another lag could occur in the time required for

the sensor to respond to the change in tank water
temperature. The sensor responds and the
information is transmitted to the controller. The
controller responds by changing the output signal
to the final control element. In this example, the
final control element is a control valve on the inlet
to the coil. The valve controls the flow of hot
water through the coil.

The increased flow of hot water will eventually

raise the tank water temperature, However, some
time is required to transfer the heat from the coil
to the tank water.

These lags can affect the quality o f control in this

system. The original disturbance was a change in
the temperature of the water in the coil. I t was not
even sensed by the system until the change affected
Lags cftn affect the c o n t r o e c
ualit of control ^ * variable, the tank water temperature.
y
^ * • These lags caused the controlled variable to be away
from the set point for a considerable time. As a
result, some unacceptable product may have been
produced.
 The Design of a Cascade Control Loop

A cascade control system could overcome some of

the lags in a temperature control loop. As a result,
1^ the quality of control can be improved. A cascade
control system divides a slow-acting loop into two
loops. Cascade control controls two variables within
one process control system. By separately
controlling two variables in one system, the lags in
the system can be reduced. As a result, the process
response to disturbances and load changes can be
improved.

For example, a cascade control system can be used Controller Transmitter

on a temperature control loop. The existing
temperature control loop becomes the primary loop
in the system. The primary loop consists of a
temperature sensor and transmitter, a temperature
controller, and a control valve. The controlled
Control
variable in the primary loop is the tank water Valve
temperature. The manipulated variable is the flow
of hot water in the coil.
 Controller A s e c o n c l
a r y 1°°P is set up to control a second
variable in the system. The second variable is the
temperature o f the water leaving the coil. In this
case, the secondary loop consists of the process, a
temperature sensor and transmitter, a temperature
controller, and a control valve. The controlled
Control
Valve
variable is the temperature of the water in the coil.
The manipulated variable is the flow of hot water
in the coil.

Secondary Primary Primary In a cascade control system, the primary and

Controller Controller Transmitter
secondary loops are combined to form one control
system. The primary and secondary loops of the
cascade control system have separate sensors,
transmitters, and controllers. Each loop has a
separate controlled variable. In this example, the
Control
controlled variable in the. primary loop is the
Valve temperature of the tank water. The controlled
variable in the secondary loop is the water
temperature in the coil. But, the primary and
secondary loops have the same manipulated variable,
the flow of hot water in the coil.

The primary and secondary loops share the same

final control element, the control valve on the inlet
to the coil. Because the two loops share the same
manipulated variable and final control element, it is
possible to make the two loops part o f one control
system.
How a Cascade Control System Works

In a cascade control system, the output of the The primary controller sets
primary controller does not go to the final control the set point on the
element. The output of the primary controller sets secondary controller.
the set point on the secondary controller. Changing
the output of the primary controller changes the
set point of the secondary controller.

The output of the secondary controller goes to the

final control element in the system. The secondary
controller sends a signal to the control valve in
response to two different inputs. It can change the
position of the valve in response to a change in the
controlled variable in the secondary loop. Or, it can
change the position o f the valve in response to a
change in the controlled variable in the primary
loop. In response-4o _a change in the primary loop
controlled variable, the set point of the seconclary
controller is changed. The set point change is
caused by a change in output from the primary
controller.

Because the final control element can be affected by

a change in either of the variables, a cascade control
system can improve the process response to a
disturbance.
 CASCADE CONTROL - PART I I

How cascade control can improve process response to a disturbance or load change.

General considerations for the design of cascade control systems.

How to tunc a cascade control system.

What feedforward control is.

How Cascade Control Can Improve Process Response

Cascade control can improve process response to a

disturbance in a slow-acting loop. For example, a
typical disturbance might be a change in the coil
water temperature. I f the coil water temperature
drops, the cascade control system reacts quickly.
This is because the sensor in the coil detects the
temperature change. The transmitter sends the
information to the secondary controller. The sec-
ondary controller changes the output signal to the
final control element. And the flow of hot water
is increased in the coil. This increased flow raises
the temperature of the coil and compensates for
the disturbance.

The disturbance was compensated for before there

was a significant effect on the tank water temper-
ature. This is because the lags in the primary loop
are more significant than the lags in the secondary
loop. The tank has a much larger volume than the
coil. So, it takes longer for changes to show up in
the tank water temperature.
 x-m&ts:?-

A cascade control system can also improve the re-

sponse to a load change in a temperature control
loop. A typical load change might be an increased
flow of water through the tank. This would cause •/A V

the tank water temperature to fall. The faster the

water flows through the tank, the less time there is
for the coil to heat the water.

As soon as the tank water temperature begins to fail,

the cascade control system responds. The informa-
tion from the primary loop sensor is sent to the
primary controller. The primary controller changes
its output. The changed output changes the set
point on the secondary controller. The secondary
controller changes its output, repositioning the final
control element. This allows more hot water to
enter the coil. The increased flow of hot water
through the coil compensates for the increased flow
of water through the tank.

The response of the cascade control system to this

load change may seem indirect. But it actually
improves control. This is because the primary loop
is a slow-acting temperature loop. The secondary
loop is a faster-acting loop because of the difference
77/e gam o// f/ie secondary in volume between the coil and tank. The gain on
controller is at a higher the controller of the faster-acting loop can thus be
value. set at a higher value than on the primary controller.
Therefore, routing the primary controller output -•Vl a

signal through the secondary controller can actually

/improve the process response.

Cascade Control System Design

A cascade control system must divide a slow-acting

loop in order to work most effectively. How the
l£bp is divided is important. Dividing the loop
correctly can minimize lags in two ways.

The secondary loop should contain most o f the

possible disturbances. This way, the secondary loop
can compensate for disturbances before they affect
the primary controlled variable.
1
Ml
 The primary loop should contain most of the lags.
rThe response of the slow-acting process can then be
speeded up. This is because the primary controller
output signal is sent to the secondary controller
instead of the final control element. And, since the
gain on the secondary controller can be set at a
higher value, the process response to a load change
can be improved.

Tuning a Cascade Control Loop

A cascade control system requires a special tuning

procedure. This is because it consists of two inter- The settings on the
dependent control loops. The secondary loop can controllers in a cascade
be isolated from the primary loop. But the primary system differ because the
loop cannot be isolated from the secondary loop. loops have different
This is because the output from the primary con- characteristics.
troller must pass through the secondary controller.

Because the secondary loop can be isolated, it is

tuned first. The secondary loop can be isolated by
disconnecting the signal line between the primary
and secondary controllers. Most cascade controllers
have a switch that changes the'set point control
from "remote" to "local." In local control, the set
point on the secondary controller can be manually
operated, /

When isolated, the secondary loop is similar to a The secondary controller

single feedback loop. I t can be tuned just like a usually has one or two
single feedback loop. Any of the tuning procedures modes.
shown in this module can be used. The Ziegler-
Nichols formulas will indicate settings that provide
good control of the secondary loop. Be sure to
verify the adjustments on the secondary controller.
Put the controller on automatic and observe the
process response to a set point change. A properly-
tuned loop should produce a one-quarter decay ratio
curve.
 After the secondary loop is properly tuned, the
primary loop should be tuned. The set point on
the secondary controller must be switched back to
the remote position. This reconnects the two loops.

The primary controller may The settings on the primary controller that provide
have one, two, or three good control may be more conservative than you
modes. would expect. This is because the primary and
secondary loops interact. Therefore, the primary
loop is usually tuned by the trial and error method.
If the Ziegler-Nichols formulas are used to calculate
settings, the cascade system may overreact to a
disturbance or load change.

After tuning both loops of the cascade control

system, the adjustments should be verified. Place
the primary controller on automatic and observe
the process response to a small set point change.
If the system has been properly tuned, it should
produce a one-quarter decay ratio curve on the
chart recorder.

r~

j
 : ; : ;
rv'-'V?,''The oulput of tempemtur^ controller' TC-j adjusts the'-r;-::-^H:t K:'-;- J?jk j' V^^A• ^N*^ 'j Ha : ; V '.?

& '&v;*£^
:
in the^batch',reaclpf'control s y s t e n v p . - - .
Fig. 42:' This' is the essence' of cascade control. .The .
:
v;:" " primary variab1e-batchfiemperature--is controlled by'
!
, Slave t ,. .
$^^ ^-the'w^ bui*tibt;,by directly adjusting the • p'V
.2^ M • wish:-:
cooling water valve.'. Instead, it manipulates the set-
'/.: >;.•. point of the slave or secondary controller, which in turn
v;' . supplies jacket water, at; Jhe .asked-for . temperature. .; ; i > , .!.. , : j .:.. r. . . . CoeEng woierH
.. There are two controlled vanables, one manipulated y ^ : : :
K^;. " ' o ^ - v f ; - j y , . .| :

H[:-'<- variable, arid.one independent set-points' : ' .' . Fig". 42-Casca'de^Control of Batch Reactor
4^^?^ ^: ':5>,:;^' ; \.'v'" :
X ' ? . ' ' . : ^'"^^";V:-""-^;V<;^^^^/" f

' Cascade control has two functions: • '•". ,'. V . ; ' ^•••.•'- : ,v
t?.\ "'•
: : :: ; ; ;i 1 i :
Jr ^^; ' -''-'"' ' "r; -:!V :-S ; '-:' ^ U : ^ ^ / ; .v-^;' v ^ ' f e ^ \
1
^Reduce the. effect on the total control system of lhe ' ;
' AV - - - v V. :-
;
v.jv...
T' ' '. '^'"x" • -'••;;'. - v ; -;V '•.'.•'•"'•;"''-'••-": •
; , / >
: f
dynamic elements .in the secondary loop (in Fig. 42,'.' ' ' "-'-' : ;

•'•''v'^^- » !
Correct' for 'disturbances'-which occur within the >ppocEss
:

'DYNAMICS^ •DYNAM1C5S
secondary, loop before they affect the master loopr- ' -••-..-,-vi -i:.<\\
.'• (Such as cooling water temperature changes.)
^ '
•

. The slave controller heed have only proportional re- -

{• • \ sponse. Disturbances (u ) entering the secondary loop t
COHTFlpL'tE^
t s
m
h , :;' ' w i l l be quickly corrected by the slave'controller. Dis- 1-(HI. H I

turbances (ujn) outside the secondary loop will be cor-

-••; rected by the master controller.
; Fig. 43-Cascade Control Block Diagram

.The simplest example of a slave controller is a valve

yi: positioner. Its purpose is to^bvercome valve hysteresis •J • - , .. .. »
:
iV/ " ' '-
. and reduce the valve time constant. Awbrd of caution:
K. . : do not use valve positioners in flow control loops
*. ^vhere the valve time constant is Oie major system lag. ; - i ? " ;
-" . "• . I V " ' -

;;
10
' ' •' The major.time 'constant musthot be in the slave loop.' • ••
Siove
y; This reduces the ratio of major to secondary dynamic '• — < ' Jockel V Loop
• •••'
v-,.-:,;,;-..:...; elements and will degrade control, '^y-'^
•"><:';: -•<-••:• : :
-'
;>/;.,..".. Be careful when making flow the slave variable. If the
• . ; .• ^ '>.-,:•
>-'i -i-^i-
\- •ir>v.".;,"'.

' V •
0.1
^:r. :--j;:,i. overall process is linear with flow, yoti.introduce a non-
J w

^:'y ^im'ea'rity' because; theffmaiter "controller " set's flow'.

{
V :6
o
/• squared (assuming differential pressure measurement of, ..; k -90

'."'.11M'
F

• . ....
 4.7 OVERRIDE CONTROL

High Low
pressure Pressure
fluid users
source

High
pressure
users
(priority)

Suppose a high pressure fluid source supplies a number o f

processes, some at high pressure and others at constant lower
pressure as shown. The processes supplied at high pressure are such
that pressures below a certain critical value w i l l result a spoilt
product. Should the demands o f the low pressure users become
excessive, the source may be unable to maintain the required
pressure on the high pressure side. /
Both controllers are able to affect the control valve opening. The
supply pressure o f PRC2 is the output pressure o f PRC1 and, i f the
high pressure falls below the desired value setting o f the latter, the
output pressure o f PRC2 w i l l fall because it's input air pressure
falls. The valve closes to maintain pressure on/the upstream side
and the pressure on the downstream side may fall well below the
desired value. Condition return to normal when the low pressure
demands are reduced or the source provides a greater output.

j
In this example PRC1 have override control over PRC2 and
commands it to close the valve completely should the high pressure
side falls below the set point.
5 commissioning control system

1. Measurement installation checks.

2. Transmission checks.

3. Control valves checks.

4. Controller checks (action direct or reverse.

5. Alarms checks.

6. Trip checks.

7. Start on manual.

8. Transfer to auto.

9. Check stability.

5\
 6. Spec 200 Electronic Process Control Systems
Spec 200 equipment consist of two parts
1. nest mounted system electronics
2. Operator interface functions

The nest mounted systems contains all the electronic modules like
- input and output components
- Control components
- Signal processing components
- Signal distribution components
- Power distribution
SIGNAL
OISTRI8UTION
Operator interface contains modules like
- Indicator display stations
- Recorder display stations ALARMS
- Control display stations
- Manual display display stations
- Annunciator subsystems CONTROL

SIGNAL
PROCESSING

OUTPUTS

DISPLAY

INPUTS

Figure 3. Typical SPEC 200 Rack

Figure 2. Console Mounting Configuration
 Spec 200 Control Loop

Current to
Voltage converter to Control
Station to Recorder

Power
supply

PI signal
Controller distribution

4 -20 mA 4-20 m/.

3-15 psi
I/P

transmitter actuate*--*-^ current to pneumatic

converter y

flow element valve

 *7 Computer Controlled Systems

Computer Controlled Systems are divided into three catogeries

1. Direct Digital Control (DDC)

2. Supervisory Control (SCADA)
3. Distributed Control Systems (DCS)

Direct Digital Control

In direct digital control, there is one central computer that has the full
control of the process.
All of the field sensors and final control elements are connected directly
to the computer, even those in remote plant locations.
The computer receives the information about the process from the
sensors, determine what control action is necessary, i f any, and sends this
information to the final control elements.
Many process loops may be connected to the central computer. The direct
digital control is often called a star configuration because aTToT the field
devices are connected around the computer like the points of a star.
There may also be additional devices between the
computer and the field devices, such as A / D and D /
A converters and multiplexers. Multiplexers may be
used to select and transmit data from the various
field devices when specified by the computer. They
function as data selection, switching, and routing de-
vices.

FCE

Computet

FCE

Multiplexer

FCE FCE

Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Digital

Control

In a direct digital control system, the computer tells

the final control elements what to do by sendin^con-
trol signals directly to them. Each final control ele-
ment has a link to the computer, either directly or
through a multiplexer. This kind of control system
has several distinct advantages.
j
• Complex logic functions can be executed rapidly
and accurately.

• Nonlinear conversions can be performed with-

out additional instrumentation.

• The entire system can be tuned, and trouble-

shooting and diagnostic operations can be per-
formed from one central location.
 • Control instructions, such as time-constants or
set points, can be entered directly into the sys-
tem from a single operator's console,

• Operational changes can be made through the

system software, rather than adding or modify-
ing hardware.

Since the computer has full control of the process,

however, there are some potential disadvantages to
this type of system. These include the following.

• Any failure or malfunction in the central com-

puter may resuit in shutdown of the entire sys-
tem while the problem is located and corrected.

• Some backup instrumentation may be required

to prevent system shutdown. This may increase
costs and physical plant requirements.

• The software necessary to coordinate alt control

operations from a central location may become
extremely complex.

Supervisory Control

Another type of digital control is called supervisory

control, or set point control. It maintains the advan-
tage of centralized computer control, while eliminat-
ing the disadvantage of losing the entire system i f a
power failure or malfunction occurs in the central
computer.

In supervisory control, the computer functions in a

supervisory capacity to provide control signals to in-
dividual controllers. The control signals are usually in
the form of set point values. The individual control-
lers monitor the process loops and manipulate the f i -
nal control elements to maintain the process as speci-
fied by the supervisory computer. I f any operational
changes are necessary, the supervisory computer sends
new set point values to the controllers.
 Computer

Conlroller

FCE MUX

Conlroller Conlroller

FCE FCE

The major advantage o f supervisory control is that

the whole system does not have to be shut down i f a
power failure or malfunction occurs in the computer.
Each controller will continue to operate, using the
last set point value received from the supervisory
computer. The process will continue to be maintained
while the computer is out of service.

In this type of system, the individual controllers can-

not change the set point values or perform any ana-
lytical or computational operations. Also, although
all o f the controllers can communicate with the su-
pervisory computer, they generally cannot communi- .
cate with each other.
 Distributed Control Systems
Why DCS is used instead?

1. usually electronic controllers does not provide the operator

an effective interface for operating the process.

2. the operator can not make full use of information available

to them.

3. when standing some distance away from the panel, the

indication of some instruments may not be visible to the
operator, also there may be a lot of instruments and in a very
dense manner and may be there are a lot of events occuring
all at once and the operator may loose control.

4. analog instruments panels takes a lot of space.

5. requirements of more wiring.

6. the limitations of analog control systems is the time and cost

associated with reconfiguring control s}'stems.
 Micro
Compuler
Loop 3

Micro
Compuler
Loop 1

Data Bus

Micro
Computer
Loop 2
Micro
Computer
Loop 4

Distributed P r o c e s s C o n t r o l

Distributed control is a more complex control system

than either direct digital control or supervisory con-
trol. Distributed control can take many forms, de-
pending on the process application, control objec-
tives, and specific hardware used. In general, the
control tasks are distributed among several micro-
computers within the system. Each microcomputer
controls one or more process loops. In this way, no
one computer has all of the control responsibility.

The microcomputers in a distributed system have sev-

eral functions and capabilities. They receive data,
send instructions, and perform analytical and compu-
tational functions.

In a distributed system, all of the microcomputers

can communicate with each other along an intercon-
necting pathway. This pathway is called the data bus,
or system communication link. The data bus enables
each computer to send information to and receive in-
formation from other microcomputers in the system.
In this way, information relative to the entire process
can be utilized by the appropriate individual micro-
computers. The data bus also enables the microcom-
puters to communicate with each other.
Other devices can also be connected to the data bus.
These may include CRT displays, operator key-
boards, or other peripheral devices.

I f one o f the computers fails in a distributed control

system, the entire process does not need to be shut
down. Other microcomputers in the system will con-
tinue to communicate, make control decisions, and
control the process loops they supervise. As a result,
only a fraction of the process control capability
would be lost at any one time. This distribution of
control functions increases the reliability of the sys-
tem. I t is one of the main reasons why distributed
control is so well suited to industrial process systems.

Host Computers

In distributed control systems, there may be a central

computer, or host. The host computer monitors the
entire process. Since most of the control functions
are performed by the distributed computers, the host
computer usually performs additional functions. It
may store additional data, such as historic trends, Or,
it may provide alarm functions, generate loop dis-
plays, or calculate and total process parameters.
Since the individual microcomputers in a distributed
control system are fully capable of maintaining con-
trol without the supervision of the host computer, the
function of the host computer may be to perform ad-
vanced and complex supervisory and analytical opera-
tions, and to communicate data from these opera-
tions to the individual microcomputers.

Micro Host
Compuler Compuler
Loop 3

Micro
Compuler
Loop i

Data Bus

Micro
Computer
Loop 2
Micro
Compuler
Loop 4

/ 00
 T R O U B L E SHOOTING
Trouble shooting is the process of
Determining the cause of the problem
Making repairs
Finding ways to prevent the problem from occurring
in the future.

Basic trouble shooting steps

Make sure that there is really something wrong in the
loop
Identify and locate the cause of the problem
Correct the cause of the problem
Make sure that the problem has been corrected
Analyze the cause of the problem to help preventing
future troubles.

Locating a problem
1. Determine how the system works
Understand how the instrument loop works
Understand the P&ID giving information such as
system design, tolerances and operating range
Look at the sample record of the initial calibration.
Check from the operation i f any changes have been
made.

2. Identifying symptoms
Talk to the operator who discovered the problem.
Observe i f the system is operating according to ranges
and tolerances.
Compare recent chart record with that of initial
calibration

3. Checking the input to output of the system

Make a small changes to the set point
Watch the changes in input and output
Compare the response with what it should be

/
 1

4. Divide the loop into sections

Input section.
Output section
Controller

In the flow loop shown as an example

Input section
Flow sensor element — orifice plate
Flow transmitter
Square root extractor
Transmission lines

Output section
Control valve
Positioner
Transmission lines

Controller
Input mechanism
Output mechanism
Automatic control mechanism

5. Deciding which section of the loop to check

Decide which section of the loop can be checked with
the least disturbance of the process.
Decide which section of the loop can be checked most
efficiently
Decide which section is most logical to check