KNUST

Telecom.
Engineering

TE 271: Analog Communication Systems

Dr. M. S. Ellis
[email protected]
Department of Telecommunication Engineering
Room 325
https://antennagroupknust.com/

antennaknust
 Course Objectives
❑ To introduce the concepts of analog communication system

❑ To equip students with various issues related to analogue communication such

as modulation, demodulation, transmitters, receivers and noise performance

❑ To equip students with basic AM and FM transceiver design

Course Outcomes
In this course, students will be able to:
❑ Gain the knowledge of the components of an analog communication system

❑ Understand the concept of modulation & demodulation and its importance to

wireless transceiver systems

❑ Gain knowledge in AM and FM system design

❑ Evaluate the performance of analog communication systems in the presence of

noise
 Reference material
• A. Yadav, “Analog Communication Systems”, University
Science Press, New Delhi, 2008.

• S. Sharma, “Communication Engineering”, First Ed., S.K.

Kataria & Sons, New Delhi, 2011.

• T. G. Thomas, “Analog Communication”, McGraw hill,

New Delhi, 2007.
 Course Calendar
Week Subject
1 Electromagnetic Fields Spectrum & Applications

Basics of Communication Systems

2
Need for Modulation
3
AMPLITUDE Modulation (AM)
• DSB-AM
4 • DSB-SC
• SSB & VSB
5
6
Circuit Design Project
7

8 Mid Semester Exam

9 ANGLE Modulation (Frequency & Phase Modulation)

• Spectrum of FM
• Generation and Degeneration of FM
10 • Commercial FM transmission using Armstrong’s Method
• Demodulation of Angle Modulated Signals

11 Noise Effects on AM and FM/PM Systems

Sampling Theory
12 Revision Week
 KNUST
Telecomm.

Structure of Assessment
Engineering

❑ Attendance ~ 5 %
❑ Mini-project ~15 %
❑ Mid-Semester Exams ~ 10 %
❑ End of Semester Exams ~ 70 %
❑ Total ~ 100 %

❑ Student who miss more than 3 sessions will NOT

be allowed to take the exams
5
 1. EM Field Spectrum & applications

❖ The Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of

EM radiation

❖ These radiations ranges the light that comes from a lamp in

homes/offices, and the waves that heat food in microwave
ovens, among several others

❖ The EM spectrum is listed in the order of increasing frequency,

decreasing wavelength and increasing energy

❖ The EM spectrum with its corresponding wavelengths &

applications is shown below

❖ Note that the radiations in the EM spectrum should always be

listed in the order specified
 EM spectrum & applications…….
Radio Waves: AM radio, FM radio,
TV
Microwaves: Microwave Ovens,
WiFi, Bluetooth, cellular comm.

Infrared (IR): Remote controls,

Night vision goggles, security
cameras

Visible light: Lights that our eyes

detect including: fireflies, light bulbs

UV light: Used to detect forged

bank notes, synthesis of Vitamin D

X-ray: X-ray scans, bone fracture

detections
IR Night Vision Goggles and security cameras Gamma Ray: Cancer treatment,
treatment of mutated cells
 ❖ ELF 3 Hz – 3 KHz. Highly
vulnerable to disturbances and
atmospheric changes. Hard to design
a system in this range due to high
wavelength. Usually used in seismic
studies

❖ VLF 3 – 30 KHz. Similar to ELF.

Has complications due to due large
wavelength. Has been used in
submarines

❖ LF 30 KHz – 300 KHz. Suitable for

long distance communication since
LF signals will get reflected by earth’s
ionosphere. Also used in military
applications like submarines, RFID
tags.
❖ VHF 30 – 300 MHz One of the most commonly used bands For
analogue TV broadcasting. FM broadcasting (88 – 108MHz). Also ❖ MF 300 KHz – 3 MHz. Has been
widely used in AM radio, navigation
operates in the VHF band
systems for ships and aircrafts, coast
❖ UHF 300 MHz – 3 GHz is the most important frequency band in guards. Design of transmitters,
modern wireless communication. It is used in GPS navigation, satellite receivers and antennas less complex
communications, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, TV, GSM, CDMA, LTE mobile than ELF, VLF and LF
transmission and more
❖ SHF 3 – 30 GHz Commonly used in point-point communications,
❖ HF 3 – 30 MHz Also known as short
satellite systems, digital TV. System design is difficult due to smaller wave. Also gets reflected by earth’s
wavelength ionosphere and its suitable for long
❖ EHF 30 – 300 GHz Highest in the EM spectrum. Only used in distance communication. Popular
advanced communication systems due to its complex nature and low used in amateur radio, military
wavelength. Suggested for high speed internet systems like 5G communications and weather
technology and future technologies broadcasting
Summary of radio frequencies and application
 Some research…visible light
❑ Research conducted by Japanese researchers (Tohoko University)
described that certain wavelengths of visible light (typically blue light)
are lethal to certain species of insects (fruit fly pupae, mosquitoes)

❑ If successful conclusion is reached, this will help reduce to use of

insecticides which are detrimental to human health and expensive in
controlling large areas (farms)
❑ Another research into effect of
visible light on photosynthesis

❑ Results show that the rate of

photosynthesis peaks around 450
nm (blue light) and 650 nm (red light)

❑ Blue light is also used to kill Jaundice,

which is a result of high bilirubin
levels in newborns.

phototherapy
 2. Basic Communication System
❑The process of conveying
(sending, receiving and processing)
information at a distance is termed
communication

❑Source of information may be

sound, video, and data

❑Transmitter processes the physical

message before propagation.
Processes involve modulation and
amplification

❑Channel is the media through

which the signals travel from the
transmitter to the receiver. The
medium could be free space, optical
fiber or wire

❑The receiver reverses the process

of the transmitter. Converts the
incoming signal back to its physical
form, through a process called
demodulation
Simplified Transmitter block diagram

Simplified Receiver block diagram

 Basic Communication System ….Modulation

❖ Systems are designed to allow many individual messages to be

transmitted over a single communication channel

❖ A method by which this can be achieved is called Multiplexing

❖ In multiplexing, baseband signals (voice, audio, video) of same frequency

are shifted on different frequency locations (frequency translation) within
the total bandwidth

❖ By doing so, they can be easily transmitted without mixing or interfering

❖ At the receiver side, they can be easily retrieved by simply using filters
with different cutoff frequencies

❖ This method of multiplexing is called frequency multiplexing

 ….Modulation

❖ A simple method of frequency translation is called Modulation

❖ A process in which a high frequency signal is modified according

to the properties of a low frequency information signal

❖ The powerful high frequency signal is called a carrier signal

❖ The weak low frequency (or baseband) signal is called a

modulating signal
 ….Modulation

A carrier signal is represented by Acosф. By this formula.

Modification of this signal can be done in the following ways:

❑ Amplitude A, of the carrier can be modulated according to the

instantaneous value of the modulating signal. This is known as
Amplitude Modulation

❑ Angle ф can be modulated according to the instantaneous value of

the modulating signal. This is known as Angle Modulation
 ….Modulation

❑ Angle ф is generally given by: ф = ωt + Ө

❑ The carrier wave becomes: A cos (ωt + Ө)

❑ Where A is amplitude, ω is angular frequency, and Ө is the

phase

❑ Therefore Angle Modulation can be divided into Frequency

Modulation and Phase modulation

❑ After modulation, the modulated carrier wave is rather

transmitted instead of just the weak message signal
 ….Modulation
Why perform (advantages of) modulation ?
1. Frequency Translation

• In radio broadcasting, audio signals

can occupy the same band without
mixing due to modulation or
frequency conversion

• Through this, the audio signal can be

listened to at different frequencies

• The translation is done simply by

multiplying the message signal m(t)
with the carrier signal to produce a
translated signal
Frequency Translation
2. Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM)

• Now that many audio signals

can be shifted at different
locations in the bandwidth
through translation

• They can be easily sent on a

single channel without mixing
or overlapping with each other

• Multiplexing helps make good

use of the spectrum without
wastage

• Radio stations 1, 2, 3, and 4

can transmit on carriers
Vcosωc1t, Vcosωc2t, Vcosωc3t,
and Vcos ωc4t as shown here Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
3. Practicability of Antenna size

• For proper transmission and

reception of signal, the antenna size
should be comparable to the f = 30 Hz
wavelength of the signal c 3  108
= = = 10 7 m
f 30
• Baseband frequencies make realizing
antennas very impractical due the
large wavelengths (high freqs).
f = 300 MHz
• For example, If we transmit a
baseband voice frequency of 30 Hz, c 3  108
the antenna size/aperture required = = = 1m
f 3  108
to transmit is impractical, compared
to when a higher frequency of say
300 MHz is used
3. Noise reduction 4. Narrow Banding

• Without modulation, an audio • With modulation, several audio signals

signal, transmitted to a receiver will at different frequencies can be
encounter a lot of other signals in transmitted/received with the same
the audible range. Signal from antenna.
people, machinery, animals, all fall
within the same audible frequency • Otherwise, each specific audio
as many voice signals. Therefore a frequency will require a separate
lot of interference will be antenna which is not very practical
experienced in this frequency and ineffective
range (20 Hz – 20 KHz)
f m1 = 20 Hz, f c = 200 MHz

• With modulation, the carrier c 3  108 6 3  108

= = = 15  10 m, = 1.5m
6
signal has a much higher frequency f 20 200  10 + (20)
and high power with less
applications in that range. Hence it f m2 = 20kHz, f c = 200 MHz
will not be easily interfered with. It c 3  108 3  108
= = 3
= 15  10 m, = 1.5m
can also travel a longer distance f 20  10 3 6 3
200  10 + (20  10 )
 3. AMPLITUDE Modulation (AM)
❖ “if the amplitude of carrier is varied according to the instantaneous value of the
message signal. The modulation is called amplitude modulation”

❖ A carrier signal is generally a sinusoidal wave with the expression:

Vc = Vc cos (ωct + Ө) ….(1)

❖ In amplitude modulation, the focus is on modifying the amplitude of the carrier

signal as the frequency and phase remain unchanged

❖ The carrier equation then becomes:

Vc = Vc cos ωct …..(2)
Assuming the baseband signal (modulating signal) is sinusoidal as well, then
m(t) = Vm cos ωmt ……(3)

❖ Now amplitude modulation says the carrier is varied according to the

instantaneous value of the baseband signal; then the carrier amplitude in (2)
changes to: V = V cos ωct <---- (but carrier wave freq unchanged) …….(4)
V = Vc + m(t) ----new carrier amplitude
= Vc + Vm cos ωmt ……(5)
Substituting eqtn (5) in eqtn (4) becomes:
V = {Vc + m(t)} cos ωct
= Vc cos ωct + m(t)cos ωct ……...(6)
= Vc cos ωct + Vm cos ωmt * cos ωct
= Vc cos ωct + maVc cos ωmt * cos ωct …..(7)
Where, ma Vc = Vm,
And ma = Vm / Vc ………… (8)
This ratio (Vm / Vc) is called Modulation index.
Ideally, ma < 1, why ??
V = Vc cos ωct + (Vm cos ωmt * cos ωct)

Using the trig identity Cos x * Cos y = ½ { cos (x + y) + cos (x – y)} (9)

= Vc cos ωct + (maVc)/2 {cos (ωc + ωm)t + cos (ωc - ωm)t }

1st 2nd 3rd

This is termed as a double side band AM signal (DSB-AM)

V= Vc cos ωct +(maVc)/2 {cos (ωc + ωm)t +cos (ωc - ωm)t } (10)

Equation (10) can be separated into 3 terms:

1st term represents the unmodulated carrier signal with amplitudeVc
2nd term represents the upper side band with amplitude maVc/2
3rd term represents the lower side band with amplitude maVc/2
MESSAGE SIGNAL CARRIER SIGNAL

DSB-AM SIGNAL
What happens when modulation index, ma, is not less than 1??

Desired MODULATION When ma < 1

OVERMODULATION When ma = 1

When ma > 1

What is the practical effect of an overmodulated AM signal at the

receiver?
❑The spectrum of the AM wave can be
investigated by using Fourier’s transform
to solve the AM equation.
❑The analysis is shown in Figs 2.3(a) –
2.3(d). The equations have not been
shown for brevity

❑Practically, negative frequencies shown

in the figures are of no use. Hence Fig.
2.3 (d) shows the useful AM wave
spectrum Fourier Analysis of the AM spectrum

❑The final AM wave spectrum shows

that the transmission bandwidth of the
AM signal is: BAM = 2ωm Or 2fm

❑This is the difference between the

highest minus the lowest frequency
components: (Fc + Fm) – (Fc – Fm) =
2Fm

❑This means for a transmitter to

AM wave spectrum
transmit a DSB-AM wave, a transmitter
bandwidth of 2Fm is required
POWER IN A DSB-AM WAVE
 Sample Question

The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8A when

only carrier is sent, but it increased to 9A when carrier is
modulated by a single sine wave.

• Find the percentage modulation 72.88%

• Determine the antenna current when the percentage

of modulation changes to 0.5 8.48 A
 Sample Question

An amplitude modulated signal is given by: V(t) = 10 cos (2π × 108 t) +

5 cos (2π × 108 t) · cos (2π × 103 t) + 2cos (2π × 108 t) · cos (4π × 103 t)

• Find the various frequency components and corresponding modulation

index. Draw the line spectrum and find the bandwidth
m1 = 0.5, USB = 100.001 MHz, LSB = 1 kHz, m2=0.2, USB = 100.002
MHz, LSB = 2 kHz, Bandwidth = 4 kHz

• Find the net modulation index and total modulated power

mt = 0.5385, Pt = 57.25 W
 Methods of Generation of AM
Methods of generating AM can be categorized into 2. Using:
➢Linear time-variant circuits, or
➢Non –Linear circuits
LINEAR TIME VARIANT
CIRCUITS:
➢A system that is time-invariant cannot
be used to generate AM. Why?

➢An example of a time-variant linear

system is a Switching circuit (or
Chopper circuit or Ring modulator)

NON-LINEAR CIRCUITS: Chopper/Switching/ring Circuit

➢A non linear device can also produce
AM

➢For a non-linear device (e.g. shown on

the lower right), current does not only
depend upon the first power of voltage
but also on the higher order of voltage
Linear and non-linear current/voltage relation
 Methods of Generation of AM…….

✓ Here the diode is used as an non-linear device. Other non linear devices like transistors can also
be used

✓Two halves of the circuit have been arranged such that I1 and I2 are opposing each other. So the
net current at output is I1 - I2. The R-C circuit forms the band pass filter tuned at ωc

✓This type of arrangement is called balanced circuit hence the name Balanced Modulator

Class Discussion
• COMPARE THE NON-LINEAR DEVICE METHOD AND THE CHOPPER
METHOD

• WHAT ARE OTHER METHODS OF GENERATING AM?

 Demodulation of AM
• In demodulation, we require frequency translation such
that the message signal ωm is received at the output

• In demodulation, the required frequency is ωm so all other

higher frequencies must be filtered out

• This can be achieved by using a low pass filter having a

cut-off frequency of ωc (anything less than this passes
and higher ones get filtered out)

• Demodulation is essentially a reverse process of

modulation
 Demodulation of AM using Linear-Time Variant System
(Rectifier Type) Detector
• Just as in modulation, demodulation can be done using a linear
time-variant circuit or detector

• AM signal is applied at the input and a low pass filter at the outer
stage with cut-off frequency of ωc is used

• A similar operation can be easily performed using a ring

demodulator as shown below
 Demodulation of AM using Linear-Time Varying System
(Envelope Detector)
• Simplest and most common way of demodulating AM is by using the
envelope detector
• Here, the negative half of the AM wave is absent in the output of the
diode
• Capacitor ‘C’ and resistance ‘R’ perform the filtering (loss pass filter)
• Voltage across capacitor tries to follow the envelope of the AM signal.
Since the envelope of the AM wave is nothing but the message signal,
the message can easily be detected.
Setbacks with envelope
detection ??
•Negative peak clipping

•Diagonal clipping (at high freq, diode

becomes reactive, rate of slope too fast
for ‘C’ and ‘R’)
 Demodulation of AM using Non-Linear devices
• Again, the same circuit for modulation is used
for demodulation; with the input being the AM
signal and output filter being a low pass filter.
 Side Band Techniques
❖The equation for an AM wave is given by:
V = Vc cosωct + maVc/2 cos(ωc + ωm)t +
maVc/2 cos(ωc - ωm)t….….(10) – This called Double Side Band
(DSB) AM

❖Purpose of modulation is to send the weak message signal

with the help of a carrier, and not to send an empty
carrier.

❖Therefore, the unmodulated carrier can be removed

without affecting the net content of the information. This
is known as a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)
wave
❖This will also require less power without
affecting the net content of the information as
proven below;

❑By removing the

unmodulated carrier,
66.66% of the total
power can be saved
without affecting the
net content of
information
Message Signal (low frequency) Carrier Signal (high frequency)

REPRESENTATION OF DSB-SC WAVE

 SPECTRUM OF DSB-SC WAVE

Fourier Analysis of the AM spectrum

Negative frequencies
are not used

Bandwidth of a DSB-SC wave is also 2Wm or 2Fm. Same as DSB-AM wave

 Generation of DSB-SC
• Methods of generation a suppressed carrier AM wave is
the same as discussed in generation of an AM wave, i.e.
✓ Linear Time Variant Circuit
✓ Non-Linear Circuit

• Similarly, an example of a linear time variant circuit for

DSB-SC generation is a chopper circuit (also called
switching circuit or ring modulator) ……. Refer from
Slide 31

• Likewise, an example of a non-linear circuit used to

generate DSB-SC is a balanced modular…….. Refer from
Slide 32
 Generation of DSB-SC signal

Ring Modulator
A balanced modulator

Demodulation of DSB-SC signal

Ring detector/demodulator Balanced detector/demodulator

 Single Side-Band (SSB) Transmission
❖ As earlier discussed under DSB-SC, there is really no need to transmit
the carrier as shown in the formula below
V = Vc cos ωct + maVc/2 [cos (ωm+ωc)t * cos (ωc-ωm)t]
❖ By doing so, we can save power and maintain the integrity of the
message signal while keeping bandwidth the same

V = maVc/2 [cos (ωm+ωc)t * cos (ωc-ωm)t] .... DSB-SC wave

❖ The DSB-SC wave contains two identical sidebands

❖ Also, there is really no need to transmit both side bands if only one
can be used to transmit the information. This is termed as Single Side
Band (SSB) transmission

❖ In commercial applications, this is a more preferred method of

transmitting AM due to its advantages compared to DSB-AM, and
DSB-SC.
POWER IN AN SSB WAVE

❑By transmitting a single side

band signal (SSB), 83.33 % of
the total power has been saved

❑Transmission bandwidth
requirement also drops by
half. From 2ωm to ωm

❑Reduced noise

❑Reduced fading
 Sample Questions
• The total power constant of an AM signal is 2000 W. Determine
the power being transmitted at the carrier frequency and at each
side band when the percentage modulation is 60% ans. 1695 W,
296.88 W

• The percentage modulation of AM changes from 50% to 70%.

Originally at 50% modulation, total power was 700 W. Now,
determine the power of each side band at 70% ans. 152.4 W

• An AM signal contains 500 W of carrier signal. The modulation

index is 60%
1. Determine the total power of AM 590 W
2. Determine the power if SSB transmission is used 45W
3. Calculate the percentage saving of power 92.37 %
 SSB Generation
1. Filtering Method: Since SSB modulation is the transmission
of the upper or lower sideband, SSB can be generated by easily
filtering the undesired side band of a DSB-SC signal
• Filter bandwidth should be equal to that of the message signal
(not twice its bandwidth like in DSB-AM or DSB-SC)
• Center frequency of the filter should equal to the center
frequency of the desired side band (not carrier)
Setback: Filters with sharp edges do not exist. Non-sharp edges
must be used. Adequate separation between side bands required
m(t) Balanced BPF
Modulator

DSB-SC SSB
VcCosWct
2. Phase-Shift Method: Here, the box marked -π/2 is
a 90 degrees phase shifter that delays the phase of every
frequency component by 90 degrees. It simply converts
a cos function to a sine function and vice versa

• At output XSSB(t) = m(t)cosωct ± m(t)sinωct

• The difference represents LSB, and sum represents USB
 SSB Demodulation
• The process for SSB demodulation is the same
as that for a simple DSB-SC demodulator.
 Vestigial Side Band (VSB) Modulation

• As stated previously, SSB generation suffers

from problems including filter sharpness problems
AND ideal phase-shifter design complications

• A compromise between DSB-SC and SSB is

known as Vestigial Side Band (VSB) modulation

• VSB is predominantly used for TV broadcasting

• In certain applications, a DSB modulation technique takes
too much bandwidth of the channel.

• An SSB technique will take half the bandwidth of DSB but

it’s also expensive and complex to implement

• Therefore, a Vestigial Sideband is often chosen in this

situation

• A VSB signal is obtained by partial suppression of one of

the sidebands of a DSB signal (DSB-AM or DSB-SC) and
completely allowing the other sideband

• Hence, it uses a bandwidth between SSB and DSB

VSB Modulation
VSB Demodulation
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is a technique whereby several message
signals are combined into a complex signal for
transmission over a single channel

• To achieve this, the signals must be kept apart so

they do not interfere with each other within the
common channel

• Frequency division (FDM) and time division

multiplexing (TDM) are the two basic multiplexing
techniques
 Sample Question
FDM

•Simultaneous transmission of 3 signals

•Spectra and sum of modulated frequencies illustrated
•Band pass filters used to separate modulated signals before demodulation
•FDM is used in telephone systems, television broadcast, telemetry..etc

Q: What type of modulation is used here. DSB, DSB-SC, VSB, or SSB?

 Sample Question
• For the circuit diagram shown in the figure, the input
signal of the first AM modulator is message signal
m(t) and input signal of the second AM modulator is
inverted m(t). The applied carrier is shown. Show that
the final output S(t) is a DSB-SC wave??
m(t) Balanced
Modulator

+
VcCosWct Oscillator S(t)
Inverted m(t) _
-m(t)
AM DSB-SC
Modulator
 Sample Questions
• An SSB transmission contains 900W. Now, replace this SSB
transmission by an AM transmission such that the total power
content remains constant. Calculate the power content of carrier
and each of the side bands when modulation index is 85% ans.
661.16 W, 119.42 W

• For an SSB wave, determine the percentage of power saved

when modulation index is decreased to 70% instead of 100%.
51 %

• The rms voltage of a carrier is 5 volts before modulation and 5.9

volts after modulation.
1. What is the percentage of modulation 88.59%
2. Calculate the modulated power if the unmodulated power is
2kW 3.5696 kW