TVET CERTIFICATE IV in NETWORKING

LAN
NEWSL401 Set up LAN

Credits: 12 Learning hours: 120

Sector: ICT
Sub-sector: Computer maintenance

Module Note Issue date: July, 2020

Purpose statement

This Specific module introduces set up LAN. The course materials will assist in developing the Knowledge,
skills and attitude necessary to Plan and implement small and medium enterprise networks. The leaner will
be able to analyze facilities and existing network, Describe the purpose and functions of various network
devices, LAN applications, LAN architecture, install and configure shared network devices, Select the
appropriate media, cables, ports, and connectors to connect switches and router, Describe the technology
and media access control method for Ethernet networks, Implement an IP addressing scheme
and IP Services to meet network requirements in small and medium-size

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Table of Contents

Elements of competence and performance criteria Page

Learning Unit Performance Criteria No.
1. Apply basics of Computer 1.1 Proper Introduction and definition of Network 3
networking and set up a LAN 1.2 Proper Application of LAN Concepts and
architectures
1.3 Appropriate application of Basics of computer
networking
1.4 Proper setting up of a LAN and shared devices

2. Conduct site survey 2.1 Efficient Analysis of facilities and existing 82

networks
2.2 Adequate identification of components,
devices ,tools, connectors and media
2.3 Proper identification of Security requirements
2. 4 Identify Security requirements

3. Configure and troubleshoot 3.1 Proper configuration of IOS 121

a LAN 3.2 Proper configuration LAN IP settings
3.3 Proper troubleshooting of local area network

4. Document the work done 4.1 Accurate documentation of review process 221
4.2 Effective reporting procedures of the task
accomplished are in place and used
4.3 Methodical Writing of the technical journal
and recommendation
Total Number of Pages: 254

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Learning Unit 1 – Apply basics of Computer networking and set up LAN
LO1.1 –Apply basics of Computer networking and set up a LAN.

Content/Topic 1: Introduction common terms used in local area network.

A computer network: is a group of computers that use a set of common communication protocols over
digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on or provided by the network nodes.

The Internet: is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol
suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks that consists of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad
array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of
information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the
World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing.

Internet service provider (ISP): is a company such as MTN, AITEL-TIGO, NEW ALTEL, at&t, verizon,
comcast, or bright house that provides internet access to companies, families, and even mobile users. isps
use fiber-optics, satellite, copper wire, and other forms to provide internet access to its customers

Firewall: A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic and
decides whether to allow or block specific traffic based on a defined set of security rules. ... A firewall can
be hardware, software, or both
There are several types of firewalls that have developed over the years, becoming progressively more
complex and taking more parameters into consideration when determining whether traffic should be
allowed to pass. Firewalls started off as packet filters, but the newest do much much more.

Initially placed at the boundaries between trusted and untrusted networks, firewalls are now also
deployed to protect internal segments of networks, such as data centers, from other segments of
organizations’ networks.

They are commonly deployed as appliances built by individual vendors, but they can also be bought as
virtual appliances – software that customers install on their own hardware.

Types of firewalls:
There are several types of firewalls that have developed over the years, becoming progressively more
complex and taking more parameters into consideration when determining whether traffic should be
allowed to pass.

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1. Proxy-based firewalls
These firewalls act as a gateway between end users who request data and the source of that data. Host
devices connect to the proxy, and the proxy makes a separate connection to the source of the data. In
response, source devices make connections to the proxy, and the proxy make a separate connection to the
host device. Before passing on packets to a destination address, the proxy can filter them to enforce
policies and mask the location of the recipient’s device, but also to protect the recipient’s device and
network.

The upside of proxy-based firewalls is that machines outside the network being protected can gather only
limited information about the network because they are never directly connected to it.

The major downside of proxy-based firewalls is that terminating incoming connections and creating
outgoing connections plus filtering causes delays that can degrade performance. In turn, that can eliminate
using some applications across the firewall because response times become too slow.

2. Stateful firewalls
A performance improvement over proxy-based firewalls came in the form of stateful firewalls, which keep
track of a realm of information about connections and make it unnecessary for the firewall to inspect every
packet. This greatly reduces delay introduced by the firewall.

By maintaining the state of connections, these firewalls can, for example, forego inspecting incoming
packets that they identify as responses to legitimate outgoing connections that have already been
inspected. The initial inspection establishes that the connection is allowable, and by preserving that state
in its memory, the firewall can pass through subsequent traffic that is part of that same conversation
without inspecting every packet.

3. Web application firewalls

Web application firewalls sit logically between servers that support Web applications and the internet,
protecting them from specific HTML attacks such as cross-site scripting, SQL injection and others. They can
be hardware- or cloud-based or they can be baked into applications themselves to determine whether
each client trying to reach the server should be allowed access.

4. Next-generation firewalls
Packets can be filtered using more than the state of connections and source and destination addresses.
This is where NGFWs come into play. They incorporate rules for what individual applications and users are
allowed to do, and blend in data gathered from other technologies in order to make better informed
decisions about what traffic to allow and what traffic to drop.

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For example, some of these NGFWs perform URL filtering, can terminate secure sockets layer (SSL) and
transport layer security (TLS) connections, and support software-defined wide area networking (SD-
WAN) to improve the efficiency of how dynamic SD-WAN decisions about connectivity are enforced.

Internet Protocol address (IP address): An IP address is a 32-bit number assigned to each host on a
network. Each device that wants to communicate with other devices on a TCP/IP network needs to have an
IP address configured. For example, in order to access the Internet, your computer will need to have an IP
address assigned (usually obtained by your router from your ISP).

An IP address is usually represented in dot-decimal notation, consisting of four-decimal numbers separated

by periods (e.g. 192.168.0.1). The first part of the address usually represents a network the device is on
(e.g. 192.168.0.0), while the last part of the address identifies the host device (e.g. 192.168.0.1).

Figure 1: Devices 'IP address

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which is a set of networking protocols
that allows two or more computers to communicate. The Defence Data Network, part of the Department
of Defence, developed TCP/IP, and it has been widely adopted as a networking standard.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): is a network management protocol used on Internet
Protocol networks whereby a DHCP server dynamically assigns an IP address and other network
configuration parameters to each device on a network so they can communicate with other IP networks.

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 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is an application layer protocol used to distribute network
configuration parameters, such as IP addresses, subnet masks, default gateways, etc. to hosts on a TCP/IP
network. Assigning network parameters using DHCP reduces the amount of work of a network
administrator, since there is no need to statically configure parameters on each device.

DHCP employs a client-server architecture; a DHCP client is configured to request network parameters
from a DHCP server. A DHCP server is configured with a pool of available IP addresses and assigns one of
them to the DHCP client. Besides IP addresses, a DHCP server can provide some additional network
parameters, such as:

 subnet mask
 default gateway
 domain name
 DNS server

MAC address:

Ethernet uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to uniquely identify a host in an Ethernet
environment. Every Ethernet network interface card (NIC) has a MAC address burned in its firmware, which
is why MAC addresses are sometimes known as hardware addresses.

MAC addresses are 6 Bytes (48 bits) long. Every network card manufacturer gets a universally unique 3-
byte code called the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI). Manufacturers agree to give all NICs a MAC
address that begins with the assigned OUI. The manufacturer then assigns a unique value for the last 3
bytes, which ensures that every MAC address is globaly unique.

In the following picture we can see the structure of a MAC address:

Table 1: The structure of a MAC address

MAC addresses are usually written in the form of 12 hexadecimal digits. For example, this is a valid MAC
address: D8-D3-85-EA-1B-EE. Each hexadecimal character is 4 bits long, so the first six hexadecimal
characters represent the vendor (in this case, Hewlett Packard).

How to find the MAC address of your computer

You can find out the MAC address your computer is using. The process depends on your operating system:

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Windows

Go to the Command Prompt (Start – Programs – Accessories – Command Prompt on Windows XP, for
newer versions of Windows, just type cmd from the Start screen). Once inside the Command Prompt, type
the ipconfig/all command. The MAC address is shown in the Physical Address field:

Figure 2: Display MAC address using IPCONFIG/ALL Command

 Content/Topic 2: Explanation of the purpose of local area network

Local area networks (LANs) are computer networks ranging in size from a few computers in a single office
to hundreds or even thousands of devices spread across several buildings. They function to link computers
together and provide shared access to printers, file servers, and other services

Figure 3: LAN devices

 What is LAN and it uses

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 Typically, a LAN encompasses computers and peripherals connected to a server within a distinct
geographic area such as an office or a commercial establishment. Computers and other mobile
devices use a LAN connection to share resources such as a printer or network storage

 Important uses of LAN

Typically, LANs use wired connections to link the computers to each other and to a variety of
peripheral devices such as printers. Devices connected to a LAN are able to access data from any
machine that's connected to the network. LAN users can communicate with each other by chat or
email.

Advantages of local area network (LAN)

 Sharing of resources:

All the resources are attached to one network and if any computer needs any resources then it can
be shared with the required computer. Types of resources are the DVD drive, printers, scanners,
modems and hard drives. So there is no need to purchase separate resources for each computer
and it saves money.

 Client and server relationship:

All the data from attached computers can be stored in one server. If any computer (Client) needs
data then that computer user can simply log in and access the data from the server. For example
movies and songs can be stored on the server and can be accessed by any authorized user (Client
computer).

 Sharing of the internet:

In offices and net cafes, we can see that one internet connection is shared between all computers.
This is also the type of LAN technology in which main internet cable is attached to one server and
distributed among attached computers by the operating system.

 Software program sharing:

Software programs can also be shared on the LAN. You can use single licensed software and any
user can use it in the network. It is expensive to buy a license for each user in the network so
sharing software program is easy and cost-effective.

 Securing of data:

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 Keeping data on the server is more secure. And if you want to change or remove any data you can
do it easily on one server computer and other computers can access updated data. You can also
give access or revoke access to specific users so that only authorized users can access the data in
the network.

 Communication is easy, fast, and time-saving:

In LAN computers can exchange data and messages in the easy and fast way. It also saves time and
makes our work fast. Every user can share messages and data with any other user on LAN. The user
can log in from any computer on the network and access the same data placed on the server.

 Computer identification:

Each computer is given a MAC address and is temporarily stored in the switch or router during
communication. All computers on the LAN are identified by MAC addresses which are used to send
and receive messages and data. Note that MAC address is stored in the network adapter that is
attached in the motherboard of each computer. In old computers, network adapters were not built
in with motherboards but in modern computers, they come built-in with motherboards.

Disadvantages of local area network (LAN)

 Data security problem:
If the server computer is not set up correctly and there is a leak in security then unauthorized users
can access the data also. So there should be privacy policy and rules set up correctly on the server.
 Limitation of distance:
Local area networks are usually made within a building or nearby building and cannot extend to the
wider area.
 Server crashes may affect all computers:
If any file on the server is corrupted or hard drive fails then all the attached computers face
problems in functioning properly.

 Setting up a LAN is expensive:

It is expensive to set up LAN because there is special software required to make a server. Also,
communication devices like hubs, switches, routers, cables are costly. The special administrator is
required to maintain and troubleshoot LAN for a large office.

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LO1.2: Apply LAN Concepts and architectures

 Content/Topic 1: Describing LAN Applications

 LAN APPLICATIONS: A common LAN configuration is one that supports personal computers. With
the relatively low cost of such systems, individual managers within organizations often
independently procure personal computers for departmental applications, such as spreadsheet
and project management tools, and for Internet access.

 What is LAN used for?

A local-area network (LAN) connects the computer hardware in a localized area such as an office or
home. Typically, LANs use wired connections to link the computers to each other and to a variety of
peripheral devices such as printers.
 LAN applications and benefits
Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be shared with the other computer
connected to the network. Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be stored on a hard
disk of the central/server computer. This help users to use any computer in a network to access the
required data.
Personal Computer LANs.
A common LAN configuration is one that supports personal computers. With the relatively low cost of such
systems, individual managers within organizations often independently procure personal computers for
departmental applications, such as spreadsheet and project management tools, and for Internet access.

Low cost: low-cost - that you have the financial means for; "low-cost housing" affordable, low-
priced. Cheap, inexpensive - relatively low in price or charging low prices; "it would have been cheap at
twice the price"; "inexpensive family restaurants"

Limited data rate:

There is standard 100 Mbps Ethernet, which is what most people have at home. 100 Mbps is
100 megabits per second. That is translated into 12.5 megabytes per second (MBps or MB/s). It’s much
easier to convert to MBs since that is something we are all familiar with rather than bits.

This means that if you don’t have a gigabit router or switch and gigabit network card on your computers or
NAS, the maximum speed you’ll be able to transfer a file across your home network is 12.5 MBps.

Also, in the real world, it’s impossible to actually get that theoretical maximum. You’ll probably end up
somewhere around 4 to 8 MBps. If you are getting something really low like 1 MBps or less, there are
reasons for that which I will mention below.

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Factors that determine your final transfer speed between two devices.

1.Hard Drive Speed

One major limiting factor is the hard drive speed. If you have a computer with a 5400 RPM, your transfer
rate will be a lot slower than if you have two SSD drives in a RAID 0 configuration! How so? Well, it
depends.

On my network, even with gigabit Ethernet, I only get around 40 to 50 MB/s when using a traditional
platter hard drive.

If you read online, you’ll find that even most hard drives (SATA 3.0 GB/s) will max out at a read speed of 75
MB/s. That means you won’t even be able to past that without going to more expensive configurations like
RAID 0,1, or 5 with actual hardware RAID controllers.

When you jump up to an SSD, then things will get faster. However, to get the results I showed you at the
top (close to 110 MB/s), you most likely need to have a super-fast NVMe SSD drive. These drives can read
and write up to 3000 MB/s, which is well beyond Gigabit Ethernet.

2. Bus Speed

Even if you have a fast hard drive, the data still has to transfer from the hard drive to your motherboard
and then to the network card. The bus speed makes a big difference.

For example, if you are using an older PCI bus, the data transfer rate is only 133 MB/s. That may sound
higher than the maximum for gigabit Ethernet and it is, but the bus is shared across the whole system, so
you never really get that speed.

The latest PCI Express version will get you a max of 985 MB/s, so that makes a huge difference. This
basically means if you’re trying to transfer files from a really old computer and even if you buy a gigabit
Ethernet card, don’t expect to be getting anywhere near the max 125 MB/s transfer rate.

3. Network Cables

Another aspect to all of this is the cabling. If your cables are old or if they are close to power sources, it
could affect performance. Also, the length will make a difference if the cables are very long.

Overall, however, this is not going to make huge difference, so don’t go out and start replacing all your
cables. You basically want to make sure you have CAT 5e or CAT 6a/7 cables.

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The major point to get from here is that the hard drive is a major limiting factor and is the most likely
reason you will only see results range from 30 to 80 MB/s. To get really high numbers, you’ll need RAID 0
for traditional hard drives, NVMe for SSDs or 10GBe devices.

4.Network Devices

Lastly, you should try to keep your two machines (NAS and PC) connected to the same switch or router. I
plug my computer and NAS into the same switch and then connect my switch to the wireless router.

Most routers are also switches and technically you should get the same speeds as a dedicated switch.
However, in my experience, a dedicated switch from Netgear or Cisco always tends to perform better than
a wireless router that has built-in ports.

Secondly, you won’t get fast speeds if you are connecting via WiFi from your PC or laptop. You have to
make sure you are using the Ethernet port to get the fastest speed possible.

5. File Size

I have also noticed that transferring a ton of small files is slower than transferring fewer larger files. For
example, when transferring thousands of photos in a bunch of directories, I would get around 20 to 60
MB/s transfer rate whereas transferring large movie files several GBs in size would yield a faster 100
MB/s+.

 Back-End Networks

Back-end networks are used to interconnect large systems such as mainframes, supercomputers, and mass
storage devices. The key requirement here is for bulk data transfer among a limited number of devices in a
small area. High reliability is generally also a requirement. These are some typical characteristics:

 High data rate. To satisfy the high-volume demand, data rates of 100 Mbps or more are required.

 High-speed interface. Data transfer operations between a large host system and a mass storage
device are typically performed through high-speed parallel I/O interfaces, rather than slower
communications interfaces. Thus, the physical link between station and network must be high speed.

 Distributed access. Some sort of distributed medium access control (MAC) technique is needed to
enable a number of devices to share the medium with efficient and reliable access.

 Limited distance. Typically, a back-end network will be employed in a computer room or a small
number of contiguous rooms.

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  Limited number of devices. The number of expensive mainframes and mass storage devices found
in the computer room generally numbers in the tens of devices.

Storage area networks

What is SAN storage and how it works?
A Storage Area Network is a high-speed sub network of shared storage devices.
A SAN's architecture works in a way that makes all storage devices available to all servers on a LAN or
WAN. As more storage devices are added to a SAN, they too will be accessible from any server in the larger
network.

Figure 4: Storage Area Network (SAN)

A Storage Area Network (SAN): is a specialized, high-speed network that provides block-level
network access to storage. SANs are typically composed of hosts, switches, storage elements, and
storage devices that are interconnected using a variety of technologies, topologies, and protocols.

Some Benefits of SAN and NAS Storage

Disk Utilisation

Most people see this as being the main benefit of SAN and NAS storage. If you're using traditional direct
attach storage, you'll maybe get utilisation of around 30%. When we use centralised storage, we can get a
figure which is closer to 80%. Let's say that we have 50 servers which we expect will each require 300GB of
storage space. Well if you're using DAS, you're not going to put in exactly 300GB of disk capacity in each of

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those servers, you're probably going to put in 500GB because you want to leave a bit of room for
unexpected growth. Fitting larger disks in a server will require an outage and is really inconvenient.

With centralized storage, we don't have that problem. We have one centralized pool of storage, and we
can slice it up and distribute it to the different servers exactly how we want to and easily change it on the
fly. So if I've got some servers that require 300GB disk space, I give them 300GB disk space. If later on it
turns out that they need more space then I can easily give them it when they need it. Typically I can do this
non-disruptively. And I move from 'Just In Case' to 'Just in Time' - saving money because I don't need to
buy the physical disks until they're actually required.

Deduplication and Compression

This gives additional storage efficiency. I've got multiple servers all using the same centralized storage, if
there's any blocks on disk that are repeated, I can remove those duplicate blocks and just keep one copy.
Similarly I can use compression at the file level to reduce the amount of space used and get the same
benefit. For workloads which have high amounts of duplication and compressible data (such as virtualized
environments where multiple virtual machines have the same operating system, patches and applications)
this can give huge savings in the amount of disk space required.

Resiliency

Centralized storage systems are always built to have very high degrees of resiliency because they will
almost always be mission critical systems for the enterprise. If a disk fails then that's taken care of by RAID,
if a disk shelf fails that's taken care of by mirroring, if a controller fails we have a redundant peer controller
which can take over, and we can replicate our data between storage systems in different sites which give
us backup in case we lose the entire data center.

Centralised Management

If we've got 50 servers, it's much easier to manage the storage for them all if that's on one centralized
system, rather than distributed individually to each of those 50 servers.

Centralised Backup

Managing backups is very inconvenient and time consuming if we have 50 different tape drives on our 50
different servers and we're managing them all individually. If we're consolidated on centralized storage
then we can centralize our backup solution as well which is much easier to manage. Storage systems can
also backup to remote disk (rather than tape) which reduces space requirements and backup windows and
doesn't require loading/unloading of physical media.

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Disaster Recovery

We can replicate data from our main site to a disaster recovery site giving us a backup if the main site fails.
We can also load balance incoming client requests for read-only data between the different sites. (We
can't do this for writable data as we need to maintain one consistent copy of the data).

Virtualisation Support

Software such as VMware and Hyper-V allows us to run multiple virtual servers on the same underlying
physical hardware server. We can have a Linux web server, Exchange mail server and SQL database server
all running on the same physical box for example, and this is transparent to each of those virtual servers.
The killer feature of virtualization software is the ability to move virtual servers between physical servers
on the fly while they are still running. This mean that the virtual servers can keep on running with no
outages even if it's underlying physical server fails or is taken down for maintenance. External storage is a
requirement for this feature.

Diskless servers

If I'm using a SAN protocol, I can have my servers boot up from disks on the remote storage. They don't
even have to have a single disk drive in the servers themselves. This is a very popular option with blade
servers. Again this gives savings in hardware costs, rack space, power and cooling.

Separate network handling storage needs : The majority of consumers probably do not need a network
attached storage device specifically. ... If you are looking at having around 6TB or more of data
that needs to be accessible between multiple computers, than an NAS with multiple drives or expansion
space is probably a good idea.

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 Detaches storage tasks from specific servers: Network-attached storage (NAS) is dedicated file storage

that enables multiple users and heterogeneous client devices to retrieve data from centralized disk
capacity. ... NAS devices typically do not have a keyboard or display and are configured and managed with
a browser-based utility.

Network Attached Storage (NAS) provides an array of storage devices to provide storage and act as a file
server. Clients can use a variety of protocols such as Network File System (NFS) and Common Internet File
System (CiFS) to access and maintain the NAS server. NAS devices are used in RAID implementation as well.
NAS helps in centralizing storage, and it optimizes disk utilization. NAS provides high availability for storage
using RAID and clustering features. It offers many availability-required features such as load balancing and
fault tolerance. NAS devices are predominantly used for file sharing purposes.

Shared storage facility across high-speed network

What is shared storage?

Simply put, shared storage is a storage system used by multiple users/computers. It stores all of the files in
a centralized pool of storage and allows multiple users to access them at once.
There are a few types of shared storage systems:
 NAS (Network Attached Storage), like the Jellyfish, which is a server with storage space built into it
 SAN (Storage Area Network), which is a network for moving data to large disk arrays. It requires a
separate Network controller, and metadata controller servers, in addition to the disk array.

 RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks), which is essentially just a collection of hard drives.
Most SAN and NAS devices use some type of RAID at the storage level of the systems for actually storing
the data across several disks.

You may also hear the term RAID used to describe a desktop device that contains multiple hard drives and
connects to a single computer over USB or Thunderbolt like the ones made by G-Tech, LaCie, or OWC.
While there are ways to share these devices on a network, they are actually a type of direct attached
storage designed for a single user/computer to access.
Your specific post-production needs will determine which of these shared storage solutions is the best fit
for your team, but if you have multiple users who need to access the same footage and files, shared
storage is definitely the best option.
If you have a very large team (several hundred VFX artists or editors) dealing with huge datasets, a
SAN might be the way to go, but they tend to be more expensive and complicated to maintain. If you have
a very small team with small file sizes, a desktop RAID on a network might work for you, but you’ll likely
have to push and pull files rather than stream then into your NLE. A well designed NAS designed to handle
video gives you a lot more flexibility both in terms of team size and usage options.

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 Benefits of shared storage
There are a lot of ways to share files - thumb drives, over a network, cloud storage, sneakernet (walking
physical drives around the office, but who wants to walk places?) - but a shared storage system will save a
lot of time and headaches compared to these other options.

 You’ll eliminate the need for multiple hard drives with multiple copies of the same files. This
means you’re saving time finding, copying, and relinking files, and saving money on drives and
productivity. While you’ll be purchasing less storage space, you’ll actually have a net increase of storage
capacity by reducing redundancies.
 File management becomes so much easier because you’ll only have one centralized copy. No
more digging through indexes on multiple drives hunting for the footage you need, or taking the time to
index all those drives in the first place. Everything is stored in a centralized system, keeping it simple to
organize and easy to find what you need.

 Shared storage enables high performance for large files with multiple users on the system - you
can access and stream many HD or 4K files at once. No more bottlenecks and slowdowns like you might
get over a local network connection, which typically uses 1Gb ethernet. These networks can push about
90-100MB/second of data, but when you’re dealing with huge video files, it can take a long time to
move those files around, and the network isn’t fast enough to carry the video stream if there’s other
traffic on the network. With a shared storage system like the Jellyfish, using a 10Gb direct connection
means you won’t get any slowdown or interruptions from other users streaming these large video files
at the same time.
 Collaborative workflows will work much more smoothly. You won’t be limited by file sizes, long
wait times for file copying, passing drives back and forth, or any of the other physical and technical
limitations of other storage solutions.

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 Hard disks, tape libraries, CD arrays

Hard disks: A NAS HDD is designed to run for weeks on end, while a desktop HDD can only read and write
data for hours at a time. A NAS HDD is also built specifically for RAID setup. By combining
multiple drives into one single logical unit, RAID configurations provide data redundancy, thus protecting
data against drive failures.

Three key factors to consider when selecting NAS drives

Storage capacity, speed, and performance are not the only deciding factors when purchasing a NAS hard
drive anymore. An ideal NAS HDD should meet the following requirements: higher workload rate and
Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF), thermal control and vibration tolerance, and add-on services.

 24/7 continuous operation

Desktop HDDs only operate when computers are on, while NAS HDDs can be up and running 24/7. Desktop
HDDs are likely to fail under long-term continued operation, so you need NAS drives that are purpose-built
for continuous operation especially in large NAS deployment.

To ensure maximum uptime, you should take workload rate and MTBF into account. Workload rate means
the amount of user data transferred annually (TB/yr), while MTBF refers to the average time during which
a device functions before it reaches end of life. Generally speaking, the average workload for desktop
HDDs is 55 (TB/yr), while you cannot even see MTBF on the spec sheet because continuous operation is
not a concern when designing a desktop HDD. A NAS drive, by contrast, provides a higher workload rate
and longer MTBF, ensuring greater durability and reliability. Take IronWolf Pro as an example. It offers a
workload rate of 300TB per year with an MTBF of 1.2 million hours.

 Thermal control and vibration tolerance

Closely nested drives operating at the same time inside a NAS can result in vibration, noise, and heat. In
addition, hard drives usually have high spindle speeds (RPM) so that disks can rotate at a faster speed and
read data faster. Low spindle speeds create less vibration and noise, but they become a hindrance to
achieving better read/write performance. Vibration is especially undesirable in multi-bay or rack systems,
for it hampers stability of hard drive operation and even leads to data loss.

With NAS drives, you can rest assured that you don’t have to trade off speed for quieter and cooler drives.
Nowadays, NAS drive manufacturers have developed anti-vibration technologies to prevent drives from
creating too much vibration and noise, while maintaining high-speed performance at the same time. For

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 instance, every IronWolf hard drive is equipped with built-in rotational vibration (RV) sensors that can
reduce vibration in multi-drive NAS systems, maximizing system availability and performance.

 Add-on services

Aside from performance and features, you should also consider added value that comes along with the
drives you purchase. Select NAS drives that offer add-on services, such as warranty, drive health
management, and data recovery services that are tailored to your needs.

To prevent data loss, S.M.A.R.T (Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology) is usually employed
to analyze 20 parameters and will send out a warning upon detecting imminent drive failures. IronWolf
Health Management (IHM) brings reliability to a higher level as it monitors hundreds of parameters with
adaptive algorithms to keep close tabs on drive health status, ensuring a robust system environment.

Should a drive failure occur, users will probably turn to hard disk data providers. It could be very pricey,
and these rescue data efforts may still end up in vain. Therefore, a recovery plan included with your
purchase will play a pivotal role in your choice of NAS drives. For example, Seagate’s Rescue Recovery Data
Plan allows their users to seek professional help from global data recovery specialists in the event of
catastrophic data loss.

It’s all about reliability

A NAS drive allows for 24/7 multi-user access, and its reliability is something we don’t want to miss.

Don’t let hard disk failures, vibration, and heat commonly found in desktop drives become stumbling
blocks to your NAS system. Bear the above factors in mind when purchasing NAS drives, and then hopefully
you’ll find ideal ones that best suit your needs.

Tape libraries:

A tape library is also known as a tape silo, tape jukebox or tape robot.

A tape library is a high-capacity storage system used for storing, retrieving, reading from and writing to
tape cartridges. A tape library contains racks of cartridges and multiple tape drives with a robotic system
used for automatically changing tape cartridges. A filing system that uses a barcode reader or an RF
scanner allows the tape library to find the correct tape to load either for writing or for reading.

Because larger tape library units can hold thousands of tape cartridges, their capacity currently ranges
anywhere from 20 terabytes to 2.1 exabytes. This is more than a thousand times larger than the capacity of
common hard drives and well beyond the capacities economically possible with network-attached storage
(NAS), but the speed of finding the actual data amidst hundreds or thousands of tape cartridges and then

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going to the exact location on a specific roll of tape where the data are located takes a lot of time, so the
system is only suitable for backups that may not be needed for a long time. Tape libraries are also
expensive, costing in excess of a million dollars for a fully expanded library. One of the earliest tape library
units was the IBM 3850 Mass Storage System (MSS), which came out in 1974.

CD arrays: A group of hard drives built into a single unit, which may be configured as a RAID system
(see RAID). Also called a "drive array" or "storage array," a disk array generally refers to magnetic disks or
solid state disks; however, optical drives (CD, DVD, etc.) also come in multi-drive units (see optical disc
library).

Traditional Client/Server Computing with Direct Attached Storage

This section takes a look at a legacy storage topology that worked for many years but is incapable of
meeting today's high-availability system requirements. Before there was network storage, there was just
plain old storage. Storage products were categorized by the computer platform they were designed for,
such as IBM mainframe systems, Digital VAX systems, AS/400s, UNIX workstations and servers, PC servers
and desktops, and Apple Macintosh computers. Historically, storage was usually sold as an integrated part
of the system.

Open-systems machines were connected then as they are today, mostly over Ethernet and TCP/IP
networks. File sharing, the first form of open-systems network storage, allowed workstation and desktop
users to access data on file server systems. Client systems could be almost anywhere on a LAN and could
access data from the file server. This way, storage on a UNIX server from one vendor could be used by
users running many different kinds of operating systems. In other words, the cost of storage could be
shared among many different platforms. A simple client/server file-sharing network is shown in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1. Basic Client/Server File-Sharing Network

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Introducing DAS

The acronym DAS stands for direct attached storage and reflects the legacy storage connection topology
used in client/server file-sharing networks. The storage connectivity technologies in this environment have
typically used either Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) or Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA),
although there have been a few others over the years. With the advent of storage networking
technologies, a term was needed to differentiate preexisting storage technologies from newer storage area
network (SAN) and network attached storage (NAS) technologies; hence the term DAS was invented.

Connectivity Shortcomings of DAS

DAS uses a bus topology in which systems and storage are connected by a bus that commonly takes the
form of a ribbon cable. Every entity on a DAS bus has a unique address from a limited number of possible
addresses. Devices are connected to the DAS bus in sequential fashion, sometimes called a daisy chain, as
illustrated in Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2. DAS Devices Connected on a Daisy Chain Bus

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Data Availability Depends on Server System Health

Notice in Figure 1-2 that there is a single host system storage controller for all the devices on the bus. This
is certainly a cost-effective arrangement, but it is hardly optimal for high availability. If the controller were
to fail, data on any of the devices on the bus would not be accessible. More important, if the system were
to fail for any reason, data on any of its buses would not be accessible until the system were recovered and
made operational again. With a goal of high availability, single points of failure such as these are simply not
allowable.

Figure 1-3 shows a client/server network with several clients accessing three different application servers,
each with its own storage. Server 3 is in the process of being upgraded and has been shut down to
complete the upgrade process. While the upgrade is being done, the application's data is temporarily
unavailable.

Figure 1-3. Data Accessed Through Server 3 Is Unavailable While the Server Is Being Upgraded

Static Configuration of DAS Storage

In addition to the single point of failure problems and the bottleneck problems of DAS, the electric-
connection nature of parallel DAS buses makes it almost impossible to change the configuration of the bus
while the system is running. I've sometimes referred to this condition as "electric love" because the
controllers and devices on the bus cannot stand to be separated, even temporarily, while the system is
operational.

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Without the ability to dynamically change the configuration of the bus by adding, for instance, more
storage devices, it is impossible to make adjustments on the fly that could relieve I/O bottlenecks or create
additional storage capacity.

Distance Limitations of DAS

No discussion of DAS storage shortcomings would be complete without mentioning the distance
limitations of DAS storage buses. DAS makes many different bus and cable lengths available, but they are
all relatively short. The longest cable length for DAS storage is 30 meters, which used to be supported with
differential SCSI. Today, low-voltage differential SCSI cables can be 12 meThere are two fundamental
problems with short cables. The first is disaster tolerance. A fire, flood, or any other site disaster that
physically impacts a storage subsystem will also wipe out a redundant subsystem that is 12 meters away.
There is no good way to achieve the required distances for data redundancy and business continuity using
DAS.

The second problem with DAS cable lengths becomes painfully clear when positioning servers and storage
in a crowded data center or server room. DAS's limited-distance connections force servers and storage to
be positioned adjacently. As systems and storage are upgraded and new systems and storage are installed,
the challenge of fitting all servers and storage close enough to each other can become an expensive and
time-consuming exercise. Most IT professionals agree that spending time plotting the moves of servers and
storage to accommodate cabling is a waste of time they would gladly avoid.

High Cost of Managing DAS Storage

DAS is typically the least expensive storage to buy but the most expensive to own and manage. Considering
that storage management costs exceed the cost of storage several times over, it is clear that DAS is on the
wrong side of the value fulcrum.

One of the primary issues with managing DAS storage is the lack of centralized management. As
management can be performed only through the server that connects to the DAS system, the management
of DAS storage is determined by the server's operating system, if it exists at all. With inconsistent
management methods, the end result is that DAS storage problems can be more difficult to predict than
one might expect, which means that unpleasant disk-full surprises are more likely to pop up.

es it difficult and expensive to purchase storage collectively for all the servers together, because each
system needs to have its own excess storage capacity. The utilization of storage resources cannot be
balanced or spread among multiple servers. In other words, the cost of storage cannot be leveraged across
all servers, but is isolated to each server and its applications. Unfortunately, it is nearly impossible to

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predict the amount of storage an application is going to need before it is installed. Some applications are
never used as expected, while others that start out as simple utilities can grow into full-fledged
workhorses.

Figure 1-4 shows two servers, each running two applications on separate I/O buses to reduce I/O
bottlenecks. Of the two applications on Server A, one is growing faster than planned, while the other is
growing slower than planned. Of the two applications on Server B, one is growing faster than planned, and
the other is growing as expected.

Figure 1-4. Inconsistent Utilization of DAS Storage

The situation in Figure 1-4 poses some difficult challenges. It might be possible to allocate some of the
storage from the slower-growing applications to the fast-growing applications. This type of solution could
possibly work, but it could also trigger other problems, such as I/O bottlenecks. Regardless, the solution is
only a Band-Aid, as there is still an excellent chance that some data growth will continue to be faster than
expected, and the applications will be more likely to run out of storage space.

Even though there are two separate I/O buses on each server, it is not possible to add storage while the
system is running. If the I/O bus needs to be changed, the entire system must be shut down. Therefore, a
capacity-full situation with either application creates a data availability problem for both applications
running on the server.

Performance and capacity of slow-growing applications seldom create operational problems, but there
might be other financial issues to deal with. As more companies look for ways to run more efficiently,
storage resources that are less than 50% utilized might be viewed as overly expensive. Requests for more

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budget resources to address storage problems when current storage resources are underutilized are not
always warmly received by financial managers.

In the final analysis, DAS products are simply not capacity-efficient. Companies wind up buying far more
storage than they need to.

Limited Scalability with DAS

Another serious problem with DAS storage is the lack of scalability, which comes from having a small
address space. While most networking technologies can accommodate thousands or even millions of
entities, DAS storage is limited to a few hundred.

The SCSI bus has been implemented with a variety of address spaces. Today, SCSI adapters for systems
typically support one or two buses with a total of 16 target addresses. In turn, each one of these supports
up to 15 subaddresses, which expand the addressability a great deal, but it is still small by networking
standards.

Whether or not the address space allows enough storage devices to be connected, there are still other
matters that must be considered, such as the way fairness algorithms are implemented in SCSI. Without
plunging in too deeply at this point, all entities on the bus arbitrate to determine which entity will gain
control of the bus and transfer data. The bus address determines the priority that is used to resolve
concurrent arbitration attempts from multiple bus entities. While this is sometimes referred to as a
fairness algorithm, there is nothing fair about it, as the entities with the lowest-priority addresses get
serviced the least.

In fact, the target addresses with the lowest priority could potentially have 15 devices with subaddresses
needing to transfer data over the bus. If these devices are unable to gain control of the bus, a situation
called device starving can occur, which has the unpleasant side effect of ruining the performance of
applications needing services from those devices.

Direct storage to storage communication for backup

Data Backup and Storage

A separate network can also be used to backup servers and other cloud devices. Attaching backup and
storage devices to this network (or to a separate storage area network) can reduce traffic on the main
network and provide additional security. Users will rarely need to access the file storage directly as this will
normally be undertaken via the application.

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The internal cloud infrastructure should be designed to cater for the backup and storage requirements,
which may well be larger than normal. Users may want to store different images or keep development
snapshots of their servers and be able to enable and disable these as required.

When you are designing the storage requirements of the cloud computing environment, you will need to
consider the following forms of storage:

Direct Attached Storage (DAS) This is a traditional method of grouping storage devices together for large
SCSI disk arrays directly connected to one or more servers. This solution has ongoing utility for a private
cloud, but the disks need to be physically colocated with the servers they are connected to.
Network Attached Storage (NAS) These devices are connected via an Ethernet network and can provide
data storage services to a multitude of clients. Since NAS devices can be located further away than DAS
devices, they can be grouped and located in a more secure part of the data center.
Storage Area Network (SAN) A SAN provides a way to attach storage devices to servers such that they
appear to be locally attached to the operating system. As with NAS, storage is typically located away from
the client servers. The difference with SAN is that they utilize a Fiber Channel topology, which provides fast
access to the storage devices. Another SAN-style approach is iSCSI, which is important because it offers the
control of SANs and the lower expense of IP networks.
Internal Disk The typical server configuration includes internal disk. Although internal disk is good for
system performance, there are several drawbacks to it in cloud computing. First, as VMs are provisioned to
a server, the isolation between VMs may be compromised via disk pathways. The big risk here is that one
VM may gain access to the hardware disk and thus be able to see files belonging to another VM.
There are security advantages to using a SAN, particularly in terms of disaster recovery. Servers can boot
from a SAN, which can shorten the time from provisioning to booting a server. An additional advantage is

that a SAN can be configured to span multiple locations, even remote locations. This means data can be
replicated to remote locations and can be retrieved quickly for disaster recovery.

High speed office networks : High-Speed Serial Interface (HSSI) - High-Speed Serial Interface (HSSI) is a
short-distance communications interface that is commonly used to interconnect routing and switching
devices on local area networks (LANs) with the higher-speed lines of a wide area network (WAN).

Many businesses are looking for new options as far as high speed Internet connectivity that also ensures
data security. The kind of network your business needs greatly depends on what your business is, what
kind of information you will be dealing with, how many people will be using the network, and what kind of
security you need. Fortunately, most network providers can work with your business to create a solution to
your needs, whether it’s faster speeds, cloud services, or greater security. The following is a list of a few of
the different kinds of networks your company can use:

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Private networking—This is a way to connect employees who may be geographically separated across a
shared network that is secure and relatively inexpensive. This network is often connected via SSL which
ensures a high level of encryption without sacrificing speed. This means you will get a high level of business
network security while still maintaining low costs of operations and network efficiency.

MPLS Site to Site VPN solution—A Multi-Protocol Label Switching VPN(Virtual Private Networks) service
allows all of your business applications to live under one roof, figuratively speaking. This wide area
networking (WAN) technology paired with site to site virtual private network (VPN) allow different
networks to interconnect without needing leased lines in between. The result is reduced cost and greater
security. It also means teams of workers in different regions can connect safely and efficiently.

Business DSL—Business DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is good for small businesses because it is affordable
and can provide you with download speeds up to 20 Mbps. If your company uses the Internet heavily for
downloads but not necessarily for cloud-based activity this would be a good solution. Options usually
include ADSL(Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) and SDSL(Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line).

T1—This basic network offers speeds up to 12 Mbps and is usually scalable depending on the growth of
your business. A T1 may work reasonably well for a home office or a few employees, but for an entire
office a T1 would not suffice. Usually you can upgrade to a business DSL and from there utilize other
network solutions as needed.

Cloud-based—Many of these networks will involve varying degrees of cloud-based technology that deliver
Security as a Service (SaaS). This usually includes various combinations of firewalls, anti-virus, web filtering,
and data loss prevention. As the world becomes interconnected through digital channels network security
is becoming increasingly important. If you’re setting up a new business, the network you’re going to use
should be one of the first overhead costs you consider. Failure to do so can eventually lead to security
breaches and slow speeds, which can lead to business loss, frustrated employees and weak output.

Desktop image processing : Image processing is a method to perform some operations on an image, in
order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal
processing in which input is an image and output may be image or characteristics/features associated with
that image. Nowadays, image processing is among rapidly growing technologies. It forms core research
area within engineering and computer science disciplines too.

Image processing basically includes the following three steps:

 Importing the image via image acquisition tools;

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  Analysing and manipulating the image;
 Output in which result can be altered image or report that is based on image analysis.

There are two types of methods used for image processing namely, analogue and digital image processing.
Analogue image processing can be used for the hard copies like printouts and photographs. Image analysts
use various fundamentals of interpretation while using these visual techniques. Digital image processing
techniques help in manipulation of the digital images by using computers. The three general phases that all
types of data have to undergo while using digital technique are pre-processing, enhancement, and display,
information extraction.

High capacity local storage: Local storage is the process of storing digital data on physical storage devices,
such as hard disc drives (HDDs), solid state drives (SSDs), or external storage devices, such as thumb drives
or discs. In essence, the cloud simply provides an off-site, expansive solution for storage.Local Storage
should be avoided because it is synchronous and will block the main thread. It is limited to about 5MB and
can contain only strings. Local Storage is not accessible from web workers or service workers. Cookies have
their uses, but should not be used for storage.

What is local storage used for?

Local Storage is a type of web storage that allows JavaScript sites and apps to store and access data right in
the browser with no expiration date. This means the data stored in the browser will persist even after the
browser window has been closed.

 Backbone LANs

Backbone is most important part of a system which provides the central support to the rest system, for
example backbone of a human body that balance and hold all the body parts. Similarly in Computer
Networks a Backbone Network is as a Network containing a high capacity connectivity infrastructure that
backbone to the different part of the network.
Actually a backbone network allows multiple LANs to get connected in a backbone network, not a single
station is directly connected to the backbone but the stations are part of LAN, and backbone connect those
LANs.

Backbone LANs:
Because of increasing use of distributed applications and PCs, a new flexible strategy for LANs has been
introduced. if a premises wide data communication system is to be supported then we need a networking
system which can span over the required distance and which capable of interconnecting all the equipment in
a single building or in a group of buildings.

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It is possible to develop a single LAN for this purpose but practically this scheme faces the following
drawbacks:

1. Poor Reliability:
With a single LAN, the reliability will be poor since a service interruption even for a short duration can
cause major problem to the user.
2. Capacity:
There is a possibility that a single LAN may be saturated due to increase in number of devices beyond
a certain number
3. Cost:
A single LAN can not give its optimum performance for the diverse requirements of communication
and interconnection.
So the alternative for using a single LAN is to use low cost low capacity LANs in each building or department
and then interconnection all these LANs with high capacity LAN. such a network is called as Backbone LAN.
the backbone network allows several LANs to be connected. in the backbone network, no station is directly
connected with backbone, instead each station is a part a LAN, and the LANs are connected to the backbone.

Interconnect low speed local LANs

The backbone itself is a LAN, it uses a LAN protocol such as ethernet, Hence each connection in the backbone
is itself another LAN. The two very common used architectures are: Bus backbone, Star backbone. These are
explained as following below.

1. Bus Backbone:
In Bus backbone the topology used for the backbone is bus topology.

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 In above the Bus backbone structure is used as a distribution backbone for connecting different
buildings in an organization. each building may have either a single LAN or another backbone which
comes in star backbone. the structure is a bridge based (bridge is the connecting device) backbone with
four LANs.

Working:
In above structure if a station in LAN 2 wants to send a frame to some other station in Same LAN then
Bridge 2 will not allow the frame to pass to any other LAN, hence this frame will not reach the
backbone. If a station from LAN 1 wants to send a frame to a station in LAN 4 then Bridge 1 passes this
frame to the backbone. This frame is then received by Bridge 4 and delivered to the destination.
2. Star Backbone:
The topology of this backbone is star topology.

Above figure shows the Star backbone in this configuration, the backbone is simply a switch which is
used to connect various LANs. The switch does the job of backbone and connect the LANs as well. This
type of backbone are basically used as distribution backbone inside a building.

There is one more category of backbone network is Interconnecting of Remote LANs:

3. Interconnection of Remote control:

In this type of backbone network the connection are done through the bridge called remote bridges
which acts as connecting devices in connect LANs as point to point network link.

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 Example of point to point networks are leased telephone lines or ADLS lines. Such a point to point
network can be considered as being equivalent to a LAN without stations.

 Content/Topic 2: Introduction of LAN architecture Network Topologies

What is network topology?

Network topology is the description of the arrangement of nodes (e.g. networking switches and routers)
and connections in a network, often represented as a graph.

No matter how identical two organizations are, no two networks are exactly alike. However, many
organizations are relying on well-established network topology models. Network topologies outline how
devices are connected together and how data is transmitted from one node to another.

A logical network topology is a conceptual representation of how devices operate at particular layers of
abstraction.

A physical topology details how devices are physically connected. Logical and physical topologies can both
be represented as visual diagrams.

A network topology map is a map that allows an administrator to see the physical network layout of
connected devices. Having the map of a network’s topology on hand is very useful for understanding how
devices connect to each other and the best techniques for troubleshooting.

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There are many different types of topologies that enterprise networks have built on today and in the past.
Some of the network topologies we’re going to look at include bus topology, ring topology, star
topology, mesh topology, and hybrid topology.

Bus Topology

Figure 5: Bus Topology

Bus topology is a network type where every device is connected to a single cable that runs from one end of
the network to the other. This type of network topology is often referred to as line topology. In a bus
topology, data is transmitted in one direction only. If the bus topology has two endpoints then it is referred
to as a linear bus topology.

Smaller networks with this type of topology use a coaxial or RJ45 cable to link devices together. However,
the bus topology layout is outdated and you’re unlikely to encounter a company using a bus topology
today.

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is easy to set up, handle, and implement.
2. It is best-suited for small networks.
3. It costs very less.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. The cable length is limited. This limits the number of network nodes that can be connected.
2. This network topology can perform well only for a limited number of nodes. When the number of
devices connected to the bus increases, the efficiency decreases.
3. It is suitable for networks with low traffic. High traffic increases load on the bus, and the network
efficiency drops.
4. It is heavily dependent on the central bus. A fault in the bus leads to network failure.
5. It is not easy to isolate faults in the network nodes.

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 6. Each device on the network “sees” all the data being transmitted, thus posing a security risk.
Ring Topology

Figure 6: Ring Topology

In networks with ring topology, computers are connected to each other in a circular format. Every device
in the network will have two neighbors and no more or no less. Ring topologies were commonly used in
the past but you would be hard-pressed to find an enterprise still using them today.

The first node is connected to the last node to link the loop together. As a consequence of being laid out in
this format packets need to travel through all network nodes on the way to their destination.

Within this topology, one node is chosen to configure the network and monitor other devices. Ring
topologies are half-duplex but can also be made full-duplex. To make ring topologies full-duplex you
would need to have two connections between network nodes to form a Dual Ring Topology.

Dual Ring Topology

Figure 7: Dual Ring Topology

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As mentioned above, if ring topologies are configured to be bidirectional then they are referred to as dual
ring topologies. Dual ring topologies provide each node with two connections, one in each direction. Thus,
data can flow in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. The data being transmitted between two nodes passes through all the intermediate nodes. A
central server is not required for the management of this topology.
2. The traffic is unidirectional and the data transmission is high-speed.
3. In comparison to a bus, a ring is better at handling load.
4. The adding or removing of network nodes is easy, as the process requires changing only two
connections.
5. The configuration makes it easy to identify faults in network nodes.
6. In this topology, each node has the opportunity to transmit data. Thus, it is a very organized
network topology.
7. It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
2. The movement or changes made to network nodes affect the entire network’s performance.
3. Data sent from one node to another has to pass through all the intermediate nodes. This makes the
transmission slower in comparison to that in a star topology. The transmission speed drops with an
increase in the number of nodes.
4. There is heavy dependency on the wire connecting the network nodes in the ring.
Star Topology

Figure 8: Star Topology

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A star topology is a topology where every node in the network is connected to one central switch. Every
device in the network is directly connected to the switch and indirectly connected to every other node. The
relationship between these elements is that the central network hub is a server and other devices are
treated as clients. The central node has the responsibility of managing data transmissions across the whole
network and acts as a repeater. With star topologies, computers are connected with a coaxial cable,
twisted pair, or optical fiber cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Due to its centralized nature, the topology offers simplicity of operation.
2. It also achieves isolation of each device in the network.
3. Adding or removing network nodes is easy, and can be done without affecting the entire network.
4. Due to the centralized nature, it is easy to detect faults in the network devices.
5. As the analysis of traffic is easy, the topology poses lesser security risk.
6. Data packets do not have to pass through many nodes, like in the case of a ring network. Thus, with
the use of a high-capacity central hub, traffic load can be handled at fairly decent speeds.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Network operation depends on the functioning of the central hub. Hence, central hub failure leads
to failure of the entire network.
2. Also, the number of nodes that can be added, depends on the capacity of the central hub.
3. The setup cost is quite high.

Tree Topology

Figure 9: Tree Topology

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As the name suggests, a tree topology network is a structure that is shaped like a tree with its many
branches. Tree topologies have a root node that is connected to another node hierarchy. The hierarchy is
parent-child where there is only one mutual connection between two connected nodes. As a general rule,
a tree topology needs to have three levels to the hierarchy to be classified this way. This form of topology
is used within Wide Area Networks to sustain lots of spread-out devices.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. The tree topology is useful in cases where a star or bus cannot be implemented individually. It is
most-suited in networking multiple departments of a university or corporation, where each unit
(star segment) functions separately, and is also connected with the main node (root node).
2. The advantages of centralization that are achieved in a star topology are inherited by the individual
star segments in a tree network.
3. Each star segment gets a dedicated link from the central bus. Thus, failing of one segment does not
affect the rest of the network.
4. Fault identification is easy.
5. The network can be expanded by the addition of secondary nodes. Thus, scalability is achieved.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. As multiple segments are connected to a central bus, the network depends heavily on the bus. Its
failure affects the entire network.
2. Owing to its size and complexity, maintenance is not easy and costs are high. Also, configuration is
difficult in comparison to that in other topologies.
3. Though it is scalable, the number of nodes that can be added depends on the capacity of the
central bus and on the cable type.
Mesh Topology

Figure 10: Mesh Topology

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A mesh topology is a point-to-point connection where nodes are interconnected. In this form of
topology, data is transmitted via two methods: routing and flooding. Routing is where nodes use routing
logic to work out the shortest distance to the packet’s destination. In contrast, flooding is where data is
sent to all nodes within the network. Flooding doesn’t require any form of routing logic to work.

There are two forms of mesh topology: partial mesh topology and full mesh topology. With partial mesh
topology, most nodes are interconnected but there are a few which are only connected to two or three
other nodes. A full mesh topology is where every node is interconnected.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. The arrangement of the network nodes is such that it is possible to transmit data from one node to
many other nodes at the same time.
2. The failure of a single node does not cause the entire network to fail as there are alternate paths
for data transmission.
3. It can handle heavy traffic, as there are dedicated paths between any two network nodes.
4. Point-to-point contact between every pair of nodes, makes it easy to identify faults.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. The arrangement wherein every network node is connected to every other node of the network,
many connections serve no major purpose. This leads to redundancy of many network connections.
2. A lot of cabling is required. Thus, the costs incurred in setup and maintenance are high.
3. Owing to its complexity, the administration of a mesh network is difficult.
Hybrid Topology

Figure 11: Hybrid Topology

When a topology is composed of two or more different topologies it is referred to as a hybrid topology.
Hybrid topologies are most-commonly encountered in larger enterprises where individual departments
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have network topologies that different from another topology in the organization. Connecting these
topologies together will result in a hybrid topology. As a consequence, the capabilities and vulnerabilities
depend on the types of topology that are tied together.

Advantages

There are many reasons why hybrid topologies are used but they all have one thing in common: flexibility.
There are few constraints on the network structure that a hybrid topology cannot accommodate, and
you can incorporate multiple topologies into one hybrid setup. As a consequence, hybrid topologies are
very scalable. The scalability of hybrid setups makes them well-suited to larger networks.

Disadvantages

Unfortunately, hybrid topologies can be quite complex, depending on the topologies that you decide to
use. Each topology that is part of your hybrid topology will have to be managed according to its unique
network requirements. This makes administrators’ jobs more difficult because they are going to have to
attempt to manage multiple topologies rather than a single one. In addition, setting up a hybrid
topology can end up being quite costly.

Which Topology Should I Choose?

There is a range of factors that you need to take into account when choosing which topology to use. Before
choosing a topology you’ll want to closely consider the following:

 Length of cable needed

 Cable type
 Cost
 Scalability

First, you need to take into account the length of the cable you need to provide service to all your
network devices. A bus topology is the most lightweight in terms of cable needs. In this sense, this would
be the simplest topology to install and buy cables for. This ties into the second factor, you need to consider
the type of cable you’re going to use. Cable types range from twister pairs to coaxial cables and optical
fiber cables.

The cost of installing the topology is also very important. The more complex the topology you choose is,
the more you’ll need to pay in terms of resources and time to create that setup.

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The final factor you’ll want to take into account is scalability. If you’re planning to upscale your network
infrastructure in the future you want to make sure that you use a network that is easy to add devices to. A
star topology network is ideal for this because you can add network nodes with minimal disruption. This
isn’t as simple within a ring network because you will incur downtime if you add any nodes.

What is the best network topology for large businesses?

The best cabled network topology for large businesses is the star topology. This is because it is easier to
control from a central console as the management software just needs to communicate with the switch to
get full traffic management features. A hybrid topology is sometimes encountered as a temporary solution
to connect together departments while a new unified system is being planned.

Which network topology is the cheapest?

For small businesses, the bus topology is the cheapest and most reliable topology because it can be run
without buying specialist network equipment and doesn’t rely on each node being active.

 Content/Topic 3: Description of Choice of medium

 Cable Media
There are a number of different cabling types that a network engineer/administrator sees over the course
of their career. New individuals coming in to the field have to be familiar with a number of different cables
and connectors to be prepared for their day-to-day activities. The following cabling media types will be
most commonly seen in LAN environments.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is a ubiquitous type of copper cabling used in telephone wiring and local
area networks (LANs). There are five types of UTP cables -- identified with the prefix CAT, as in category --
each supporting a different amount of bandwidth.

Alternatives to UTP cable include coaxial cable and fiber optic cable. There are benefits and tradeoffs to
each type of cabling, but broadly speaking, most enterprises favor UTP cable due to its low cost and ease of
installation.

How UTP cables work: Twisted pair design

Inside a UTP cable is up to four twisted pairs of copper wires, enclosed in a protective plastic cover, with
the greater number of pairs corresponding to more bandwidth. The two individual wires in a single pair are
twisted around each other, and then the pairs are twisted around each other, as well. This is done to

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reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic interference, each of which can degrade network performance. Each
signal on a twisted pair requires both wires.

Twisted pairs are color-coded to make it easy to identify each pair. In North America, one wire in a pair is
identified by one of five colors: blue, orange, green, brown or slate (gray). This wire is paired with a wire
from a different color group: white, red, black, yellow or violet. Typically, one wire in a pair is solid-colored,
and the second is striped with the color of its mate -- e.g., a solid blue wire would be paired with a white-
and-blue striped wire -- so they can be easily identified and matched.

Figure 12: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable is most certainly by far the most popular cable around the world. UTP
cable is used not only for networking but also for the traditional telephone (UTP-Cat 1). There are seven
different types of UTP categories and, depending on what you want to achieve, you would need the
appropriate type of cable. UTP-CAT5e is the most popular UTP cable which came to replace the old coaxial
cable that was not able to keep up with the constant growing need for faster and more reliable networks.

Characteristics of UTP

The characteristics of UTP are very good and make it easy to work with, install, expand and troubleshoot
and we are going to look at the different wiring schemes available for UTP, how to create a straight
through UTP cable, rules for safe operation and a lot of other cool stuff !

So let's have a quick look at each of the UTP categories available today along with their specifications:

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Figure 13: UTP Categories

UTP cable applications

UTP cables are mostly used for LAN networks. They can be used for voice, low-speed data, high-speed
data, audio and paging systems, and building automation and control systems. UTP cable can be used in
both the horizontal and backbone cabling subsystems.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Shielded twisted pair (STP) cable was originally designed by IBM for token ring networks that include two
individual wires covered with a foil shielding, which prevents electromagnetic interference, thereby
transporting data faster.

STP is similar to unshielded twisted pair (UTP); however, it contains an extra foil wrapping or copper braid
jacket to help shield the cable signals from interference. STP cables are costlier when compared to UTP,
but has the advantage of being capable of supporting higher transmission rates across longer distances.

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Figure 14: Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cabling is more expensive than unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling. It has an
impedance of 150 ohms, has a maximum length of 90 meters, and is used primarily in networking
environments with a high amount of EMI due to motors, air conditioners, power lines, or other noisy
electrical components. STP cabling is the default type of cabling for IBM Token Ring networks.

STP cabling comes in various grades or categories defined by the EIA/TIA wiring standards, as shown in the
following table.

Types of STP Cable (Shielded Twisted Pair Cable)

Category 5e: Defines a shielded cable that operates at 350 MHz and carries data up to 1000 Mbps. It
carries high-quality signal while traveling across high voltage or power cables. Cat 5e cables are used in
networking, data transfer, and telephone lines.

150 Ohm Shielded Cable: Defines a cable in which twisted pairs are individually covered in a foil shield and
again enclosed in an outer braided wire shield. The shielding helps minimize EMI and crosstalk. The
maximum signaling frequency is 16 MHz.

Characteristics of STP Cable

Characteristics Description

Maximum cable length 100 meters

bandwidth 100 Mbps

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Connector type RJ-45

Cost Costlier than UTP but cheaper than

FIBER OPTIC cable.

Interference protection Better protection from crosstalk and

external interference

Signal transmission mode Baseband

Resistance 50 ohms

Table 2: Characteristics of STP Cable

Advantages of STP Cable

 Better protection from crosstalk.

 Better protection from external interference.
 Secured data transmission.

Disadvantages of STP Cable

 Costlier than UTP

 Difficult to install as compared to UTP.

Fiber-optic cable

A fiber-optic cable, also known as an optical-fiber cable, is an assembly similar to an electrical cable, but
containing one or more optical fibers that are used to carry light. The optical fiber elements are typically
individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a protective tube suitable for the environment
where the cable will be deployed. Different types of cable are used for different applications, for example,
long distance telecommunication, or providing a high-speed data connection between different parts of a
building.

Different types of fiber optic cables and their uses

Single-Mode Fiber Optic Cable

Businesses that need to enhance their network’s capability to perform long distance communication needs
a single mode fiber optic cable. This cable has the smallest core and the thickest sheathing – specifically

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designed to carry a single signal source over great distances with a low chance of failure. Its small diametric
core allows one mode of light to promulgate, causing the number of light reflections it creates to decrease.
And as the light that passes through the core decreases, its attenuation lowers. Because of that, the signal
this cable transmits is enabled to travel further, making it excellent for businesses that require long
distance communication.

Figure 15: Single-Mode Fiber Optic Cable

Multimode Fiber Optic Cable

In contrast with the single-mode fiber optic cable, multimode fiber optic cables are capable of carrying
multiple signals. Its large diametrical core is designed to enable multiple modes of light to promulgate.
And, as it passes through the core, it creates more light reflections, unlike the single-mode cable. Although
it can transfer data in a shorter distance, it enables the computer network to transfer more data at any
given time. That being said, if your company needs to transmit more data, multimode fiber optic cable is
what you need. Moreover, there are two types of multimode cable available in the market: the step-index
multimode cables and graded-index multimode cables.

Figure 16: Multimode Fiber Optic Cable

Here is a general breakdown of the three different types of cable and what they are capable of:

Twisted Pair Cables:

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Figure 17: Twisted Pair Cables

Twisted pair cables are literally a pair of insulated wires that are twisted together. While this does help to
reduce outside noise, these cables are still very susceptible to it. Twisted pair cables are the most cost-
effective option of the three – mostly due to their lower bandwidth capacity and high attenuation. There
are two types of twisted pair cables:
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
 ‘Unshielded’ meaning it does not rely on physical shielding to block interference
 Most commonly used cable of the two, often utilized for both residential and business use
 There are several UTP categories, which increase in bandwidth as you move up the scale, for
example:
 CAT1 = up to 1Mbps | CAT2 = up to 4 Mbps | CAT5e = up to 1Gbps

Shielded twisted pair (STP)

 ‘Shielded’ with a foil jacket to cancel any external interference
 Used primarily for large-scale enterprises, high-end applications, and exterior cabling that will be
exposed to environmental elements.

Coaxial Cables:

Figure 18: Coaxial Cables

Coaxial cables are high-frequency transmission cables made up of a single solid-copper core that transfers
data electrically over the inner conductor. Coax has 80X more transmission capacity than twisted pair
cables.

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This type of cable is commonly used to deliver TV signals (its higher bandwidth makes it more suitable for
video applications) and to connect computers in a network. Along with stable transmission of data, coax
also has anti-jamming capabilities and can effectively protect signals from being interfered. The cost is
slightly higher than twisted pair but still more economical than fibre. There are also two types of coaxial
cables:

75 Ohm

Most commonly used to transmit video signals

Often used to connect video signals between different components like DVDs, VCRs, or receivers
commonly known as A/V cables

50 Ohm

Primarily utilized to transmit a data signal in a 2-way communication system

Most commonly used for computer Ethernet backbones, AM/FM radio receivers, GPS antenna, police
scanners, and cell phone systems

 Content/Topic 4: Description of Protocol architecture

A protocol architecture is the layered structure of hardware and software that supports the exchange of
data between systems and supports distributed applications, such as electronic mail and file transfer. Each
protocol provides a set of rules.
Protocol Architectures and Networks

Figure 19: Protocol Architectures and Networks

 Lower layers of OSI model

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 OSI Model. It divides network communication into seven layers. Layers 1-4 are considered
the lower layers and mostly are concerned with data around. Layers 5-7, the upper layers, contain
application-level data.

LOWER AND UPPER LAYERS OF OSI MODEL

Table 3: LOWER AND UPPER LAYERS OF OSI MODEL

Lower layers of OSI model

Table 4: Lower layers of OSI model:

 IEEE 802 reference model

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  IEEE, pronounced "Eye-triple-E," stands for the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. The association is chartered under this name and it is the full legal name.
 What is IEEE for?
The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) describes itself as "the world's
largest technical professional society -- promoting the development and application of
electrotechnology and allied sciences for the benefit of humanity, the advancement of the
profession, and the well-being of our members."

 The IEEE fosters the development of standards that often become national and international
standards.
The IEEE 802 reference model defines three layers:

 logical link control (LLC),

 medium access control (MAC),
 and physical (PHY).

Bridging functions are considered a sublayer within the MAC layer. The LLC and MAC layers map to
the OSI data-link layer. The PHY layer maps to the OSI physical layer.

The IEEE 802.3 specification derives from Ethernet II. Today, nearly all Ethernet LANs are 802.3
compliant. A separate amendment, known as 802.3ae, specifies 10-Gbps operation. The frame
format of Ethernet II has been merged into 802.3 by allowing the third field of the 802.3 header to
be interpreted as either length or type, depending on the numeric value of the field. The 802.3ae
specification uses the same frame format. When the third field is interpreted as length, the 802.3
header is followed by the 802.2 header in the PDU. (One notable exception to this rule is the 802.3
raw frame format used by Novell NetWare in the past.) Combined, 802.3 and 802.2 provide full OSI
physical layer functionality plus all OSI data-link layer functionality except for bridging-related
services. The 802.1D, 802.1G, 802.1H, and 802.1Q specifications provide OSI data-link layer bridging
functionality. Alternately, when the third field of the 802.3 header is interpreted as type, the 802.2
header is omitted from the PDU. The 802.3 service then provides full OSI physical layer functionality
plus limited OSI data-link layer functionality. The type field enables identification of the intended
upper layer protocol at the destination host (also known as the destination EtherType). This is
important because it enables demultiplexing of OSI network layer protocols, which is a subset of
the functionality provided by the 802.2 header. Figure 2-4 compares the IEEE 802 reference model
to the OSI reference model and lists the relevant Ethernet specifications.

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 IEEE 802 Relative to OSI

Figure 20: IEEE 802 Relative to OSI

IEEE specification names are case sensitive. For example, 802.1q is not the same as 802.1Q. Lower-
case letters indicate an amendment to an existing standard, whereas upper-case letters indicate a
full standard that might or might not incorporate various amendments.

 Physical
A PHY, an abbreviation for "physical layer", is an electronic circuit, usually implemented as an
integrated circuit, required to implement physical layer functions of the OSI model in a network
interface controller.
 What is the main function of physical layer?
Located at the lowest layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communications model, the
physical layer's function is to transport data using electrical, mechanical or procedural interfaces.
 Logical link control (LLC)
In the IEEE 802 reference model of computer networking, the logical link control (LLC) data
communication protocol layer is the upper sublayer of the data link layer (layer 2) of the seven-
layer OSI model. The LLC sublayer acts as an interface between the media access control (MAC)
sublayer and the network layer.

 What is the main function of LLC?

The function of the Logical Link Control (LLC) is to manage and ensure the integrity of data
transmissions. The LLC provides Data Link Layer links to services for the Network Layer protocols.

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 This is accomplished by the LLC Service Access Points (SAPs) for the services residing on network
computers.
 Media access control (MAC)
 What is media access control?

A media access control is a network data transfer policy that determines how data is transmitted
between two computer terminals through a network cable. The media access control policy
involves sub-layers of the data link layer 2 in the OSI reference model.

 Content /Topic 5: Description of Bridge.

 Bridges

Figure 21: Network Bridge

A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single aggregate network from
multiple communication networks or network segments. This function is called network bridging. Bridging
is distinct from routing. Routing allows multiple networks to communicate independently and yet remain
separate, whereas bridging connects two separate networks as if they were a single network. In the OSI
model, bridging is performed in the data link layer (layer 2). If one or more segments of the bridged
network are wireless, the device is known as a wireless bridge.

 Why bridge
A bridge is a device that connects and passes packets between two network segments that use the
same communications protocol. Bridges operate at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI reference
model. A bridge will filter, forward or flood an incoming frame based on the MAC address of that
frame.
 Reliability
Reliability is the measure of how often a network is useable. MTBF (Mean Time between Failures) is
a measure of the average time a component is expected to operate between failures. Normally

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 provided by the manufacturer. A network failure can be: hardware, data carrying medium and
Network Operating System.
 Performance
Performance is the defined as the rate of transferring error free data. It is measured by the
Response Time. Response Time is the elasped time between the end of an inquiry and the
beginning of a response. Request a file transfer and start the file transfer. Factors that affect
Response Time are:

 Number of Users: More users on a network - slower the network will run
 Transmission Speed: speed that data will be transmitted measured in bits per second (bps)
 Media Type: Type of physical connection used to connect nodes together
 Hardware Type: Slow computers such as XT or fast such as Pentiums
 Software Program: How well is the network operating system (NOS) written

 Security
Security is the protection of Hardware, Software and Data from unauthorized access. Restricted
physical access to computers, password protection, limiting user privileges and data encryption are
common security methods. Anti-Virus monitoring programs to defend against computer viruses are
a security measure.
 Geography

 Functions of a bridge
What is the main function of bridge?
A network bridge, also known as an Ethernet bridge, connects two segments of a network together.
The segments are not independent entities, but are owned and managed by the same organization.
The purpose of the bridge is to divide a network into manageable sections.
 Bridge operation
A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single aggregate network from
multiple communication networks or network segments. This function is called network
bridging. Bridging is distinct from routing. Routing allows multiple networks to communicate
independently and yet remain separate, whereas bridging connects two separate networks as if
they were a single network. In the OSI model, bridging is performed in the data link layer .If one or
more segments of the bridged network are wireless, the device is known as a wireless bridg
 Bridge design aspects

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Figure 22: Bridge on network design

 Bridge protocol architecture

Bridging Protocols

Bridged networks use the following protocols:

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)

STP is the default protocol that is used by the bridged networks. Bridging uses the STP mechanism to
prevent network loops that potentially render the sub networks unusable. To forward packets to their
destinations, bridges must listen in promiscuous mode on every link that is attached to the bridge.
Listening in promiscuous mode causes bridges to become vulnerable to the occurrences of forwarding
loops, in which packets infinitely circle at full-line rate.

What is the STP?

STP is a protocol. It actively monitors all links of the network. To finds a redundant link, it uses an
algorithm, known as the STA (spanning-tree algorithm). The STA algorithm first creates a topology
database then it finds and disables the redundant links. Once redundant links are disabled, only the STP-
chosen links remain active. If a new link is added or an existing link is removed, the STP re-runs the STA
algorithm and re-adjusts all links to reflect the change.

BPDUs (Bridge Protocol Data Unit) are multicast frames which switches use to share information about
themselves and their connections. Besides sharing information, switches also use BPDUs to learn the
network topology, to learn which switch is connected with which switches, and to learn whether any layer
2 switching loop exists in the learned topology or not.

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Root Bridge
A Root Bridge is the starting point of the STP network topology. To elect a Root Bridge from all switches of
the network, STP uses two parameters; a variable known as bridge priority and the MAC addresses of
participating switches. A switch that has the lowest bridge priority value, is elected as the root bridge. If
the bridge priority value is the same in all switches, the switch which has the lowest MAC address is
elected as the Root Bridge.

By default, the bridge priority value is set to 32768 in all Cisco switches. Unless you change this value, a
switch that has the lowest MAC address is elected as the Root Bridge. If you want a specific switch to be
elected as the Root Bridge, you can set the bridge priority value of that switch to less than 32768.

The selection process of the Root Bridge happens each time when a network change occurs like a new
switch is added in the network topology, or an existing switch is removed or the current Root Bridge is
failed. If other switches of the network do not receive BPDUs from the Root Bridge within 20 seconds, they
assume that the Root Bridge has failed. If the current Root Bridge fails, remaining switches automatically
start the election process to choose a new Root Bridge again.

Non-Root Bridge
Except the Root Bridge, all remaining switches of the network are considered as the Non-Root Bridges.
Non-Root Bridges receive updates from the Root Bridge and update their STP databases relatively.

LO1.3: Apply Basics of computer networking

 Content /Topic 1: Introduction to basic computer networking

A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other through a transmission medium such
as wires, cables etc. These devices can be computers, printers, scanners, Fax machines etc. The purpose of
having computer network is to send and receive data stored in other devices over the network.
These devices are often referred as nodes.

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There are five basic components of a computer network

Figure 23: five basic components of a computer network

Message: It is the data or information which needs to be transferred from one device to another device
over a computer network.

Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data to other device connected to the
network.

Receiver: A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other device on the network.
Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one device to another device we need a transmission
media such as wires, cables, radio waves etc.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by both sender and receiver, without a protocol two
devices can be connected to each other but they cannot communicate. In order to establish a reliable
communication or data sharing between two different devices we need set of rules that are called
protocol. For example, http and https are the two protocols used by web browsers to get and post the data
to internet, similarly SMTP protocol is used by email services connected to the internet.

Features of a Computer Network

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Figure 24: Features of computer network

A computer network has following features:

Performance: Performance of a computer network is measured in terms of response time. The response
time of sending and receiving data from one node (computer in a computer network are often referred as
node) to another should be minimal.

Data Sharing: One of the reason why we use a computer network is to share the data between different
systems connected with each other through a transmission media.

Backup: A computer network must have a central server that keeps the backup of all the data that is to be
shared over a network so that in case of a failure it should be able to recover the data faster.

Software and hardware compatibility: A computer network must not limit all the computers in a computer
network to use same software and hardware, instead it should allow the better compatibility between the
different software and hardware configuration.

Reliability: There should not be any failure in the network or if it occurs the recovery from a failure should
be fast.

Security: A computer network should be secure so that the data transmitting over a network should be
safe from unauthorised access. Also, the sent data should be received as it is at the receiving node, which
means there should not be any loss of data during transmission.

Scalability: A computer network should be scalable which means it should always allow to add new
computers (or nodes) to the already existing computer network. For example, a company runs 100

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computers over a computer network for their 100 employees, lets say they hire another 100 employees
and want to add new 100 computers to the already existing LAN then in that case the local area computer
network should allow this.

 Content /Topic 2: Connection of common used network components

Computer Network Components

Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software. Some
important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending on the type of
network that we need to install, some network components can also be removed. For example, the
wireless network does not require a cable.

Following are the major components required to install a network:

 Router

Figure 25: Different types of routers

o A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is used
to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.

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 o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
o It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.

Advantages of Router:
o Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire cable, but the
only specified device which has been addressed can read the data.
o Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no other networks
are affected that are served by the router.
o Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose there are 24
workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This increases the traffic load on the
network. Router splits the single network into two networks of 12 workstations each, reduces the
traffic load by half.

 Wireless routers

Figure 26: Wireless router

Definition - What does Wireless Access Point (WAP) mean?

A wireless access point (WAP) is a hardware device or configured node on a local area network (LAN) that
allows wireless capable devices and wired networks to connect through a wireless standard, including Wi-
Fi or Bluetooth. WAPs feature radio transmitters and antennae, which facilitate connectivity between
devices and the Internet or a network.A WAP is also known as a hotspot.

 LAN cable: A wire that is used to connect more than one computers or other devices such as
printers and scanner to each other.
 Switches :

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Figure 27:Switch

 A network switch is networking hardware that connects devices on a computer network by

using packet switching to receive and forward data to the destination device. A network
switch is a multiport network bridge that uses MAC addresses to forward data at the data
link layer of the OSI model.
 A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A
Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table
that decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the
correct destination based on the physical address present in the incoming message. A
Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines
the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch
provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of
the network.

 Adapter cards

Figure 28: Adapter cards

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 An adapter card is any internal expansion card that allows the computer to communicate with
another peripheral. A good example is a monitor or a video card.

 Bridges

Figure 29: Bridges

A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single aggregate network from
multiple communication networks or network segments. This function is called network bridging.
Bridging is distinct from routing. Routing allows multiple networks to communicate independently
and yet remain separate, whereas bridging connects two separate networks as if they were a single
network. In the OSI model, bridging is performed in the data link layer (layer 2) If one or more
segments of the bridged network are wireless, the device is known as a wireless bridge.

 Servers :
 a computer or computer program which manages access to a centralized resource or service in
a network.
 In computing, a server is a piece of computer hardware or software that provides functionality
for other programs or devices, called "clients". This architecture is called the client–server mode

 What is server used for?

Servers are used to manage network resources. For example, a user may set up a server to
control access to a network, send/receive e-mail, manage print jobs, or host a website. They are
also proficient at performing intense calculations

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Figure 30: Server room

 Repeater

Figure 31: Repeater

Repeaters are network devices operating at physical layer of the OSI model that amplify or regenerate an
incoming signal before retransmitting it. They are incorporated in networks to expand its coverage area.
They are also known as signal boosters.
What is the difference between a WiFi extender and a wifi repeater?
What is a WiFi Extender? WiFi extenders connect directly to your home network through a wired
connection. ... Another difference between a WiFi extender and a WiFi repeater is that a repeater will
repeat the same WiFi signal, while an extender will create a new WiFi network.

 Shared hardware: hardware devices that can be easily accessed from a remote computer through
a local area network (LAN) or enterprise intranet. Sharing hardware in a networked environment,
each computer on a network may access and use hardware resources on the network, such as
printing a document on a shared network printer
 Modem

o A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the
existing telephone line.
o It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over the
telephone lines.

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Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified in the following
categories:

o Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem

o Cellular Modem
o Cable modem

 PC (personal computer )

Figure 32: PC (personal computer)

A personal computer (PC) is a multi-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and price make it
feasible for individual use. Personal computers are intended to be operated directly by an end user,
rather than by a computer expert or technician. Unlike large,
costly minicomputers and mainframes, time-sharing by many people at the same time is not used
with personal computers.

 Rack mount

Figure 33: Rack mount

What is rack mounted?

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Rack-mounted describes a unit of electronic equipment that is housed in a metal framework called an
equipment rack. Usually, an equipment rack contains multiple "bays," each designed to hold a unit of
equipment such as a computer server.

 Truncks
A trunk is a communications line or link designed to carry multiple signals simultaneously to
provide network access between two points. It is a “link” that carries many signals at the same time,
creating more efficient network access between two nodes Trunks typically connect switching centers in a
communications system.

 Patch panel

A patch panel in a local area network (LAN) is a mounted hardware assembly that contains ports used to
connect and manage incoming and outgoing LAN cables. Patch panels are also referred to
as patch bays, patch fields or jack fields and are also commonly used in radio and television.

Figure 34: patch panel

 Cable manager
Cable management refers to management of electrical or optical cable in a cabinet or an installation. The
term is used for products, workmanship or planning. ... Cable management both supports and
contains cables during installation, and makes subsequent maintenance or changes to the cable system
easier.

Why is cable management important?

Cable management is essential to create a visually pleasing and clean work environment. Managing
cables or wires helps to maintain basic functionality and also protect the devices from the clogged airflow
due to unorganized and disordered wires. Tangled Wires or Cables are generally time-consuming to
untangle

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Figure 35: Cable manager

 Content /Topic 3: Explanation of Network characteristics

 Network characteristics
The Network Architecture Characteristics are the followings:
 Fault tolerance

 Scalability

 Quality of service

 Security

1. Fault Tolerance

Fault tolerance refers to the ability of a system (computer, network, cloud cluster, etc.) to continue
operating without interruption when one or more of its components fail. The objective of creating a
fault-tolerant system is to prevent disruptions arising from a single point of failure, ensuring
the high availability and business continuity of mission-critical applications or systems. Fault-
tolerant systems use backup components that automatically take the place of failed components,
ensuring no loss of service. These include:

 Hardware systems that are backed up by identical or equivalent systems. For

example, a server can be made fault tolerant by using an identical server running in
parallel, with all operations mirrored to the backup server.

 Software systems that are backed up by other software instances. For example, a
database with customer information can be continuously replicated to another
machine. If the primary database goes down, operations can be automatically
redirected to the second database.
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  Power sources that are made fault tolerant using alternative sources. For example,
many organizations have power generators that can take over in case main line
electricity fails.

2. Scalability

To "scale a network" means to "grow a network" or "increase the size of a network".

Thus scalability means the ability to be able to scale or adapt the network for future growth. On
another note, limited scalability means that there are limitations placed on how large
a network can be grown or increased.

3. Quality of Service (and Convergent Networks)

Quality of service (QOS) refers to any technology that manages data traffic to reduce packet loss,
latency and jitter on the network. QoS controls and manages network resources by setting priorities
for specific types of data on the network.

4. Security

Network security is a broad term that covers a multitude of technologies, devices and processes. In
its simplest term, it is a set of rules and configurations designed to protect
the integrity, confidentiality and accessibility of computer networks and data using both software
and hardware technologies.

 Content /Topic 4: Explanation of Network Access Methods

 Network Access Methods, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA and Token Passing

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)

In CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) Access Method, every host has equal
access to the wire and can place data on the wire when the wire is free from traffic. When a host want to
place data on the wire, it will “sense” the wire to find whether there is a signal already on the wire. If there
is traffic already in the medium, the host will wait and if there is no traffic, it will place the data in the
medium. But, if two systems place data on the medium at the same instance, they will collide with each
other, destroying the data. If the data is destroyed during transmission, the data will need to be
retransmitted. After collision, each host will wait for a small interval of time and again the data will be
retransmitted, to avoid collision again.

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CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance)
In CSMA/CA, before a host sends real data on the wire it will “sense” the wire to check if the wire is free. If
the wire is free, it will send a piece of “dummy” data on the wire to see whether it collides with any other
data. If it does not collide, the host will assume that the real data also will not collide.

Token Passing
In CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA the chances of collisions are there. As the number of hosts in the network
increases, the chances of collisions also will become more. In token passing, when a host want to transmit
data, it should hold the token, which is an empty packet. The token is circling the network in a very high
speed. If any workstation wants to send data, it should wait for the token. When the token has reached the
workstation, the workstation can take the token from the network, fill it with data, mark the token as
being used and place the token back to the network.

 Content /Topic 5: Description of Network architecture

Baseband Via broadband

Both baseband and broadband describe how data is transmitted between two nodes. Baseband
technology transmits a single data signal/stream/channel at a time while broadband technology transmits
multiple data signals/streams/channels simultaneously at the same time.

 The following image shows an example of both technologies.

Figure 36: Baseband via broadband

 To understand the basic differences between both technologies, consider the baseband as a railway
track and the broadband as a highway. Like, at a time, only one train can go on a railway track, in the
baseband transmission only one data signal can be transmitted at a time.
 Unlike a railway track on a highway, multiple vehicles can go simultaneously. For example, on a 3 lanes
highway, 3 vehicles can go at the same time. Same as a highway, in the broadband transmission,
multiple data signals can be transmitted at the same time.

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

Figure 37: Baseband via broadband

Baseband transmission Broadband transmission

Transmit digital signals Transmit analog signals

To boost signal strength, use repeaters To boost signal strength, use amplifiers

Can transmit only a single data stream at a time Can transmit multiple signal waves at a time

Support bidirectional communication simultaneously Support unidirectional communication only

Support TDM based multiplexing Support FDM based multiplexing

Use coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic cables Use radio waves, coaxial cables, and fiber
optic cables

Mainly used in Ethernet LAN networks Mainly used in cable and telephone networks

Table 5: Main difference between Baseband Via broadband

 Ethernet
Ethernet is a way of connecting computers together in a local area network or LAN. It has been the most
widely used method of linking computers together in LANs since the 1990s. The basic idea of its design is
that multiple computers have access to it and can send data at any time.
 What is an Ethernet used for?

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Typically, Ethernet cables are used to provide an internet connection, connect devices to a local network.
They plug into Ethernet ports on a variety of devices. The most common use for an Ethernet cable is
connecting a WiFi router or modem to the internet entry port or telephone line.
 Token ring
Token Ring is a computer networking technology used to build local area networks. It uses a special three-
byte frame called a token that travels around a logical ring of workstations or servers.
How does a token ring work?
A token ring network is a local area network (LAN) in which all computers are connected in a ring or star
topology and pass one or more logical tokens from host to host. Only a host that holds a token can send
data, and tokens are released when receipt of the data is confirmed.
 FDDI
What is FDDI used for?
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), or FDDI, is a high-speed network technology which runs at 100
Mbps over fiber-optic cabling, often used for network backbones in a local area network (LAN) or
metropolitan area network (MAN).
What are FDDI characteristics?
It provides high data rate of 100 Mbps and can support thousands of users. It is used in LANs up to 200
kilometers for long distance voice and multimedia communication. It uses ring based token passing
mechanism and is derived from IEEE 802.4 token bus standard.

LO: Set up a LAN and shared devices

 Content /Topic 1: setting up a simple LAN
Setting Up a Basic LAN

The following are Steps used to Create Network

1. Identify the local services that you want available on the network. Identify network-attached printers,
network disk drives, any server that will share printers or disks.

2. Identify how many devices will have to connect to the network. Each device, server or workstation will
require a unique address.

3. Run cables to workstations where possible. A wired LAN will always get better performance and be
more secure than a wireless LAN. Wherever possible, run a cable to servers, printers, IP phones or work
locations. Run a cable to any area where you are likely to work. Use standard Ethernet cables or building
wiring as installed according to the TIA-568 standard.

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4. Select and purchase a switch or cable router. The simple secure way to connect to the Internet is to use
a cable router. Many makes and models are available. If the model you choose does not have enough ports
to connect all of your computers, then you will need to purchase a switch as well.

5. Configure the WAN port of the cable router. Configuration details will vary from vendor to vendor. Key
information you will need to configure the WAN port will be supplied by your internet service provider.

6. Configure the LAN ports of your cable router. Most cable routers will act as a Dynamic Host
Configuration Server, or DHCP server. This means that the router will give addresses to workstations
automatically. Be certain that the address pool has enough addresses for all of the workstations. Make
certain that there are enough addresses outside of the range for any hosts that need static addresses. For
example, a network address with a mask of 255.255.255.0 has a total of 254 hosts. If the dynamic pool has
200 addresses available, that means the remaining 54 addresses are available to give printers or servers
static addresses.

7. Connect the wires for the network. Workstations and servers can be connected with standard Ethernet
cables. Connect the switch to the cable router LAN ports by using the up-link or straight port on the switch.
If the switch does not have an up-link port, connect any standard port of the switch to a LAN port on the
cable router with an Ethernet crossover cable. Ethernet crossover cables can be purchased at any
electronics store.

8. Test the services and Internet connectivity. Test each of the workstations to ensure they can connect to
the Internet and test any local servers and printers. Print test pages on the shared printers. Tests read and
write permissions on shared file servers by copying files to the servers and copying files from the server to
a workstation.

 Network components Mount

What is a network mount?

Mounting is a process by which the operating system makes files and directories on a storage device (such
as hard drive, CD-ROM, or network share) available for users to access via the computers file system.
 Router installation

How to Install a New Router

Every wireless device in your home connects to your router, and if you're like many people today, it takes
only an hour or two without Wi-Fi to leave you feeling some anxiety at being disconnected. Get your
connections up and running by installing a new router, using this simple guide.

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While this basic process should help you get any new router online, it is worth noting that each model will
be a little different. Many new models have a streamlined setup process that combines or skips some of
these steps, or that lets you manage your setup entirely through a smartphone app. When in doubt, follow
the directions that came with the router. But if you want a general walk-through of setting up your home
network, these steps should get you fully connected.

1. Check Your Internet Connection

If you're connecting your router to an existing modem or ISP gateway, then you probably already have a
good idea of whether or not your internet is working, but it's always worth checking. A bad connection can
make for a long and frustrating attempt at router installation when there may be nothing wrong with the
router itself.

If you're installing your router as part of moving into a new home or apartment, it's all the more important
to make sure you have an active internet connection, since you are likely to be setting up your router
alongside a newly installed or activated internet service.

To check internet status, simply connect to your modem or ISP gateway using an Ethernet cable, and plug
it directly into your laptop or desktop PC. (If you don't have an Ethernet port on your laptop, you'll want to
get an Ethernet adapter.) If your computer is getting an internet connection, you're in good shape to set up
the router.

Also, some ISP gateways offer combined modem and router functions. In this case, you'll want to make
sure the modem/router combo is set to bridge mode. This should be explained in whatever instructions
came with the gateway device.

2. Place the Router

As you unpack the router, pay attention to any documentation that's included. Keep an eye out specifically
for any stickers or slips of paper that may include vital setup information, like the address for the router's
web interface, or the default username and password.

If antennas are separate from the main router unit, you'll want to install them. This is usually done by
screwing them on to the connectors on the back or sides of the router. In other cases, the router's
antennas will be built in, and only need to be extended and positioned.

Once it is unpacked and assembled, you'll need to find a place to install the router. The ideal router
position will be in a central location, rather than at one end of the home. Since routers broadcast in all
directions, you'll want to put it roughly in the middle of your home to get the best coverage and signal
strength.

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A higher position -- such as up on a shelf -- is preferred, since radio waves move out and down as they
propagate through your home. You'll also want to avoid potential interference from metal objects, brick or
concrete walls. And stay away from the microwave, since it puts out the same frequencies that your
wireless signal uses.

3. Connect to Power
Once it is powered on, you should see the router's indicator lights activate. Some will blink or change color
during the setup process, indicating certain functions and changes, but there should be a light that shows
when the router is properly plugged in and turned on. Wait a minute or two after plugging in the router, as
it may take a few moments for it to get up and running.

4. Connect to Your Internet Source

Next you'll want to connect your router to your internet source, be it a cable or DSL modem or similar ISP
gateway. For this, you'll use a basic Ethernet cable, plugged into the router's WAN or internet port. This
port is usually distinguished from others on the device with a different color, or it may be physically
separated from the rest of the ports with a space.

Watch the router's LED indicators as you plug in the cable. You should see a color change or a new light
that indicates an active internet connection has been established. If there is no confirmatory indicator
light, double-check the connection, ensuring that you're plugged into the correct port and that the
Ethernet cable you're using is in good working order.

Finally, you'll want to confirm that the router has a working connection by plugging your laptop into one of
the device ports on the back of the router. You should be able to quickly open a wired connection, just as
you did when confirming an active internet connection.

5. Access the Router's Web Interface

While you have a computer connected to the new router, now would be an ideal time to set a new
network name and password. Additionally, you'll need to log in to the same web interface to upgrade your
firmware, adjust your security settings and activate your Wi-Fi. Check out our handy guide to walk through
the process, or follow the instructions that came with the router.
While you're activating the Wi-Fi, you'll also want to choose an encryption protocol for your wireless
network. Skip Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) if it's offered, since the standard has been shown to be
woefully insecure for at least the last decade. We recommend using Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2)
protection, since it's much more secure.

It's also worth noting that many new routers use a dedicated app for setup. In these cases, you can usually
complete the setup without plugging in a PC at all.

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6. Connect Wired Devices
If you want to physically connect any devices to your router, such as a printer, game console, TV or internet
phone system, you'll need an Ethernet cable for each. Plug the wired device into one of the available ports
on the back of the router.

7. Connect Your PC or Device to Wi-Fi

Finally, once your Wi-Fi network is up and running, you'll want to get the rest of your devices connected. If
you haven't already, you may want to set a new name and password for the router, and logging onto your
new Wi-Fi network will require knowing both the network name and password.

 Wired computer to the router Connection

Adding a wired computer to a Linksys router

To establish a connection to your router, a wired computer needs to have an Ethernet adapter. You need
to use a standard CAT5 Ethernet cable to connect your computer to the router.

Connecting a computer to the router

Connect one end of an Ethernet cable to the Ethernet port on the computer and connect the other end to
any of the numbered ports at the back of the router.

IMPORTANT: Make sure that there is another Ethernet cable connecting the modem and the router
through the latter's Internet port.

Table 6: connection of Linksys router on the network

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After connecting the devices, the router will automatically assign an IP address to your computer and you
should be able to connect to the Internet. If your computer is not online, you may need to check if it has
the proper connection to your router.

How do I connect my PC to my router wirelessly?

Connect a PC to your wireless network

1. Select the Network or icon in the notification area.

2. In the list of networks, choose the network that you want to connect to, and then select Connect.

3. Type the security key (often called the password).

4. Follow additional instructions if there are any.

 Switch to the router Connection

How to set up a Network Switch with a Router

If you have less than 4 devices to use in one network, you can use one router connecting a modem and
don’t need to expend your network. However, when the number of devices is over 4, a network switch is
necessary. You can use the network switch to expend your wired network with more ports.

There are various switches of different port counts such as 8-port, 16-port, and 32-port switch available in
the market.

Steps to set up a Network Switch with a Router

Step 1: Unplug all the power supplies of cable modem, network switch and wireless router.

Step 2: Connect your modem to the telephone wire. After that, connect one end of an Ethernet
cable to the Ethernet port on the back of the modem.

Step 3: Plug the other end of the Ethernet cable connected with modem into your router’s WAN
port.

Step 4: Use another Ethernet cable to connect one of your LAN ports in router to a network switch
port.

Step 5: Plug the power supplies of three devices.

After the setup, your network is expended and you can connect more than 4 devices using the
internet. All you need is to connect the additional devices to the switch’s normal port with straight
cables.

 Wireless computers to the router

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Connect a PC to your wireless network

Step 1: Select the Network or icon in the notification area.

Step 2: In the list of networks, choose the network that you want to connect to, and then select Connect.

Step 3: Type the security key (often called the password).

Step 4: Follow additional instructions if there are any.

 Access point to the router Connection

Connecting an access point to a Linksys wireless router

How do I configure the Linksys access point?

The Linksys WAP54G is designed to be configured in different modes. To connect the access point to a
Linksys wireless router, you can configure the access point in two (2) different ways:

i. Setting up the access point as an access point - The Access Point mode is the default setting of
most Linksys wireless access points. It allows you to extend the range of an existing wireless signal
by connecting the access point to a wireless router via Ethernet connection. It also allows you to
create another wireless network with a different SSID and channel on the same local network using
the same LAN IP segment.

ii. Setting up the access point as a wireless repeater - The Wireless Repeater mode allows this device
to act as a wireless repeater. A wireless repeater can extend the range of your wireless signal
without sacrificing the transmit rate.

To learn how to set up the Linksys access point as an access point, follow the instructions provided below:

Setting up the access point as an access point

This setup will work even if you have a wired or wireless router. Simply connect the access point to one of
the ports of your existing wired/wireless router then configure the access point’s wireless settings.

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 Table 7: Wireless router on the network

Step 1:
Open the access point’s web-based setup page by entering the default IP Address “192.168.1.245”
on the Address bar then press [Enter]. If a new window prompts for credentials, leave the User
name blank and enter “admin” as your Password then click OK.

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Step 2:
On the web-based setup page, click on Wireless.

Step 3:
Enter the Network Name (SSID).

The SSID Broadcast should be set to Enabled so that wireless devices will be able to detect the
wireless network of your Linksys access point.

Step 4:
Click Wireless Security and select your desired Security Mode.

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WPA-Personal
Enter your desired password in the Passphrase field.

WPA2-Personal
Enter your desired password in the Passphrase field.

WEP
Enter a 10-hex digit key to Key 1.

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 In this example 40/64-bit (10 hex digits) key is used. To setup a longer key, select 40/128-bit (26 hex
digits). The hex digits contain the letters A-F, numbers 0-9 and is not case-sensitive.

Your Linksys access point is now successfully configured.

 Content /Topic 2: Sharing network devices Installation

 Sharing network devices on LAN

a. Sharing a wired LAN

How to Share Your Internet in Windows Using Ethernet

1. Connect your client device to your host PC using an Ethernet cable. If either device doesn’t have a free
Ethernet port, use a USB-to-Ethernet adapter.
2. Go to the Network Connections menu. The easiest way to get there is by searching for “Network
Connections” in the Windows Search box.

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3. Right click on the active Internet connection and select Properties.

4. Toggle “Allow other network users to connect” to on from the Sharing tab and select the
relevant Ethernet port from the pulldown menu. Note that, if you have VPN software installed, you
may see a lot of virtual Ethernet ports on your list and you’ll need to pick the real one.

After you click OK, Internet should flow to your client device over its Ethernet port.

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Another way to perform this activity is:
To enable Internet Connection Sharing in Windows 10, by following the steps below:
1. Press Windows key + X to open the Power User menu and select Network Connections.
2. Right-click the network adapter with an Internet connection (Ethernet or wireless network
adapter), then select Properties.
3. Click Sharing.
4. Put a check mark on Allow other network users to connect through this computer’s Internet
connection.
5. From the Home networking connection drop-down menu, select the Microsoft Hosted Virtual
Adapter.
6. Click OK to finish.

b. Sharing a wireless LAN (WLAN)

A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a wireless computer network that links two or more devices
using wireless communication to form a local area network (LAN) within a limited area such as a
home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office building. This gives users the ability to move
around within the area and remain connected to the network. Through a gateway, a WLAN can also
provide a connection to the wider Internet.

The followings are steps to setup wireless LAN

1. Go to your network icon after connected your LAN cable. Click on “Open network and
sharing center."

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2. Then click "Local area connection" > "Properties" > "Sharing" Tab and check "allow other
network user..." Then click OK > close.

3. Back to network and sharing center. Go to "Set up a new connection or network"

4. Choose "Set up a wireless ad hoc" > Next

5. Type in Your connection name like you want, in security type I recommended WEP. (iPhone
cannot connect to WPA2.)

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 And in security key, input numbers and Characters like C6774663DD for password. (It won't
allow too easy password.)
If you want to use this network many times, check "Save this network."
6. And then just ask your friends to connect to your Wi-Fi network with password you set in
the first time.
Advantages of WLANs

The most obvious advantage of a WLAN is that devices can connect wirelessly, eliminating the need
for cables. This allows homes and businesses to create local networks without wiring the building
with Ethernet. It also provides a way for small devices, such as smartphones and tablets, to connect
to the network. WLANs are not limited by the number of physical ports on the router and therefore
can support dozens or even hundreds of devices. The range of a WLAN can easily be extended by
adding one or more repeaters. Finally, a WLAN can be easily upgraded by replacing routers with
new versions — a much easier and cheaper solution than upgrading old Ethernet cables.

Disadvantages of WLANs

Wireless networks are naturally less secure than wired networks. Any wireless device can attempt
to connect to a WLAN, so it is important to limit access to the network if security is a concern. This
is typically done using wireless authentication such as WEP or WPA, which encrypts the
communication. Additionally, wireless networks are more susceptible to interference from other
signals or physical barriers, such as concrete walls. Since LANs offer the highest performance and
security, they are still used for many corporate and government networks.

c. Sharing network devices on LAN

Three ways you can do in order to connect printer on LAN:

 Connect the printer to the network directly. This is the easiest way to set up a network printer. It
doesn’t require that another PC be turned on to print (like the below methods do), and you don’t
have to go through the hassle of setting up sharing. And, since most printers made within the last
few years have networking built in, there’s a good chance your printer supports this option.
 Connect the printer to one of your PCs and share it with the network over Homegroup. If
connecting a printer directly to the network isn’t an option, you can connect it to a PC on the
network and share it with Windows Homegroup. It’s easy to set up, and is optimal for networks
that are made up of mostly Windows computers. This method, however, requires that the
computer its connected to be up and running in order for you to use the printer.
 Connect the printer to one of your PCs and share it without Homegroup. This is ideal if your
network has other computers running different operating systems, if you want more control over
file and printer sharing, or if Homegroup just isn’t working very well. Like the Homegroup method,
this requires that the computer its connected to be up and running in order for you to use the
printer.

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Learning Unit 2 – Conduct site survey
LO2.1 – Analyze facilities and existing networks

 Content/Topic 1: Introduction to Site Planning process

Planning a network installation

This topic provides practical advice to help address the needs of organisations that have a network and are
in the process of upgrading it. The article should also be useful to organisations installing a network for the
first time.

This topic provides practical advice to help address the needs of organisations that have a network and are
in the process of upgrading it. The article should also be useful to organisations installing a network for the
first time.

How do I get started?

The first step in developing a plan is assessing your current network requirements and considering how
your business is likely to change over time. Here are some ideas to help you start the process:

Consider Usage Requirements

Determine the number of people that will be using the network to get a rough idea of the computers and
peripherals it must support. Consider how users will interact with the system to define the features you
will need. For example, what sort of access is required to the network (e.g. will each user have their own
computer? or will several users be sharing the same computer?) Will any users need to access the network
remotely (e.g. from home or other office sites)?

Gather Input

Factor the needs of the various teams and departments within your organisation into your network plan.
Start by defining the requirements of each group and determine the relative costs of incorporating the
different requirements into the network plan. This may be in terms of money or time saved.

Plan for the future

Detail or factor in, to the best of your knowledge, the direction your organisation is likely to take in the
near future (3-5 years). As you think about expansion, identify any plans that might affect your network

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needs (e.g. new staff or volunteers, office expansion, remote working, or the installation of
new software packages). Doing this now will be less expensive and time-consuming than replacing an
inadequate network later.

Decide who will manage the network

As your network solution becomes more defined, you will need to decide whether you have the resources
in-house to install and maintain it yourself or whether you require a consultant or external company to
handle it. Networking products have become easier to use and administer over the years, so small
organizations are finding that internal day- to-day management of the network is becoming increasingly
cost effective.

External support will also likely be required, and it is worth considering using remote network
administration tools to reduce the number of on-site visits necessary to keep the network running
smoothly.

Security Issues

Ensure you build security features into your network plan to protect your organizations most important
asset - its information. Common network security precautions include passwords, virus protection, an
external firewall and data encryption.

Other Considerations

You may enhance the foundation of your network plan by addressing other issues that may affect the
integration, use and maintenance of your network. These include:

Information Management

Consider how to manage information on your server so that users can easily find what they need. Create
standardized naming conventions for files on the server and establish rules for the creation of new files
and folders.

Remote Access

If some staff members travel frequently or work from locations outside your office, you may want to build
remote access capabilities into your network. This can be done through remote dial-in, or securely over
the Internet using a VPN.

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Staff Training

While working with a network is relatively simple, it may demand that employees adopt new habits. A
training program will enable workers to take full advantage of your network's timesaving and productivity
enhancing features. Ensure training time is built into your network rollout timetable and offer follow up
sessions to address ongoing staff challenges and concerns.

Network pre-installation checklist

This checklist of questions will help you cover the main areas when it comes to planning and installing a
new or upgraded network.

Planning

 How many people will use the network?

 How many users are local or on-site?
 How many users are remote or off-site and will require access to the network?
 How many on-site computers will be connected to the network?
 How many on-site devices (computers, servers, scanners, printers, etc) will require a network card?
 How do you intend remote users to access the network?
 Which server based applications (e.g. databases, email) do you plan to run on the network? What
are the minimum hardware requirements of these server based applications?
 What are the specifications of the servers you intend to install on the network (e.g. amount of
memory, processor speed etc.)?
 Have you purchased sufficient licenses to run all the software on servers and client machines?

Network hardware requirements

 What other devices will your network support (e.g. back-up devices, Uninterruptible Power
Supplies, Network printers, etc.)?
 Do you have enough network points for these network devices?
 Do the hubs or switches have enough ports for the number of connections you will require? And is
there room for growth?

Network design

 What network topology will you use

 Do all workstations have the correct Network interface cards (NICs) to support this technology?

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  Which network operating system will you use (e.g. Windows 2000 Server, Linux, Novell etc.)?
 Which type of cabling will you use (e.g. CAT 5, fibre optic) or will a wireless network be suitable?
 Where will network cables be located?
 Are there any building or leasing regulations that may affect cable placement?
 Where will you locate the following devices, servers, hubs or switches, printers, firewalls and
routers, modems etc.?

Security, back-up and power

 What security measures will you be putting in place? Virus protection, user passwords, firewalls,
data encryption etc.
 Do you need to physically secure your server (e.g. lock it away in a cupboard)?
 How will you back up data on your network?
 What is the capacity of your back up solution?
 Is it large enough to support all the data on your servers and network devices?
 Does your back up solution have the capacity to grow as your data grows?
 How frequently will files be backed up and how long will you keep backed up files?
 Where will you store backed up tapes (e.g. fireproof safe, off site)?
 What devices will require an uninterruptible power supply (e.g. server(s))?
 Is there sufficient ventilation around your servers?

Support services

 Do you have resources allocated for the following areas (e.g., consultants, in-house IT staff etc)?
o Network installation
o Cable installation
o Network technical support
o Network management
o Network security
o Network maintenance
o Training

Undertaking a significant upgrade to your network or migrating to a newer or different operating

system can be a daunting and challenging task.

Effective planning can limit the system downtime, reduce network crashes and ensure a seamless
transition and minimal disruption to users.

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  Initial environment evaluation
The term “Initial Environmental Evaluation” refers to a limited environmental study which describes a
proposed project, the environment surrounding that project, and identifies and evaluates any likely
impacts on that environment. It is accompanied by a Comprehensive Mitigation Plan which describes the
arrangements for implementing mitigation measures to reduce those impacts.
 Selection of router deployment
Restrict routers to hosts where port 80/443 is available and not being consumed by another service, and
set this using node selectors and the scheduler configuration. As an example, you can achieve this by
dedicating infrastructure nodes to run services such as routers.

● Content/Topic 2: Evaluation of network Environment

 Physical site survey
What is a site survey?

A site survey is the evaluation that needs to take place before the installation of a cell signal booster.
During the survey, testers identify the strongest cell signal, which allows providers to determine where to
install the booster. During the survey, you can gauge how much cable will be required and which splitters,
filters, or other accessories are necessary.

A site survey can demonstrate existing signal coverage for your customers and draw attention to problem
areas. This can help stimulate conversation about product options and installation solutions, and provide
opportunities for sales conversion.

 Passive physical site survey methodology

Physical Site Surveys The physical site survey is an examination of the physical environment in which
the WLAN or wireless links will operate. This is inclusive of the physical premises owned by the
organization operating the WLAN and possibly physical locations leased for antenna placement or
cable runs. It may also include an analysis of the physical space between two wireless bridges in a
point−to−point (PtP) or point−to−multipoint (PtMP) link implementation. The primary objective of a
physical site survey is to ensure that the location can accommodate a WLAN. Questions answered by
a physical site survey include
• Can you place wireless equipment where it is needed in order to provide RF coverage in the
intended service area?
• What is the best location for placement of antennas, APs, bridges, and other WLAN devices?
• For external links that are PtP or PtMP, does the proper RF LOS exist?

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 • Is power located at the placement locations for WLAN devices, or is Power over Ethernet (PoE)
required?
• Can Ethernet cables be run to the desired AP locations?
• Can you protect outdoor antennas and devices from the weather through strategic placement on or
under existing structures, or will you need to plan for device enclosures that are weather resistant?

 Passive site surveys

Performed to get an understanding of the RF characteristics on-site. By RF characteristics I mean Wi-Fi

signal strengths, noise levels, SNR (signal-to-noise ratio), and the like. The reason the site surveys are
called “passive” is that your Wi-Fi network adapter is pretty much just listening to packets when
performing passive site surveys. OK, the NIC might send some probes out, but that’s about it.
 Active survey methodology

Active Site Surveys

Provide more insight on the network connectivity and/or performance. Things like packet loss, packet
delay, and access points you’ve associated with, can be measured during active site surveys. As the name
suggests, with active surveys the Wi-Fi adapter is receiving AND sending packets to figure out what’s truly
going on with the network.

 Content/Topic 3: Analysis of existing system and Future network usage

Often, the purpose of designing a new system is to replace an existing system in your infrastructure. If so,
you can benefit from analyzing your existing system because this analysis will give you a better idea of
what problems you are facing. This analysis is also useful if you are trying to upgrade a Sun Fire server. A
proper analysis will ensure that you are upgrading the right parts of the system to address the issues.

 Current network usage

 What does Network Usage mean?

Network utilization is the amount of traffic on the network compared to the peak amount that
the network can support. This is generally specified as a percentage. There are various times
throughout the normal course of business when a network is busier, i.e., the network utilization is high.

What does Network Usage Monitor mean?

A network usage monitor is a type of network monitoring utility that enables users to review a network's
utilization metrics and statistics.

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It provides granular-level insight into the overall network and/or Internet utilization on one or more
devices within a network.

A network usage monitor provides basic network utilization data in relation to the available network
capacity. Depending upon the capability of the application, the network usage monitor provides
information such as:

 Total number and size of data download/upload per computer and overall bandwidth utilized
 Size, type, origin and destination of each packet
 List of websites visited, visit duration, data downloaded and more

How to check network usage with Settings

1. Use the Windows key + I keyboard shortcut to open the Settings app.

2. Click Network & internet.

3. Click Data usage. Under Overview, you'll see the total data usage from the last 30 days for Wi-Fi
and Ethernet connections

4. Click the Usage details link to view network data usage for all your applications installed on your
computer.

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  Future network usage
FUTURE NETWORK
Digital Technology dynamics are rapidly driving Information and Communication technologies
together - this is demonstrated by the emergence of the disruptive, but complimentary SDN
(Software-Defined Networking) and NFV (Network Functions Virtualisation) forces transforming the
Communications network. The outcomes will include reduction in Capex and Opex, greener
operations, increased automation and faster innovation. Digital transformation is evident in virtually
every aspect of work and personal life today. The forces driving this are centred on Information
Technology and Communications Networks, which have become essential components of industry,
business and personal life.

LO2.2: Identify components, devices, tools, connectors and media

Content/Topic 1: Interconnection of Hardware Devices

The following figure shows a network along with its components −

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Figure 38: Network components

Hardware Components

 Servers −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of the network. The
network operating system is typically installed in the server and so they give user accesses to the
network resources. Servers can be of various kinds: file servers, database servers, print servers etc.

 Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers to access and use
the network resources.

 Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other peers in a
workgroup network.

 Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels through which data is transferred from
one device to another in a network. Transmission media may be guided media like coaxial cable,
fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like microwaves, infra-red waves etc.

 Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or computers, by

binding the network media together.

Some of the common connecting devices are:

 Routers
 Bridges
 Hubs
 Repeaters
 Gateways
 Switches

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Software Components

 Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in the server and
facilitate workstations in a network to share files, database, applications, printers etc.

 Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for data
communication. Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for computer
networks. The two popular protocol suites are −

o OSI Model (Open System Interconnections)

o TCP / IP Model

 Internetworking Devices:
Router
Cisco Integrated Services Router (ISR)

Cisco provides various series and models of routers geared towards different types of customer and
requirements. Some of them just do routing whereas others provide some other functions such as Wireless
connectivity, Security features and Voice-over-IP services. Cisco’s ISR series routers are example of routers
that provide various services.

Figure 3-1 Rear view of a Cisco1800 Series ISR

Figure 39: Rear view of a Cisco1800 Series ISR

Cisco Catalyst Switches

Cisco provides a wide range of switches under its Catalyst brand. The Catalyst brand encompasses many
series of switches with each series targeting a particular part or size of a network. The CCNA exam focuses
on the 2960 series of switches in the Catalyst brand. 2960 switches are low-cost wiring closet switches that
you would expect to be used at the Access layer (remember the Cisco Hierarchical model) for providing
network connectivity to hosts.

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Each model in the 2960 series switch is different in terms of the number of physical network interfaces it
has but overall each model looks similar. Figure 3-3 shows the front faceplate of the switch. The back of
the switch only consists of the AC power input.

Figure 40: Front plane of a Cisco Catalyst 2960 Switch

Backplane Description and Usage

component

FastEthernet These are FastEthernet interfaces used to connect the hosts to the network. Different
Interfaces models have different number of interfaces. Some high end switches can have hundreds
of these interfaces.

Console Port It is a port used to connect to the switch to configure, monitor and troubleshoot. More
on connecting to the switch is discussed shortly.

Status LEDs These LEDs show the status of various components of the switch. Apart from these,
there is a LED over each interface showing the status of that interface. Each LED can be
either off, amber or green.

Table 8: Describes the important components shown in Figure 42

 Multilayer switches

Figure 41: Multilayer switches

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A multilayer switch is a network device that has the ability to operate at higher layers of the OSI reference
model, unlike the Data Link Layer (DLL) traditionally used by switches. A multilayer switch can perform the
functions of a switch as well as that of a router at incredibly fast speeds

What is Layer 3 switching in networking?

Simply put, a layer 3 switch combines the functionality of a switch and a router. It acts as a switch to
connect devices that are on the same subnet or virtual LAN at lightning speeds and has IP routing
intelligence built into it to double up as a router.

 Wireless Router

Figure 42: Wireless Router

A wireless router is a device that performs the functions of a router and also includes the functions of
a wireless access point. It is used to provide access to the Internet or a private computer network.

 Networking Access Devices:

 Switches

A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch contains
more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where the data is
transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical address
present in the incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the
Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that
switch provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the
network.

 Wireless Access Point

A wireless access point (WAP) is a hardware device or configured node on a local area network (LAN) that
allows wireless capable devices and wired networks to connect through a wireless standard, including Wi-
Fi or Bluetooth. WAPs feature radio transmitters and antennae, which facilitate connectivity between
devices and the Internet or a network.

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A WAP is also known as a hotspot.

 Security Devices:
 Firewalls
In computing, a firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predetermined security rules. A firewall typically establishes a barrier between a
trusted internal network and untrusted external network, such as the Internet.
What is firewall in computer security?
A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic and permits or
blocks data packets based on a set of security rules.
 End Network Devices

What are End Network Devices?

The network devices that people are most familiar with are called end devices. These devices form the
interface between the human network and the underlying communication network. Some examples of end
devices are:

 Computers
A computer is a machine that accepts data as input, processes that data using programs, and outputs
the processed data as information. Many computers can store and retrieve information using hard
drives. Computers can be connected together to form networks, allowing connected computers to
communicate with each other.
 Workstations
A workstation is a special computer designed for technical or scientific applications. Intended primarily
to be used by one person at a time, they are commonly connected to a local area network and run
multi-user operating systems.
What's the difference between desktop and workstation?
A PC has enough power to do most tasks such as email, web surfing, and word processing. But
a workstation has more power. It can handle CAD, animation, data analysis, and photorealistic renderings,
as well as video and audio creation and editing.
 Laptops
A laptop computer is a portable personal computer powered by a battery, or an AC cord plugged into an
electrical outlet, which is also used to charge the battery. Laptops have an attached keyboard and a
touchpad, trackball, or isometric joystick used for navigation.
 file servers

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A file server is a central server in a computer network that provides file systems or at least parts of
a file system to connected clients. File servers therefore offer users a central storage place for files on
internal data media, which is accessible to all authorized clients.
 web servers
A web server is a computer that runs websites. It's a computer program that distributes web pages as they
are requisitioned. The basic objective of the web server is to store, process and deliver web pages to the
users. This intercommunication is done using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

 Network printers
- A network printer is a printer that is accessible by network connection, making it usable by other
computers connected to the network.
 VoIP phones
A VoIP phone is a hardware- or software-based telephone designed to use voice over IP (VoIP)
technology to send and receive phone calls over an IP network.
 Security cameras
A security camera is a video camera that records people's activities in order to detect and prevent
crime.
What is the purpose of a security camera?
One major function of security cameras is that they allow homeowners identify persons who might be at
their front door or on their property. A well-placed security camera in a dark corner or above the front
door will help the homeowner see whoever is standing at the door and what their intentions are.
 Mobile handheld devices (Smartphones, Tablets, PDAs).
A mobile device (or handheld computer) is a computer small enough to hold and operate in the hand.
Typically, any handheld computer device will have an LCD or OLED flat screen interface, providing a
touchscreen interface with digital buttons and keyboard or physical buttons along with a physical
keyboard.

 Content/Topic 2: Identification of network Hardware Components

 NIC (Network Interface Card).

o NIC stands for Network Interface Card.
o NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network

o It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.

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 o The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by the
IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable
read-only memory).

There are two types of NIC:

Figure 43: Types of NIC

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC

Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with wired
NIC to transfer data.

Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless network.
For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

 Wireless Adapter cards

What is a wireless adapter card?
A device that adds wireless connectivity to a laptop or desktop computer. All of the adapters below are
available as external USB modules as well as PCI or PCI Express (PCIe) cards that plug into an empty slot on
the motherboard.

 Content/Topic 3: Identification of troubleshooting tools

Troubleshooting Tools:
 Ipconfig /all
 Ping
 Trace route
 Nslook up
 Debug
 Netstat
 putty/Tera Term
 Subnet and IP calculator

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  Speedtest.net/pingtest.netpathping/mtr
 route
1. Ipconfig displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values and refreshes Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS) settings. Used without
parameters, ipconfig displays the IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway for all adapters.

2. Ping

The most commonly used network tool is the ping utility. This utility is used to provide a basic connectivity
test between the requesting host and a destination host. This is done by using the Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP) which has the ability to send an echo packet to a destination host and a
mechanism to listen for a response from this host. Simply stated, if the requesting host receives a response
from the destination host, this host is reachable. This utility is commonly used to provide a basic picture of
where a specific networking problem may exist. For example, if an Internet connection is down at an office,
the ping utility can be used to figure out whether the problem exists within the office or within the
network of the Internet provider. Figure 1 below shows an example of the ping utility being used to obtain
the reachability status of the locally connected router.

3. Tracert/traceroute

Typically, once the ping utility has been used to determine basic connectivity, the tracert/traceroute utility
can used to determine more specific information about the path to the destination host including the
route the packet takes and the response time of these intermediate hosts. Figure 2 below shows an
example of the tracert utility being used to find the path from a host inside an office to www.google.com.
The tracert utility and traceroute utilities perform the same function but operate on different operating
systems, Tracert for Windows machines and traceroute for Linux/*nix based machines.

4. Ipconfig/ifconfig

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One of the most important things that must be completed when troubleshooting a networking issue is to
find out the specific IP configuration of the variously affected hosts. Sometimes this information is already
known when addressing is configured statically, but when a dynamic addressing method is used, the IP
address of each host can potentially change often. The utilities that can be used to find out this IP
configuration information include the ipconfig utility on Windows machines and the ifconfig utility on
Linux/*nix based machines. Figure 3 below shows an example of the ifconfig utility showing the IP
configuration information of a queries host.

5. Nslookup

Some of the most common networking issues revolve around issues with Dynamic Name System (DNS)
address resolution issues. DNS is used by everyone using the Internet to resolve commonly known domain
names (i.e. google.com) to commonly unknown IP addresses (i.e. 74.125.115.147). When this system does
not work, most of the functionality that people are used to goes away, as there is no way to resolve this
information. The nslookup utility can be used to lookup the specific IP address(es) associated with a
domain name. If this utility is unable to resolve this information, there is a DNS issue. Along with simple
lookup, the nslookup utility is able to query specific DNS servers to determine an issue with the default
DNS servers configured on a host. Figure 4 below shows an example of how the nslookup utility can be
used to query the associated IP address information.

6. Netstat

Often, one of the things that are required to be figured out is the current state of the active network
connections on a host. This is very important information to find for a variety of reasons. For example,
when verifying the status of a listening port on a host or to check and see what remote hosts are
connected to a local host on a specific port. It is also possible to use the netstat utility to determine which
services on a host that is associated with specific active ports. Figure 5 below shows an example of the
netstat utility being used to display the currently active ports on a Linux machine.

7. PuTTY/Tera Term

When connecting to a variety of different types of equipment, a telnet, SSH or serial client is required;
when this is required both the puTTY and Tera Term programs are able to provide these functionalities.
The selection of one over the other is strictly a personal preference. Figures 6 and 7 below show both
puTTY and Tera Term being used to connect to a host via SSH.

8. Subnet and IP Calculator

One of the most important tools in the belt of a junior network engineer is an IP network calculator. These
can be used to unsure a correct IP address selection and with this a correct IP address configuration. While

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this type of tool is used by senior level network engineers, much of the information obtained from the tool
becomes simpler to calculate the longer and more experience you have in the field. Two of the more
commonly used free IP calculators include Wildpackets (Bitcricket) Network Calculator and Solarwinds
Advanced Subnet Calculator which can be found at the links below.

9. Speedtest.net/pingtest.net

A very easy test that can be used to both determine the Internet bandwidth available to a specific host and
to determine the quality of an Internet connection is the use of the tools available at the speedtest.net and
pingtest.net websites. The speedtest.net site provides the ability to determine the amount of bandwidth
that is available to a specific host at a specific point in time; this is often a good tool to use when measuring
how long it is going to take to upload or download information from a local to remote host. This
measurement can also be used to determine whether the connection is offering the amount of bandwidth
that was purchased from the Internet provider; keep in mind however that some amount of bandwidth
difference is expected between the quoted bandwidth purchased and the measured bandwidth. The
pingtest.net website is used to determine the quality of the connection by measuring the ping response
times and jitter amounts over a short period of time. This information can be used to determine a
likelihood of how well the measured connection will deal with certain types of high demand traffic like
Voice over IP (VoIP) or gaming. Figure 9 and 10 below show example output from both of these sites.

10. Pathping/mtr

In an effort to take advantage of the benefits of both the ping and tracert/traceroute commands, the
pathping and mtr utilities were developed. Both of these tools take the functionality and information that
can be obtained from these types of tools and provide a more detailed single picture of the path
characteristics from a specific host to a specific destination. Figure 11 and 12 below show examples of
these two tools and what information they provide

11. Route

The last of the tools covered in this article is the route utility. This utility is used to display the current
status of the routing table on a host. While the use of the route utility is limited in common situations
where the host only has a single IP address with a single gateway, it is vital in other situations where
multiple IP address and multiple gateways are available. Figure 13 below shows an example of the route
utility being used on a Windows machine.

 Software Tools
 Packet Tracer: Packet Tracer is a network simulator software. It simulates networking devices
that are used to build CCNA practice labs. An average CCNA lab costs more than $300. A packet

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 tracer cuts this cost by simulating all essential CCNA lab devices. A simulation-based learning
environment helps students and instructors.
 Edraw Max :
Edraw Max is an extremely powerful all-in-one diagramming tool that can serve all of your
purposes. Whether you need to draw flowcharts, fishbone diagrams, it is also an all-in-one diagram
software for more than 200 diagram types such as business presentations, building plans, mind
maps, science illustration, ...

 Content/Topic 4: Description of internetworking Operating System.

 Internetwork Operating System(IOS)
Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS) is an operating system used on Cisco devices, such as
routers and switches. It is a multitasking operating system that implements and controls logic and
functions of a Cisco device. Cisco IOS uses a monolithic architecture, which means that it runs as a
single image and all processes share the same memory space.
To configure a Cisco device running IOS, the command-line interface (CLI) is used. The CLI comes
with a predefined number of commands and can be used to configure routing, switching,
internetworking, and any other feature supported by a Cisco device that is being configured. The
CLI is usually accessed from a remote computer running Telnet or SSH.

IOS has three modes of operation, each with its own set of commands. The modes are:

 User exec mode – when you access an IOS device (using Telnet, SSH, or console access method),
you are initially placed in this mode. This mode is mostly used to view statistics and run commands
like ping or telnet. It is represented with the > character after the hostname (for
example Router_HQ>).
 Privileged exec mode – this mode is accessed by typing the enable command in the user exec
mode. This mode is called privileged because it allows you to execute more powerful commands,
such as reload. It is represented with the # character after the hostname (for
example Router_HQ#).
 Global configuration mode – this mode is accessed by typing the configure terminal command
from the privileged exec mode. It is used to make global changes to the device and change its
configuration. It is represented with the config keyword after the hostname (for
example Router_HQ(config)).

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  IOS versions

Figure 44: IOS versions

 Updating and upgrading IOS

What update means?

Video shows what update means. An advisement providing more up-to-date information than
currently known. A change in information, a modification of existing or known data. An additional
piece of information. An addition to existing information.

Update your device wirelessly

If a message says that an update is available, tap Install Now. You can also follow these steps:
1. Plug your device into power and connect to the Internet with Wi-Fi.

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2. Go to Settings > General, then tap Software Update.

Figure 60

3. Tap Download and Install. If a message asks to temporarily remove apps because the software needs
more space for the update, tap Continue or Cancel. Later, iOS or iPadOS will reinstall apps that it
removed. If you tap Cancel.

4. To update now, tap Install. Or you can tap Later and choose Install Tonight or Remind Me Later. If you
tap Install Tonight, just plug your device into power before you go to sleep. Your device will update
automatically overnight.

5. If asked, enter your passcode. If you don't know your passcode,

Customize Automatic Updates

With iOS 12 or later, or iPadOS, you can have your device update automatically overnight while it's
charging. To turn on automatic updates, go to Settings > General > Software Update > Customize
Automatic Updates, then turn on Install iOS Updates. Your device will automatically update to the latest
version of iOS or iPadOS. Some updates might need to be installed manually.

With iOS 13.6, or iPadOS, you can choose not to download software updates automatically. Go to Settings
> General > Software Update > Customize Automatic Updates, then turn off Download iOS updates.

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 What upgrade means?

Upgrading is the process of replacing a product with a newer version of the same product. In
computing and consumer electronics an upgrade is generally a replacement of hardware, software
or firmware with a newer or better version, in order to bring the system up to date or to improve
its characteristics.

 Types of IOS/NOS

Types of Network Operating Systems

1. Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and files located on their
computers and to access shared resources found on other computers. In a peer-to-peer network, all
computers are considered equal; they all have the same privileges to use the resources available on the
network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to medium local area networks. Windows
for Workgroups is an example of the program that can function as peer-to-peer network operating
systems.

2. Client/server network operating systems allow the network to centralise functions and applications in
one or more dedicated file servers. The file servers become the heart of the system, providing access to
resources and providing security. The workstations (clients) have access to the resources available on the
file servers. The network operating system allows multiple users to share the same resources irrespective
of physical location simultaneously. Novell Netware and Windows 2000 Server are examples of client/
server network operating systems.

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Each computer in the workgroup run an autonomous operating system; yet cooperate to allow a variety of
facilities including sharing of files, sharing of hardware resources and execution of remote machines etc.

 Content /Topic 5: Description of Connectors.

RJ45, RJ11 (registered jack RJ45, RJ11)

What is the difference between RJ45 and RJ11?
The main difference between these two is their actual use. RJ11 is the cable connector that using in
telephone sets while RJ45 is used in networking, where you connect computers or other network elements
to each other.
Aside from the application, there are differences in their appearance. The first of which is in the number of
cables that are accommodated in each connector. RJ45 has 8 wires inside whereas Rj11 has 4 wires. As a
consequence of having to accommodate more wires, RJ45 connectors are also a little bit bigger than RJ11s.

Figure 45: RJ45, RJ11 (registered jack RJ45, RJ11)

BNC
The BNC (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) connector is a miniature quick connect / disconnect radio frequency
connector used for coaxial cable. It features two bayonet lugs on the female connector; mating is fully
achieved with a quarter turn of the coupling nut. BNC connectors are most commonly made in 50 ohm and
75 ohm versions, matched for use with cables of the same characteristic impedance. The 75 ohm
connector is dimensionally slightly different from the 50 ohm variant, but the two nevertheless can be
made to mate.

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Figure 46: Bayonet Neill–Concelman (BNC)

USB
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard that establishes specifications for cables
and connectors and protocols for connection, communication and power supply (interfacing) between
computers, peripherals and other computers.

Figure 47: Universal Serial Bus (USB) Connector

Firewire

FireWire is a method of transferring information between digital devices, especially audio and video
equipment. Also known as IEEE 1394, FireWire is fast -- the latest version achieves speeds up to 800 Mbps.

Figure 48: Firewire connector

VGA

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A Video Graphics Array (VGA) connector is a three-row 15-pin DE-15 connector. The 15-pin VGA
connector was provided on many video cards, computer monitors, laptop computers, projectors, and high
definition television sets.

Figure 49: Video Graphics Array (VGA) connector

Serial
In computing, a serial port is a serial communication interface through which information transfers in or
out sequentially one bit at a time. This is in contrast to a parallel port, which communicates multiple bits
simultaneously in parallel.

Figure 50: Serial connector

BNC-T

A tee connector is an electrical connector that connects three cables together. It is usually in the shape of a
capital T. It is usually used for coax cables and the three connector points can be either female or male
gender, and could be different or the same standard, such as F type, BNC or N type.

Tee connectors can be used to split radio frequency power from a cable into two. They can be used to
attach a piece of electronic test equipment. Tee connectors were much used on co-axial 10M Ethernet
networks.

Figure 51: BNC-T connector

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F type
The F connector (also F-type connector) is a coaxial RF connector commonly used for "over the
air" terrestrial television, cable television and universally for satellite television and cable modems, usually
with RG-6/U cable or, in older installations, with RG-59/U cable.

Figure 52: F-type connector

 MT-RG
A series of standard types of coaxial cable were specified for military uses, in the form "RG-#" or "RG-#/U".
They date from World War II and were listed in MIL-HDBK-216 published in 1962. These designations are
now obsolete. The RG designation stands for Radio Guide; the U designation stands for Universal.

Figure 53: MT-RG connector

RS-232

RS232 connector is a port used for data exchange between equipments. It was designed for data exchange
between DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) or PC and DCE (Data Communication Equipment) or MODEM. ...
Although RS232 is later replaced by faster USB (Universal Serial Bus) it is still popular in some areas.

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Figure 54: RS232 connector

 WAN cables(serial cable)

Which cable is used in WAN network?
However, to connect to and communicate with devices over a WAN you have to use a serial cable rather
than a patch cable. Serial cables transmit data differently to LAN cables and other cables like parallel
cables. With serial cables, the data is sent along the cable one bit at a time.
WAN Serial Connections

Perhaps you are reading these notes at college, or perhaps at home. Either way, unless you have saved this
web page to your hard drive, you will be reading them over an Internet connection. Somehow, the
contents of this page traveled from the web server it is stored on across the Internet, to your ISP's server
and then onto your PC.

You should be familiar with the patch cables used on local area networks - used to connect devices
together so they can communicate. However, to connect to and communicate with devices over a WAN
you have to use a serial cable rather than a patch cable. Serial cables transmit data differently to LAN
cables and other cables like parallel cables. With serial cables, the data is sent along the cable one bit at a
time.

Now, I don't suppose you ran a serial cable all the way from your computer to your ISP's computer - did
you? No, thought not!

If you have a dial-up

connection, you will have
a serial cable that runs from
your pc to your modem.

Another cable runs from

your modem to your
telephone socket that

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connects over the Figure 55: Serial cable used to connect modem to PC
telephone line to your ISP's
network.

On a LAN, the principle is the same, but the device used to connect to the ISP's network is likely to be a
device with a higher throughput, such as an ISDN or ADSL line or dedicated high bandwidth lines like T1 or
E1. Most WAN links are simply methods of serially connecting two routers through the public telephone
network. Some links happen to be faster than others.

 LAN cables ( Straight and Cross over cable)

When you connect two devices of different types together, you use a straight through cable. When you
connect two devices of the same type together, you use a crossover cable. All cables are straight through if
you insert a network device between two devices of the same kind.
 straight through cable
Straight-through cable is used to connect computers and other end-user devices (e.g., printers) to
networking devices such as hubs and switches. It can also be used to directly connect like devices (e.g., two
hubs or two switches) if the cable is plugged into an uplink port on one (but not both) of the devices.

Figure 56: Straight-through cable

 crossover cable
An Ethernet crossover cable is a crossover cable for Ethernet used to connect computing devices together
directly. It is most often used to connect two devices of the same type, e.g. two computers
(via their network interface controllers) or two switches to each other.

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Figure 57: crossover cable

 Console cable :

Figure 58: Console cable

 A rollover cable is a network cable that connects a computer terminal to a network

router's console port. It is also referred to as a Cisco console cable and is normally flat and
light blue so as to distinguish it from other network cable types.
 A serial cable is a cable used to transfer information between two devices using a serial
communication protocol. The form of connectors depends on the particular serial port used.
A cable wired for connecting two DTEs directly is known as a null modem cable.
 Aux cable:

What is AUX cable?

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An aux cable is a portable cable that usually comes with a 3.5 mm jack on both its ends. ... You can use
an auxiliary cable to connect your smartphone to an amplifier, like home theatre, car stereo, external

Speakers, and more.

Figure 59: Aux cable

 USB to Serial Converter

Figure 60: USB to Serial Converter

This USB to Serial converter allows you to connect an RS-232 serial device such as a modem to a USB port
on your desktop or laptop. USB. Supports USB 1.1 and compatible with USB 2.0 and USB 3.0 ports. RS-232
Serial Connector.

LO2.3: Identify Security requirements

 Content /Topic 1: Identification of network Security requirements

 Authentication
 Confidentiality
 Auditing

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  AUTHENTICATION

In computing, authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a person or device. A common
example is entering a username and password when you log in to a website. Entering the
correct login information lets the website know 1) who you are and 2) that it is actually you accessing the
website.
While a username/password combination is a common way to authenticate your identity, many other
types of authentication exist.
For example, you might use a four or six-digit pass code to unlock your phone. A single password may be
required to log on to your laptop or work computer. Every time you check or send email, the mail
server verifies your identity by matching your email address with the correct password. This information is
often saved by your web browser or email program so you do not have to enter it each time.
In the context of computer systems, authentication is a process that ensures and confirms a user’s identity.
Authentication is one of the five pillars of information assurance (IA). The other four are integrity,
availability, confidentiality and non repudiation.
Authentication begins when a user tries to access information. First, the user must prove his access rights
and identity. When logging into a computer, users commonly enter usernames and passwords for
authentication purposes. This login combination, which must be assigned to each user, authenticates
access. However, this type of authentication can be circumvented by hackers.

 Importance of Authentication
Authentication is important because it enables organizations to keep their networks secure by permitting
only authenticated users (or processes) to access its protected resources, which may include computer
systems, networks, databases, websites and other network-based applications or services.

Once authenticated, a user or process is usually subjected to an authorization process as well, to

determine whether the authenticated entity should be permitted access to a protected resource or
system. A user can be authenticated but fail to be given access to a resource if that user was not granted
permission to access it.

The terms authentication and authorization are often used interchangeably; while they may often be
implemented together the two functions are distinct.

While authentication is the process of validating the identity of a registered user before allowing access to
the protected resource, authorization is the process of validating that the authenticated user has been
granted permission to access the requested resources. The process by which access to those resources is
restricted to a certain number of users is called access control. The authentication process always comes
before the authorization process.

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  CONFIDENTIALITY

Confidentiality is the protection of personal information. Confidentiality means keeping a client’s

information between you and the client, and not telling others including co-workers, friends, family, etc.

Confidentiality, in the context of computer systems, allows authorized users to access sensitive and
protected data. Specific mechanisms ensure confidentiality and safeguard data from harmful intruders.

Confidentiality is one of the five pillars of Information Assurance (IA). The other four are authentication,
availability, integrity and no repudiation.

 Examples of maintaining confidentiality include:

1. Individual files are locked and secured
2. Support workers do not tell other people what is in a client’s file unless they have permission from
the client
3. Information about clients is not told to people who do not need to know
4. Clients’ medical details are not discussed without their consent
5. Adult clients have the right to keep any information about themselves confidential, which includes
that information being kept from family and friends.

 The types of information that is considered confidential can include:

1. Name, date of birth, age, sex and address
2. Current contact details of family, guardian etc
3. Bank details
4. Medical history or records
5. Individual personal plans
6. Assessments or reports

 Confidentiality also extends to things like:

1. Names and addresses of clients
2. Phone numbers and addresses of staff and volunteers
3. Names and personal details of people who donate money or time
4. Details of funding agreements
5. Information about strategic planning.

 Importance of confidentiality

Confidentiality is important for several reasons. One of the most important elements of confidentiality is
that it helps to build and develop trust.

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  NETWORK AUDITING

Network auditing is the collective measures done to analyze study and gather data about a network with
the purpose of ascertaining its health in accordance with the network/organization requirements.

Network auditing works through a systematic process where a computer network is analyzed for:

 Security
 Implementation of control
 Availability
 Management
 Performance

Network auditing is a process in which your network is mapped both in terms of software and hardware.
The process can be daunting if done manually, but luckily some tools can help automate a large part of
the process. The administrator needs to know what machines and devices are connected to the network.
He should also know what operating systems are running and to what service pack/patch level. Another
point on the checklist should be what user accounts and groups are on each machine as well as what
shares are available and to whom. A good network audit will also include what hardware makes up each
machine, what policies affect that machine and whether it is a physical or a virtual machine. The more
detailed the specification the better.

LO2. 4: Design and interpret Building blueprint

 Content /Topic1: Drawing a schematic diagram of the network system

 Tools used to draw network diagram are the followings:

 Packet Tracer: Packet Tracer is a network simulator software. It simulates networking devices
that are used to build CCNA practice labs. An average CCNA lab costs more than $300.
A packet tracer cuts this cost by simulating all essential CCNA lab devices. A simulation-based
learning environment helps students and instructors.

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 Figure 61: Network diagram designed by packet tracer

 Edraw Max :
 Edraw Max is an extremely powerful all-in-one diagramming tool that can serve all of your
purposes. Whether you need to draw flowcharts, fishbone diagrams, it is also an all-in-one
diagram software for more than 200 diagram types such as business presentations, building
plans, mind maps, science illustration, ...
How to Draw a Network Diagram Online

What is a Network Diagram?

A network diagram is a visual way of presenting a task, process, or path. It graphically describes and
displays the workflow in a series of steps, hence, creating a network. Network diagrams are commonly
used to simplify complex and lengthy tasks, structures, and relationships. Many organizations use network
tasks for project management, debugging, network structures, and many more. If you want to draw a
network diagram, then use Edraw Max Online templates and tools.

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Figure 62: Network diagram designed by Edraw Max

Edraw Max Online is a multi-purpose graphics tool that can be used to create different types of visual
content, including network diagrams. Edraw works as a free network diagram tool that anyone from a
beginner to an expert can use. Use this online software to draw a network diagram online in just a few
simple steps.

What are the Uses of a Network Diagram?

Network diagrams are commonly used in many different industries and as part of many various projects.
Here are some of the uses of a network diagram:

1. It’s used in project management to represent the flow of work;

2. It’s used by companies to manage their network data and the connection between different
computers;
3. It is used to introduce updates to a network system;

It is used to diagnose and report network problems within a company.

How to Draw a Network Diagram

Use the free network diagram tool and templates in Edraw Max to draw a network diagram online. Just
follow this step-by-step tutorial.

Step 1 – Open Edraw Max Online

Visit https://www.edrawmax.com/online/ on your browser to launch Edraw Max Online. If you don’t have
used Edraw Max before, you can sign up for a free account and use it for free.

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Step 2 – Open Information Technique

On the navigation pane on the screen towards the left, scroll down to Information Techniques. Different
types of visual data will appear, including Basic Network Diagram, Complex Network Diagram, and Logical
Network diagram. Click on Basic Network Diagram. Free Edraw Max templates will appear. Now you will
choose a free model or create one from scratch.

Step 3 – Create a Network Diagram

Once you click on a template, whether blank or predesigned, a new Edraw Online tab will open up in the
browser. To create a network diagram using a template, edit and customize the template until you are
happy with the results.

To start the network diagram from scratch, start creating your diagram on the blank sheet. To use symbols,
drawing, and other visual tools, use the Symbol Library on the left side of the screen. You can search for
more by clicking on the icon in the Symbol Library. Now scroll down to Network and Computer in the pop-
up window, select Cisco Network or other options, and then click on OK.

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You can add some of the Network and Computer symbols on the library pane, display them on the drawing
page and use them with connection lines to make network diagrams. To add any item on your drawing
page, select it, drag it towards the page and then place it where you want it.

Step 4 – Customize your Network Diagram

Keep editing and formatting your network diagram according to your needs. Once you are satisfied with
the final results, close the format tab and Symbol library (on the right and left side of the screen
respectively) by clicking on << and >> symbol.

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Step 5 – Save you File

Once you have completed the Network Diagram, you can save it for later edits and online sharing. Edraw
Max Online lets you export Edraw documents in several commonly-used file types such as Excel, PDF,
Graphics, PowerPoint, or Word. To save an Edraw file in another software, click on File and then go
to Export. Now, select the file type you want to choose. You can also edit the document in the
corresponding software after saving it and share it with others who use similar programs.

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Edraw also allows you to save documents in Google Drive and Dropbox for cloud sharing and storage. Click
on File and then Save as. A pop-up window will appear where you can save your Edraw Network Diagram
in Dropbox or Google Drive.

Our guide on how to draw a network diagram in Edraw Max concludes here. For further elaboration and
understanding, check out the video tutorial.

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Learning Unit 3 – Configure and troubleshoot a SOHO LAN
LO3.1: Configure IOS
 Content /Topic1: Configuration of IOS
Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS)

Cisco IOS (different from Apple’s iOS) is a proprietary kernel which controls all functions of a Cisco router
and most switches. Cisco IOS is based on the operating system created by William Yeager at Stanford
University between 1980 and 1986. Cisco licensed Yeager’s work and created the IOS out of it. The Cisco
kernel allocates resources and manages things such as low-level hardware interfaces and security.

Some important items that the Cisco router IOS is responsible for include:

 Carrying network protocols and functions

 Connecting high-speed traffic between devices
 Adding security to control access and stop unauthorized network use
 Providing scalability for ease of network growth and redundancy
 Supplying network reliability for connecting to network resources

Apart from the routing, switching, telecommunications and security functions, the IOS also provides
a Command Line Interface (CLI) for configuration, management, monitoring and troubleshooting. The CLI
can be access using the console port, the auxiliary port (if it is available) and Telnet or SSH. Telnet or SSH
access requires IP connectivity, hence the initial configuration requires you to access the device using the
console port.

 IOS bootcamp
IOS bootcamps teach students the technologies and languages required to build IOS apps for
iPhones which can be launched on the Apple App Store. These technologies include Objective-C,
Swift, XCode, and more.
 IOS access device configuration

Access Methods for IOS configuration

There are several ways to access the CLI environment. The most usual methods are:
 Console
 Telnet or SSH
 AUX port
 Console

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The CLI can be accessed through a console session, also known as the CTY line. A console uses a low speed
serial connection to directly connect a computer or terminal to the console port on the router or
switch.The console port is a management port that provides out-of-band access to a router. The console
port is accessible even if no networking services have been configured on the device. The console port is
often used to access a device when the networking services have not been started or have failed.

Examples of console use are:

 The initial configuration of the network device

 Disaster recovery procedures and troubleshooting where remote access is not possible
 Password recovery procedures

When a router is first placed into service, networking parameters have not been configured. Therefore, the
router cannot communicate via a network. To prepare for the initial startup and configuration, a computer
running terminal emulation software is connected to the console port of the device. Configuration
commands for setting up the router can be entered on the connected computer.

During operation, if a router cannot be accessed remotely, a connection to the console can enable a
computer to determine the status of the device. By default, the console conveys the device startup,
debugging, and error messages.

For many IOS devices, console access does not require any form of security, by default. However, the
console should be configured with passwords to prevent unauthorized device access. In the event that a
password is lost, there is a special set of procedures for bypassing the password and accessing the
device. The device should be located in a locked room or equipment rack to prevent physical access.

 Telnet and SSH

A method for remotely accessing a CLI session is to telnet to the router. Unlike the console connection,
Telnet sessions require active networking services on the device. The network device must have at least
one active interface configured with a Layer 3 address, such as an IPv4 address. Cisco IOS devices include a
Telnet server process that launches when the device is started. The IOS also contains a Telnet client.

A host with a Telnet client can access the vty sessions running on the Cisco device. For security reasons, the
IOS requires that the Telnet session use a password, as a minimum authentication method. The methods
for establishing logins and passwords will be discussed in a later section.

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The Secure Shell (SSH) protocol is a more secure method for remote device access. This protocol provides
the structure for a remote login similar to Telnet, except that it utilizes more secure network services.

SSH provides stronger password authentication than Telnet and uses encryption when transporting session
data. The SSH session encrypts all communications between the client and the IOS device. This keeps the
user ID, password, and the details of the management session private. As a best practice, always use SSH in
place of Telnet whenever possible.

 AUX port

Another way to establish a CLI session remotely is via a telephone dialup connection using a modem
connected to the router's AUX port. Similar to the console connection, this method does not require any
networking services to be configured or available on the device.

The AUX port can also be used locally, like the console port, with a direct connection to a computer
running a terminal emulation program. The console port is required for the configuration of the router, but
not all routers have an auxiliary port. The console port is also preferred over the auxiliary port for
troubleshooting because it displays router startup, debugging, and error messages by default.

Generally, the only time the AUX port is used locally instead of the console port is when there are
problems using the console port, such as when certain console parameters are unknown.

IOS Configuration modes and sub modes

Cisco IOS Modes

The Cisco IOS is designed as a modal operating system. The term modal describes a system where there
are different modes of operation, each having its own domain of operation. The CLI uses a hierarchical
structure for the modes.

In order from top to bottom, the major modes are:

 User executive mode

 Privileged executive mode
 Global configuration mode
 Other specific configuration modes

Each mode is used to accomplish particular tasks and has a specific set of commands that are available
when in that mode. For example, to configure a router interface, the user must enter interface

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configuration mode. All configurations that are entered in interface configuration mode apply only to that
interface.

Some commands are available to all users; others can be executed only after entering the mode in which
that command is available. Each mode is distinguished with a distinctive prompt, and only commands that
are appropriate for that mode are allowed.

The figure shows the IOS modal structure with typical prompts and features.

Command Prompts

When using the CLI, the mode is identified by the command-line prompt that is unique to that mode. The
prompt is composed of the words and symbols on the line to the left of the entry area. The word prompt is
used because the system is prompting you to make an entry.

By default, every prompt begins with the device name. Following the name, the remainder of the prompt
indicates the mode. For example, the default prompt for the global configuration mode on a router would
be:

Router (config)#

As commands are used and modes are changed, the prompt changes to reflect the current context, as
shown in the figure.

1. User Executive Mode

The user executive mode, or user EXEC for short, has limited capabilities but is useful for some basic
operations. The user EXEC mode is at the top of the modal hierarchical structure. This mode is the first
entrance into the CLI of an IOS router.

The user EXEC mode allows only a limited number of basic monitoring commands. This is often referred to
as view-only mode. The user EXEC level does not allow the execution of any commands that might change
the configuration of the device.

By default, there is no authentication required to access the user EXEC mode from the console. It is a good
practice to ensure that authentication is configured during the initial configuration.

The user EXEC mode is identified by the CLI prompt that ends with the > symbol. This is an example that
shows the > symbol in the prompt:

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Switch>

2. Privileged EXEC Mode

The execution of configuration and management commands requires that the network administrator use
the privileged EXEC mode, or a specific mode further down the hierarchy.

The privileged EXEC mode can be identified by the prompt ending with the # symbol.

Switch#

By default, privileged EXEC does not require authentication.It is a good practice to ensure that
authentication is configured.

Global configuration mode and all other more specific configuration modes can only be reached from the
privileged EXEC mode. In a later section of this chapter, we will examine device configuration and some of
the configuration modes.

Moving between the User EXEC and Privileged EXEC Modes

The enable and disable commands are used to change the CLI between the user EXEC mode and the
privileged EXEC mode, respectively.
In order to access the privileged EXEC mode, use the enable command. The privileged EXEC mode is
sometimes called the enable mode.
The syntax for entering the enable command is:
Router>enable
This command is executed without the need for an argument or keyword. Once <Enter> is pressed, the
router prompt changes to:
Router#
The # at the end of the prompt indicates that the router is now in privileged EXEC mode.
If password authentication has been configured for the privileged EXEC mode, the IOS prompts for the
password.
For example:
Router>enable Password: Router#
The disable command is used to return from the privileged EXEC to the user EXEC mode.
For example:

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Router# disable Router>
3. Global Configuration Mode
The primary configuration mode is called global configuration or global config. From global config, CLI
configuration changes are made that affect the operation of the device as a whole.
We also use the global config mode as a precursor to accessing specific configuration modes.
The following CLI command is used to take the device from privileged EXEC mode to the global
configuration mode and to allow entry of configuration commands from a terminal:
Router#configure terminal
Once the command is executed, the prompt changes to show that the router is in global configuration
mode.
Router (config)#
Specific Configuration Modes

From the global config mode, there are many different configuration modes that may be entered. Each of
these modes allows the configuration of a particular part or function of the IOS device. The list below
shows a few of them:

 Interface mode - to configure one of the network interfaces (Fa0/0, S0/0/0,..)

 Line mode - to configure one of the lines (physical or virtual) (console, AUX, VTY,..)
 Router mode - to configure the parameters for one of the routing protocols
The figure shows the prompts for some modes. Remember, as configuration changes are made within an
interface or process, the changes only affect that interface or process.
To exit a specific configuration mode and return to global configuration mode, enter exit at a prompt. To
leave configuration mode completely and return to privileged EXEC mode, enter end or use the key
sequence Ctrl-Z.
Once a change has been made from the global mode, it is good practice to save it to the startup
configuration file stored in NVRAM. This prevents changes from being lost due to power failure or a
deliberate restart. The command to save the running configuration to startup configuration file is:
Router# copy running-config startup-config
In this activity, you will use Packet Tracer to practice accessing IOS configuration modes
Click the Packet Tracer icon to launch the Packet Tracer activity.
Click the Packet Tracer icon to launch the Packet Tracer activity.
 Applying a Basic Configuration Using Cisco IOS

The hostname is used in CLI prompts. If the hostname is not explicitly configured, a router uses the factory-
assigned default hostname "Router." A switch has a factory-assigned default hostname, "Switch." Imagine

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if an internetwork had several routers that were all named with the default name "Router." This would
create considerable confusion during network configuration and maintenance.

When accessing a remote device using Telnet or SSH, it is important to have confirmation that an
attachment has been made to the proper device. If all devices were left with their default names, we could
not identify that the proper device is connected.

By choosing and documenting names wisely, it is easier to remember, discuss, and identify network
devices. To name devices in a consistent and useful way requires the establishment of a naming
convention that spans the company or, at least, the location. It is a good practice to create the naming
convention at the same time as the addressing scheme to allow for continuity within the organization.

Some guidelines for naming conventions are that names should:

 Start with a letter

 Not contain a space
 End with a letter or digit
 Have characters of only letters, digits, and dashes
 Be 63 characters or fewer

The hostnames used in the device IOS preserve capitalization and lower case characters. Therefore, it
allows you to capitalize a name as you ordinarily would. This contrasts with most Internet naming schemes,
where uppercase and lowercase characters are treated identically. RFC 1178 provides some of the rules
that can be used as a reference for device naming.

As part of the device configuration, a unique hostname should be configured for each device.

Note: Device host names are only used by administrators when they use the CLI to configure and monitor
devices. Unless configured to do so, the devices themselves do not use these names when they discover
each other and interoperate.

Configure IOS Hostname

From the privileged EXEC mode, access the global configuration mode by entering the configure
terminal command:

Router#configure terminal

After the command is executed, the prompt will change to:

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Router (config)#

In the global mode, enter the hostname:

Router (config)#hostname AtlantaHQ

After the command is executed, the prompt will change to:

AtlantaHQ(config)#

Notice that the hostname appears in the prompt. To exit global mode, use the exit command.

Always make sure that your documentation is updated each time a device is added or modified. Identify
devices in the documentation by their location, purpose, and address.

Note: To negate the effects of a command, preface the command with the no keyword.

For example, to remove the name of a device, use:

AtlantaHQ(config)# no hostname Router(config)#

Notice that the no hostname command caused the router to revert to the default hostname of "Router."

In this activity, you will use Packet Tracer to configure hostnames on routers and switches.

Users can be logged in to a Cisco device using the following modes:

 Exec mode (user mode) — Allows the user to look around but not change anything. Accessing the
CLI by any of the three methods logs the user into Exec
 Enable mode (privileged mode or privileged exec mode) — allows the user to execute privileged
commands, such as the reload command, which tells the switch to reboot the Cisco IOS. To enter
this mode, the user runs the enable command mode.
 Global configuration mode — Allows users to enter no disruptive commands and display some
information. Unlike exec and enable mode, configuration mode accepts configuration commands —
commands that tell the switch the details of what to do and how to do it. Commands entered in
configuration mode update the active configuration file, but the actual changes in configuration
take place only after the device reboots. To enter configuration mode, a user executes
the configure terminal (conf t) command.
Configuration mode contains several sub-modes. One is interface configuration mode, which can be
entered by running the interface FastEthernet 0/1 (int fa0/1) configuration command.

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4. Other mode/sub mode
Configuration Files

Network devices depend on two types of software for their operation: operating system and configuration.
Like the operating system in any computer, the operating system facilitates the basic operation of the
device's hardware components.
Configuration files contain the Cisco IOS software commands used to customize the functionality of a Cisco
device. Commands are parsed (translated and executed) by the Cisco IOS software when the system is
booted (from the startup-config file) or when commands are entered in the CLI while in configuration
mode.
A network administrator creates a configuration that defines the desired functionality of a Cisco device.
The configuration file is typically a few hundred to a few thousand bytes in size.

Types of Configuration Files

A Cisco network device contains two configuration files:

 The running configuration file - used during the current operation of the device
 The startup configuration file - used as the backup configuration and is loaded when the device is
started

A configuration file may also be stored remotely on a server as a backup.

Startup Configuration File

The startup configuration file (startup-config) is used during system startup to configure the device.
The startup configuration file or startup-config file is stored in non-volatile RAM (NVRAM). Since NVRAM
is non-volatile, when the Cisco device is turned off, the file remains intact. The startup-config files are
loaded into RAM each time the router is started or reloaded. Once the configuration file is loaded into
RAM, it is considered the running configuration or running-config.

Running Configuration

Once in RAM, this configuration is used to operate the network device.

The running configuration is modified when the network administrator performs device
configuration. Changes to the running configuration will immediately affect the operation of the Cisco
device. After making any changes, the administrator has the option of saving those changes back to the
startup-config file so that they will be used the next time the device restarts.
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Because the running configuration file is in RAM, it is lost if the power to the device is turned off or if the
device is restarted. Changes made to the running-config file will also be lost if they are not saved to the
startup-config file before the device is powered down.

 IOS command structure

1. Basic IOS Command Structure

Each IOS command has specific format or syntax and is executed at the appropriate prompt. The general
syntax for a command is the command followed by any appropriate keywords and arguments. Some
commands include a subset of keywords and arguments that provide additional functionality. The figure
shows these parts of a command.

The command is the initial word or words entered in the command line. The commands are not case-
sensitive. Following the command are one or more keywords and arguments.

The keywords describe specific parameters to the command interpreter. For example, the show command
is used to display information about the device. This command has various keywords that can be used to
define what particular output should be displayed. For example:

Switch#show running-config

The command show is followed by the keyword running-config. The keyword specifies that the running
configuration is to be displayed as the output.

A command might require one or more arguments. Unlike a keyword, an argument is generally not a
predefined word. An argument is a value or variable defined by the user. As an example, when applying a
description to an interface with the description command, enter a line such as this:

Switch (config-if)#description MainHQ Office Switch

The command is: description. The argument is: MainHQ Office Switch. The user defines the argument. For
this command, the argument can be any text string of up to 80 characters.

After entering each complete command, including any keywords and arguments, press the <Enter> key
to submit the command to the command interpreter.

2. IOS Conventions

The figure and the following examples demonstrate some conventions for documenting IOS commands.

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For the ping command:

Format:

Router>ping IP address

Example with values:

Router>ping 10.10.10.5

The command is ping and the argument is the IP address.

Similarly, the syntax for entering the traceroute command is:

Format:

Switch>traceroute IP address

Example with values:

Switch>traceroute 192.168.254.254

The command is traceroute and the argument is the IP address.

Commands are used to execute an action, and the keywords are used to identify where or how to execute
the command.

For another example, return to examining the description command.

Format:

Router(config-if)#description string

Example with values:

Switch(config-if)#description Interface to Building a LAN

The command is description, and the argument applied to the interface is the text string, Interface to
Building a LAN. Once the command is executed, that description will be applied to the particular interface.

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Using CLI Help

The IOS has several forms of help available:

 Context-sensitive help
 Command Syntax Check
 Hot Keys and Shortcuts

Context-Sensitive Help

The context-sensitive help provides a list of commands and the arguments associated with those
commands within the context of the current mode. To access context-sensitive help, enter a question
mark, ?, at any prompt. There is an immediate response without the need to use the <Enter> key.

One use of context-sensitive help is to get a list of available commands. This can be used when you are
unsure of the name for a command or you want to see if the IOS supports a particular command in a
particular mode.

For example, to list the commands available at the user EXEC level, type a question mark ? at the Router>
prompt.

Another use of context-sensitive help is to display a list of commands or keywords that start with a specific
character or characters. After entering a character sequence, if a question mark is immediately entered-
without a space-the IOS will display a list of commands or keywords for this context that start with the
characters that were entered.

For example, enter sh? to get a list of commands that begin with the character sequence sh.

A final type of context-sensitive help is used to determine which options, keywords, or arguments are
matched with a specific command. When entering a command, enter a space followed by a? to determine
what can or should be entered next.

As shown in the figure, after entering the command clock set 19:50:00, we can enter the? to determine
the options or keywords that fit with this command.

Command Syntax Check

When a command is submitted by pressing the <Enter> key, the command line interpreter parses the
command from left to right to determine what action is being requested. The IOS generally only provides

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negative feedback. If the interpreter understands the command, the requested action is executed and the
CLI returns to the appropriate prompt. However, if the interpreter cannot understand the command being
entered, it will provide feedback describing what is wrong with the command.

There are three different types of error messages:

 Ambiguous command
 Incomplete command
 Incorrect command

See the figure for the types of errors and the remedies.

Hot Keys and Shortcuts

The IOS CLI provides hot keys and shortcuts that make configuring, monitoring, and troubleshooting easier.

The figure shows most of the shortcuts. The following are worthy of special note:

 Tab - Completes the remainder of the command or keyword

 Ctrl-R - Redisplays a line
 Ctrl-Z - Exits configuration mode and returns to the EXEC
 Down Arrow - Allows user to scroll forward through former commands
 Up Arrow - Allows user to scroll backward through former commands
 Ctrl-Shift-6 - Allows the user to interrupt an IOS process such as ping or traceroute
 Ctrl-C - Aborts the current command and exits the configuration mode

Examining these in more detail:

Tab - Tab complete is used to complete the remainder of abbreviated commands and parameters if the
abbreviation contains enough letters to be different from any other currently available commands or
parameters. When enough of the command or keyword has been entered to appear unique, press
the Tab key and the CLI will display the rest of the command or keyword.

This is a good technique to use when you are learning because it allows you to see the full word used for
the command or keyword.

Ctrl-R - Redisplay line will refresh the line just typed. Use Ctrl-R to redisplay the line. For example, you may
find that the IOS is returning a message to the CLI just as you are typing a line. You can use Ctrl-R to refresh
the line and avoid having to retype it.

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In this example, a message regarding a failed interface is returned in the middle of a command.

Switch#show mac- 16w4d: %LINK-5-CHANGED: Interface FastEthernet0/10, changed state to down 16w4d:
%LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface FastEthernet0/10, changed state to down

To redisplay to line that you were typing use Ctrl-R:

Switch#show mac

Ctrl-Z - Exit configuration mode. To leave a configuration mode and return to privileged EXEC mode,
use Ctrl-Z. Because the IOS has a hierarchal mode structure, you may find yourself several levels down.
Rather than exit each mode individually, use Ctrl-Z to return directly to the privileged EXEC prompt at the
top level.

Up and Down arrows - Using previous commands. The Cisco IOS software buffers several past commands
and characters so that entries can be recalled. The buffer is useful for reentering commands without
retyping.

Key sequences are available to scroll through these buffered commands. Use the up arrow key (Ctrl P) to
display the previously entered commands. Each time this key is pressed, the next successively older
command will be displayed. Use the down arrow key (Ctrl N) to scroll forward through the history to
display the more recent commands.

Ctrl-Shift-6 - Using the escape sequence. When an IOS process is initiated from the CLI, such as a ping or
traceroute, the command runs until it is complete or is interrupted. While the process is running, the CLI is
unresponsive. To interrupt the output and interact with the CLI, press Ctrl-Shift-6.

Ctrl-C - This interrupts the entry of a command and exits the configuration mode. This is useful when
entering a command you may decide that you wish to cancel the command and exits the configuration
mode.

Abbreviated commands or keywords. Commands and keywords can be abbreviated to the minimum
number of characters that identifies a unique selection. For example, the configurecommand can be
abbreviated to conf because configure is the only command that begins with conf. An abbreviation
of con will not work because more than one command begins with con.

Keywords can also be abbreviated.

As another example, show interfaces can be abbreviated like this:

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Router#show interfaces Router#show int

You can abbreviate both the command and the keywords, for example:

Router#sh int

 IOS examination commands

IOS "Examination" Commands

In order to verify and troubleshoot network operation, we must examine the operation of the devices. The
basic examination command is the show command.

There are many different variations of this command. As you develop more skill with the IOS, you will learn
to use and interpret the output of the show commands. Use the show ? command to get a list of available
commands in a given context, or mode.

The figure indicates how the typical show command can provide information about the configuration,
operation, and status of parts of a Cisco router.

In this course, we use some of the more basic show commands.

Some of the most commonly used commands are:

Show interfaces

Displays statistics for all interfaces on the device. To view the statistics for a specific interface, enter
the show interfaces command followed by the specific interface slot/port number. For example:

Router#show interfaces serial 0/1

Show version

Displays information about the currently loaded software version, along with hardware and device
information. Some of the information shown from this command are:

 Software Version - IOS software version (stored in flash)

 Bootstrap Version - Bootstrap version (stored in Boot ROM)
 System up-time - Time since last reboot
 System restart info - Method of restart (e.g., power cycle, crash)

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  Software image name - IOS filename stored in flash
 Router Type and Processor type - Model number and processor type
 Memory type and allocation (Shared/Main) - Main Processor RAM and Shared Packet I/O buffering
 Software Features - Supported protocols / feature sets
 Hardware Interfaces - Interfaces available on router
 Configuration Register - Sets bootup specifications, console speed setting, and related parameters.

The figure shows a sample of typical show version output.

 show arp - Displays the ARP table of the device.

 show mac-address-table - (switch only) Displays the MAC table of a switch.
 show startup-config - Displays the saved configuration located in NVRAM.
 show running-config - Displays the contents of the currently running configuration file or the
configuration for a specific interface, or map class information.
 show ip interfaces - Displays IPv4 statistics for all interfaces on a router. To view the statistics for a
specific interface, enter the show ip interfaces command followed by the specific interface
slot/port number. Another important format of this command is show ip interface brief. This is
useful to get a quick summary of the interfaces and their operational state.

For example:

Router#show ip interface brief Interface IP-Address OK? Method Status Protocol FastEthernet0/0
172.16.255.254 YES manual up up FastEthernet0/1 unassigned YES unset down down Serial0/0/0
10.10.10.5 YES manual up up Serial0/0/1 unassigned YES unset down down

The More Prompt

When a command returns more output than can be displayed on a single screen, the --More-- prompt
appears at the bottom of the screen. When a --More-- prompt appears, press the Spacebar to view the
next portion of output. To display only the next line, press the Enter key. If any other key is pressed, the
output is cancelled and you are returned to the prompt.
In this activity, you will use Packet Tracer to examine common IOS show commands.

LO3.2: Configure SOHO LAN IP settings

 Content /Topic1: Introduction to IP Addressing.

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1. IP addressing scheme and IP address structure
IP Addressing Scheme
The IP header has 32 bits assigned for addressing a desired device on the network. An IP address is a
unique identifier used to locate a device on the IP network. To make the system scalable, the address
structure is subdivided into the network ID and the host ID. The network ID identifies the network the
device belongs to; the host ID identifies the device. This implies that all devices belonging to the same
network have a single network ID.

Components of IP address:

For continence sake we use IP address dotted-decimal notation, while the computer converts this into
binary. However, even though these sets of 32 bits are considered a single “entity”, they have an
internal structure containing two components:

 Network Identifier (Network ID): A certain number of bits, starting from the left-most bit, is used
to identify the network where the host or other network interface is located. This is also sometimes
called the network prefix or even just the prefix. This is the address of the network itself, and is
used by other networks to identify this network.
 Host Identifier (Host ID): The remainder of the bits is used to identify the host on the network. This
is the address of the device with in the network.

The fundamental division of the bits of an IP address is into a network ID and host ID. Here, the
network ID is 8 bits long and the host ID is 24 bits in length.

Based on the bit positioning assigned to the network ID and the host ID, the IP address is further
subdivided into classes A, B, C, D (multicast), and E (reserved).

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Consider the lengths of corresponding fields for each class shown in this figure:

 Class A starts with 0 followed by 7 bits of network ID and 24 bits of host ID.
 Class B starts with 10 followed by 14 bits of network ID and 16 bits of host ID.
 Class C starts with 110 followed by 21 bits of network ID and 8 bits of host ID.
 Class D starts with 1110 followed by 28 bits. Class D is used only for multicast addressing by which a
group of hosts form a multicast group and each group requires a multicast address. Chapter 6 is
entirely dedicated to multicast techniques and routing.
 Class E starts with 1111 followed by 28 bits. Class E is reserved for network experiments only.

The following figure shows the component parts of an IPv4 address, 172.16.50.56.

Figure 2-1 IPv4 Address Format

172.16

Registered IPv4 network number. In class-based IPv4 notation, this number also defines the IP
network class, Class B in this example that would have been registered by the IANA.

50.56

Host part of the IPv4 address. The host part uniquely identifies an interface on a system on a
network. Note that for each interface on a local network, the network part of the address is the
same, but the host part must be different.

If you plan to subnet a class-based IPv4 network, you need to define a subnet mask, or netmask, as
explained in netmasks Database.

The next example shows of the CIDR format address 192.168.3.56/22

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Figure 2-2 CIDR Format IPv4 Address

192.168.3

Network part, which consists of the IPv4 network number that is received from an ISP or IR.

56

Host part, which you assign to an interface on a system.

/22

Network prefix, which defines how many bits of the address comprise the network number. The
network prefix also provides the subnet mask for the IP address. Network prefixes are also assigned
by the ISP or IR.

Designing Your IPv4 Addressing Scheme

This section describes the classes into which standard IPv4 address are organized. Though the IANA no
longer gives out class-based network numbers, these network numbers are still in use on many networks.
You might need to administer the address space for a site with class-based network numbers. For a
complete discussion of IPv4 network classes, refer to Network Classes.

The following table shows the division of the standard IPv4 address into network and host address spaces.
For each class, “Range” specifies the range of decimal values for the first byte of the network number.
“Network Address” indicates the number of bytes of the IPv4 address that are dedicated to the network
part of the address. Each byte is represented by xxx. “Host Address” indicates the number of bytes that are
dedicated to the host part of the address. For example, in a class A network address, the first byte is
dedicated to the network, and the last three bytes are dedicated to the host. The opposite designation is
true for a class C network.

Class Byte Range Network Number Host Address

A 0–127 xxx xxx.xxx.xxx

B 128–191 xxx.xxx xxx.xxx

C 192–223 xxx.xxx.xxx xxx

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Table 9: Division of the IPv4 Classes

The numbers in the first byte of the IPv4 address define whether the network is class A, B, or C. The
remaining three bytes have a range from 0–255. The two numbers 0 and 255 are reserved. You can assign
the numbers 1–254 to each byte, depending on the network class that was assigned to your network by
the IANA.
The following table shows which bytes of the IPv4 address are assigned to you. The table also shows the
range of numbers within each byte that are available for you to assign to your hosts.

Network Class Byte 1 Range Byte 2 Range Byte 3 Range Byte 4 Range

A 0–127 1–254 1–254 1–254

B 128–191 Preassigned by IANA 1–254 1–254

C 192–223 Preassigned by IANA Preassigned by IANA 1–254

Table 10: Range of Available IPv4 Classes

IPv4 Subnet Number

Local networks with large numbers of hosts are sometimes divided into subnets. If you divide your IPv4
network number into subnets, you need to assign a network identifier to each subnet. You can maximize
the efficiency of the IPv4 address space by using some of the bits from the host part of the IPv4 address as
a network identifier. When used as a network identifier, the specified part of the address becomes the
subnet number. You create a subnet number by using a netmask, which is a bitmask that selects the
network and subnet parts of an IPv4 address. Refer to Creating the Network Mask for IPv4 Addresses for
details.

Designing Your CIDR IPv4 Addressing Scheme

The network classes that originally constituted IPv4 are no longer in use on the global Internet. Today, the
IANA distributes classless CIDR format addresses to its registries around the world. Any IPv4 address that
you obtain from an ISP is in CIDR format, as shown in Figure 2-2.

The network prefix of the CIDR address indicates how many IPv4 addresses are available for hosts on your
network. Note that these host addresses are assigned to interfaces on a host. If a host has more than one
physical interface, you need to assign a host address for every physical interface that is in use.

The network prefix of a CIDR address also defines the length of the subnet mask. Most Oracle Solaris
commands recognize the CIDR prefix designation of a network's subnet mask. However, the Oracle Solaris
installation program and /etc/netmask file require you to set the subnet mask by using dotted decimal

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representation. In these two cases, use the dotted decimal representation of the CIDR network prefix, as
shown in the next table.

CIDR Network Prefix Available IP Addresses Dotted Decimal Subnet Equivalent

/19 8,192 255.255.224.0

/20 4,096 255.255.240.0

/21 2,048 255.255.248.0

/22 1024 255.255.252.0

/23 512 255.255.254.0

/24 256 255.255.255.0

/25 128 255.255.255.128

/26 64 255.255.255.192

/27 32 255.255.255.224

Table 11: CIDR Prefixes and Their Decimal Equivalent

IP Subnet mask

Each IP class is equipped with its own default subnet mask which bounds that IP class to have prefixed
number of Networks and prefixed number of Hosts per network. Classful IP addressing does not provide
any flexibility of having less number of Hosts per Network or more Networks per IP Class.

CIDR or Classless Inter Domain Routing provides the flexibility of borrowing bits of Host part of the IP
address and using them as Network in Network, called Subnet. By using subnetting, one single Class A IP
address can be used to have smaller sub-networks which provides better network management
capabilities.

Class A Subnets
What is IP Subnetting?
IP Subnetting is a process of dividing a large IP network in smaller IP networks. In Subnetting we create
multiple small manageable networks from a single large IP network.

Let’s take an example.

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To best utilize available addresses if we put more than 16000000 hosts in a single network, due to
broadcast and collision, that network will never work. If we put less hosts then remaining addresses will be
wasted.

Subnetting provides a better way to deal with this situation. Subnetting allows us to create smaller
networks from a single large network which not only fulfill our hosts’ requirement but also offer several
other networking benefits.

I have already explained the advantages of Subnetting along with why Subnetting is necessary in previous
parts of this tutorial. In this part, I will mainly focus on Subnetting components and terminology.

This tutorial is the third part of the article “IP Subnetting in Computer Network Step by Step Explained
with Examples”. Other parts of this article are following.

IP First IP Address of Last IP Address of Default Subnet Default Network Host Reserved

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Class class class Mask bits bits host bits

A 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 First 8 bits 9 to 30 31, 32

B 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 255.255.0.0 First 16 bits 17 to 31, 32

30

C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255 255.255.255.0 First 24 bits 25 to 31, 32

30

Table 12: IP Subnetting

 In Class A, only the first octet is used as Network identifier and rest of three octets are used to be
assigned to Hosts (i.e. 16777214 Hosts per Network). To make more subnet in Class A, bits from
Host part are borrowed and the subnet mask is changed accordingly.

For example, if one MSB (Most Significant Bit) is borrowed from host bits of second octet and added to
Network address, it creates two Subnets (21=2) with (223-2) 8388606 Hosts per Subnet.

The Subnet mask is changed accordingly to reflect subnetting. Given below is a list of all possible
combination of Class A subnets −

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Table 13: Class A subnets

In case of subnetting too, the very first and last IP address of every subnet is used for Subnet Number and
Subnet Broadcast IP address respectively. Because these two IP addresses cannot be assigned to hosts,
sub-netting cannot be implemented by using more than 30 bits as Network Bits, which provides less than
two hosts per subnet.

Class B Subnets

By default, using Classful Networking, 14 bits are used as Network bits providing (2 14) 16384 Networks
and (216-2) 65534 Hosts. Class B IP Addresses can be subnetted the same way as Class A addresses, by
borrowing bits from Host bits. Below is given all possible combination of Class B subnetting −

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Table 14: Class B Subnets

Class C Subnets

Class C IP addresses are normally assigned to a very small size network because it can only have 254 hosts
in a network. Given below is a list of all possible combination of subnetted Class B IP address −

Table 15: Class C Subnets

A subnet is division of an IP network (internet protocol suite), where an IP network is a set of

communications protocols used on the Internet and other similar networks. It is commonly known as
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

The act of dividing a network into at least two separate networks is called subnetting, and routers are
devices that allow traffic exchange between subnetworks, serving as a physical boundary. IPv4 is the most
common network addressing architecture used, though the use of IPv6 has been growing since 2006.

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An IP address is comprised of a network number (routing prefix) and a rest field (host identifier). A rest
field is an identifier that is specific to a given host or network interface. A routing prefix is often expressed
using Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation for both IPv4 and IPV6. CIDR is a method used to
create unique identifiers for networks, as well as individual devices. For IPv4, networks can also be
characterized using a subnet mask, which are sometimes expressed in dot-decimal notation, as shown in
the "Subnet" field in the calculator. All hosts on a subnetwork have the same network prefix, unlike the
host identifier which is a unique local identification. In IPv4, these subnet masks are used to differentiate
the network number and host identifier. In IPv6, the network prefix performs a similar function as the
subnet mask in IPv4, with the prefix length representing the number of bits in the address.

Prior to the introduction of CIDR, IPv4 network prefixes could be directly obtained from the IP address
based on the class (A, B, or C, which vary based on the range of IP addresses they include) of the address
and the network mask. Since CIDRs introduction however, assigning an IP address to a network interface
requires both an address and its network mask.

Below is a table providing typical subnets for IPv4.

Prefix size Network mask Usable hosts per subnet

/1 128.0.0.0 2,147,483,646

/2 192.0.0.0 1,073,741,822

/3 224.0.0.0 536,870,910

/4 240.0.0.0 268,435,454

/5 248.0.0.0 134,217,726

/6 252.0.0.0 67,108,862

/7 254.0.0.0 33,554,430

Class A

/8 255.0.0.0 16,777,214

/9 255.128.0.0 8,388,606

/10 255.192.0.0 4,194,302

/11 255.224.0.0 2,097,150

/12 255.240.0.0 1,048,574

/13 255.248.0.0 524,286

/14 255.252.0.0 262,142

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 /15 255.254.0.0 131,070

Class B

/16 255.255.0.0 65,534

/17 255.255.128.0 32,766

/18 255.255.192.0 16,382

/19 255.255.224.0 8,190

/20 255.255.240.0 4,094

/21 255.255.248.0 2,046

/22 255.255.252.0 1,022

/23 255.255.254.0 510

Class C

/24 255.255.255.0 254

/25 255.255.255.128 126

/26 255.255.255.192 62

/27 255.255.255.224 30

/28 255.255.255.240 14

/29 255.255.255.248 6

/30 255.255.255.252 2

/31 255.255.255.254 0

/32 255.255.255.255 0
Table 16: Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation for both IPv4 and IPV6.

 Content /Topic 2: Configuring DNS

Dynamic DNS

Besides the static IP hosting services, users can also take advantage of a dynamic DNS option. When, for
instance, a user needs to use a dynamic IP address whose value is refreshed every time a connection with
his/her Internet Service Provider is established, he or she will have to use a dynamic DNS service, which
will update the corresponding domain name servers in accordance with each IP address value update.

How does a dynamic DNS work?

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Dynamic DNS is a service that automatically and periodically updates your DNS's A (IPv4) or AAAA (IPv6)
records when your IP address changes. These IP changes are made by your Internet provider
.
What is the purpose of dynamic DNS?
'Dynamic DNS' (DynDNS) stands for Dynamic Domain Name System (also known as 'DDNS'). This helps you
to forward your home network's constantly changing IP addresses to a fixed domain name. You have to
register with a DDNS service under an available name (such as example.example.com).

Why is it useful?

It can be very useful for people who want to host their website, access CCTV cameras, VPN, app or game
server from their home computer. It is cheaper than to have a static public IP and by setting up Dynamic
DNS, you will avoid the need to update all of your records whenever your IP changes manually. Also, static
IP address is not always an option; it depends on your Internet provider.

DDNS is a very flexible option. The way that Dynamic DNS gives a connected device the ability to notify
DNS servers to automatically update, alongside the active DNS configuration, IP addresses, configured
hostnames and some other information. This saves the need of administrator who should do the changes.

Benefits

As you can see DDNS is a very convenient solution, and it has different advantages, but the main ones are
the following:

Accessibility – You will be able to access your website or server, easily, without being worried. The IP will
change, but this won’t stop any of your activities.
Practicality – You don’t need a network administrator who to check and reconfigure your settings.
Economic – DDNS makes it cheaper; you won’t have IP address conflict in case you have many addresses,
and they are used at the same time.

Static DNS

When users host their domain names on free or commercial servers, they usually get a static IP (non-
changeable IP) address for their websites, which involves the use of static name servers, or static DNS, as
well. Static DNS settings will never update on their own and will remain the same, until you decide to
update them. Static DNS settings are very useful, since they provide a stable service with no interruptions,
and can increase the overall speed of your website.

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you may need to assign a Static DNS Address.

Follow the steps below based on your operating system:

Windows 7

1. Click Start
2. Click Control Panel
3. Click Network and Internet
4. Click Network and Sharing Center
5. From the left panel, click Change Adapter Settings
6. Right-click the adapter being used, i.e. Local Area Connection and then select Properties
7. Double-click Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP /IPv4
8. Click Use the following DNS server addresses and assign as follows: (a) to "Preferred DNS server":
8.8.8.8 and (b) to "Alternate DNS server": 8.8.4.4
9. Click OK
10. Click OK
11. Close Network Connections Windows

Windows 8

1. Swipe in from the right edge of the screen, click Search - if using a mouse, point to the upper-right
corner of the screen, move the mouse pointer down, and then click “Search”
2. Type: Control Panel (in the search bar under “Apps”)
3. Click Control Panel
4. Click Network and Internet
5. Click Network and Sharing Center
6. From the left panel, click Change Adapter Settings
7. Right- click the adapter being used, i.e. Local Area Connection and then select Properties
8. Double- click Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP /IPv4
9. Click Use the following DNS server addresses and assign as follows: (a) to "Preferred DNS server":
8.8.8.8 and (b) to "Alternate DNS server": 8.8.4.4
10. Click OK
11. Click OK
12. Close Network Connections Windows
Mac OS

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 1. From the top left of the screen, choose Apple Menu (will look like an apple)
2. Click System Preferences
3. Click Network
4. Click the adapter being used, i.e. Ethernet
5. Click on Advanced… button on the bottom-right
6. Click DNS
7. Under “DNS Servers:” on the left-side, click the plus sign (+) next to: IPv4 or IPv6 addresses
8. Type 8.8.8.8 in the blue banner that is in the box under DNS Servers
9. Click the plus sign (+ ) again
10. Type: 8.8.4.4 in the blue banner that is in the box under DNS Servers
11. Click OK
12. Click Apply
13. Close the Network window

Content /Topic 3: Assigning IP to the interface

Configure Basic Router Settings

Cisco routers and Cisco switches have many similarities. They support a similar modal operating system,
similar command structures, and many of the same commands. In addition, both devices have similar
initial configuration steps.

When initially configuring a Cisco switch or router, the following steps should be executed:

Step 1. Name the device. This changes the router prompt and helps distinguish the device from others.

Step 2. Secure management access. Specifically, secure the privileged EXEC, user EXEC, and Telnet access,
and encrypt passwords to their highest level.

Step 3. Configure a banner. Although optional, this is a recommended step to provide legal notice to
anyone attempting to access the device.

Step 4. Save the configuration.

For example, the following commands would configure the basic settings for router R1 shown in Figure 1-
14.

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Figure 1-14 Configuring the Basic Settings of R1

Router# configure terminal

Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.

Router(config)# hostname R1

R1(config)#

R1(config)# enable secret class

R1(config)#

R1(config)# line console 0

R1(config-line)# password cisco

R1(config-line)# login

R1(config-line)# exit

R1(config)#

R1(config)# line vty 0 4

R1(config-line)# password cisco

R1(config-line)# login

R1(config-line)# exit

R1(config)#

R1(config)# service password-encryption

R1(config)#

R1(config)# banner motd $ Authorized Access Only! $

R1(config)# end

R1#

R1# copy running-config startup-config

Destination filename [startup-config]?

Building configuration...
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 [OK]

R1#

Configure an IPv4 Router Interface

One distinguishing feature between switches and routers is the type of interfaces supported by each. For
example, Layer 2 switches support LANs and, therefore, have multiple FastEthernet or Gigabit Ethernet
ports.

Routers support LANs and WANs and can interconnect different types of networks; therefore, they support
many types of interfaces. For example, G2 ISRs have one or two integrated Gigabit Ethernet interfaces
and High-Speed WAN Interface Card (HWIC) slots to accommodate other types of network interfaces,
including serial, DSL, and cable interfaces.

To be available, an interface must be:

 If using IPv4, configured with an address and a subnet mask: Use the ip address ip-address subnet-
mask interface configuration command.
 Activated: By default, LAN and WAN interfaces are not activated (shutdown). To enable an
interface, it must be activated using the no shutdown command. (This is similar to powering on the
interface.) The interface must also be connected to another device (a hub, a switch, or another
router) for the physical layer to be active.

Optionally, the interface could also be configured with a short description. It is good practice to configure a
description on each interface. The description text is limited to 240 characters. On production networks, a
description can be helpful in troubleshooting by providing information about the type of network to which
the interface is connected. If the interface connects to an ISP or service carrier, it is helpful to enter the
third-party connection and contact information.

Depending on the type of interface, additional parameters may be required. For example, in the lab
environment, the serial interface connecting to the serial cable end labeled DCE must be configured with
the clock rate command.

NOTE

Accidentally using the clock rate command on a DTE interface generates a “%Error: This command applies
only to DCE interface” message.

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The steps to configure an IPv4 interface on a router are:

Step 1. Add a description. Although optional, it is a necessary component for documenting a network.

Step 2. Configure the IPv4 address.

Step 3. Configure a clock rate on Serial interfaces. This is only necessary on the DCE device in our lab
environment and does not apply to Ethernet interfaces.

Step 4. Enable the interface.

For example, the following commands would configure the three directly connected interfaces of router
R1 shown in Figure 1-14 (in the previous section):

R1(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0

R1(config-if)# description Link to LAN 1

R1(config-if)# ip address 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0

R1(config-if)# no shutdown

R1(config-if)# exit

R1(config)#

R1(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/1

R1(config-if)# description Link to LAN 2

R1(config-if)# ip address 192.168.11.1 255.255.255.0

R1(config-if)# no shutdown

R1(config-if)# exit

R1(config)#

R1(config)# interface serial 0/0/0

R1(config-if)# description Link to R2

R1(config-if)# ip address 209.165.200.225 255.255.255.252

R1(config-if)# clock rate 128000

R1(config-if)# no shutdown

R1(config-if)# exit

R1(config)#

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Configure an IPv6 Router Interface (1.1.3.3)

Configuring an IPv6 interface is similar to configuring an interface for IPv4. Most IPv6 configuration and
verification commands in the Cisco IOS are very similar to their IPv4 counterparts. In many cases, the only
difference uses ipv6 in place of ip in commands.

An IPv6 interface must be:

 Configured with IPv6 address and subnet mask: Use the ipv6 address ipv6-address/prefix-
length [link-local | eui-64] interface configuration command.
 Activated: The interface must be activated using the no shutdown command.

NOTE

An interface can generate its own IPv6 link-local address without having a global unicast address by using
the ipv6 enable interface configuration command.

Unlike IPv4, IPv6 interfaces will typically have more than one IPv6 address. At a minimum, an IPv6 device
must have an IPv6 link-local address but will most likely also have an IPv6 global unicast address. IPv6 also
supports the ability for an interface to have multiple IPv6 global unicast addresses from the same subnet.
The following commands can be used to statically create a global unicast or link-local IPv6 address:

 ipv6 address ipv6-address/prefix-length: Creates a global unicast IPv6 address as specified.

 ipv6 address ipv6-address/prefix-length eui-64: Configures a global unicast IPv6 address with an
interface identifier (ID) in the low-order 64 bits of the IPv6 address using the EUI-64 process.
 ipv6 address ipv6-address/prefix-length link-local: Configures a static link-local address on the
interface that is used instead of the link-local address that is automatically configured when the
global unicast IPv6 address is assigned to the interface or enabled using the ipv6 enable interface
command. Recall, the ipv6 enable interface command is used to automatically create an IPv6 link-
local address whether or not an IPv6 global unicast address has been assigned.

The steps to configure an IPv6 interface on a router are:

Step 1. Add a description. Although optional, it is a necessary component for documenting a network.

Step 2. Configure the IPv6 global unicast address. Configuring a global unicast address automatically
creates a link-local IPv6 address.

Step 3. Configure a link-local unicast address which automatically assigns a link-local IPv6 address and
overrides any previously assigned address.

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Step 4. Configure a clock rate on Serial interfaces. This is only necessary on the DCE device in our lab
environment and does not apply to Ethernet interfaces.

Step 5. Enable the interface.

In the example topology shown in Figure 1-15, R1 must be configured to support the following IPv6
global network addresses:

 2001:0DB8:ACAD:0001:/64 (2001:DB8:ACAD:1::/64)
 2001:0DB8:ACAD:0002:/64 (2001:DB8:ACAD:2::/64)
 2001:0DB8:ACAD:0003:/64 (2001:DB8:ACAD:3::/64)

Figure 1-15 IPv6 Topology

When the router is configured using the ipv6 unicast-routing global configuration command, the router
begins sending ICMPv6 Router Advertisement messages out the interface. This enables a PC connected to
the interface to automatically configure an IPv6 address and to set a default gateway without needing the
services of a DHCPv6 server. Alternatively, a PC connected to the IPv6 network can get its IPv6 address
statically assigned, as shown in Figure 1-16. Notice that the default gateway address configured for PC1 is
the IPv6 global unicast address of the R1 Gigabit Ethernet 0/0 interface.

Figure 1-16 Statically Assign an IPv6 Address to PC1

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For example, the following commands would configure the IPv6 global unicast addresses of the three
directly connected interfaces of the R1 router shown in Figure 1-15:

R1# configure terminal

R1(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0

R1(config-if)# description Link to LAN 1

R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:1::1/64

R1(config-if)# no shutdown

R1(config-if)# exit

R1(config)#

R1(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/1

R1(config-if)# description Link to LAN 2

R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:2::1/64

R1(config-if)# no shutdown

R1(config-if)# exit

R1(config)#

R1(config)# interface serial 0/0/0

R1(config-if)# description Link to R2

R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:3::1/64

R1(config-if)# clock rate 128000

R1(config-if)# no shutdown

R1(config-if)#

show ip route - Provides a snapshot of the routing table entries.

Cat3550#show ip route
Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2,
i - IS-IS, su - IS-IS summary, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2,
ia - IS-IS inter area, * - candidate default, U - per-user static route,

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 o - ODR, P - periodic downloaded static route
Gateway of last resort is 200.1.1.2 to network 0.0.0.0
200.1.1.0/30 is subnetted, 1 subnets
C 200.1.1.0 is directly connected, FastEthernet0/48
10.0.0.0/24 is subnetted, 3 subnets
C 10.1.10.0 is directly connected, Vlan10
C 10.1.3.0 is directly connected, Vlan3
C 10.1.2.0 is directly connected, Vlan2
S* 0.0.0.0/0 [1/0] via 200.1.1.2
Note that the routing table has an entry for each VLAN interface subnet. Therefore, devices in VLAN 3 can
communicate with devices in VLAN 10, VLAN 2 and vice versa. The default route with the next hop
200.1.1.2 allows the switch to forward traffic to the gateway of last resort (for traffic the switch cannot
route).

 show ip interface brief - Lists a brief summary of an interface's IP information and status. This
command is used to verify that the VLAN interfaces and ports on the switch are up/up.

 Content /Topic 4: Configuration of Switch Virtual Interface.

What is Cisco Switch Virtual Interface (SVI) – Configuration Example and Explanation

Achieving convergence in computer networks is something that is controlled by both routers and switches
in the network. The basic purpose of creating a computer network is to share resources and offer
communication between hosts.

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Local Area Network (LAN) communication deals with switches, while internetwork connectivity (i.e
between different LANs or WANs) require----es the use of a router.

Layer 2 VLANs create what is known as a single broadcast domain, which simply means that when a
broadcast message is sent within the same Layer2 VLAN, all the devices connected to that vlan (either on
the same or separate switches) will receive the message.

Also, hosts connected in the same Layer 2 vlan can communicate with each other without any Layer 3
device required. However, devices that are not on the same VLAN cannot communicate with each other
without some form of routing implemented.

This brings the need for network segmentation and inter-vlan communication, which can be achieved by
using a router or a Layer 3 switch.

Using a router for network segmentation means each interface on the router becomes a network segment
of its own, or what is known as a separate broadcast domain.

In order for this goal to be achieved using Layer 3 switches, multiple Layer 2 VLANs are created on the
switch, which separates everything into multiple broadcast domains. Then, for each Layer2 vlan you need
to create a corresponding Layer3 interface on the switch which will handle the routing functionality. This
Layer3 interface is the SVI.

What is Switch Virtual Interface (SVI)?

Since each VLAN is an isolated network segment of it’s own, layer 3 switches need to be configured in such
a way to allow inter VLAN communication.

The modus operandi of SVIs is simple. You start by creating the Layer 2 VLAN on the switch, and then
assign an IP address on the VLAN Layer3 interface (SVI), just as you would on a physical router interface.

The major difference here is that the SVI Layer 3 interface is virtual. This means also clients that are
connected to that VLAN will make use of the SVI interface as their default gateway.

A default SVI is created on the layer 3 switches for VLAN 1 (default native vlan), which is meant for remote
management of switches. This implies that an IP address can be assigned to this interface for the purpose
of management.

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SVI configuration example

Now let’s see a brief configuration example for creating two SVIs on a layer 3 switch based on the network
diagram above.

Keep in mind that the switch has to be a layer 3 switch, in order for this to be achieved.

The configuration example shown below assumes that you already know how to carry out basic switch
configuration such as changing hostnames, going to global configuration mode, interface configuration
mode, and assigning IP address on an interface.

VLAN 10

SWITCH(config)#vlan 10 <- first create the Layer2 VLAN 10

SWITCH(config)#interface vlan 10 <- now create the SVI for VLAN 10
SWITCH(config-if)#description WORKSTATIONS
SWITCH(config-if)#ip address 10.0.0.1 255.255.255.0 <- assign IP to the SVI

The first line in the example above creates the layer 2 VLAN 10. The following line creates an SVI for VLAN
10 (i.e the Layer3 interface). Although the third line is OPTIONAL, it is recommended that you add an

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interface description, which will assist in understanding the purpose of the SVI. The last line assigns an IP
address on the SVI created for VLAN 10 – in this case. Two SVIs are created for the Workstations and
Server VLANS as shown in the configuration example here.

The following commands are the same as above for creating SVI for VLAN 20.

VLAN 20

SWITCH(config)#vlan 20 <- create Layer 2 VLAN 20

SWITCH(config)#interface vlan 20 <- now create the SVI for VLAN 20
SWITCH(config-if)#description SERVERS
SWITCH(config-if)#ip address 10.0.1.1 255.255.255.0 <- assign IP to the SVI

The need for SVIs

Having VLANs on a network simply means each VLAN is a different network segment with a different
network address subnet.

Although inter VLAN communication can be achieved using a router with multiple interfaces, SVIs come
with less complexities.

With the router configuration, all inter VLAN connections are handled either by a single physical router
interface (“router-on-a-stick”), or multiple physical interfaces.

Sub-interfaces can also be created under a single physical interface of the router to hold the IP addresses
of each VLAN.

On the other hand, using SVIs on Layer3 switches becomes more efficient in terms of achieving fast
convergence on the network and also for simplifying network management and operation (all Layer2 and
Layer3 functionality is handled by the same Layer3 switch).

 Content/Topic 5: Assigning and Testing of IP address to the end devices

Addressing Devices

In order for an end device to communicate over the network, it must be configured with the correct IP
address information. Much like a switch SVI, the end device must be configured with an IP address and
subnet mask. This information is configured on the PC settings.

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All of these settings must be configured on an end device in order for it to properly connect to the
network. This information is configured under the PC network settings. In addition to IP address and
subnet mask information, it is also possible to configure default gateway and DNS server information, as
shown in the figure.

The default gateway address is the IP address of the router interface used for network traffic to exit the
local network. The default gateway is an IP address that is often assigned by the network administrator and
is used when traffic must be routed to another network.

The DNS server address is the IP address of the Domain Name System (DNS) server, which is used to
translate IP addresses to web addresses, such as www.cisco.com. All devices on the Internet are assigned
and reached via an IP address. However, it is easier for people to remember names over numbers.
Therefore, websites are given names for simplicity. The DNS server is used to maintain the mapping
between the IP addresses and names of various devices.

 Assigning IP to the end devices Using DHCP

Using DHCP to Dynamically Configure Router IP Addresses

Problem

You want the router to obtain its IP addressing information dynamically.

Solution

The ip address dhcp configuration command allows the router to obtain the address information for an
interface dynamically:

Router1#configure terminal
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
Router1(config)#interface FastEthernet0/1
Router1(config-if)#ip address dhcp
Router1(config-if)#end
Router1#
Interface FastEthernet0/1 assigned DHCP address 172.25.1.57, mask 255.255.255.0
Router1#

 Assigning IP to the end devices using Static Assignment

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Manual configuration of an IP address

Instead of letting the computer obtain its IP address from the router via DHCP you can choose to manually
configure the IP settings on the computer. Normally this is avoided since it can cause a few different
problems unless it is handled properly by the administrator, which is you.

 Configuring loopback address

Another common configuration of Cisco IOS routers is enabling a loopback interface.

The loopback interface is a logical interface internal to the router. It is not assigned to a physical port and
can therefore never be connected to any other device. It is considered a software interface that is
automatically placed in an “up/up” state, as long as the router is functioning.

The loopback interface is useful in testing and managing a Cisco IOS device because it ensures that at least
one interface will always be available. For example, it can be used for testing purposes, such as testing
internal routing processes, by emulating networks behind the router.

Additionally, the IPv4 address assigned to the loopback interface can be significant to processes on the
router that use an interface IPv4 address for identification purposes, such as the Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF) routing process. By enabling a loopback interface, the router will use the always available loopback
interface address for identification, rather than an IP address assigned to a physical port that may go down.

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The steps to configure a loopback interface on a router are:

Step 1. Create the loopback interface using the interface loopback number global configuration command.

Step 2. Add a description. Although optional, it is a necessary component for documenting a network.

Step 3. Configure the IP address.

For example, the following commands configure a loopback interface of the R1 router shown in Figure 1-
14 (shown earlier in the chapter):

R1# configure terminal

R1(config)# interface loopback 0

R1(config-if)# ip address 10.0.0.1 255.255.255.0

R1(config-if)# exit

R1(config)#

A loopback interface is always enabled and therefore does not require a no shutdown command. Multiple
loopback interfaces can be enabled on a router. The IPv4 address for each loopback interface must be
unique and unused by any other interface.

 Testing interface assignment using show command

Verify Connectivity of Directly Connected Networks (1.1.4)

The first task to undertake once the basic settings and interfaces are configured is to verify and validate the
configured settings. This is an important step and should be done before any other configurations are
added to the router.

Verify Interface Settings (1.1.4.1)

There are several show commands that can be used to verify the operation and configuration of an
interface. The following three commands are especially useful to quickly identify an interface status:

 Show ip interface brief: Displays a summary for all interfaces, including the IPv4 address of the
interface and current operational status.
 Show ip route: Displays the contents of the IPv4 routing table stored in RAM. In Cisco IOS 15, active
interfaces should appear in the routing table with two related entries identified by the

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 code 'C' (Connected) or 'L' (Local). In previous IOS versions, only a single entry with the code 'C' will
appear.
 Show running-config interface interface-id: Displays the commands configured on the specified
interface.

Figure 1-17 displays the output of the show ip interface brief command.

Figure 1-17 Display Interface Summaries

The output reveals that the LAN interfaces and the WAN link are all activated and operational as indicated
by the Status of “up” and Protocol of “up.” A different output would indicate a problem with either the
configuration or the cabling.

NOTE

The entire output of the show ip interface brief command in Figure 1-17 can be viewed in the online
course on page 1.1.4.1 graphic number 1.

NOTE

In Figure 1-17, the Embedded-Service-Engine0/0 interface is displayed because Cisco ISRs G2 have dual-
core CPUs on the motherboard. The Embedded-Service-Engine0/0 interface is outside the scope of this
course.

Figure 1-18 displays the output of the show ip route command.

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Figure 1-18 Verify the IPv4 Routing Table

NOTE

Notice the three directly connected network entries and the three local host route interface entries. A local
host route has an administrative distance of 0. It also has a /32 mask for IPv4, and a /128 mask for IPv6.
The local host route is for routes on the router owning the IP address. It is used to allow the router to
process packets destined to that IP.

Figure 1-19 displays the output of the show running-config interface command. The output displays the
current commands configured on the specified interface.

Figure 1-19 Verify an Interface Configuration

The following two commands are used to gather more detailed interface information:

 show interfaces: Displays interface information and packet flow count for all interfaces on the
device
 show ip interface: Displays the IPv4-related information for all interfaces on a router

Verify IPv6 Interface Settings (1.1.4.2)

The commands to verify the IPv6 interface configuration are similar to the commands used for IPv4.

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The show ipv6 interface brief command in Figure 1-20 displays a summary for each of the interfaces.

Figure 1-20 Verify the R1 IPv6 Interface Status

NOTE

The entire output of the show ipv6 interface brief command in Figure 1-20 can be viewed in the online
course on page 1.1.4.2 graphic number 1.

The “up/up” output on the same line as the interface name indicates the Layer 1/Layer 2 interface state.
This is the same as the Status and Protocol columns in the equivalent IPv4 command.

The output displays two configured IPv6 addresses per interface. One address is the IPv6 global unicast
address that was manually entered. The other address, which begins with FE80, is the link-local unicast
address for the interface. A link-local address is automatically added to an interface whenever a global
unicast address is assigned. An IPv6 network interface is required to have a link-local address, but not
necessarily a global unicast address.

The show ipv6 interface gigabitethernet 0/0 command output shown in Figure 1-21 displays the interface
status and all of the IPv6 addresses belonging to the interface. Along with the link-local address and global
unicast address, the output includes the multicast addresses assigned to the interface, beginning with
prefix FF02.

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Figure 1-21 Verify the IPv6 Configuration on R1 G0/0

NOTE

The entire output of the show ipv6 interface command in Figure 1-21 can be viewed in the online course
on page 1.1.4.2 graphic number 2.

The show ipv6 route command shown in Figure 1-22 can be used to verify that IPv6 networks and specific
IPv6 interface addresses have been installed in the IPv6 routing table. The show ipv6 route command will
only display IPv6 networks, not IPv4 networks.

Figure 1-22 Verify the R1 IPv6 Routing Table

NOTE

The entire output of the show ipv6 route command in Figure 1-22 can be viewed in the online course on
page 1.1.4.2 graphic number 3.

Within the routing table, a ‘C’ next to a route indicates that this is a directly connected network. When the
router interface is configured with a global unicast address and is in the “up/up” state, the IPv6 prefix and
prefix length is added to the IPv6 routing table as a connected route.

The IPv6 global unicast address configured on the interface is also installed in the routing table as a local
route, as indicated with an ‘L’ next to the route entry. The local route has a /128 prefix. Local routes are
used by the routing table to efficiently process packets with the interface address of the router as the
destination.

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The ping command for IPv6 is identical to the command used with IPv4 except that an IPv6 address is used.
As shown in Figure 1-23, the ping command is used to verify Layer 3 connectivity between R1 and PC1.

Figure 1-23 Verify Connectivity on R1

Other useful IPv6 verification commands include:

 show interface
 show ipv6 routers

Filter Show Command Output

Commands that generate multiple screens of output are, by default, paused after 24 lines. At the end of
the paused output, the --More-- text displays. Pressing Enter displays the next line and pressing the
spacebar displays the next set of lines. Use the terminal length number command to specify the number of
lines to be displayed. A value of 0 (zero) prevents the router from pausing between screens of output.

Another very useful feature that improves the user experience in the command-line interface (CLI) is the
filtering of show output. Filtering commands can be used to display specific sections of output. To enable
the filtering command, enter a pipe (|) character after the show command and then enter a filtering
parameter and a filtering expression.

The filtering parameters that can be configured after the pipe include:

 section: Shows entire section that starts with the filtering expression
 include: Includes all output lines that match the filtering expression
 exclude: Excludes all output lines that match the filtering expression
 begin: Shows all the output lines from a certain point, starting with the line that matches the
filtering expression

NOTE

Output filters can be used in combination with any show command.

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Figures 1-24 through 1-27 provide examples of the various output filters. The example in Figure 1-24 uses
the pipe character and the section keyword.

Figure 1-24 Filter show Commands by Section

Figure 1-25 Filter show Commands by Common Keyword

Figure 1-26 Filter show Commands to Exclude Rows of Output

Figure 1-27 Filter show Commands Beginning from a Keyword

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Command History Feature

The command history feature is useful, because it temporarily stores the list of executed commands to be
recalled.

To recall commands in the history buffer, press Ctrl+P or the Up Arrow key. The command output begins
with the most recent command. Repeat the key sequence to recall successively older commands. To return
to more recent commands in the history buffer, press Ctrl+N or the Down Arrow key. Repeat the key
sequence to recall successively more recent commands.

By default, command history is enabled and the system captures the last 10 command lines in its history
buffer. Use the show history privileged EXEC command to display the contents of the buffer.

For example, the following displays a sample of the terminal history size and show history commands:

R1# terminal history size 200

R1#

R1# show history

show ip interface brief

show interface g0/0

show ip interface g0/1

show ip route

show ip route 209.165.200.224

show running-config interface s0/0/0

terminal history size 200

show history

R1#

 Testing end to end connectivity using ping command

Ping is a command-line utility, available on virtually any operating system with network connectivity that
acts as a test to see if a networked device is reachable. The ping command sends a request over the
network to a specific device.

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Limitations of Ping

 Ping is not a good tool for diagnosing intermittent problems.

 Good results are reliable, but “bad results” could be caused by any number of things, and are not
necessarily reliable!
 Ping uses ICMP, which has low priority, showing speeds that are slower than regular network
traffic. Some computers reject ICMP, and therefore pinging, entirely.
 When an IP appears between the source and destination in a traceroute command it
does not mean that that IP must be pingable.

Figure 63: Testing end to end connectivity

Learning Outcome 3.3: Troubleshoot SOHO LAN

 Content /Topic 1: Problem Identification

Problem Identification
 When the console does not respond
This problem can arise due to the Serial Port Issues
Even a minor serial port problem can become a major issue. And without the skills and know-how to
identify and resolve a serial port problem, a business could suffer due to ineffective serial connections.

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Here’s a closer look at five common serial port problems, along with ways to resolve such issues:

1. Incorrect Communication Parameters

The most common cause of serial port communication problems is incorrect communication parameter
settings. To operate correctly it is essential that both devices are set up with the same communication
parameters, which includes baud rate, parity, number of data bits, and number of stop bits.

2. Incorrect Serial Cable

Is a serial cable connected between a PC and a serial port? If a user leverages the wrong cable, he or she
will be unable to establish a connection.

A serial port serves as a physical connector on the back of a computer that allows for the input and output
of data, and there are two different types of serial port connectors: 9-pin and 25-pin. As such, the correct
cable and/or adapter is necessary to ensure the proper connection at all times.

Another important cable characteristic that is often overlooked is whether the application requires a “null-
modem” or “straight through” cable. Null modem cables typically have a female connector on each end
and straight through cables have a female connector at one end and a male at the other. Be sure to use the
correct cable for your particular application.

3. Bad Serial Cables

What happens if a serial cable is not working properly? This issue can limit data transmission and retrieval
but can be easily fixed by replacing the serial cable.

In many cases, a loose cable may simple need to be reconnected to a serial port. But in other situations, an
ineffective cable will need to be replaced immediately, especially if the serial port is functioning properly.

View the Stratus Engineering product line for industry leading solutions.

4. Software Conflicts

A software driver may result in a non-working serial port. If this driver is not installed properly or is not
compatible with a serial port, it may cease to perform.

Re-installing the affected drivers can help a user overcome this problem. In addition, a user may be able to
alter the serial port settings to ensure this issue is fully resolved.

5. Faulty Wiring

When connecting a control system to a device, incorrect wiring can be problematic at times.

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Typically, the control systems transmit and ground pins must be connected to the connected device’s
Receive and Ground pins, respectively. If a connected system needs to receive a response from a
controlled device, however, a third wire also may be connected as well.

 When the Traffic does not go through

How to Troubleshoot a Network

Issues can arise at numerous points along the network. Before you start trying to troubleshoot any issue,
you want to have a clear understanding of what the problem is, how it came up, who it’s affecting, and
how long it’s been going on. By gathering the right information and clarifying the problem, you’ll have a
much better chance of resolving the issue quickly, without wasting time trying unnecessary fixes.

I always start troubleshooting using these simple network troubleshooting steps to help diagnose and
refine the issue.

1. Check the hardware. When you’re beginning the troubleshooting process, check all your hardware
to make sure it’s connected properly, turned on, and working. If a cord has come loose or
somebody has switched off an important router, this could be the problem behind your networking
issues. There’s no point in going through the process of troubleshooting network issues if all you
need to do is plug a cord in. Make sure all switches are in the correct positions and haven’t been
bumped accidentally.
Next, turn the hardware off and back on again. This is the mainstay of IT troubleshooting, and while
it might sound simplistic, often it really does solve the problem. Power cycling your modem, router,
and PC can solve simple issues—just be sure to leave each device off for at least 60 seconds before
you turn it back on.

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2. Use ipconfig. Open the command prompt and type “ipconfig” (without the quotes) into the
terminal. The Default Gateway (listed last) is your router’s IP. Your computer’s IP address is the
number next to “IP Address.” If your computer’s IP address starts with 169, the computer is not
receiving a valid IP address. If it starts with anything other than 169, your computer is being
allocated a valid IP address from your router.
Try typing in “ipconfig /release” followed by “ipconfig /renew” to get rid of your current IP address
and request a new one. This will in some cases solve the problem. If you still can’t get a valid IP
from your router, try plugging your computer straight into the modem using an ethernet cable. If it
works, the problem lies with the router.
3. Use ping and tracert. If your router is working fine, and you have an IP address starting with
something other than 169, the problems most likely located between your router and the internet.
At this point, it’s time to use the ping tool. Try sending a ping to a well-known, large server, such as
Google, to see if it can connect with your router. You can ping Google DNS servers by opening the
command prompt and typing “ping 8.8.8.8”; you can also add “-t” to the end (ping 8.8.8.8 -t) to get
it to keep pinging the servers while you troubleshoot. If the pings fail to send, the command prompt
will return basic information about the issue.
You can use the tracert command to do the same thing, by typing “tracert 8.8.8.8”; this will show
you each step, or “hop,” between your router and the Google DNS servers. You can see where
along the pathway the error is arising. If the error comes up early along the pathway, the issue is
more likely somewhere in your local network.
4. Perform a DNS check. Use the command “nslookup” to determine whether there’s a problem with
the server you’re trying to connect to. If you perform a DNS check on, for example, google.com and
receive results such as “Timed Out,” “Server Failure,” “Refused,” “No Response from Server,” or
“Network Is Unreachable,” it may indicate the problem originates in the DNS server for your
destination. (You can also use nslookup to check your own DNS server.)
5. Contact the ISP. If all of the above turn up no problems, try contacting your internet service
provider to see if they’re having issues. You can also look up outage maps and related information
on a smartphone to see if others in your area are having the same problem.
6. Check on virus and malware protection. Next, make sure your virus and malware tools are running
correctly, and they haven’t flagged anything that could be affecting part of your network and
stopping it from functioning.
7. Review database logs. Review all your database logs to make sure the databases are functioning as
expected. If your network is working but your database is full or malfunctioning, it could be causing
problems that flow on and affect your network performance.
 Possible LAN problems causes

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  The remote or local interface is down
 Incorrect address of the remote or local interface
 A conflict of IP addresses
 Domain is down
 The interfaces are down
Steps Involved In Network Diagnostics
Here steps to troubleshoot and diagnose various network problems like IP, connectivity, wireless
connection, etc.

 Troubleshooting IP Problems
In the TCP/IP protocol suite, if we are not able to reach at the destination IP address and not able to find
the route to reach the next hop at any point in the network, then we will use PING and TRACEROUTE tools
for troubleshooting the cause and location of the issue.

The generic steps to troubleshoot the IP related issues in the network include:
 Firstly locate the pair of devices between the source and the destination host between which the
connectivity issue has occurred.
 Once you locate the devices using the tools, the fault can be due to a physical connectivity issue.
Thus check the physical connections all over the path.
 There can be a fault in the LAN connectivity as well if you are working in a LAN network. So check
the LAN connections. The local port can be faulty or down due to which the source cannot be able
to reach the destination IP.
 One of the reasons of the fault can be the router connectivity issue while traveling through various
paths to reach the destination. Hence check that if the router is defined properly at each of the
intermediate hops.
 Check the configuration settings.
Troubleshooting Local Connectivity Issues
Once on the broad level, if you find that there is an issue in the LAN connectivity, then in order to locate
the root cause and to resolve it, you should follow the below steps:

 If the destination and the source are of the identical subnet mask, then try to ping the destination
IP.
 Else, if the destination is of some other subnet mask then try to ping the gateway IP address of the
router.

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  Now, if both the ping fails, then first check that in the configuration settings, if both the subnet
mask and route to be followed to reach the destination are defined properly in the routing table or
not?
 Once you are done with the configuration part and found everything OK, then check if your source
host is able to ping some another hop in the LAN network other than the destination host or route
to that?
 If you are not able to ping to another device then there can be many reasons for this. It may even
be a configuration issue, a physical connectivity issue, and repetitive IP address entry issue.
Troubleshooting Physical Connectivity Issues
The list of faults that come under this category are:
1. Improper connection of cables
2. Router, switch or hub port is faulty or down.
3. Traffic overload on the link or particular interface.
4. Configuration issue at layer-1.
Let's take a look at the above in detail.

1) Checking Cable connectivity Issue: The cables are used for connections, based on the type of
connectivity. Like, for connectivity between a router and a computer the crossover pair of the cable is
used. Thus make sure that the suggested and suitable cable is used to make a physical connection between
any two devices.
If connections are found ok, then maybe the cable is faulty, so check the connectivity by replacing the
existing cable with a newer one. Still, if the problem persists, then check the port or interface on which the
link is terminated. There is a possibility for the port to be faulty.

2) Port Faulty Scenario: Check that the port or interface on which the link is established is not shut down.
Verify the duplex mode and speed as well. If the port is up and still the problem persists, then there are
indicator lights that are present on each of the device to show the running status of the port.
From the indicator lights, check if the port is physically radiating or down. If the port is physically
malfunctioning then it will appear by light status. In this situation, configure the link on some other free
port or interface.

3) Traffic overload: If there is more traffic than the carrying capacity at a link or interface then at some
point it will start behaving abnormally. Thus verify these criteria to ensure smooth running.
4) Configuration Issue: Check the router configuration on the interface by show ip interface and show
running-config commands.

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Troubleshooting Routing Problems
When we route the data packets in the network, then the chances for occurrences of fault are usual. Thus
depending on the type of fault, we will prepare our plan for resolving the faults.

The kind of fault that occurs between the source and destination hosts while floating data packets in a
network are listed below:
 The route is not defined in the router between the source and destination.
 A wrong Routing protocol is used to find out the route to the next hop or destination.
 Software related fault at the router.
 Any filter or firewall may be barring the entry of data packets to the destination node.
 There may be configuration faults that arise at the source router end.
How to proceed for resolution:
 To find out the resolution, the first step is to locate the hop between the source and the destination
where the problem has occurred.
 The process verifies the IP connectivity and routing protocols connectivity at each hop starting from
the source host towards the destination one.
 We can also use the traceroute tool to locate the hop where the problem has arised. But this is not
helpful in all the cases. Hence, it is better if we proceed with the first one.
 Once we locate the problematic hop, then login to that router via telnet and then try to ping the
source and destination host.
 If the ping is not successful, then verify the routing table for routes between the source and
destination. If routes are not defined then configure the IP routes with the subnet mask and default
route in the router.
 In condition, if the ping responses with only a few percentages of success, then there may be
multiple paths that are defined to reach the destination. But out of multiple paths, one is failing to
reach the destination. The cause for this is that a routing loop can occur in the path. To rectify this,
trace the looping hop, and correct the configuration.
 After rectification of the above steps, if still, the problem persists, then check the routing protocol
used, and change the protocol in accordance with the network.
 The configuration issues at a particular router can be checked using a command like show ip
interface for interface related faults, show ip access-group for finding out ant firewall or filter is
configured in the network and you can check what is allowed to pass through it, show version for
uptime and show running-config for the overall configuration.

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Troubleshooting Upper-layer Faults
After checking the physical connectivity, Local connectivity, IP connectivity, and Routing issues, if you are
still not finding a resolution for the fault, then there is a possibility for the fault to be the in transport and
application layer protocol.

A fault can arise due to the following reasons:

 The data connection is down.
 A packet filter or firewall is blocking the incoming or outgoing traffic.
 Particular service on the server is down.
 There can be an authentication and access issue between the client and the server host.
 Software incompatibility or version mismatch issues between the source and the destination host.
Depending upon the category of fault, we take the rectification steps.
 In the condition of firewall barring the traffic to flow through the network, we look out for a way to
move the source host in the network in such a way in which the firewalls can be avoided or
bypassed.
 For service down issues, take measures to make it up, or align another server to deliver the service.
 For the authentication process issue, we can deploy checks with the help of the software where the
authentication is failing, and then based on the results you can rectify the issue.
 For version mismatch and compatibility issue, upgrade your system so that both will be compatible
with each other.
Troubleshooting Wireless Network Connection Issue

#1) whenever you connect your Tablet, mobile phone or Laptop with the WI-FI device, and if you are not
able to connect then check all the LAN or WAN cable connections.
The Ethernet cable should be connected tightly and check the light status on the device. If it is not green
then the cable or port may be faulty. Thus change the port and cable connections with a newer one.

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#2) After verification of all of the above points, if the connection is still not through, then verify the WI-FI
network adaptor settings.
For windows laptop or PC, go to control panel, select the network connections option and check what is
the status on the wireless network adaptor? It should be enabled. If it is not enabled then click on the
enable key and mark the status as enabled.

Also, check if the airplane mode on a laptop or PC is disabled. If it is enabled, then it will not allow
connecting with a wireless network.

#3) After checking all the above settings, if the status is still not connected then check the wireless access
point and SSID settings. After correction of the desired settings, the status will change from not connected
to acquiring network address to connected. At this point, the client also allocates the IP address to the
requesting device.

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 #4) If still, the problem persists, then click on the diagnose option from the wireless network connection
status menu to find out the cause.
#5) After performing all the above troubleshooting steps, if you are not able to connect to the network still,
then there may be other reasons like some firewall or packet filter is barring you for using the network,
and there could be a problem with the authentication protocol used etc.
#6) To resolve these issues, reconfigure all the network settings and verify the IP reachability by using
PING.
These are the basic troubleshooting steps. If you are still not able to connect to the network, then you can
restart your system and then try to connect and consult with some network settings expert.

Tips for Network Troubleshooting

 Always use a high-level password to protect your network devices such as routers, switches and
database servers as they store crucial data within themselves.
 Don’t share your router login user ID and password with anyone in the organization or outside
the organization.
 Properly log-out from the system once your job is done.
 Keep verifying your configuration by show running-config command.
 For assigning IP addresses and subnet mask to the devices for a network, always perform the IP
planning first and then make a diagram of the connectivity of devices that you are using in the
network.
 It is better if you use the routers or servers in the master-slave mode so that in the worst case if
one goes down then the other will take up the load and your network will be kept alive.
 Avoid overloading your device with high traffic.

 Content/Topic 2: Troubleshooting steps.

Basic Network Troubleshooting Steps

Network troubleshooting is a repeatable process, which means that you can break it down into clear steps
that anyone can follow.

1. Identify the Problem

The first step in troubleshooting a network is to identify the problem. As a part of this step, you should do
the following:

 Gather information about the current state of the network using the network troubleshooting
tools that you have available to you.

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 Duplicate the problem on a test piece of hardware or software, if possible. This can help you to
confirm where your problem lies.
 Question users on the network to learn about the errors or difficulties they have encountered.
 Identify the symptoms of the network outage. For example, do they include complete loss of
network connection? Slow behavior on the network? Is there a network-wide problem, or are the
issues only being experienced by one user?
 Determine if anything has changed in the network before the issues appeared. Is there a new
piece of hardware that’s in use? Has the network taken on new users? Has there been a software
update or change somewhere in the network?
 Define individual problems clearly. Sometimes a network can have multiple problems. This is the
time to identify each individual issue so that your solutions to one aren’t bogged down by other
unsolved problems.

2. Develop a Theory

Once you have finished gathering all the information that you can about the network issue or issues, it’s
time to develop a working theory. While you’re producing your theory about the causes of the network
issue, don’t be afraid to question the obvious, but remain on the lookout for more serious issues.
Sometimes a network outage occurs because someone tripped on a wire or some other simple problem.
However, at other times the problems might be related more complicated causes, like a breach in network
security.

3. Test the Theory

Using the tools at your disposal, it’s time to test your theory. If your theory is that the network router is
defective, try replacing it with another router to see if that fixes the issue. At this stage, it’s important to
remember that proving your own theories wrong doesn’t mean that you’ve failed. Instead, it means that
it’s time to return to step two, develop a new theory, and then find a way to test that one. Sometimes your
first theory may be right, but it’s also common to go through several theories before arriving at the true
cause of your network’s issues.

4. Plan of Action

Once you’ve confirmed your theory about the causes of the network issues, you’re in a position to solve
them. Come up with a plan of action to address the problem. Sometimes your plan will include just one
step. For example, restart the router. In other cases, your plan will be more complex and take longer, such
as when you need to order a new part or roll a piece of software back to a previous version on multiple
users’ computers.

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5. Implement the Solution

Now that you have a plan for fixing the network, it’s time to implement it. There are some solutions that
you may be able to do by yourself, while others may require cooperation from other network
administrators or users.

6. Verify System Functionality

Once you’ve implemented your solution, be sure to test the network. Make sure that the issue in question
has been resolved, but also be on the lookout for other issues that may have arisen from the changes that
you made to the network. As part of your verification process, make sure to consult both the network tools
at your disposal as well as individual user accounts of their experiences on the network.

7. Document the Issue

If you are a network professional or an enthusiast who is around networks often, then it’s safe to say that
this won’t be the last time you encounter this particular issue. Make sure to document each stage of
troubleshooting the problem, including the symptoms that appeared on the network, the theory you
developed, your strategy for testing the theory and the solution that you came up with to solve the issue.
Even if you don’t reference this documentation, it may be helpful to another network engineer at your
company in the future and could help to shorten network downtime.

 Verification of cable connectivity

Common Physical Connectivity: How to troubleshoot them

Nowadays networks are becoming more complex when compared to the past networks, but still the
rationales are same as before: to offer the connectivity so that the consumer can share the resources and
information. When any physical connectivity's are damaged, then the consumers are brought to dead end
and also the productivity instantly declines. Despite any problems can be much complex and need effective

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knowledge of configuration and software, others are as so lucid as having the suitable physical item
connected in a better method.

Whether you have a small network or large enterprise troubleshooting the physical connectivity can be
challenging. The complexity of the troubleshooting may vary depends upon the number of devices
connected with it. While blindly performing troubleshooting, it is required to have some knowledge of the
infrastructure to grasp the issue part more quickly. Anyone can start troubleshooting by learning the
infrastructure and some common network tools. There are lots of things to learn to excel in the
troubleshooting. It is necessary to troubleshoot from the layer 1 i.e. Bottom up to the higher layers to
avoid confusion and complexity.

Faulty cables or faulty connectors will prevent data transmission at first layer successfully. The quality of
the fiber and copper infrastructure affects most of the thing that traverses the network.

It is mostly impossible to troubleshoot the most common physical connectivity issue without any proper
steps. Troubleshooting without aid of visual topology is mostly impossible unless you localize the problem
to a specific router and any new techniques. In large scenarios, a network topology is necessary to
troubleshoot the physical connectivity issues.

Common physical connectivity and its troubleshooting:

Here you can get the physical connectivity problems such as

1. Bad connectors
2. Bad wiring
3. Open, short
4. Split cables
5. dB loss
6. TXRX reversed
7. Cable Replacement
8. EMI/Interference
9. distance
10. Crosstalk

Bad connectors
After a time, most of the connectors may go through physical damage and fatigue. It is true in more fragile
cases such as few fiber optic cables. If it experience an intermittent or complete shortage of connectivity,

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for that it is important to audit the connector to ensure that the connectors are not broken or cracked and
that the fiber and wire are properly and securely in suitable places.

Bad wiring:

Faulty cables and faulty connectors will prevent layer 1 data transmission successfully. The bad cable will
be incorrect type of cable which used for specific works. In some case, perhaps if 2 1000Base-Tx devices
are interconnected with the help of a cat 5 cable in the place of higher cable or cat 6 cable. One of the
obvious signs which connectors will be bad and may causing issue when any network problem is isolated to
1 particular location. Depends on the bad connectors, you may have a spotty connection or no connection
which goes and comes at regular odd intervals. Determine and check whether the connectors are broken
tabs, loose wiring or other physical signs of issues. If you feel that the connectors has some problems take
the necessary step to change it as soon as possible. If the connectors don't look questionable but the same
issue is isolated indeed to run, then consider it as bad wiring.

Open, short:

An open type is the broken copper strand, which prevents cureent flowing through the circuit. But the
short will happen when 2 connectors of copper touches each other which results in flow of current via that
instead of the attached electrical circuit, for the reason that the short has less resistance.

Addition to the miswiring, some other issues that will happen with cables which has to be check with the
help of multifunction cable tester like short/open faults. In the same way, An open issue indicates that the
fitted cable is not producing the full circuit and it can be owed to cut across some wires or all wires in the
cable. The short fault indicates that the data tries to move on the wires other than which is intended. It can
be due to twist or miswiring in the cable at the cut admitting to touch the bare wires.

Split cables:

The UTP or unshielded twisted pair type cable comprises of 8 individual copper leads. Anyhow, only 4 out
of 8 leads are used for the purpose of data in which 2 receive leads and 2 transmit leads. Due to that, it
resulting 4 unused leads in it. Some of the installers will use that 4 extra available leads to assist the
connection of second Ethernet on the single unshielded twisted pair cable. Whereas such approach will
function, the nonstandard wire is used for the 2nd Ethernet connection. You must aware of all the
nonstandard pin outs which are used in network which you troubleshoot.

Most of the spilt in the cables are intentional which enables you to runs the wirings in so many directions
by using splitter. Depends on the cable type in question, each split to decrease the signal strength is not

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uncommon. You can split the cables possible number of times and identify the splitter if issue occurs when
it works normally. If the split cable is unintentional, then you often deals with an short/open.

Collisions are the part of an arbitration method in half duplex Ethernet. It is not really physical problems,
but the physical problems may inadvertently cause Ethernet collisions. Full duplex Ethernet
communications will never collide because it has separate channels for receiving and sending.

DB losses:

The signal power of the data transmission sometime degraded at one point where transmissions are not
perfectly interpreted by the receiving device. This loss in a signal power is called as a decibel loss or dB loss.
It may occur due to excess distance which is above the fiber or copper cable limitations.

Without grasping into a complex match, the DB losses are an algorithm which helps to calculate the signal
at the designation and at the source differences. The DB losses of the 0 will be perfect and it is tough to get
it. In each and every network media there would be at least few DB losses, but the main concept is to
maintain the number at minimum level. Based on the type of media using, and there are some tables for
adequate DB loss/ 100 feet. Employing the best practices for every category of connectors will maintain
the DB loss in an admissible level. The perfect measurements for the DB losses in every media are now
beyond the scope.

TXRX reversed:

TX is known as transmit and RX is referred as receive. The TX has to connect to RX for every twosome of
wire in network cables like patch cables. Using an ordinary patch cable to connect with similar devices may
cause the connections of the transmit to transmit and receive to receive, which will never work properly.
These kinds of reversal can evoke by an improper connection of wires on the wall patch or jack panels. Few
devices have the capacity to autosense the rescinding and accomplish the corrections, but few devices may
not.

Cable replacement:

Correct cable replacement in the network or datacenter throughout the building and closest is necessary
for the reliable and effective communications. The cables have to run either below the data center raised
floor to ceiling where it was safe, but it can be accessed if necessary. It is important to take care and to
maintain it away from the power cable whenever possible, additionally it necessary to cross the power
cables, then the cross at the exact angle of 90 degrees to reduce the cross talk.

EMI/ Interference:

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As wire may grasp on some additional current if it placed nearby to any magnetic source, at that it is
necessary to be very careful where the communicable cables are run. This property type which affected by
an external magnetism is also known as EMI - electromagnetic interference. At the same time, you must
avoid interference by maintaining the copper cable far away from the entire magnetic sources which is so
powerful. It also includes speakers, mobile telephones, wireless network, power facilities, florescent lights,
electric motors, copy machines, refrigerators, fluorescent light ballast, amplifiers, microwave oven and
much more. Anything which produces a magnetic field must be avoided when you positioning the cable.

Distance:

It is essential to decide which cable has to use based on network topology and distance between those
components. It is because few network technologies may run farther than some other without any
communication errors. Most of the technologies of network communications agonize from the
attenuation, which is signal degradation due to its medium.

Attenuation is more pronounced in few cable types when compared to others. Impedance is an opposition
to the flow of signal and many points along the way. The electrical impedance measured in ohms and the
differences in impedance result in the signal reflection. A common issue on the traditional POTS networks
when moving 4 wires to 2 wires which result impedance mismatching leaks transmit audio onto the receive
side as echo.

Crosstalk:

It is an occurrence of bleeding signal between 2 wires which carries current and adjacent to one another. It
may accomplish network communications into slow or not work almost. The designers of network cable
can minimize the crosstalk which is inside the network cables over wiggle the match wires together, in that
way put it at an angle of 90 degrees to each other. To avoid crosstalk, it is important to use essential cable
to speed up the network. To eliminate it completely, usage of fiber optic cable is more recommendable.
Mostly fiber will use light rather than electricity and it is thoroughly resistant to crosstalk. Crosstalk is
measured in decibels of negative number and this minus sign is just an assumption. The twists are the one
which helps to reduce the crosstalk and more twist will reduce more and so more twists are efficiently
better.

Near end crosstalk:

An important measurement is the near end crosstalk and the signals are strongest at the source end.
Measure with the specialized equipments and the signals are transmitted down one pair and anything
heard on the other pair is crosstalk. Less crosstalk is always better than high crosstalk. For ex: 40dB is really

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better than 30dB. It is important that the negative signal strength is implied. Attenuation is the power loss
in an electrical signal. This attenuation also represented as lost signal and the minus sign is implied. The IEE
568 -limits attenuation to 24 dB for the 100 MHz signal which is less than 1/100th of the original signals.

Troubleshooting the common physical connectivity doesn't have to be difficult if you understand the
various techniques that make it all work. Gaining strong knowledge and understanding of the physical
connectivity is going to go a long way to resolve the issue. To troubleshoot any network, you need to start
with physical connectivity and then move to the configuration of IP address. By grasping the required skills
and knowledge you can resolve the issue and troubles easily and quickly.

Verify connections

Wired network

If this is a wired network, verify the network cable is connected correctly and make sure the LEDs next to
the network jack are properly illuminated. For example, a network card with a solid green LED or light
usually indicates that the card is either connected or receiving a signal. If the green light is flashing, this is
an indication of data being sent or received. The picture is an example of a LAN port with two LED
indicators next to the RJ-45 port. With this port, one LED lights up if connected properly, and one flashes
when transmitting data.

If there are no lights or the lights are orange or red, the card may be bad, not connected properly, or may
not be receiving a signal from the network. If you're on a small network and can check the hub, switch,
or router, verify the cables are connected correctly, and it has power. If, after checking the connections,
the LED indicators appear bad, the network adapter, port, or cable may be defective.

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Wireless network

If you're using a laptop with a wireless network, look for the laptop's Wi-Fi button and make sure it is
turned on. Many laptops have a Wi-Fi button that allows the wireless network to be turned on and off. The
Wi-Fi button may be above the keyboard, on the front edge of the laptop, or integrated with an F key. The
pictures are examples of a Wi-Fi button and Wi-Fi indicator on an F key that are enabled.

If the button is turned on, make sure you're using the correct Wi-Fi hotspot by right-clicking the Network
icon in the Windows Notification Area and clicking "Connect to a network." Usually, the network with the
strongest connection (the most bars) is your wireless router.

Finally, when connecting to most wireless networks, you need to enter the proper SSID password to
connect to the network. If the incorrect password is entered, you won't be able to access the network.
Adapter functionality

Verify that the network card is capable of pinging itself by using the ping command. Windows users can
ping the computer from a Windows command line. UNIX and Linux users can ping from the shell.

To ping the card or the local host, type either of the following
commands:

ping 127.0.0.1

or

ping localhost

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Executing either of the above commands should get replies from the network card. If you get an error, or
the transmission fails, the network card is not connected correctly, has the incorrect or
outdated drivers installed, or is defective.

Make sure the network card is physically installed in the computer correctly by removing it and re-
inserting it again. Check the network card manufacturer's website for the latest drivers and install those
drivers. If the network card is defective, it needs to be replaced.

 Verification for the power supply

When a PC suddenly goes on the fritz for no apparent reason, checking the PC power supply first may save
a lot of time troubleshooting the system. A faulty PC power supply belies many intermittent computer
problems. This is why experienced PC technicians often look first at the PSU when diagnosing PC hardware
issues.
 System failures during the boot-up process.

 The PC doesn’t power on at all

 Spontaneous restarts or lockouts when trying to use the machine

 Case fans and hard drives that do not spin

 An overheating system due to heat sink and fan failure

 Errors related to system memory

 Recurring Blue Screen of Death (BSOD)

 If the PC does not turn on at all

As with any troubleshooting situation, disconnect all but the necessary peripherals from the PC. Usually
this means you’re left only with the mouse, keyboard and monitor connected.

Many power supplies have an external switch located at the rear of the unit. Check that it has not been
accidentally been switched off. Plug the PSU power cable into a wall socket or surge protector, and turn on
the computer. Most power supply models have a light on back of the unit that glows when it’s powered
on. If it doesn’t light, try a different power cable and a different socket to eliminate those items as the
source of the problem.

Normally you can observe a few things that indicate proper operation of the PSU.

 Listen for case fans, and mechanical hard drives. You should hear these devices spinning.

 Check the connection for each PSU cable running to the computer hardware component.

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  Look inside the case for the motherboard light. Usually flashing lights on a motherboard indicate a
faulty or misconnected power supply.

As an aside, the color of the motherboard light can tip off other malfunctioning components. Lights and
BIOS beep codes vary by manufacturer. Check your motherboard product manual for that information.

Using a paper clip to test a power supply

The paper clip test, alternatively called the jumper test, allows you to verify PSU functionality when it is
disconnected from the components inside a PC. This test will identify some common issues:

 Short circuits inside the power supply

 Failed components

 A live power connection

First you want to turn the power switch at the rear of the power supply to the off position. (O should be
‘down’)

Locate the 20+4P (24-pin) connector. Bend the paperclip and insert one end into the green pin (PS_ON)
and the other into any of the black pins (Ground).

Flip the switch at the rear of the PSU, and listen for the internal fan. If you can hear the fan, this should
verify the power supply is turned on.

The paper clip test is a crude but effective way to confirm if your PSU needs to be replaced. It will not tell
you much else. If your power supply passes the paper clip test, you still may need to identify related issues:

 Voltage fluctuations

 Overheating

 Power rail failure

Should you get out the multimeter?

To perform more nuanced testing of your power supply, you will need to use or buy a multimeter. A
multimeter is an instrument that measures electrical current, principally voltage (volts), current (amps),
and resistance (ohms). If you’re an electronics technician, you probably have one already, and are
definitely familiar with this tool.
If you’re working as an internal IT, it probably isn’t worth your time to get overly intensive with power
supply testing and repair. The cost of a new PSU is relatively low, and does not justify extensive personnel
hours dedicated to a complex diagnosis. It is common practice for departments that manage multiple PCs
is to keep spare power supply or two on hand for “swap” testing to identify when a PSU is the root cause of
recurring computer problems.

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If your computers are under warranty and you suspect the power supply may be to blame, that’s when you
would take advantage of manufacturer support and warranty for desktop computers that you purchase. If
you’re buying your business computers as finished systems, it’s a better use of company resources for the
manufacturer to troubleshoot faulty computer power supplies and other components, while your team
gets to work on a freshly replaced PC.

 Verification of LAN devices LEDs status

Basic network troubleshooting

Because of the variety of network hardware, network configurations, operating systems, and setups, not
all of the following information may apply to your network or operating system.

Adapter resources

Verify that the network adapter is installed correctly and detected by the computer with no conflicts. In
Microsoft Windows, open the Device Manager and verify there are no errors. "Network adapters" should
be present for each network adapter installed in the computer, similar to the picture.

If conflicts exist or the network adapter is detected as an "Other device," the network card is not installed
correctly. Try letting Windows re-detect and install the network card by removing the network adapter
and any other conflict devices from Device Manager and then rebooting the computer. If Windows re-
detects the card but does not find the drivers, download the latest network card drivers from the
computer manufacturer's website or the network card manufacturer's website.

 Verify connections
Wired network

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If this is a wired network, verify the network cable is connected correctly and make sure the LEDs next to
the network jack are properly illuminated. For example, a network card with a solid green LED or light
usually indicates that the card is either connected or receiving a signal. If the green light is flashing, this is
an indication of data being sent or received. The picture is an example of a LAN port with two LED
indicators next to the RJ-45 port. With this port, one LED lights up if connected properly, and one flashes
when transmitting data.If there are no lights or the lights are orange or red, the card may be bad, not
connected properly, or may not be receiving a signal from the network. If you're on a small network and
can check the hub, switch, or router, verify the cables are connected correctly, and it has power. If, after
checking the connections, the LED indicators appear bad, the network adapter, port, or cable may be
defective.

Wireless network

If you're using a laptop with a wireless network, look for the laptop's Wi-Fi button and make sure it is
turned on. Many laptops have a Wi-Fi button that allows the wireless network to be turned on and off.
The Wi-Fi button may be above the keyboard, on the front edge of the laptop, or integrated with an F key.
The pictures are examples of a Wi-Fi button and Wi-Fi indicator on an F key that are enabled.

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If the button is turned on, make sure you're using the correct Wi-Fi hotspot by right-clicking the Network
icon in the Windows Notification Area and clicking "Connect to a network." Usually, the network with the
strongest connection (the most bars) is your wireless router.

Finally, when connecting to most wireless networks, you need to enter the proper SSID password to
connect to the network. If the incorrect password is entered, you won't be able to access the network.

Adapter functionality

Verify that the network card is capable of pinging itself by using the ping command. Windows users can
ping the computer from a Windows command line. Unix and Linux users can ping from the shell.

To ping the card or the localhost, type either of the following

commands:
ping 127.0.0.1
or
ping localhost
Executing either of the above commands should get replies from the network card. If you get an error, or
the transmission fails, the network card is not connected correctly, has the incorrect or
outdated drivers installed, or is defective.
Make sure the network card is physically installed in the computer correctly by removing it and re-inserting
it again. Check the network card manufacturer's website for the latest drivers and install those drivers. If
the network card is defective, it needs to be replaced.
Connect to the router
If your network has a router, make sure the computer is connecting to the router with the following
commands.

Determine the router's address

Using the ipconfig command (or ifconfig command for Linux), determine the router's address by looking at
the Gateway address. Below are the steps for Microsoft Windows users. Linux users can substitute ipconfig
for ifconfig.
1. Open the Windows command line.
2. At the command prompt, type ipconfig and press Enter.
Output similar to the following example should appear.
Ethernet adapter Local Area Connection:

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Connection-specific DNS Suffix . : computerhope.com.
IP Address. . . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.1.103
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.1.1
The Default Gateway is the address of your router. Most home routers have a gateway address that starts
with 192.168, like the address shown above. Assuming your gateway address is 192.168.1.1, attempt to
ping the router to see if it can send and receive information by running the following command.
ping 192.168.1.1

If you get replies from the router, the connection between your router and computer is good, and you
can skip to the next step.

If you don't receive replies from the router, either the router is not set up properly or there's a bad
connection between the router and computer. Reset your router to make sure it is not a problem with
your router by following the following steps.

1. Turn off the power to the computer and leave it off.

2. Unplug the power to your router and cable modem or DSL

modem.

3. Leave the power cables disconnected for 10-15 seconds and

then plug in your modem and then your router again.

4. Finally, turn on your computer again and repeat this step to

see if you can ping your router.

If you have a wireless network, and you cannot ping your wireless router using the above steps, turn the
computer off again. Connect the computer directly to the router using an Ethernet cable. If this does not
work, contact the manufacturer of the router for additional support or replacement.
Firewall

If your computer network utilizes a firewall, make sure all required ports are open, especially port 80,
which is the HTTP port. If possible, disable the firewall software or disconnect the computer from the
firewall to make sure it is not causing the network problems.
The Internet is not working

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If you cannot ping the router, but are still unable to connect to the Internet, either your router is
improperly configured, or the ISP is having issues.
If your Internet was working but recently stopped, give it a few minutes to make sure it is not a temporary
outage. If, after waiting a few minutes, you still have problems, and you have not already disconnected the
power to your router and modem, follow the following steps.
1. Turn off the power to the computer and leave it off.

2. Unplug the power cable to your router and cable modem or DSL modem.

3. Leave the power cables disconnected for 10-15 seconds, plug in your modem again, and then
plug in your router again.

4. Finally, turn on your computer and see if you can ping your router.

If, after following the above steps, the Internet is still not working, open the command line and run the
following command.

ping google.com

Running the above command should get a reply from Google. If you get a reply, this is an indication that
the Internet is working. However, you may be encountering a problem with the Internet browser you are
using to browse the Internet. Try an alternative browser, such as Firefox or Chrome.

If you're getting no reply from Google, your router or modem is not reaching the Internet. If you have a
router, make sure your router has DHCP enabled and that the WAN or Gateway address is the proper ISP
address.

Finally, if trying the above steps don't help, contact your ISP to make sure there's no problem on their end
and to assist you further with any special configurations.

Additional troubleshooting

Another method of determining network issues is using the tracert command if you're a Windows user, or
the traceroute command if you're a Linux or Unix variant user. This command gives you an overview of
each of the devices (routers) a packet travels (hops) over a network. It can also give you an idea of where a
problem exists in your network or outside of your network.

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To use this command, you must be at the command line and type one of the following commands,
depending on your operating system.
tracert google.com
or
traceroute google.com
If successful, each hop between the computer and network devices should start appearing. When the
connection fails, determine what device is causing the issue by reviewing the traceroute listing.
How to Troubleshoot Network Adapter Problems in Windows?

Network adapter issues are one of the most common causes of the breakdown of a wired network. It may
bring about slow connections, intermittent connections, and even lost or no connection to your network.
To have stable network connectivity, it’s important for you to know how to troubleshoot network adapter
problems on your own.

Troubleshoot Network Adapter Problems Through Hardware

If the network adapter is not working, you can begin with the following hardware troubleshooting steps:
1. Check all the physical connections: Making sure all the network cables or optical cables and network
cards are firmly and properly seated in ports or slots without loose or unplugged. You can try to unplug the
cards and insert them again. If your NIC is still unable to connect with your network, you can move to step
2. Check the LED indicators of your network cards: If the link LEDs fail to light, it means the physical
connection is inaccessible to the network. There may be a problem with either the network devices or the
network itself. Firstly, you can try to insert cables or adapters in different ports or slots to see whether the
ports or slots are damaged. If the problem is still unsolved and you happened to have extra cables and
NICs, you can change new cables or NIC cards to verify whether the cables and NICs are damaged. If you
don’t have a new NIC or cable, you can just install the card in another computer or server. Unsolved either,
then you need to confirm the compatibilities of cables and network devices connected with your adapter
to see whether their brand, data rate, and port type are matched.

3. Check your network adapter status: You can use Device Manager to verify whether the network card is
identified by your computer or server via the following steps. If not, you go to the next part directly:
Troubleshoot Network Adapter Problems Through Software.
a. Press Win+R on your keyboard to quickly summon the RUN box.
b. Input “devmgmt.msc” in the box and click the OK button to open Device Manager.
c. Click Network Adapters in Device Manager to expand this section. After that, double-click your network
adapter entry. Then, you can see the network card status on the General tab. If “This device is working

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properly” is shown on that page, it proves that the network card is still working; if not, there might be
some specific problems with your card.

4. Check the operating system for resource conflicts: Verifying whether there are resource conflicts
between the NIC and some other system component. A NIC should not share an IRQ with SCSI or RAID
controllers if possible. These settings can be hard-set within most server BIOS programs.
a. Press F1 at bootup to enter the Setup/Configuration Utility.
b. Look under Advanced Setup/PCI Slot/Device Information (or PCI Bus Control) and select the slot or
device to be changed.
c. Disable any unused devices to free up resources (serial ports, parallel ports, and so forth).
5. Check network settings within the operating system: Ensuring all protocols and network hardware are
set correctly (cables, hubs, switches, etc.). All IP addresses should be unique and DHCP is set correctly to
automatically obtain a TCP/IP address.
6. Verify TCP/IP (or other appropriate protocol) is properly installed: You can check this under Microsoft
Windows:
a. Right-click the My Network Places icon and select Properties. The network card should be presented as
Local Area Connection.

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b. Right-click the appropriate Local Area Connection and select Properties. In the Properties window, make
sure that the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is installed.
c. If TCP/IP is not installed, click Install, click Protocol, and then click TCP/IP.
d. Once installed make sure that Obtain an IP address automatically and Obtain DNS server address
automatically are checked (if using DHCP). To verify this, highlight the TCP/IP protocol, and select
Properties. (Note: Only use a Static IP Address if your network/Service Provider requires one.)
7. Verify the TCP/IP address: You can do this under Microsoft Windows:
a. Click Start, select Programs, select Accessories, and then click Command Prompt.
b. Type the command, ipconfig. This will list the IP address for the local machine.
c. If this returns a 169.x.x.x or 0.0.0.0 address, type the following commands, ipconfig/release and then
ipconfig/renew. You should then receive a TCP/IP address appropriate to your network, along with a
Default Gateway address.
d. Try to communicate with it by typing the command ping x.x.x.x (where x.x.x.x is the IP address of the
Default Gateway).
e. If this does not give a reply or you did not receive a TCP/IP address, go to the next step.
8. Ping the loopback address: You can do this under Microsoft Windows:
a. Click Start, select Programs, select Accessories, and then click Command Prompt.
b. Type the command, ping 127.0.0.1. This will send a message to the internal network stack on the
machine. You should see a response like this:

Pinging 127.0.0.1 with 32 bytes of data:

Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=128
Ping statistics for 127.0.0.1:
Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milliseconds:
Minimum = 0ms, Maximum = 0ms, Average = 0ms
9. Ping your system's IP address: To further troubleshoot network adapter issues, you can connect the
system directly to another system or a client via a crossover cable or dumb-hub. Setup TCP/IP using two
consecutive addresses (e.g. 10.1.1.1 and 10.1.1.2) and use the default subnet masks (255.0.0.0). From a
command prompt, try to Ping the client IP address. If the system gets a response, the network adapter is
fine. If not, you can turn to the following software part.

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Troubleshoot Network Adapter Problems Through Software

After ruling the hardware part out of network adapter issues, it’s time for us to troubleshoot the software
part.
1. Reinstall network adapter drivers: Just like the way we use in the above part, enter the Device Manager
box and expand the Network Adapters section in Device Manager. Then right-click the name of the
Network Adapter and select Uninstall. After confirming Device Uninstall by clicking OK, the driver will be
rebooted to reinstall.

2. Update the network drivers: From a computer that has Internet access, check the official software
website for network drivers for your product or ask the customer service for help. If one is available,
download and install the latest update for your network hardware.
3. Change or update your device system: Sometimes, the network adapter not working may be caused by
the device system. You can try to reinstall your windows system or update to a new version (if there is a
newer version than yours).
4. Problems still unsolved: If all the above steps still have not solved your problem, you can contact your
network administrator for more help. Or you can refer to “Need More Assistance?” if you bought your
network devices from FS.

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  Verification of network software
Network Troubleshooting Applications

In addition to command-line tools, there are also a number of standalone applications that can be used to
determine the status of a network and to troubleshoot issues. Some of these applications may be included
in the system that you are working with, while others may need to be installed separately.

 Packet Sniffer — Provides a comprehensive view of a given network. You can use this application
to analyze traffic on the network, figure out which ports are open and identify network vulnerabilities.
 Port Scanner — Looks for open ports on the target device and gathers information, including
whether the port is open or closed, what services are running on a given port and information about
the operating system on that machine. This application can be used to figure out which ports are in use
and identify points in a network that could be vulnerable to outside attacks.
 Protocol Analyzer — Integrates diagnostic and reporting capabilities to provide a comprehensive
view of an organization's network. You can use analyzers to troubleshoot network problems and detect
intrusions into your network.
 Wi-Fi Analyzer — Detects devices and points of interference in a Wi-Fi signal. This tool can help
you to troubleshoot issues in network connectivity over a wireless network.
 Bandwidth Speed Tester — Tests the bandwidth and latency of a user’s internet connection. This
application is typically accessed through a third-party website and can be used to confirm user reports
about slow connections or download speeds.

Network Connection Problems and Solutions

Problem Solution

 Check to see if you are logged in to the network.

You are not
 To do this, double-click on the My Computer icon. If you are logged in, you will see a drive
able to get your
with your login name as part of the
e-mail.
name

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 .
 If you do not see any drives other than the A, C, and D drives


you are not logged into the network and that is why you cannot get your e-mail. You
need to close all programs log off, shut down, and restart.
 Check the network cable.
 If the problem is not resolved, contact your technology coordinator.

 Were you able to log in to the network?

 If the answer is Yes, then the Internet is probably down. Notify the technology
director or the technician as soon as possible.
You cannot  If the answer is No, check your network cable.
access the  Use ping command to determine what is wrong with Internet connection.
Internet.  Ping Default gateway, DNS Server, a Website IP address, and a website name, in
this particuliar.
 A Ping failure at any of the steps above means something different. The Default
gateway, DNS server, Internet Service provider, or website could be down.

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You can access
the Internet,
but you are  Ask the technology director to unblock the site.
prevented from
 Sometimes they will unblock the site for you, and sometimes they will deny your
seeing a request.
perfectly
acceptable site.

 Click on Start and go to Control Panel.

 Now click on Network and Sharing center.
 Now click on Diagnose and Repair.
How can I  You will get a screen which will show that it is trying to identify the problem.
resolve  If it cannot find any issue, it will show you the following screen. (Click here)
network and
Internet
connection
problems?

 If the problem began after you installed new software, check your connection
settings to see if they have been changed.

 click on Start and go to Control Panel.

"The Local
 Click Network and Internet.
computer does
 click Network and Sharing Center.
not support
 Now click on Managed network connection.
encryption"
 Now right-click the VPN connection and then click on properties.
and the error
 Click the Security tab > Advanced (custom settings) and then click on Settings.
code 741 pops
 In the Advanced Security Settings dialog box, under Data encryption, select
up.
Maximum strength encryption and click on OK.

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 

 Verify that the network cable is properly connected to the back of the computer.
 Verify that Device Manager has no conflicts or errors with the Network Adapter.
 Verify that the network card is capable of pinging or seeing itself by using the ping
command. To ping the card or the localhost, type either ping 127.0.0.1 or ping localhost.

Computer is
unable to
connect to a
network or see
other
computers on a
network.
 When the TCP/IP protocol is installed the user must specify an IP address as well as
a Subnet Mask. To do this, follow the below instructions.
1. Click Start / Settings / Control Panel
2.Double-click the Network icon
3. Within the configuration tab double-click the TCP/IP protocol icon.

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 

4. In the TCP/IP properties click the IP address tab.

5. Select the option to specify an IP address.
6. Enter the IP address and Subnet Mask address.
7. When specifying these values, the computers on the network must all have the same
Subnet Mask and have a different IP Address.

Table 17: Network Connection Problems and Solutions

Basic Network Troubleshooting Steps

Basic Network Problems
 Cable Problem: The cable which is used to connect two devices can get faulty, shortened or can be
physically damaged.
 Connectivity Problem: The port or interface on which the device is connected or configured can be
physically down or faulty due to which the source host will not be able to communicate with the
destination host.
 Configuration Issue: Due to a wrong configuration, looping the IP, routing problem and other
configuration issues, network fault may arise and the services will get affected.
 Software Issue: Owing to software compatibility issues and version mismatch, the transmission of
IP data packets between the source and destination is interrupted.
 Traffic overload: If the link is over utilized then the capacity or traffic on a device is more than the
carrying capacity of it and due to overload condition the device will start behaving abnormally.
 Network IP issue: Due to improper configuration of IP addresses and subnet mask and routing IP to
the next hop, the source will not be able to reach the destination IP through the network.

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Network Troubleshooting Flowchart

Table 18: Network Troubleshooting Flowchart

 Content/Topic 3: Identification of Troubleshooting tools:

Troubleshooting tools are:
 Diagnostic commands
 Show commands
 Debug commands
 Ping commands
 Traceroute/Tracert commands
 NSlook up
 Ipconfig/ifconfig
 Netstat
Network Troubleshooting Tools

In addition to user reports and firsthand experience on the network, there are a number of tools available
for you to use when it comes to diagnosing and treating network issues. These tools may exist in the
computer’s operating system itself, as standalone software applications or as hardware tools that you can
use to troubleshoot a network.

Command-Line Tools

On Windows PCs, the command prompt can be accessed by searching for it in the start menu or by typing
“cmd” into the Run window. On a Linux system, you can press Ctrl + Alt + T to open the command line.

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 The following commands can be entered into the command prompt one at a time to reveal specific
information about the network status:

 ping — A TCP/IP utility that transmits a datagram to another host, specified in the command. If
the network is functioning properly, the receiving host returns the datagram.
 tracert/traceroute —A TCP/IP utility that determines the route data takes to get to a particular
destination. This tool can help you to determine where you are losing packets in the network, helping
to identify problems.
 nslookup — A DNS utility that displays the IP address of a hostname or vice versa. This tool is
useful for identifying problems involving DNS name resolution.
 Ipconfig — A Windows TCP/IP utility that verifies network settings and connections. It can tell you
a host’s IP address, subnet mask and default gateway, alongside other important network information.
 ifconfig — A Linux or UNIX TCP/IP utility that displays the current network interface configuration
and enables you to assign an IP address to a network interface. Like ipconfig on Windows, this
command will tell you vital information about the network and its status.
 iptables — A Linux firewall program that protects a network. You can use this tool if you suspect
that your firewall may be too restrictive or too lenient.
 netstat — A utility that shows the status of each active network connection. This tool is useful for
finding out what services are running on a particular system.
 tcpdump — A utility that is used to obtain packet information from a query string sent to the
network interface. It’s available for free on Linux but can be downloaded as a command for Windows.
 pathping — A TCP/IP command that provides information about latency and packet loss on a
network. It can help you troubleshoot issues related to network packet loss.
 nmap — A utility that can scan the entire network for various ports and the services that are
running on them. You can use it to monitor remote network connections and get specific information
about the network.
 route — A command that enables manual updating of the routing table. It can be used to
troubleshoot static routing problems in a network.
 arp — A utility that supports the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) service of the TCP/IP protocol
suite. It lets the network admin view the ARP cache and add or delete cache entries. It can be used to
address problems having to do with specific connections between a workstation and a host.
 dig — A Linux or UNIX command-line tool that will display name server information. It can be
used to troubleshoot problems in DNS name resolution.

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As a Network Engineer, your primary goal is to make sure that your network equipment is operating
properly at all times. But we all know that any equipment can break down. The reasons for this could be
software inconsistencies, hardware malfunctions, maybe even environmental hazards.

Under such unpredictable conditions, your responsibility is to identify and isolate the cause of the
malfunction and correct it as soon as you can. That's why it is extremely helpful to know some specific
techniques that have been proven to be crucial and essential in the networking world.

In today's article I'll present the most important commands that you will definitely find helpful and even
mandatory throughout your networking career and specifically during network troubleshooting situations.
The commands I am talking about, and which are truly invaluable, are:

 Ping
 Traceroute
 Telnet
 Show interfaces
 Show ip interface
 Show ip route
 Show running-config
 Show startup-config
 The Ping Utility

The PING command operates on the Network layer and uses the services of the ICMP protocol. It is the
first command that you should use at the beginning of your troubleshooting process.

With PING you can test whether a remote host is alive by transmitting echo request messages and receive
echo replies from the specific host. Keep in mind that even if a host is alive, it does not mean that it is
functioning properly, which is why PING is used at the beginning of your investigation and is the best
command to start with.

PING command has quite a lot of options from which you can greatly benefit. For example, you can choose
to PING with different network protocols. Moreover, you are able to set the exact number of PING
requests to be transmitted. You can also choose the length of data carried within the echo request packet
(provided in bytes) and also specify whether fragmentation of this packet is allowed or not during
transmission. The last two options in cooperation can be used to identify the lowest MTU value existing in
the communication path.

On Cisco devices the simpler way to use the PING utility is to issue the command PING along with the IP
address of the remote device:

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For more advanced features, simply issue the PING command and follow the prompts from that point on:

The Traceroute Command

The TRACEROUTE command traces the end-to-end path a packet takes though an internetwork. Similarly
with PING, it uses the ICMP protocol with TTL timeouts to perform its operation.

This command is very useful in identifying potential link bottlenecks throughout the transmission path.
Here is a sample output of the TRACEROUTE command:

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The Telnet Command

Use the telnet command to verify TCP stack and application layer software between source and
destination stations. Of course, to be able to telnet on a Cisco device, the latter needs to be already
configured to accept telnet connections. To use TELNET just issue the telnet command along with the IP
address or hostname of the remote station:

The Show Interfaces Command

The show interfaces command presents all the available interfaces that can be configured on your Cisco
device. You can explicitly use this command to show only details on a single interface by issuing the
interfaces name after the show interfaces command. This command is very useful because it can reveal
layer 1 and layer 2 problems. Moreover, this command provides details regarding the hardware address
(MAC), IP address, encapsulation method and statistics concerning erroneous conditions on the specific
interface. Examine the output of the show interface fastethernet 0:

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 The first line of the show interface command is the most important one. The first parameter refers to the
physical layer, therefore

in this case FastEthernet 0 is up and operating. The second part of the line refers to the Data Link Layer;
therefore here line protocol is up means that we have layer 2 connectivity as well. There are four possible
outputs that you may come across:

 FastEthernet0 is up, line protocol is up: Both the Physical and Data Link layers on the interface are
functioning correctly.

 FastEthernet0 is down, line protocol is down: This output indicates a physical interface problem.
For example, the cable on this interface or on the remote interface is disconnected.

 FastEthernet0 is up, line protocol is down: In this case, Physical layer is operational. The line
protocol being down indicates a clocking or framing problem. Probable reasons for this are encapsulation
and clock rate mismatches.

 Ethernet0 is administratively down, line protocol is down: This output indicates that a local
interface has been manually shut down using the shutdown command.

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The Show IP Interface Command

The show ip interface command will provide details regarding layer 3 configuration on the interfaces.
Using this command you can see the IP address and mask configured on a given interface, whether an
access list is applied on the interface as well as basic

IP information.

The Show IP Route Command

Use the show ip route command to find detailed information regarding the routes configured on the
router. Keep in mind that the router can only route packets to the networks listed in its routing table. It is
possible that a router can not reach a network you manually configured therefore, that specific route is
removed from its table and that is why you should use the show running configuration command in
conjunction with show ip route to spot possible inconsistencies.

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Show Running-Config and Show Startup-Config Commands

Issue the show running configuration command to find out the whole configuration your Cisco devices use
while operating. By looking at the details of your devices, configuration can help you identify the cause to
your problem. Use the show startup configuration command to see the configuration commands that will
be loaded to your device the next time it reboots and compare it with your running configuration in order
to identify possible unconformities.

In the End ... Follow Your Instincts

Isolating a network malfunction is not an easy task. In many cases you need to swim into really deep
waters in order to identify the error. Meaning, that you will probably need to get into the bits and bytes in
order to locate the error.

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A lot of network monitor tools are available to help you during these difficult tasks. And although there's a
lot you can do, remember to never lose your courage; have patience and follow your gut.

Sometimes the problem that you're searching for will be right in front of you and will slip out of your
hands, just when you think you have it. So be persistent, be patient and remember: you will win the battle!

Be prepared; in order to fight well, you should be armed well. So get to know your device very well, know
how it operates, and know how to use the basic troubleshooting commands - that you just learned - so
that you can identify the problem, or at least estimate where the problem might be. Good luck!

 Content/Topic 4: Description of Basic utilities

1. PuTTY/Tera Term

When connecting to a variety of different types of equipment, a telnet, SSH or serial client is required;
when this is required both the puTTY and Tera Term programs are able to provide these functionalities.
The selection of one over the other is strictly a personal preference. Figures 6 and 7 below show both
puTTY and Tera Term being used to connect to a host via SSH.

Figure 64: PuTTY

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Figure 65: Tera Term

2. Subnet and IP Calculator

One of the most important tools in the belt of a junior network engineer is an IP network calculator. These
can be used to unsure a correct IP address selection and with this a correct IP address configuration. While
this type of tool is used by senior level network engineers, much of the information obtained from the tool
becomes simpler to calculate the longer and more experience you have in the field. Two of the more
commonly used free IP calculators include Wildpackets (Bitcricket) Network Calculator and Solarwinds
Advanced Subnet Calculator which can be found at the links below.

Figure 66:Subnet calculator

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3. Speedtest.net/pingtest.net

A very easy test that can be used to both determine the Internet bandwidth available to a specific host and
to determine the quality of an Internet connection is the use of the tools available at the speedtest.net and
pingtest.net websites. The speedtest.net site provides the ability to determine the amount of bandwidth
that is available to a specific host at a specific point in time; this is often a good tool to use when measuring
how long it is going to take to upload or download information from a local to remote host. This
measurement can also be used to determine whether the connection is offering the amount of bandwidth
that was purchased from the Internet provider; keep in mind however that some amount of bandwidth
difference is expected between the quoted bandwidth purchased and the measured bandwidth. The
pingtest.net website is used to determine the quality of the connection by measuring the ping response
times and jitter amounts over a short period of time. This information can be used to determine a
likelihood of how well the measured connection will deal with certain types of high demand traffic like
Voice over IP (VoIP) or gaming. Figure 9 and 10 below show example output from both of these sites.

Figure 67: Speedtest

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Figure 68: Pingtest

4. Pathping/mtr

In an effort to take advantage of the benefits of both the ping and tracert/traceroute commands, the
pathping and mtr utilities were developed. Both of these tools take the functionality and information that
can be obtained from these types of tools and provide a more detailed single picture of the path
characteristics from a specific host to a specific destination. Figure 11 and 12 below show examples of
these two tools and what information they provide.

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Figure 69: Pathping/mtr

Figure 70: Mtr

 Utility application Software

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Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer.

Utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer hardware,
operating system, software and data storage) operates. Utility software, along with operating system
software, is a type of system software, distinguishing it from application software.

Utility software
 Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
 Archivers output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files. Archive
utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or encryption capabilities. Some
archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation.
 Backup software can make copies of all information stored on a disk and restore either the entire
disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
 Clipboard managers expand the clipboard functionality of an operating system .
 Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
 Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or
file.
 Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to a target data
storage and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility:
o File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They may be used
to create redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help users carry their digital music,
photos and video in their mobile devices.
o Revision control utilities are intended to deal with situations where more than one user
attempts to simultaneously modify the same file.
 Debuggers are used to test and “debug” other programs, mainly to solve programming errors. Also
utilized for reverse engineering of software or systems.
 Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive.
 Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable
amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when their hard disk is full.
 Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk,
increasing the capacity of the disk.
 Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are scattered across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
 Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file
system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.

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  Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder
(including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of the used space.
 Disk storage utilities
 File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management tasks, such as
deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying
data sets.
 Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an actual program.
 Memory testers check for memory failures.
 Network utilities analyze the computer’s network connectivity, configure network settings, check
data transfer or log events.
 Package managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on a computer.
 Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry keys that are
no longer in use.
 Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors by
blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use.
Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment or security.
 System monitors for monitoring resources and performance in a computer system.
 System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware attached
to the compute

 Hardware tools:
 Troubleshooting Tools kit

Figure 71: Troubleshooting Tools kit

Hardware Tools

Command-line tools and applications are software tools for troubleshooting, but some network problems
have hardware causes and solutions.

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 Here are some hardware tools that can help you diagnose and solve network issues:

 Wire Crimpers — A wire crimper (sometimes called a cable crimper) is a tool that attaches media
connectors to the ends of cables. You can use it to make or modify network cables.
 Cable Testers — A cable tester (sometimes called a line tester) is a tool that verifies if a signal is
transmitted by a given cable. You can use one to find out whether the cables in your network are
functioning properly when diagnosing connectivity issues.
 Punch Down Tool — A punch down tool is used in a wiring closet to connect cable wires directly
to a patch panel or punch-down block. This tool makes it easier to connect wires than it would be to do
it by hand.
 TDR — A time-domain reflectometer (TDR) is a measuring tool that transmits an electrical pulse
on a cable and measures the reflected signal. In a functioning cable, the signal does not reflect and is
absorbed in the other end. An optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is a similar tool, but used for
measuring fiber optic cables, which are becoming more common in modern networks.
 Light Meter — Light meters, also known as optical power meters, are devices used to measure
the power in an optical signal.
 Tone Generator — A tone generator is a device that sends an electrical signal through one pair of
UTP wires. On the other end, a tone locator or tone probe is a device that emits an audible tone when
it detects a signal in a pair of wires. You can use these tools to verify that signals are passing through
the wires in your network. They are often used to confirm phone connectivity.
 Loopback Adapter — A loopback adapter is a virtual or physical tool that can be used for
troubleshooting network transmission issues. It can be used by utilizing a special connector that
redirects the electrical signal back to the transmitting system.
 Multimeter — A multimeter (sometimes called a volt/ohm meter) is an electronic measuring
instrument that takes electrical measurements such as voltage, current and resistance. There are
hand-held multimeters for fieldwork as well as bench-top models for in-house troubleshooting.
 Spectrum Analyzer — A spectrum analyzer is an instrument that displays the variation of a signal
strength against the frequency.

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 Learning Unit 4 –Document the work done
Learning Outcome 4.1: Document on network status
 Content/Topic 1: Description of network status before and network infrastructure
 Document on network status
What should you document?

Proper documentation should be created as you work. Don’t wait until everything is in place before
starting to document what you’ve done. It’s much easier to document in the moment than trying to
remember what you did later. Make documentation a habit and make it part of your process. Don’t risk
potentially embarrassing situations because of the lack of network documentation.

But, what should you document?

Your goal with network documentation should be to ensure that your company retains all the knowledge
that went into creating the network as well as how to maintain and upgrade it.

You should seek input from your IT team, other network administrators in various departments throughout
your organization, and managers to determine what you should document. The following are just a few
examples of the types of information you should record to help your network to stay in good working
order (plus you’ll find templates to help you start your own documentation).

Network topology

The topology is the physical or logical map of your network. It lets you visualize how the resources in your
network are connected. Knowing the topology helps you to determine where new hardware can fit in your
network.

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Basic Small Company Network Diagram

Figure 72: Network Diagram

Server rack diagram

This type of diagram shows the organization of equipment on your server rack, including components such
as monitors, hard drives, power strips, routers, etc. Server rack diagrams can help you determine the size
of rack you’ll need during the design process but also see where computers and other devices connect to
the server when you’re troubleshooting.

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 Figure 73: Server Rack Diagram

Hardware directory

This directory documents the hardware pieces of your network and should include information about serial
numbers and descriptions of physical configurations. This information helps you to locate and fix hardware
problems that occur.

Software directory

This directory represents your software inventory. It lets you know where all of the software applications
that are authorized for use in your organization are located, what the names of these applications are, on
which computers they are installed, proof of software license for each application, and service level
agreements for those applications.

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In large organizations, maintaining a software directory can be a daunting task. But if you are ever subject
to a software audit, you will be glad you took the time to document what you have, where it is, and how
many licenses you have so you can prove that your company is in compliance.

Wi-Fi diagram

You may find it useful to document or diagram how your wireless network is laid out. The diagram can
include:

 The number of routers, switches, and servers used in your wireless network
 A map of physical access points to help you track down problems
 Radiofrequency patterns
 Security measures such as employee and guest SSIDs

IP address allocation

You should keep a detailed list of internal and external IP address assignments to help as you design
network expansions and recycle IP addresses to be allocated to other locations. Documenting your
allocation process gives you an understanding of subnet size, subnet assignments, and the devices that
have been assigned to specific IP addresses or to a dynamic range of addresses. This documentation helps
you to define allocation standards going forward.

An asset management diagram can give you a bird’s-eye view of your organization. This customizable
template can give your IT team a quick overview of employee location, asset tags, physical Wi-Fi access
points, IP addresses, software installations, and so on.

Cable diagram

Documenting where and how the cables run through your building can help when troubleshooting and
diagnosing network problems. The diagram should map jack numbers to physical locations.

Recovery plan

Do you know what you are going to do if you need to restore lost data? How do you preserve data from
failing hardware? Do you know where your backups are housed? You need to document details of where
backup data is located, how often backups occur, which type of data gets backed up, and how backups are
accessed and restored to those who need it.

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A step beyond a recovery plan, a fault-tolerant system is designed to give you uninterrupted service in the
event that one or more network component fails. Even if you experience a catastrophic failure, the fault-
tolerant system should let your employees remain productive and working without any knowledge that
there has been a system failure.

A fault-tolerance plan should include:

An analysis of the business impact in the event of a failure.

Outline potential threats and the impact they may have on your business.

Assess how likely it is that these threats will occur.

Consider the effects if you don’t have a fault-tolerant plan in place (lost sales, lost productivity, lost
development, and so on).

Planned redundancies. Duplicating everything in preparation for potential disasters can be costly. Be sure
to understand which business-critical assets and systems must start up immediately. Let the data and
systems that are not mission-critical wait to come back online after proper fixes have been put in place.

The location of your fault-tolerant system, whether in the cloud or on-premises.

Improve your documentation process

While it may seem like no one reads your network documentation, network diagrams are essential to
understanding existing technology, communicating with stakeholders, onboarding new employees,
troubleshooting issues before they escalate, and creating a vision for future innovation.

Get started with the templates above or learn more about how Lucidchart can help your team with
understanding complex systems.

A. Review of user manual and previous report

A great user manual educates people about a product, while also teaching them how to use product
features effectively. As an author, your ultimate goal is comprehension—you want readers to easily be
able to read, reference, and absorb information.

General guidelines for user manuals

 Provide a real (physical) user manual with the product.

 Make sure the instructions actually map on to the product in all respects.

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  Include a one-page quick start guide.
 Present instructions as step-by-step procedures.
 Tell the user what functions there are, and what they are for — not just how to use them... but
avoid marketing waffle (they already bought the product!)
 Ensure that the writers are part of the product design team.
 Write the user manual in synch with the product's development timeline — not under pressure of
shipping deadlines.
 Make sure the writers have the product, understand the product, and actually use the product as
they write.
 Consider the needs of disabled users (i.e., low vision, colour-blind) and provide alternative manuals
in Braille, large print, audio etc.
 User-test the product and the user manual with real users (including disabled users).
B. Suggestion of solutions on problems found

Here are seven-steps for an effective problem-solving process.

1. Identify the issues.

 Be clear about what the problem is.

 Remember that different people might have different views of what the issues are.
 Separate the listing of issues from the identification of interests (that's the next step!).

2. Understand everyone's interests.

 This is a critical step that is usually missing.

 Interests are the needs that you want satisfied by any given solution. We often ignore our true
interests as we become attached to one particular solution.
 The best solution is the one that satisfies everyone's interests.
 This is the time for active listening. Put down your differences for a while and listen to each other
with the intention to understand.
 Separate the naming of interests from the listing of solutions.

3. List the possible solutions (options)

 This is the time to do some brainstorming. There may be lots of room for creativity.
 Separate the listing of options from the evaluation of the options.

4. Evaluate the options.

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  What are the pluses and minuses? Honestly!
 Separate the evaluation of options from the selection of options.

5. Select an option or options.

 What's the best option, in the balance?

 Is there a way to "bundle" a number of options together for a more satisfactory solution?

6. Document the agreement(s).

 Don't rely on memory.

 Writing it down will help you think through all the details and implications.

7. Agree on contingencies, monitoring, and evaluation.

 Conditions may change. Make contingency agreements about foreseeable future circumstances (If-
then!).
 How will you monitor compliance and follow-through?
 Create opportunities to evaluate the agreements and their implementation. ("Let's try it this way
for three months and then look at it.")

Effective problem solving does take some time and attention more of the latter than the former. But less
time and attention than is required by a problem not well solved. What it really takes is a willingness to
slow down. A problem is like a curve in the road. Take it right and you'll find yourself in good shape for the
straightaway that follows. Take it too fast and you may not be in as good shape.

C. Description of solution implementation

1. Definition

Implementation is the culmination of all your work in solving a problem and requires careful attention to
detail. There are three basic stages involved:

 planning and preparing to implement the solution

 implementing and monitoring the action
 reviewing and analyzing the success of the action.
2. Planning and preparation

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Planning and preparation is the key to successful implementation. The more important the problem, or
the more complex the actions required to solve it, the more thorough your planning and preparation needs
to be to ensure success.

These questions highlight the main features of planning and preparation, which involve:

 constructing a plan of action

 the actions required
 scheduling the actions
 the resources required
 measures to counter adverse consequences
 management of the action
 reviewing the plan
 selecting, briefing and training those involved.
 Constructing a plan of action

Basically, the plan of action describes what actions are required and how they will be implemented to
ensure success. Unless the problem is simple or routine, you need to construct a detailed plan of action.

This involves systematically identifying and recording the following elements:

 The actions required

These must be identified fully and precisely, otherwise the results expected will not be achieved. The
expected effects of these actions must also be identified, so that you will know when they have been
carried out successfully. This part of the plan can be constructed as follows:

state your objective

list the individual goals in the order in which they must be achieved to reach that objective
identify what actions are required to achieve each goal, determine the sequence in which they
need to be carried out, and record them
define, in measurable terms, what a successful outcome will be for each action and add the details
to the plan.
 Scheduling the actions

To create a time schedule for the actions, first you identify the time required to complete each action. By
representing this information on the diagram you can calculate at what stage, relative to the starting time,
each action will commence and finish, and determine the total time required to achieve the objective.

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Simple plans can be represented by a chart which uses bars to show the sequence and duration of the
actions.

More complex plans require a more flexible structure, like a chain diagram or flow chart. Diagrams help
you to arrange the actions in a way which makes the best use of time and other resources. In drawing up a
schedule. it's important not to be over-optimistic in the time you allow for each action. Additional time is
required to accommodate delays and unforeseen obstacles, particularly with actions which must be
completed on time or which are susceptible to delays.

 The resources required

For each action the resources required have to be precisely defined along a number of parameters,
including the type, amount and when they are required. Each resource is considered individually:

Time is sometimes overlooked but it can be a key resource in some situations. These can be defined by
answering some simple questions.

What time is available before the deadline for achieving each action/goal/the overall objective?
Are these timings compatible?
Whose time is required?
Will this time be spent within normal working hours?

Manpower may come from within and outside the organization and can be defined by answering these
questions

How many people will be required?

What skills, qualities and knowledge will they need to carry out the actions required of them?
When and where will they be required?
Will they be available when and where required?
Will they be available for the length of time required?
What briefing and training will they need to be able to carry out their tasks effectively?

Money can be defined by answering the questions

How much will be needed?

In what form? (eg cash, cheque, foreign currency)
How will it be acquired? (eg loan, grant, endowment)
What will be the source? (eg profits, merchant bank, local or central government)

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 How will it be used and is this compatible with the source? (eg if it's a development grant does the
plan use it appropriately?)
When and where will it be required?
Will it be available when and where required?
Does it need to be repaid, and when?
Will it be recouped, how, and when? (eg through increased profits)
Will there be additional cost in using this money? (eg interest or handling charges)
Have the costs of all other resources been included?
Materials may fall into a number of categories, including consumables, raw materials, and equipment (for
temporary or permanent use). The material requirements can be defined by answering the questions

What type of materials will be required?

If capital equipment is required, how will it be financed? (eg lease, loan)
What are the specifications of the materials required? (eg quality, size)
What wastage is likely to occur?
In what quantities are they required?
When and where will they be required?
Will they be available when and where required?
Will transport be required?
What handling (human and mechanical) will be required?
Will storage space be required, where, how much, for how long, and will it be available?
Space can be defined by answering these questions

What space will be required?

How much space will be required?
Where will the space be required?
Does it have to be of a particular type (eg covered, with amenities) or with particular dimensions?
How long will the space be required?

Information may form a part of the manpower resource (eg expert advice or skills) but it can also be a
resource in its own right (eg renting a mailing list for a direct mail campaign). To define this resource, you
need to answer these questions

What specific information will be required?

Is this information available from within the organization or does it have to be bought-in?
Where specifically is it available?

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 When and where will it be required?
Will it be available when and where required?
How long will it be required?
When you are calculating the resources required to implement a solution it's vital not to under-estimate. A
shortage could disrupt implementation completely and possibly incur heavy penalties, eg having to pay a
consultant for doing nothing while he's waiting for the installation of a piece of equipment. Sometimes you
may have to adapt your plan of action to suit the availability of resources.

Once you have made a complete list of the resource requirements, draw up a schedule of resources,
showing how and when they will be requested, from whom, and when and where they are to be delivered.

 Measures to counter adverse consequences

These have to be included in the plan. Although you have considered the areas of risk and possible side-
effects when constructing and evaluating your solution, and adapted it to try to minimize the adverse
consequences, you need to identify everything that could go wrong during implementation and devise
countermeasures. This includes even minor problems such as a key person being sick.

The steps involved are similar to those used to evaluate and minimize the risks associated with the
solution, only more detailed.

There are certain features of a plan of action which can make it more susceptible to something going
wrong. To identify these and make provision in your plan to deal with them, you should examine your plan
step-by-step and follow these stages:

identify everything that could go wrong; look for areas where, for example,
- timing is crucial (eg with delays, could a deadline be missed?)

- a slippage in timing could bring subsequent actions into conflict (eg so that they simultaneously require
the same resource)

- two or more activities coincide (eg will they interfere with each other?)

- there is no way of predicting what may happen (eg because of lack of knowledge or experience)

- there is heavy reliance on facilities or equipment (eg could they fail?) ,

- there is heavy reliance on the cooperation and efforts of people (eg will they perform as required?)

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- all available resources in a particular category are being used (eg could an unexpected event require their
more urgent use elsewhere?)

- external factors could affect the actions required (eg withdrawal of labour in a national dispute) or the
effectiveness of the results (eg a change in market needs)

analyze and evaluate the consequences, eg .

- what are the effects if this happens?

- how serious are they?

- what is their relative seriousness?

- what is the probability of them happening (low, medium or high)?

define how you could recognize trouble as early as possible, eg through the detection of unexpected
changes in predicted events
devise countermeasures where possible, either to prevent the cause of trouble or minimize its
effects
incorporate the method of recognition and the appropriate countermeasure into your plan.
Adverse consequences which have the highest probability of occurring combined with the greatest
seriousness should be tackled first and every effort made to ensure that provision is made in your plan to
counter them effectively. Even if time is short and it requires extensive work, you can only afford to omit
minor adverse consequences with a low probability of occurrence. Although problems may not arise during
Implementation, if they do your plan must contain appropriate countermeasures which can be taken
without jeopardizing the rest of the plan.

 Management of the action

Unless the solution is very simple or routine you must specify how the implementation will be monitored
and controlled. This enables the manpower to be appropriately led and managed, their progress to be
measured at specific intervals, and appropriate action to be taken to correct any variance from the plan.
The following steps help to identify how to manage the implementation:

identify actions which require on-the-job supervision and monitoring (eg where individuals have no
previous experience of the actions required of them)
identify the stages at which progress should be measured (eg upon completion of individual goals
or major activities; at critical phases)
specify exactly what results are expected to have been achieved at these stages
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 specify how and by whom the actual results will be measured
ensure that appropriate measures to correct any variance between the expected and the actual
results are specified in the plan.
The stages you identify for measuring progress are, in effect, deadlines for achieving specific results. These
must be stated as a specific time or date in the overall time schedule. Unspecific or woolly deadlines make
implementation difficult to manage and can lead to disaster. The frequency of measuring progress is
dependent upon a number of factors:

what is practical (eg economical and not interfering significantly with progress)
the rate at which the situation is likely to change (eg major building works compared with delicate
negotiations over a couple of days)
the seriousness of potential variances from the plan
Provision should also be made to monitor the solution once it has been implemented, so that any
unforeseen adverse consequences arising in the long term can be detected. For example, has a
change in the system created a bottleneck in processing work, or resulted in undue pressure on one
individual or department?

 Reviewing the plan

Finally, you need to check the plan to ensure that

the actions listed will achieve the various goals and the overall objective
your time schedule is workable and can accommodate unexpected delays
your estimation of resources is accurate
the plan for managing the action will enable it to be kept on course.
Drawing up a plan of action is the most crucial stage in ensuring efficient implementation and it
must be accurate and thorough. This plan provides a blueprint for the remaining stages of
implementation.

 Selecting, briefing and training those involved

Your plan of action provides most of the information you require at this stage.

This situation is very similar to having to get your solution implemented successfully. You need to go
through the following stages:

select indjviduals with the appropriate skills, qualities and knowledge required to carry out the
various actions effectively
brief these people. so that they know and understand what they are required to do

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 give training, if necessary, to individuals who do not meet the exact requirements for carrying out
their assigned tasks effectively.
Selection involves comparing the skills, qualities and knowledge required for specific tasks with those
available amongst individual members of the workforce. By identifying the ideal attributes for carrying out
each action effectively - both what is required and what is to be avoided - you can construct a model of the
ideal candidate. Selection then consists of finding the best match to this ideal amongst members of the
workforce.

Once you have selected appropriate individuals you need to draw up a list of what actions each is required
to carry out, the results they will be expected to achieve, and what responsibilities they have for achieving
these results.

Frequently there will be at least some aspects of your plan for which the individuals available are not
ideally suited. If the discrepancy is large it may be necessary to buy in manpower with the appropriate
attributes. However, frequently the shortfall can be overcome by careful briefing or specific training.

Briefing is often the final step before a plan is implemented. As in any other type of communication, it
must be planned and executed carefully to ensure that it's effective. The following steps will help you to
brief people effectively:

give individuals reasonable advance warning of what will be required of them

prepare your briefing carefully so that it is clear, comprehensive and can be understood easily by
everyone
after the briefing, check that everyone has understood what they are required to do by asking them
to repeat your instructions.

Your instructions should state clearly the responsibilities of each individual and the scope of their
authority in carrying out their task. It's important to give a level of authority which enables individuals to
use their initiative and not be bound rigidly to the plan. For example, if they foresee a problem arising they
need the freedom to act immediately if necessary.

The way you communicate your message is very important. Some individuals may have a different view of
the situation and different attitudes to your own, particularly if they have not been involved in finding and
evaluating solutions.

Training can be expensive and time-consuming. If people with the appropriate skills are not readily
available you need to compare the advantages and disadvantages of training them or buying-in the

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necessary skills, eg training may provide individuals with skills which are of value in other aspects of their
work; hiring a consultant may create a valuable business contact.

Once people have been briefed on what they are required to do and other appropriate resources have
been arranged, the plan of action can be implemented.

 Implementing and monitoring the action

Once action has been initiated, it has to be supervised and monitored to ensure that the plan is followed
accurately, implementing corrective action when necessary. The details of this stage are specified in the
plan of action.

Supervising the action ensures that individuals carry out their tasks efficiently according to the plan.

Monitoring progress enables you to identify whether or not the results being achieved are meeting the
planned requirements, and if not, why not. A decision can then be made on the action required to put the
plan back on course. Reviewing the overall achievement once the plan has progressed significantly will
indicate how well it is achieving the objective. If there are major discrepancies it suggests that the plan is
inadequate and needs to be revised.

Taking corrective action may involve implementing the appropriate countermeasure laid down in the plan,
or taking unplanned action to counter unforeseen problems. For example, if time. has been lost in
completing one activity, other activities may have to be completed more quickly than planned in order to
meet a deadline. Minor problems which are unlikely to recur may not require any action. Major faults in
the plan may make it necessary to abandon implementation if no appropriate corrective action is possible.

These three processes must be maintained until the plan is completed.

 Reviewing and analyzing the outcome

When the plan has been completed and the solution implemented it is important to measure and analyze
its success. This tells you whether the solution has been effective in solving the problem and how useful it
will be in solving similar problems in the future. There are three stages

measure the success of the solution by comparing the outcome of the action with the expected
results
analyze any discrepancy to identify the reasons for it
take further action if necessary.
 Remember

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 The more important them. problem, or the more complex the actions required to solve it, the more
planning and preparation you need to do.
Action must be monitored to ensure that it is being carried out effectively and having the desired
effects; if not, corrective action must be taken.
Once the action is completed, the outcome must be measured to check that it has provided an
effective solution; if not, further action may be required.
D. Description of procedures of the task accomplished

3. What is a procedure?
The idea of what a procedure is, changes depending on who you ask. To many, a procedure is a set of
detailed instructions that tell the reader how to complete a task.

4. How to write an effective procedure?

Now we’re getting into the meat of the topic – learning how to write a procedure. Any of you who’ve
read our other posts on documenting processes and recording standard operating procedures will
know much of this already, but to summarize you need to:

1. Meet with the teams responsible for the procedure

2. Start with a short introduction

3. Make a list of required resources

4. Document the current procedure

5. Add supporting media

6. Include any relevant resources

7. Check the procedure is accurate

8. Test in a controlled environment

9. Make improvements if necessary

10. Deploy

E. Tools equipment and materials used

Explain clearly a proper selection of tools and equipment you have used in your installation, and how
they work.

F. Technical journal and Recommendation report

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 o Technical journal is a multidisciplinary journal in the field of engineering science and
technology that offers platform for researchers, engineers and scientists to publish their
original and to date research of high scientific value.
The journal is being published electronically as well as in print form.
Technical Journal introduces its readers to all the latest technologies, products, and solutions to any
problems to be occurred.

o Recommendation report

recommendation report proposes a solution to a problem or evaluates possible solutions and

recommends one. Before proposing or recommending a solution, the report needs to identify the
problem. Think about the various problems you encounter every day or read about in the paper.

3. Report: A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience
and purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are almost always
in the form of written documents.

Learning Outcome 4.2: Report on the work done

 Content/Topic 1: Reporting the work done

A. Review of user manual and previous report

The User Manual contains all essential information for the user to make full use of the information
system. This manual includes a description of the system functions and capabilities, contingencies and
alternate modes of operation, and step-by-step procedures for system access and use. Use graphics
where possible. The manual format may be altered if another format is more suitable for the particular
project.
B. Suggestion of solutions on problems found

The User Manual contains all essential information for the user to make full use of the information
system. This manual includes a description of the system functions and capabilities, contingencies and
alternate modes of operation, and step-by-step procedures for system access and use. Use graphics
where possible. The manual format may be altered if another format is more suitable for the particular
project.
1. Cable Problem: Cables that connect different parts of a network can be cut or shorted. A short can
happen when the wire conductor comes in contact with another conductive surface, changing the path

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 of the signal. Cable testers can be used to test for many types of cable problems such as:
Cut cable, incorrect cable connections, Cable shorts, Interference level, Connector Problem
2. Connectivity Problem: A connectivity problem with one or more devices in a network can occur after
a change is made in configuration or by a malfunction of a connectivity component, such as hub, a
router or a Switch.
3. Excessive Network Collisions: These often lead to slow connectivity. The problem can occur as a
result of bad network setup/plan, a user transferring a lot of information or jabbering network card.
NB: A jabbering Network card is a network card that is stuck in a transmit mode. This will be evident
because the transmit light will remain on constantly, indicating that the Network card is always
transmitting.
4. Software Problem: Network problems can often be traced to software configuration such as DNS
configuration, WINS configuration, the registry etc.
5. Duplicate IP Addressing: A common problem in many networking environments occurs when two
machines try to use the same IP address. This can result in intermittent communications.
C. Description of problem and solution implementation

In today’s world, every organization relies upon a good and hassle free Computer Network to maintain
a good flow of data or information exchange. A Computer Network is the cornerstone of every
organization used to share or exchange information which can be a image, text, video, sound clip or
any other type of media or file. But it’s very embarrassing when we face some technical problems in
our network which hampers our work. Here I am sharing some common network issues and some steps
to come up with those issues.

Common Network Issues & Solutions :

Network issues are already irritating and frustrating to handle, but they can spell out disaster when they
happen on a business network. While your IT department should be able to fix most network issues, you
can save a lot of time by handling the issues yourself. Here are some of the most common network issues
that people encounter along with their solutions:

1. Computer Viruses

The Problem: Help! I think I have a virus on my network!

Network viruses can completely disable a computer network, so this is the first issue we’re going to tackle.
There can be a number of causes of computer viruses. Viruses can come from a wide range of sources,
such as e-mail attachments, malicious software, online advertisements, and yes, even social media.

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What are some signs of computer viruses? While remediating an infection on a single computer can be
daunting, removing a virus from an infected network is a real challenge since it can hide on any computer.
So, here’s how you can fix it:

The Solution:

Step 1: Check the severity of the infection by running a complete network scan to find malicious files or
programs. Make sure that your antivirus and anti-malware programs are up to date and able to scan
hidden files, the root directory, and all running programs. Also, try to have your antivirus/anti-malware
software scan your e-mail inbox for any malicious materials.

Step 2: Back up all of your system files using the necessary tools. Running a complete system backup will
ensure that your data isn’t lost and that the network will remain stable. The Windows’ “System Restore”
option will allow you to set up a restoration that can often be useful in an emergency.

Step 3: Confine all suspicious, irregular files. Isolating them will prevent their exchanging with other files or
your network system. Then, disinfect or completely wipe all quarantined files. Manually delete any emails
that were identified by your antivirus software.

2. Unable to Connect to the Internet

The Problem: The wireless network shows a signal, but my device won’t connect

Using a wireless network is great for mobility, but can hinder your productivity when it decides to
malfunction. There are a few different reasons why your wireless network is having connectivity issues,
such as the wireless router or the network card itself. This issue will require a bit of network
troubleshooting to find a solution, so let’s get to work:

The Solution:

Step 1: If your router won't connect to the internet, try putting your computer or device right next to the
router. If this causes your equipment to connect, then the system hardware may have been the issue. If
this didn’t fix the problem, proceed to Step 2.

Step 2: Update the network card. Sometimes, your network card will receive a strong signal, but won’t be
able to transmit it quickly and effectively resulting in the need for network troubleshooting. Updating the
driver might solve the problem entirely, but if it doesn’t, you might need to contact your IT department or
provider and consider replacing the hardware altogether.

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 3.Duplicated IP Address

The Problem: I got an error message that says that the IP address is already in use.

A small error window just popped up on your screen saying that your IP address is already in use. How is
this even possible and what causes this IP address conflict? Well, there are a few reasons why this can
happen:

 Your system administrator could have assigned two computers on a local area network (LAN) the same
static IP address.
 Your internet service provider accidentally assigned two people the same IP address.
 The network’s Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server has allowed the same dynamic address
to be assigned to multiple computers automatically.
 Your system administrator has assigned a static IP address to a computer within the local network’s
DHCP range, and the same address is automatically given by the local DHCP server

These are just a few of the plethora of reasons why IP address conflicts take place. Here are some ways to
fix this issue:

The Solution:

Windows - If you have a dynamic IP address:

Step 1: Click the “Start” button and click “Run”. Enter “cmd” into the text box and click “OK”. The Windows
command prompt will open.

Step 2: Type “ipconfig/renew” into the command prompt and press “Enter”. This will refresh your dynamic
IP address.

Step 3: Check your network connection. Your computer will receive an available IP address that isn’t
already taken.

Windows – if you have a static IP address:

Step 1: Right click “Network Neighborhood” on your desktop. On Windows 7 or Windows Vista, this will be
labeled “Network”. Next, click “Properties”.

Step 2: Rick click onto your network card and click “Properties”. In most cases, your network card will be
labeled “Local area LAN Connection.”

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Step 3: Select “TCP/IP” in the list and then, click the “Properties” button under the list of options. Enter in a
new IP address in the opened window. Click “OK” to confirm the changes you’ve made.

Mac

Step 1: Click on “System Preferences” in your dock. Then, click on “Network”.

Step 2: Select “Wi-Fi” on the left side of the window. Then, click “Advanced”, which is located on the
bottom right.

Step 3: On the next page, select the “TCP/IP” tab and then click “Renew DHCP Lease” on the right side of
the window.

4. Slow Performance

Problem: My applications are responding very slowly.

Why is my computer so slow? Slow-running applications can put a damper on your productivity in the
workplace. One of the most common network issues that business networks fight with is slow applications.
This happens especially when a computer first turns on or connects to a network. In most cases, this is
caused by heavy bandwidth usage. In other instances, it can be caused by lack of hard drive space, running
too many applications at once, having too many browser tabs open at one time, or even just a dusty room!
The solution for this issue depends on the root of the problem.

Once you’ve gotten rid of some of your browser’s extensions, eliminated applications you aren’t using, or
identified the application that’s eating up all of your processing power, you should be able to see a huge
difference in your computer’s processing speed. (You can do this by using the Task Manager for Windows
or the Activity Monitor for Mac to see which applications are slowing you down).

If this solution didn’t work for you, here’s what you can do:

The Solution:

Note: Be sure to enforce proper network use by making sure that users aren’t viewing too much digital
content via streaming or continuously downloading large files. Doing so will help you keep your bandwidth
use under control. However, if you find that your employees are utilizing the network correctly, it might be
time to upgrade your network to meet your business needs.

If you feel that the sluggishness of your applications is due to another issue, proceed to Step 1.

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Step 1: Try restarting your PC. Sometimes, a quick reset will fix any and all issues right away. Doing so will
clear your system memory (RAM). If this works, remember to shut down your PC when it’s not in use. If
this doesn’t help, proceed to Step 2.

Step 2: Now, it’s time to check on your hard drive and make sure that it’s not approaching the end of its
lifespan. So, let’s run a hard drive check:

Windows

Right click on “Drive”. Then, click “Properties” and then click “Tools”. Click “Check Now”. Select “Scan for
and attempt recovery of bad sectors”. Doing this will stop your computer from tapping into any
malfunctioning areas of the hard drive.

Mac

Click “Applications” from the “Finder”, then “Utilities”, and then “Disk Utility”. Highlight the hard drive
that’s giving you trouble and then select “First Aid”.

If your hard drive is healthy, but you think it’s becoming too full with data, proceed to Step 3.

Step 3: Get rid of unnecessary files from programs that have gone unused. System backups and restore
points can eat up a lot of space, so don’t hang onto more versions of this software than you need. You
might also consider uploading your data onto the cloud to save your hard drive.

Step 4: If you’ve completely deep-cleaned your computer and checked all of the possible issues above, but
your computer is still running slowly, it might be time to upgrade your RAM so that your computer has
more memory. Certain programs take more RAM to run properly than others and if you don’t have enough
RAM ready, your computer will not be able to handle it. Look into RAM upgrade options.

5. IP Address Exhaustion

The Problem: I can’t get an IP address.

So, your network seems to have gone down. Your operating system has sent you an alert stating that the
address was not received from the DHCP server. You’ve just checked the network adapter status and
noticed that there’s actually no IP address to be found. What now?

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There are a few different reasons why this could happen. It could be that the DHCP server is out of
addresses, the device might be set to use a static address rather than a DHCP address, or maybe the DHCP
request from the device never made it to the server. Either way, here’s what we need to do:

The Solution:

Step 1: Check the network interface card (NIC). You can find this by opening the control panel, then the
device manager. Then, select “Hardware and Sound” and then select “Device Manager”. Expand the
Network Adapters item to view all network adapters, although you will most likely only have one. Verify
that your system is configured to utilize DHCP.

Step 2: Check the switch to see which virtual LAN (VLAN) the port is set as a member. Verify that other
devices on this particular VLAN are able to get an IP address. If they can’t, the issue is that the network is
not sending DHCP requests to the server.

If this issue is taking place with more than one device, then the issue is likely the server itself.

6. VPN Errors

The Problem: I got an error message saying that my device was “unable to establish the VPN connection”
or error 800.

Your virtual private network (VPN) works to provide a safe connection between a local client and a remote
server. When you can’t connect to a VPN, you’ll receive an error message that usually states something
along the lines of “VPN error 800 – Unable to establish the VPN connection”. This can happen if the client
device disconnected from the local network, the network’s firewall is blocking the VPN traffic, or if the
name/address specified for the VPN server was incorrect.

Here’s how you can fix this issue:

The Solution:

Step 1: Check the connection between the client and server. Attempt to connect to the server from a
different client device to verify whether the network issue is a widespread issue or if it is affecting only one
client.

Step 2: Verify that the name entered on the client side matches the server name given by the VPN
administrator. In some instances, users can specify an IP address rather than a name, while it’s more

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typical for users to mistype the address than the name. VPN servers can also change their IP addresses in
some instances, especially DHCP networks.

Step 3: If the first two steps didn’t clear up the issue, now it’s time to make sure that the firewall isn’t
blocking your connection with the VPN. Do so by temporarily disabling it to retry the connection. If this
solves the problem, you need to update the firewall settings specific to the port numbers that the VPN on
the network is using to prevent this issue from happening again.

If none of this troubleshooting solved the issue, it could be possible that the server is overloaded with
clients or that it is offline. Check with your IT department to see what can be done.

7. Connection Errors and Network Connectivity

The Problem: My network has limited connectivity or no connectivity at all.

Connection issues are some of the most annoying, frustrating network issues of all. These issues can be a
result of all types of glitches and issues within the computer and/or the network itself. So, if your computer
has handed you a lovely “Limited or no connectivity” error message, here’s what you can do to fix it:

The Solution:

Step 1: Restart your computer. A quick reboot can often be a life-saver. If you’ve already tried this or
restarting the computer didn’t fix anything, proceed to Step 2.

Step 2: Restart your router or modem. DO NOT reset the router or modem or restore its settings back to
factory default. Simply turn the router or modem off and back on. If this doesn’t work or only works for a
moment, keep going to Step 3.

Step 3: If you are connected to your network via Ethernet cable, unplug the cable and then reattach it. If
needed, replace your network cable with a new or different cable to see if this was the cause of the issue.

Step 4: If you’re connected via Wi-Fi when you see this error, it’s a possibility that the network adapter is
attempting to conserve power. Stop this by finding the Network and Sharing Center in the Control Panel.
Right click “Wi-Fi Connection”, select “Properties”, click “Configure” and find the “Power Management”
tab. Click and uncheck the option that allows your computer to turn off device to conserve power.

Step 5: If you’ve tried all of this and there’s still no connection, unplug your router and connect your
computer directly to your modem. If this solves the issue, then your router is likely to be malfunctioning. If
not, contact the router manufacturer for support.

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If the error remains and the network is still down, reach out to your internet service provider for help.

E. Description of procedures of the task accomplished

For an implementation process to be successful, many tasks between different departments need
to be accomplished in sequence. Companies strive to use proven methodologies and enlist
professional help to guide them through the implementation of a system but the failure of many
implementation processes often stems from the lack of accurate planning in the beginning stages of
the project due to inadequate resources or unforeseen problems that arise.
D. Tools equipment and materials used

LAN CARD
It is a network interface card. This is a computer circuit board or card that is installed in a computer so
that it can be connected to a network.

SERVER
It is a part of a network. It is a special computer that users on the network can access to carry out a
particular job.

HUB/PORT
It is a connector on the back of a computer or other device. A port is either a serial port or a parallel
port.

MODEM
The modem is a device that allows a given computer to share data or otherwise a device which let
computers exchange information

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CANNER
It is an input device that read text or illustration printed on paper, translates the information into a
form that a computer can use

FLAT SCREW DRIVER

It is used to drive or fasten negative slotted screws

USB
Universal Serial Bus, a hardware interface for low-speed peripherals such as the keyboard, mouse,
joystick, scanner, printer and telephony devices.

PRINTER
It is a piece of hardware that produces a paper copy (also known as ‘hardcopy’) of the information
generated by the computer.

RAM
Random Access Memory, is a primary memory. This memory is used inside the computer to hold
programs and data while it is running.

BIOS
Basic Input / Output System, chip that controls the most basic functions of the computer and performs
a self-test every time you turn it on.

FLASH DRIVE
RAM that can retain data without electrical power. It is widely used for BIOS chips and for digital
camera and digital music storage

VIDEO CAMERA
A camera using videotape: a camera that records onto videotape

LONG NOSE PLIERS

It is used for holding, bending and stretching the lead of electronics component or connecting wire.

SOLDERINGIRON
It is used to join two or more metal conductors with the support of soldering lead melted around it.

DESOLDERING TOOL
It is used to unsolder unwanted parts or component in the circuit with the support of soldering pencil.

PHILIPS SCREW DRIVER

It is used to drive or fasten positive slotted screws.

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 LAN TESTER
For RJ11,12,45 & BNC w/ Remote Unit This ergonomic tester is designed to test most network cable
wiring. You can either conduct an auto or manual test.

UTP
Unshielded Twisted Pair, is a popular type of cable used in computer networking that consists of two
shielded wires twisted around each.

E. Technical journal and recommendation report

1. Technical journal

In the modern high performance computing systems, innovative as well as hi-tech research is required to
address the challenges in the networking. The Journal of Networking Technology will act as a platform to
publish and disseminate the cross cutting research in networking systems. The journal solicits original
research in the following but not limited areas.

Computer network components

Network architecture and design
Digital networks
Broadband networks
Internet and Web Technology
Sensor networks
Adhoc networks
Mobile and wireless networks
Data networks
Next generation networks
Optical networks
Neural networks
Signal processing
Satellite communication

2. Recommendation report

Basic Network Recommendations

 Correct User Rights
Administrator rights should be granted with caution. Users who have administrator rights can potentially
do things that could be seriously damaging. They can, and do, unintentionally make changes that decrease

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the level of network security. They can also be tricked into running malware, which would run with the
user’s administrator privileges.
If they are careless about protecting their authentication details, their user-name and password may be
stolen. This may allow unauthorized third parties to log in and carry out damaging actions, intentionally or
accidentally. For better security, make sure that users have a privilege level which is appropriate for the
tasks they carry out and minimize the number of users that have administrator privileges.
 Only Download from Trusted Websites
You should determine who has a genuine business need to download files and applications from a website.
Use web filtering to restrict this to people with a genuine requirement and ensure that the select few are
educated in how to download files safely. Files can often be downloaded from multiple locations on the
Internet, but not all locations are equally secure. Make sure that your users can only download from
trusted sites, such as primary source websites rather than file-sharing or generic websites.
 Review Network Shares
Carry out an audit of network shares. Users should only have access to files and folders that they need as
part of their day-to-day work. You should also be aware that a lot of malware can spread via networks. This
is typically due to there being little or no security on network shares. Remove access to unnecessary shares
and secure the others and their contents to limit network-aware malware from spreading.
 Restrict Network Connections
When a computer connects to a network, it can adopt that network’s security settings for that specific
session. If the network is outside the administrator’s control, the security settings may be weak and put
the computer at risk. Restrict users from connecting computers to unapproved networks. In most instances
users only need to connect to the main company network.
 Change Your Default IP Range
Networks typically use standard IP ranges, like 10.1.x.x or 192.168.x.x. This standard approach means
machines configured to look for this range could accidentally connect to a network outside your control.
Change the default IP range so that computers are less likely to find a similar range. You should also
consider adding firewall rules, which allows only approved users to connect.
 Review Open Ports
You should periodically audit the open ports on your network and block all unused ones. If you leave them
open for long periods of time without surveying them, you increase the chance of letting in intruders. If
ports are left open, Trojans and Worms may use them to communicate with unauthorized third-parties.
 Audit the Entry Points to Your Network
Networks undergo frequent change, so it is very important to review all the routes into your organization’s
infrastructure on a regular basis. For each means of entry, consider how to best secure the routes to stop
unwanted files and applications entering undetected or sensitive information leaking out.

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  Network Segmentation
There are a number of advantages to segmenting your network.
Improved security comes from the fact that broadcasts will be contained to local network and internal
network structure will not be visible from outside. If an attacker gains unauthorized access to a network,
segmentation or “zoning” can provide effective controls to limit further movement across the network.
Improved performance can be achieved, because on a segmented network there are fewer hosts per
subnetwork, thus minimizing local traffic. It can also help to containing network problems, limiting the
effect of local failures on other parts of network.
When business critical systems are affected, they can slow business processes significantly. To help protect
them, consider having them on a different network from the one used for day-to-day activities.
 Resist the Temptation to Live Test
Although most software developers are good people and rigorously test their software before releasing it,
they are unlikely to have your infrastructure’s exact configuration and setup. To ensure that a new
software version or update does not cause problems, test it on a virtual system and check its effects before
deploying to the real live network.
 Block Unused USB Ports
Many devices, when connected to a USB port, can be automatically detected and mounted as a drive. USB
ports may also allow attached devices to auto-run stored software. Users are often unaware that even the
safest and most trusted devices can potentially introduce malware onto their computer. To prevent any
accidents, it is much safer to disable all unused ports.

LO4.3 Write technical journal and recommendation

 Content/Topic 1: Writing technical journal and recommendation

 Report: A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for

a specific audience and purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered
orally, complete reports are almost always in the form of written documents.

 The main advantages of report writing?

1. Report gives consolidated and updated information.
A report provides consolidated, factual and an up-to-date information about a particular matter or subject.
Information in the report is well organized and can be used for future planning and decision making.
2. Report as a means of internal communication.

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A report acts as an effective means of communication within the organization. It provides feedback to
employees. It is prepared for the information and guidance of others connected with the matter/ problem.
3. Report facilitates decision making and planning

Report provide reliable data which can be used in the planning and decision making process. It acts as a
treasure house of reliable information for long term planning and decision making.

4. Report discloses unknown information

Reports provide information, which may not be known previously. The committee members collect data,
draw conclusions and provide information which will be new to all concerned parties. Even new business
opportunities are visible through unknown information available in the reports.

2. Report gives Information to employees

Reports are available to managers and departments for internal use. They are widely used by the
departments for guidance. Report provide a feedback to employees and are useful for their self-
improvement.

3. Report gives reliable permanent information

The information provided by a report is a permanent addition to the information available to the office.
We have census reports (prepared since last 100 years) which are used even today for reference purpose.

4. Report facilitates framing of personnel policies

Certain reports relating to employees are useful while preparing personnel policies such as promotion
policy, training policy and welfare facilities to employees.

5. Report gives information to shareholders

Some company reports are prepared every year for the benefit of shareholders. Annual report for
example, is prepared and sent to all shareholders before the AGM. It gives information about the progress
of the company.

6. Report gives information to the Registrar

Annual report and annual accounts are sent to the Registrar every year for information. Such reports
enable the government to keep supervision on the companies.

7. Report solves current problems

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Reports are useful to managers while dealing with current problems faced by the company. They provide
guidance while dealing with complicated problems.

8. Report helps directors to take prompt decisions

Company reports relate to internal working of the company and are extremely useful to directors in
decision making and policy framing. Reports give reliable, updated and useful information in a compact
form.

 Report Writing Format

Here are the main sections of the standard report writing format:

 Title Section – This includes the name of the author(s) and the date of report preparation.

 Summary – There needs to be a summary of the major points, conclusions, and recommendations.
It needs to be short as it is a general overview of the report. Some people will read the summary
and only skim the report, so make sure you include all the relevant information. It would be best to
write this last so you will include everything, even the points that might be added at the last
minute.

 Introduction – The first page of the report needs to have an introduction. You will explain the
problem and show the reader why the report is being made. You need to give a definition of terms
if you did not include these in the title section, and explain how the details of the report are
arranged.

 Body – This is the main section of the report. There needs to be several sections, with each having
a subtitle. Information is usually arranged in order of importance with the most important
information coming first.

 Conclusion – This is where everything comes together. Keep this section free of jargon as most
people will read the Summary and Conclusion.

 Recommendations – This is what needs to be done. In plain English, explain your

recommendations, putting them in order of priority.

 Appendices – This includes information that the experts in the field will read. It has all the technical
details that support your conclusions.

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Remember that the information needs to be organized logically with the most important information
coming first.

 Pointers to score high in Report Writing

1. Use names and pronouns

2. Limit yourself to one idea per sentence.

Short, straightforward sentences are easy to read, understand and save time for everyone. You will
appreciate this time-saving tip when you are reviewing a report to prepare for an important business
meeting. Also, the longer a sentence is, the more likely you are to make an error.

Short sentence and its structure in English generally begin with a noun, and the grammar is simple.
Complicated sentences, on the other hand, require complicated punctuation, and they open the door to
sentence errors.

Try to limit yourself to three commas per sentence. If a sentence has more than three commas, it’s
probably too complicated to be read easily, and it may contain usage or punctuation errors.

3. Be as clear and specific as possible.

“Contacted” is vague: Did you visit, phone, or email the witness? “Residence” is just as confusing: House,
apartment or mobile home? Always strive for clarity.

4. Use simple language.

“Since” is easier to understand (and write)

5. Stick to observable facts.

Conclusions, guesses, hunches, and other thought processes do not belong in a report.

6. Write in paragraphs.

7. Use active voice.

8. Use bullet style.

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  Sample of Report

Typical structure template for writing a committee report:

1. Members to which the report is meant for

 [Name, institution, location, Chair]

 [Name, institution, location, member]

2. [Date, Time, and Location]

 [Provide simple documentation of any meetings of the committee or subset of the

committee, in whatever mode and format, e.g., in person, conference call, etc.]

3. Purpose

 [Here you mention the purpose of the report in a brief. This enables the reader to
understand the purpose behind writing the format.]

4. Issues [Write different issues as sub headings and explain their highlights in bullet points below the
respective sub headings]

 Current Status

 Accomplishments / Issue 1

 Future Goals

5. Near-Term Plans / Main Body of the Report

6. Informal Recommendation(s)

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Dionys, D. (2008). How to Make a Network Cable. Unpublished. Produced for the VVOB Program in Zambia
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Network topology. (2010, February 8). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved February 9, 2010,
from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Network_topology&oldid=342762416

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