1.

1 Metric Space

1. Let X be as set and dene d : X X R by d(x, x) = 0 x X and d(x, y) = 1, x = y X . Prove that d is a metric on X . Proof: Clearly, the denition of d satises (a) d(x, y) 0 for all x, y X . (b) d(x, y) = 0 i x = y. (c) d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y X . If x = z, then either y = x or y = x. 0 = d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) = 0 or 2. If x = z, then either y = x or y = x. 1 = d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) = 1 or 2. Hence, (d) d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all x, y, z X . Thus, d is a metric on X . 2. Prove that the taxicab metric is a metric on Rn . Proof: Clearly, the denition of taxicab metric d satises (a) d((x, y)) 0 for all x, y Rn . (b) d((x, y)) = 0 i x = y. (c) d((x, y)) = d((y, x)) for all x, y Rn . We prove property (d) by induction. When n = 1, |x z| = |x y + y z| |x y| + |y z|. Suppose property (d) is true for all n k.
k k k

|xi zi |
i=1 i=1

|xi yi | +
i=1

|yi zi |

When n = k + 1,
k+1 k+1 k k

|xi yi | +
i=1 i=1

|yi zi | =
i=1 k

|xi yi | +
i=1

|yi zi | + |xk+1 yk+1 | + |yk+1 zk+1 |

i=1 k+1

|xi zi | + |xk+1 zk+1 | |xi zi |

So (d) d((x, z)) d((x, y)) + d((y, z)) for all x, y, z Rn . Thus, the taxicab metric is a metric on Rn . 3. Prove that the Minkowski Inequality. Proof: Suppose that both x and y are nonzero. By the denition of the norm

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1.1 Metric Space

and Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality,

x+y

=
i=1 n

(xi + yi )2
2 x2 + 2xi yi + yi i i=1 n n n

= =
i=1

x2 + 2 i
i=1 2 2

xi yi +
i=1 2 2

2 yi

= x x

+ 2x y + y +2 x

y + y

= ( x + y )2 Thus, x + y x + y . 4. Prove that the Euclidean metric d for Rn is indeed a metric. Proof: Clearly, the denition of Euclidean metric d((x, y)) = ( x y satises (a) d((x, y)) 0 for all x, y Rn . (b) d((x, y)) = 0 i x = y. (c) d((x, y)) = d((y, x)) for all x, y Rn . x z = (x y) + (y z) (x y) + (y z) So (d) d((x, z)) d((x, y)) + d((y, z)) for all x, y, z Rn . Thus, the Euclidean metric is a metric on Rn . 5. Show that if x = (x1 , x2 , . . . ) and y = (y1 , y2 , . . . ) are members of i=1 |xi yi | converges. Proof: If x, y 2 , then i=1 x2 and i have 0 (|xi | |yi |)2 , so
i=1 2 n 2 1/2 i=1 (xi yi ) )

, then

2 yi converge. Note that for each i we

2 2|xi yi | x2 + yi i

Thus, 2

|xi yi |
i=1 i=1 i=1

x2 + i
i=1

2 yi

By Comparison Lemma, 6. Let x, y

|xi yi | converges.
2

and let c R. Prove that x + y and cx are members of

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1.1 Metric Space

Proof: Since

i=1

x2 , i

i=1

2 yi , and 2

i=1

|xi yi | converge,
2 yi i=1

(xi + yi ) =
i=1 i=1

x2 i

2xi yi
i=1

i=1

x2 + i
i=1

2 yi + 2 i=1

|xi yi |

(cxi )2 = c2
i=1 i=1

x2 i
2 2 i=1 (cxi )

By Comparison Lemma, x + y and cx are members of

i=1 (xi 2

+ yi ) and

converge and

7. Show that the function d dened in Example 6 is well-dened; that is, show that i=1 (xi yi )2 converges whenever x, y 2 . Proof: Since
i=1

x2 , i

i=1

2 yi , and

i=1

|xi yi | converge,

(xi yi )2
i=1 i=1

(|xi | + |yi |)2

=
i=1

x2 + i

|xi yi |

By Comparison Lemma,

i=1 (xi

yi )2

8. Show that the function d dened in Example 6 is a metric. Proof: Clearly, the denition of d(x, y) = ( (a) d(x, y) 0 for all x, y 2 . (b) d(x, y) = 0 i x = y. (c) d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y 2 .
i=1 (xi

yi )2 )1/2 satises

x z = (x y) + (y z) (x y) + (y z) So (d) d((x, z)) d((x, y)) + d((y, z)) for all x, y, z Rn . Thus, the Euclidean metric is a metric on Rn . 9. Let (X , d) be a metric space and let A X . Prove that d |(AA) is a metric on A. Proof: Since properties (a) to (d) is true for all x, y, z X and A X , we have (a) d(x, y) 0 for all x, y A. (b) d(x, y) = 0 i x = y. 3
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1.1 Metric Space

(c) d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y A. (d) d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all x, y, z A. Thus, d restricted on A A is a metric on A. 10. Let (X , d) and (Y, ) be metric spaces, let a X , and let f : X Y be a function. Prove that f is continuous at a i for each open ball, B (f (a), ), there is an open ball, Bd (a, ), such that f (Bd (a, )) B (f (a), ). Proof: Suppose f is continuous at a. By denition, for each > 0 there is a > 0 such that if x X and d(a, x) < , then (f (a), f (x)) < . This means if f (x) f (Bd (a, )), then f (x) B (f (a), ). Thus, f (Bd (a, )) B (f (a), ). Suppose for each open ball B (f (a), ) = {y Y : (f (a), y) < }, there is an open ball Bd (a, ) = {x X : d(a, x) < } such that f (Bd (a, )) {y Y : (f (a), y) < }. This means that for each > 0 there is a > 0 such that if x X and d(a, x) < , then (f (a), f (x)) < . By denition, f is continuous at a. 11. Let (X , d) be a metric space, let x X , and let be a positive number. Prove that Bd (a, ) is an open set. Proof: Consider the open ball Bd (a, ) in (X , d). For each x Bd (a, ), dene r = d(a, x) and observe that r is positive. We claim that Bd (x, r) Bd (a, ) If u Bd (x, r), then d(x, u) < r = d(a, x) so using the Minkowski Inequality, we have d(a, u) d(a, x) + d(x, u) < d(a, x) + d(a, x) = . So u Bd (a, ) and Bd (x, r) Bd (a, ). Thus, Bd (a, ) is an open set. 12. Let (X , d1 ) and (Y, d2 ) be metric spaces. Dene a function d : (X Y ) (X Y ) R by d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = max{d1 (x1 , x2 ), d2 (y1 , y2 )}. Prove that d is a metric on X Y .

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1.1 Metric Space

Proof: Clearly, the denition of d satises (a) d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) 0 for all (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) X Y . (b) d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = 0 i (x1 , y1 ) = (x2 , y2 ). (c) d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = d((x2 , y2 ), (x1 , y1 )) for all (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) X Y. max{d1 (x1 , x2 ), d2 (y1 , y2 )} max{d1 (x1 , x) + d1 (x, x2 ), d2 (y1 , y) + d2 (y, y2 )} max{d1 (x1 , x), d2 (y1 , y)} + max{d1 (x, x2 ), d2 (y, y2 )} (d) d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) d((x1 , y1 ), (x, y))+d((x, y), (x2 , y2 )) for all (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), (x, y) X Y. Thus, d is a metric on X Y . 13. Let (X , d1 ) and (Y, d2 ) be metric spaces. Dene a function d : (X Y ) (X Y ) R by d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = min{d1 (x1 , x2 ), d2 (y1 , y2 )}. Is d a metric on X Y ? Explain. Proof: No. Because (d) does not always hold. 14. Let a, b R with a < b, and let X denote the set of all continuous functions that map [a, b] into R. Dene a function d : X X R by b d(f, g) = a |f (x) g(x)|dx. Prove that (X , d) is a metric space. Proof: Clearly, the denition of d satises (a) d(f, g) 0 for all f, g X . (b) d(f, g) = 0 i f = g. (c) d(f, g) = d(g, f ) for all f, g X .
b

d(f, h) =
a b

|f (x) h(x)|dx |f (x) g(x) + g(x) h(x)|dx

=
a b

(|f (x) g(x)| + |g(x) h(x)|)dx

=
a

(|f (x) g(x)|dx +

|g(x) h(x)|)dx

= d(f, g) + d(g, h) (d) d(f, h) d(f, g) + d(g, h) for all f, g, h X . Thus, (X , d) is a metric space. 15. Let (X , d) be the metric space in Exercise 14, and let be the usual metric b on R. Dene a function F : (X , d) (R, ) by F (f ) = a f (x)dx. Prove that F is continuous.

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1.1 Metric Space

Proof: For any g X and any > 0, there is a > > 0 such that if f X and d(g, f ) < , then because |g f | g f and |g f | f g, by the monotonicity of integral, we have
b b b b

|g f |dx
a a

(g f )dx and
a

|g f |dx
a

(f g)dx

Hence,
b b b b

+
a

f dx
a

gdx and +
a

f dx
a

gdx

Therefore,
b b

(F (g), F (f )) =
a

gdx
a

f dx <

Thus, F is continuous. 16. Let (X , d) be a metric space. Dene a function d : X X R by d(x, y) d (x, y) = . Prove that (X , d ) is a metric space. 1 + d(x, y) Proof: By the denition of d : d(x,y) (a) d (x, y) = 1+d(x,y) 0 for all x, y X . (b) d (x, y) = 0 i d(x, y) = 0 i x = y. (c) d (x, y) = d (y, x) for all x, y X . d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) d1 d2 + d3 d1 + (d1 d2 + d1 d3 + d1 d2 d3 ) d2 + d3 + (d1 d2 + d1 d3 + d1 d2 d3 ) + (d2 d3 + d2 d3 + d1 d2 d3 ) d1 (1 + d2 )(1 + d3 ) d2 (1 + d1 )(1 + d3 ) + d3 (1 + d1 )(1 + d2 ) d1 d2 d3 + 1 + d1 1 + d2 1 + d3 d(x, z) d(x, y) d(y, z) + 1 + d(x, z) 1 + d(x, y) 1 + d(y, z) (d) d (x, z) d (x, y) + d (y, z) for all x, y, z X . Thus, (X , d ) is a metric space. 17. Let (X , d) be a metric space and let r be a positive real number. Dene a function dr : X X R by dr (x, y) = r d(x, y). (a) Prove that dr is a metric on X . (b) Prove that the function i : (X , d) (X , dr ) dened by i(x) = x is continuous. (c) Prove that the function i : (X , dr ) (X , d) dened by i(x) = x is continuous. 6
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1.1 Metric Space

Proof: (a) By the denition of dr : (a) dr (x, y) = r d(x, y) 0 for all x, y X . (b) dr (x, y) = r d(x, y) i d(x, y) = 0 i x = y. (c) dr (x, y) = r d(x, y) = r d(y, x) = dr (y, x) for all x, y X . d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) r d(x, z) r d(x, y) + r d(y, z) dr (x, z) dr (x, y) + dr (y, z) (d) dr (x, z) dr (x, y) + dr (y, z) for all x, y, z X . Thus, dr is a metric on X . (b) For any point a X and any > 0, there is a = x X and d(a, x) < ,
r

> 0 such that if

dr (i(a), i(x)) = r d(a, x) < r = Thus, i(x) = x is continuous. (c) For any point a X and any > 0, there is a = r > 0 such that if x X and dr (a, x) < , d(i(a), i(x)) = d(a, x) = Thus, i(x) = x is continuous. 18. Let (X , d) and (Y, ) be metric spaces. An isometry is a one-to-one function f that maps X onto Y so that d(x, y) = (f (x), f (y)) for all x, y X . Prove that if f : X Y is an isometry, then f and f 1 are continuous. Proof: For f : X Y , any a X and > 0, there is a = > 0 such that if x X and d(a, x) < , (f (a), f (x)) = d(a, x) < Thus, f is continuous. For f 1 : Y X , any b Y and > 0, there is a = > 0 such that if y Y and (b, y) < , d(f 1 (b), f 1 (y)) = (f (f 1 (b)), f (f 1 (y))) = (b, y) < Thus, f 1 is continuous. 19. Let (X , d) be a metric space and let A be a nonempty subset of X . Dene f : X R by f (x) = inf{d(x, a) : a A}. Prove that f is continuous. 1 dr (a, x) < = r r

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1.1 Metric Space

Proof: Fix x0 X , show that f is continuous at x0 . Note that d(x, a) d(x, x0 )+ d(x0 , a) for a A. Then f (x) = inf aA d(x, a) inf aA [d(x, x0 ) + d(x0 , a)] = d(x, x0 ) + inf aA d(x0 , a) = d(x, x0 ) + f (x0 ) i.e. f (x) f (x0 ) d(x, x0 ). Likewise, f (x0 ) f (x) d(x0 , x). Thus, |f (x) f (x0 )| d(x, x0 ) for all x X Given > 0, choose = . If d(x, x0 ) < = , then |f (x) f (x0 )| < . (uniformly continuous) Thus, f is continuous. 20. Let (X , d1 ) and (Y, d2 ) be metric spaces, and let f : (X , d1 ) (Y, d2 ) be a function. Prove that f is continuous i for each open subset U of (Y, d2 ), f 1 (U ) is an open subset of (X , d1 ). Proof: Suppose f is continuous. Let U be an open subset of (Y, d2 ). Let u f 1 (U ). Then f (u) U . Since U is open, there exists > 0 such that Bd2 (f (u), ) U . Since f is continuous, by the denition of continuity, d2 (f (v), f (u)) < if v (X , d1 ) and d1 (u, v) < . But X is open, so there is r < such that Bd1 (u, r) X and f (Bd1 (u, r)) Bd2 (f (u), ) U Thus, Bd1 (u, r) f 1 (U ), so f 1 (U ) is open. Suppose for each open subset U in (Y, d2 ), f 1 (U ) is open in (X , d1 ). Let > 0, then Bd2 (f (u), ) is open in (Y, d2 ). By assumption, f 1 (Bd2 (f (u), )) is open in (X , d1 ). If u f 1 (Bd2 (f (u), )), then there is > 0 such that Bd1 (u, ) f 1 (Bd2 (f (u), )). This means f (Bd1 (u, )) Bd2 (f (u), ). This is the characterization of continuity. Thus, f is continuous. 21. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}. List the dierent metrics (dierent in the sence that they yield a dierent collection of open sets) that can be dened on X . Proof: Usual metric and discrete metric. 22. Let (X1 , d1 ), (X2 , d2 ), and (X3 , d3 ) be metric spaces, and let f : X1 X2 and g : X2 X3 be continuous functions. Prove that g f : X1 X3 is continuous.

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1.1 Metric Space

Proof: Because of the continuity of f, g, for any > 0 and any a X1 , there is 1 > 0 such that if x X1 and d1 (a, x) < 1 then d2 (f (a), f (x)) < 2 then since f (x) X2 and d2 (f (a), f (x)) < 2 then d3 (g(f (a)), g(f (x))) < Thus, g f : X1 X3 is continuous. 23. Dene f : R R by f (x) = |x|. Prove that f is continuous. Proof: For any x0 R and > 0, there is a = > 0 such that if x R and d(x0 , x) = |x0 x| < , |f (x0 ) f (x)| = ||x0 | |x|| |x0 x| < Thus, f is continuous.

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