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 GENERALIZED THEORY
OF
ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Dr. P. S. Bim bhra

Ph. D., M.E. (Hons.), F.I.E, (India), M.I.S.T.E, (U K .)
Ex-Dean; Ex-Prof, and Head of Electrical & Electronics Engg. Dept.
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology
PATIALA-147004

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First Edition : 1981

Sixth Edition : 2017
 To
My Wife
For her Continuous Encouragement
 Preface

It has been a matter of great controversy about whether the electrical machines theory
be taught by generalized approach or by conventional approach. Some people argue that
generalized approach provides little understanding of a real machine and they emphasize
their line of reasoning by quoting some jokes. The author feels that first physical concepts of
electrical machines be taught to the students along with an extensive laboratory course.
Then the generalized theory of electrical machines can be taught with advantage, in
conjunction with a set of appropriate laboratory experiments. An untoward behaviour of the
machine should be explored by the students themselves and in case they fail, the instructor
incharge should help them. For example, if the direction of motor rotation turns out to be
wrong in any experiment, then students should be made to think so as to correct the
direction of rotation. This type of laboratory course work would definitely obviate absurd
answers from the students and would go a long way in imparting a real physical
understanding of the various types of electrical machines.
In the earlier stages, the machine worked in isolation and its steady-state analysis was
sufficient to be known. Now the electrical machine forms an integral part of a large system
comprising of other components as well. In feedback control systems, a motor operates
mainly under transient and dynamic conditions. In view of these facts, the transient and
dynamic analysis of electrical machines and systems have gained importance and therefore
the students must be taught the art of reducing a practical problem to an accurate
mathematical model. The generalized theory of electrical machines, emphasizing the basic
similarities of all the machines, now forms the basis of mathematical-machine modelling.
The magnetic field view-point leads to steady-state analysis, whereas the generalized
approach leads only to steady-state, transient and dynamic analysis. The ability of a teacher
to corelate the two independent treatments in the class leads to a better understanding of
the subject.
The coupled circuit theory of synchronous machines makes use of the Park’s
transformation. First of all, the voltage equation v = ?'i + p\|/ is written for each phase and
then the flux linkages \\f are expressed in terms of self and mutual inductances. These
voltage and flux-linkage equations are then transformed to d -q variables by using Park’s
transformations. This process of transformation from phase variables to d-q variables is so

(Vii)
 ( viii)
tedius and cumbersome that students lose sight o f what is going on in the machine. In this
regard, G. Kron wrote as follows: “The author has seen hundreds o f student engineers in
company courses start the study o f Park’s equations with zest, then after several weeks of
relentless manipulations o f the cos (0 - 120) and sin (0 - 240) terms, give up in disgust. By
the time they thought they understood the dc machine type equations, the students were all
ready and willing to become executives and vice-presidents rather than synchronous
machine experts.” With generalized approach, the synchronous machine equations in d-q
variables can be obtained by a simple graphical method o f writing the machine equations,
from merely observing the primitive machine. It may be concluded from above that
generalized approach for polyphase synchronous and in-duction machines is simpler than
the coupled-circuit approach.
It is sometimes argued that generalized approach can’t take saturation into
consideration. Actually, this approach is more useful for studying the transient and dynamic
behaviour o f electrical machines and o f interconnected electrical machine systems. This does
not mean that this approach fails to do the steady-state analysis. In order to highlight the
various factors effecting the transient performance and to study the dynamic system
problems, it is relatively o f much less importance to take magnetic saturation into
consideration. Saturation can, however, be taken into account but with the use o f computers.
The physical understanding o f single-phase induction motors and asymmetrical
operation o f 3-phase induction motors can be better appreciated by counter-rotating field
theory associated with symmetrical component concepts. It is because o f this reason that
single-phase induction motor is dealt with in detail by double revolving field theory, in
addition to the generalized concepts. The physical approach is presented in this book where
the generalized approach becomes too involved for the undergraduate students.
In the present edition, some material o f the book has been reworded and rewritten so as
to make the presentation easily comprehensible. More illustrative examples mainly from
IAS, IES and GATE and other Competitive Examinations have been added and problem
material with answers, at the end o f each chapter, has been considerably enlarged.
With recent advances in power electronics and microelectronics, new electric machine
types like brushless dc motors, variable reluctance motors etc. are found in modem electric
drive systems. Keeping these advances into consideration, also devoted to the discussion of
brushless dc, variable reluctance and stepping motors, is included in the book. An appendix,
containing objective-type questions pertaining to the topics covered in this book, is given in
the end.
A great deal o f time has gone into the updating o f the fourth edition, and I must
acknowledge the patience exhibited by my wife and children, though at a great
inconvenience to them.
The author would welcome the advice and suggestions leading to the improvement o f the
book.
Dr. P. S. BIM BH R A
 Contents

1.1 Essentials of Rotating Electrical Machines ... 1

1.2 Conventions ... 2
1.3 The Basic Two-pole Machine ... 4
1.3.1 Commutator Machines ... 4
1.3.2 D.C. Compound Machine ... 5
1.3.3 D.C. Shunt Machine with Interpoles ... 5
1.3.4 Amplidyne ... 5
1.3.5 Single Phase A.C. Series Machine ... 6
1.3.6 Repulsion Motor ... 6
1.3.7 (a) Synchronous Machine without Dampers ... 7
1.3.7 (b) Synchronous Machine with Dampers ... 7
1.3.8 Three-Phase Induction Machines ... 8
1.4 The Per Unit System ... 8
1.5 Transformer with a Movable Secondary ... 11
1.6 Transformer and Speed Voltages in the Armature ... 11
1.7 Kron’s Primitive Machine ... 13
1.7.1 Leakage Flux in Machines with more than two Windings ... 15
1.7.2 Voltage Equations ... 16
1.8 Analysis of Electrical Machines ... 21
1.8.1 Concept of Phasors ... 21
1.8.2 Operational Method ... 24
Problems ... 25

2.1 Invariance of Power ... 27

2.2 Transformation from a Displaced Brush-Axis ... 28
2.3 Transformations in Electrical Machines ... 29
2.3.1 Three-phase to Two-phase Transformation (a, b, c to a, p, o) ... 29
2.3.2 Two-phase to Two-axis Transformation (a-p to d-q) ... 32
2.3.3 Three-phase to Two-axis Transformation (a, b, c to d, q, o) ... 34
( i x)
 (* )
Chapter Pages

2.4 Power Invariance 36

2.5 Physical Concepts of Park’s Transformations 38
2.5.1 Three-phase Synchronous Machines 39
2.5.2 Three-phase Induction machines 42
2.6 Transformed Impedance Matrix 43
2.7 How to Apply Generalized Theory 46
2.8 Electrical Torque 47
2.9 Restrictions of the Generalized Theory of Machines 48
Problems 49

3. D.C. MACHINES 52-124

3.1 Separately Excited D.C. Generators 53

3.1.1 Sudden Short-Circuit for a Separately Excited D.C. Generator 59
3.2 Separately-Excited D.C. Motors 61
3.2.1 Sudden Application of Inertia Load 67
3.3 Interconnection of Machines 69
3.3.1 Ward-Leonard System of Speed Control 69
3.4 D.C. Series Motor 74
3.5 D.C. Shunt Machines 75
3.5.1 Motor Operation 75
3.6 D.C. Compound Machine 81
3.6.1 Cumulatively Compounded (Long Shunt) D.C. Motor 83
3.7 Linearization Techniques for Small Perturbations 85
3.8 Cross Field Machines 88
3.8.1 Amplidyne 89
3.9 Parallel Operation of D.C. Generators 95
3.9.1 Parallel Operation of Shunt Generators 96
3.9.2 Parallel Operation of Compound Generators 99
3.10 Electric Braking of D.C. Motors 107
3.10.1 Regenerative Braking 107
3.10.2 Counter-current Braking (or Plugging) 108
3.10.3 Dynamic Braking 111
3.11 Some Worked Examples 116
Problems 120

4. POLYPHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 125-301

4.1 Basic Synchronous-machine Parameters ... 125

4.1.1 Synchronous-machine Resistances ... 126
4.1.2 Synchronous-machine Inductances ... 127
4.2. General Machine Equations ... 132
4.3 Three-phase Synchronous Machine (With no Amortisseurs) ... 137
 (*/■)

Chapter Pages

4.4 Balanced Steady-State Analysis ... 138

4.4.1 Phasor Equations and Phasor Diagrams ... 139
4.5 Steady-state Power-angle Characteristics ... 146
4.5.1 Reactive Power ... 149
4.6 Short-circuit Ratio ... 154
4.7 Transient Analysis ... 157
4.8 Transient Torque ... 172
4.9 Sudden Reactive Loading and Unloading ... 173
4.9.1 Sudden Reactive Loading ... 173
4.9.2 Sudden Reactive Unloading ... 176
4.10 Transient Analysis—A Qualitative Approach ... 179
4.11 Reactances and Time-Constants from Equivalent Circuits ... 181
4.11.1 Direct-axis Reactances from Equivalent-Circuits ... 181
4.11.2 Direct-axis Time Constants from Equivalent-Circuits ... 183
4.11.3 Quadrature-axis Reactances and Time Constants ... 184
4.12 Concepts of Synchronous Machine Reactances ... 186
4.12.1 Positive Sequence Reactances ... 187
4.12.2 Negative-sequence Reactance, X_ ... 191
4.12.3 Zero-sequence Reactance, x0 ... 192
4.13 Measurement of Reactances ... 193
4.14 Reactances and Time-constants from Short-circuit Oscillogram ... 196
4.15 Transient Power-angle Characteristics ... 200
4.16 Phasor Diagrams under Transient and Subtransient Conditions ... 204
4.16.1 Synchronous-machine Representation in a PowerSystem Network ... 207
4.17 Synchronous-machine Dynamics for Electro-mechanical Transients) ... 210
4.17.1 Electromechanical Equation ... 210
4.17.2 Cyclic Variations of Shaft Torque for Forced Oscillations) ... 220
4.18 Large Angular Oscillations ... 224
4.19 Synchronizing ... 229
4.19.1 Synchronizing by Dark-lamp Method ... 230
4.19.2 Synchronizing by a Synchroscope ... 232
4.20 Parallel Operation of Two Alternators ... 236
4.20.1 Effect of Changing Mechanical Torque ... 237
4.20.2 Effect of Changing Excitation ... 240
4.21 Synchronous Machine on an Infinite Bus ... 251
4.21.1 Effect of Varying the Excitation ... 251
4.21.2 Effect of Varying the Driving Torque ... 253
4.22 DWR Synchronous Generator ... 266
4.22.1 Constructional Features ... 267
4.22.2 Flux and m.m.f. Phasors in dwr Alternators ... 268
4.22.3 Balanced Steady-state Analysis ... 271
4.23 Inductor Alternators ... 274
4.23.1 Homopolar Inductor Alternator ... 275
4.23.2 Hetropolar Inductor Alternator ... 276
 ( xi i )

Chapter Pages

4.24 Electric Braking of Synchronous Motors ... 277

4.25 Speed Control of Synchronous Motors ... 282
4.25.1 Speed Control Below Rated Speed ... 282
4.25.2 Speed Control above Rated Speed ... 283
5.26 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines ... 286
Problems ... 289

™ sMVi i =■isi
5.1 Transformations ... 302
5.2 Electrical Performance Equations ... 303
5.2.1 Steady-state Analysis ... 305
5.3 Analysis of the Equivalent Circuit ... 311
5.4 Torque-slip Characteristics ... 313
5.4.1 Power-slip Characteristics ... 317
5.5 Effect of Voltage and Frequency Variations on the
Induction Motor Performance ... 323
5.5.1 Variable Voltage, Constant Frequency ... 323
5.5.2 Constant Voltage, Variable Frequency ... 325
5.5.3 Variable Voltage, Variable Frequency ... 326
5.5.4 Constant Current, Constant Frequency ... 330
5.6 High-torque Cage Motors ... 333
5.6.1 Deep-Bar Rotor ... 333
5.6.2 Double-cage Rotor ... 334
5.6.3 Steady State Analysis ... 337
5.7 Induction Machine Dynamics ... 344
5.7.1 Induction-Machine Dynamics During Starting and Braking ... 345
5.7.2 Accelerating Time ... 350
5.8 Speed Control of Induction Motors ... 353
5.9 Slip-power-recovery Schemes for Induction Motor Speed Control ... 387
5.9.1 Constant-torque Drive ... 387
5.9.2 Constant-power Drive ... 389
5.10 Frequency Converters (or Changers) ... 392
5.10.1 Commutator-Frequency Converter ... 392
5.10.2 Synchronous-Synchronous Frequency Converter ... 394
5.10.3 Induction-Frequency Converter ... 394
5.10.4 Synchronous-induction Frequency Converter ... 396
5.11 Static Slip-power Speed Control ... 402
5.11.1 Static Kramer Drive ... 402
5.11.2 Static Scherbius Drive ... 403
5.11.2.1 DC Link Static Scherbius Drive ... 403
5.11.2.2 Cycloconverter Static Scherbius Drive ... 404
5.12 Electrical Braking of Induction Motors ... 405
5.13 Operation on Unbalanced Supply Voltage ... 413
 (xiii)
Chapter Pages

5.14 Slot Harmonics ... 416

5.14.1 Skewed Slots ... 418
5.14.2 Winding Factor ... 419
5.15 Effect of Space Harmonics on 3-phase Induction-motor Performance ... 421
5.15.1 Harmonic Induction for Asynchronous) Torques ... 422
5.15.2 Harmonic Synchronous Torques ... 424
5.15.3 Vibration Torques and Noise ... 426
5.15.4 Reduction of Harmonic Torques and Vibrations ... 427
5.15.5 Crawling due to Unsymmetrical Rotor Circuits ... 427
5.16 Linear Electric Motors ... 431
5.16.1 LIM and Its Principle of Operation ... 431
5.16.2 Linear Synchronous Motors (LSM) ... 434
5.16.3 Linear Levitated Machines (LLM) ... 434
5.16.4 Applications ... 434
5.17 Non-sinusoidal Supply Voltage ... 436
5.17.1 Pulsating Harmonic Torques ... 439
5.17.2 Losses ... 440
5.18 Doubly-Fed Induction Machines ... 440
5.18.1 Doubly-Fed Induction Motor ... 440
5.18.1.1 Power Flow in DFI Motor ... 441
5.18.1.2 Power Flow in DFI Generator ... 442
5.19 Conversion of DFI Machine from Motoring Mode to Generating Mode ... 444
Problems ... 447

6. SINGLE PHASE MOTORS 459-520

6.1 Single-Phase Induction Motors ... 459

6.2 Revolving Field Theory of Single-phase Induction Motors ... 460
6.3 Equivalent Circuit for a Single-Phase Induction Motor ... 465
6.3.1 Measurement of Equivalent-Circuit Parameters ... 473
6.3.2 Approximate Equivalent Circuit ... 476
6.3.3 Comparison between Single-phaseand Polyphase Induction Motors ... 478
6.4 Cross-field Theory of Single-phase Induction Motors ... 479
6.5 Starting Methods of Single-Phase InductionMotors ... 484
6.5.1 Split-phase Starting ... 484
6.5.2 Shaded-pole-Starting ... 488
6.5.3 Repulsion-motor-starting ... 489
6.5.4 Reluctance-starting ... 490
6.6 Maximum Starting Torque Conditions in Single Phase Induction Motors ... 491
6.6.1 Resistor Split-Phase Motors ... 491
6.6.2 Capacitor Split-Phase Motors ... 492
6.7 Single-Phase Synchronous Motors ... 497
6.7.1 Single-Phase Reluctance Motors ... 497
 ( xi v)
Chapter Pages

6.7.2 Sub-synchronous Motors 498

6.7.3 Hysteresis Motors 499
6.8 Two-phase Servomotors 501
6.9 AC Tachometers 512
Problems 515

7. A.C. COMMUTATOR MACHINES 521--564

7.1 E.m.fs. Induced in Commutator Windings 521

7.1.1 E.m.fs. Produced by Pulsating Field 521
7.1.2 E.m.fs. Produced by Rotating Field 526
7.2 Torque 531
7.3 Single-phase Series Motors 532
7.3.1 Compensated A.C. Series Motors 536
7.3.2 Radio Interference 539
7.3.3 Generalized Theory 543
7.4 Schrage Motor 549
7.4.1 Generalized Theory 557
7.5 Summary 561
Problems 561

8. TRANSFORMERS 565--724

8.1 Three-phase Transformers 565

8.2 Three-phase Transformer Connections and Phasor Groups 568
8.2.1 Phasor Groups 570
8.2.2 Effect of Polarity Markings and Phase Sequence 574
8.3 Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers 577
8.4 Excitation Phenomena in Transformers 582
8.4.1 Harmonics in Single-phase Transformers 586
8.4.2 Harmonics in Three-phase Transformers 590
8.4.3 Disadvantages of Harmonics in Transformers 597
8.4.4 Suppression of Harmonics 598
8.4.5 Tertiary or Stabilizing Windings 599
8.5 Unbalanced Operation of Three-phase Transformers 604
8.5.1 Single-phase Load on Three-phase Transformers 605
8.5.2 Single-phase Line to Neutral Load on Three-phase Transformers 607
8.5.3 Single-phasing in 3-phase Transformers 611
8.5.4 Effect of Using Tertiary Winding 612
8.6 Open-delta or V-connection 620
8.6.1 Power Delivered to Purely Resistive Load 622
8.6.2 Power Delivered to Inductive Load 624
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