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Chapter 13 Vector Functions

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Chapter 13 Vector Functions

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The paths of objects moving through space—like the planes pictured here—can be described by vector functions.

In Section 13.1 we will see how to use these vector functions to determine whether or not two such objects will collide.
Magdalena Zeglen / EyeEm / Getty Images

13 Vector Functions
THE FUNCTIONS THAT WE HAVE been using so far have been real-valued functions. We now study
functions whose values are vectors because such functions are needed to describe curves and sur-
faces in space. We will also use vector-valued functions to describe the motion of objects through
space. In particular, we will use them to derive Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.

889
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890 CHAPTER 13 Vector Functions

13.1 Vector Functions and Space Curves

■ Vector-Valued Functions
In general, a function is a rule that assigns to each element in the domain an element in
the range. A vector-valued function, or vector function, is simply a function whose
domain is a set of real numbers and whose range is a set of vectors. We are most inter-
ested in vector functions r whose values are three-dimensional vectors. This means that
for every number t in the domain of r there is a unique vector in V3 denoted by rstd. If
f std, tstd, and hstd are the components of the vector rstd, then f , t, and h are real-valued
functions called the component functions of r and we can write

rstd − k f std, tstd, hstdl − f std i 1 tstd j 1 hstd k

We use the letter t to denote the independent variable because it represents time in most
applications of vector functions.

EXAMPLE 1 If
rstd − k t 3, lns3 2 td, st l

then the component functions are

f std − t 3 tstd − lns3 2 td hstd − st

By our usual convention, the domain of r consists of all values of t for which the
expression for rstd is defined. The expressions t 3, lns3 2 td, and st are all defined
when 3 2 t . 0 and t > 0. Therefore the domain of r is the interval f0, 3d. ■

■ Limits and Continuity

The limit of a vector function r is defined by taking the limits of its component functions
as follows.

If lim t la rstd − L, this definition is 1 If rstd − k f std, tstd, hstdl, then

equivalent to saying that the length
and direction of the vector rstd lim rstd − k lim f std, lim tstd, lim hstd l
tla tla tla tla
approach the length and direction of
the vector L. provided the limits of the component functions exist.

Equivalently, we could have used an «- definition (see Exercise 62). Limits of vector
functions obey the same rules as limits of real-valued functions (see Exercise 61).

sin t
EXAMPLE 2 Find lim rstd, where rstd − s1 1 t 3 d i 1 te2t j 1 k.
tl0 t
SOLUTION According to Definition 1, the limit of r is the vector whose components
are the limits of the component functions of r:

ft l 0
lim rstd − lim s1 1 t 3 d i 1 lim te2t j 1
tl0 g ft l 0 g F lim
tl0
sin t
t
k G
− i 1 k (by Equation 3.3.5) ■

A vector function r is continuous at a if

lim rstd − rsad
tla

In view of Definition 1, we see that r is continuous at a if and only if its component func-
tions f , t, and h are continuous at a.

z ■ Space Curves
P { f(t), g(t), h(t)} There is a close connection between continuous vector functions and space curves. Sup-
pose that f , t, and h are continuous real-valued functions on an interval I. Then the set
C C of all points sx, y, zd in space, where
2 x − f std y − tstd z − hstd
r(t)=kf(t), g(t), h(t)l
0
and t varies throughout the interval I, is called a space curve. The equations in (2) are
y called parametric equations of C and t is called a parameter. We can think of C as
x
being traced out by a moving particle whose position at time t is s f std, tstd, hstdd. If we
FIGURE 1 now consider the vector function rstd − k f std, tstd, hstdl, then rstd is the position vector
C is traced out by the tip of a moving of the point Ps f std, tstd, hstdd on C. Thus any continuous vector function r defines a space
position vector rstd. curve C that is traced out by the tip of the moving vector rstd, as shown in Figure 1.

EXAMPLE 3 Describe the curve defined by the vector function

rstd − k1 1 t, 2 1 5t, 21 1 6t l
SOLUTION The corresponding parametric equations are
x − 1 1 t y − 2 1 5t z − 21 1 6t
which we recognize from Equations 12.5.2 as parametric equations of a line passing
through the point s1, 2, 21d and parallel to the vector k1, 5, 6l. Alternatively, we could
observe that the function can be written as r − r0 1 tv, where r0 − k1, 2, 21l and
v − k1, 5, 6l, and this is the vector equation of a line as given by Equation 12.5.1. ■

Plane curves can also be represented in vector notation. For instance, the curve given
by the parametric equations x − t 2 2 2t and y − t 1 1 (see Example 10.1.1) could also
be described by the vector equation
rstd − kt 2 2 2t, t 1 1l − st 2 2 2td i 1 st 1 1d j
where i − k1, 0l and j − k0, 1l.
z
EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the curve whose vector equation is
rstd − cos t i 1 sin t j 1 t k
SOLUTION The parametric equations for this curve are
x − cos t y − sin t z − t

π
Since x 1 y − cos t 1 sin 2t − 1 for all values of t, the curve must lie on the cir-
2 2 2

”0, 1, 2 ’ cular cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 1. The point sx, y, zd lies directly above the point sx, y, 0d,
which moves counterclockwise around the circle x 2 1 y 2 − 1 in the xy-plane. (The
y
(1, 0, 0) projection of the curve onto the xy-plane has vector equation rstd − k cos t, sin t, 0l.
x
See Example 10.1.2.) Since z − t, the curve spirals upward around the cylinder as t
FIGURE 2 increases. The curve, shown in Figure 2, is called a helix. ■

The corkscrew shape of the helix in Example 4 is familiar from its occurrence in
coiled springs. It also occurs in the model of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic
material of living cells). In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the struc-
ture of the DNA molecule is that of two linked, parallel helixes that are intertwined as in
Figure 3.

In Examples 3 and 4 we were given vector equations of curves and asked for a geo-
metric description or sketch. In the next three examples we are given a geometric descrip-
tion of a curve and are asked to find parametric equations for the curve.

FIGURE 3 EXAMPLE 5 Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line segment that
A double helix joins the point Ps1, 3, 22d to the point Qs2, 21, 3d.
SOLUTION In Section 12.5 we found a vector equation for the line segment that joins
the tip of the vector r 0 to the tip of the vector r1:
Figure 4 shows the line segment PQ
in Example 5.
rstd − s1 2 td r 0 1 tr1 0 < t < 1
z
(See Equation 12.5.4.) Here we take r 0 − k1, 3, 22l and r1 − k2, 21, 3l to obtain a
Q(2, _1, 3) vector equation of the line segment from P to Q:

rstd − s1 2 td k1, 3, 22l 1 tk2, 21, 3l 0 < t < 1

or rstd − k1 1 t, 3 2 4t, 22 1 5tl 0 < t < 1

x y
The corresponding parametric equations are

P(1, 3, _2)
x − 1 1 t y − 3 2 4t z − 22 1 5t 0 < t < 1 ■
FIGURE 4
EXAMPLE 6 Find a vector function that represents the curve of intersection of the
cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 1 and the plane y 1 z − 2.
SOLUTION Figure 5 shows how the plane and the cylinder intersect, and Figure 6
shows the curve of intersection C, which is an ellipse.
z z

y+z=2
(0, _1, 3)

C (_1, 0, 2)

(1, 0, 2)

(0, 1, 1)
≈+¥=1
0

x y x y

FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6

The projection of C onto the xy-plane is the circle x 2 1 y 2 − 1, z − 0. So we know

from Example 10.1.2 that we can write
x − cos t y − sin t 0 < t < 2
From the equation of the plane, we have
z − 2 2 y − 2 2 sin t
So we can write parametric equations for C as
x − cos t y − sin t z − 2 2 sin t 0 < t < 2
The corresponding vector equation is
Figure 7 shows the surfaces
of Example 7 and their curve of rstd − cos t i 1 sin t j 1 s2 2 sin td k 0 < t < 2
intersection.
This equation is called a parametrization of the curve C. The arrows in Figure 6 indi-
z cate the direction in which C is traced as the parameter t increases. ■
4y=≈+z@
EXAMPLE 7 Find parametric equations for the curve of intersection of the paraboloid
y=x 4y − x 2 1 z 2 and the plane y − x .
SOLUTION Because any point on the curve C of intersection satisfies the equations of
both surfaces, we can substitute y − x into the equation of the paraboloid, giving
y
4x − x 2 1 z 2. Completing the square in x gives sx 2 2d2 1 z 2 − 4, so C must be
contained in the circular cylinder sx 2 2d2 1 z 2 − 4, and the projection of C onto the
xz-plane is the circle sx 2 2d2 1 z 2 − 4, y − 0 [with center s2, 0, 0d and radius 2].
x
From Example 10.1.4, we can write x − 2 1 2 cos t, z − 2 sin t, 0 < t < 2, and
because y − x , parametric equations for C are
FIGURE 7 x − 2 1 2 cos t y − 2 1 2 cos t z − 2 sin t 0 < t < 2 ■

■ Using Technology to Draw Space Curves

Space curves are inherently more difficult to draw by hand than plane curves; for
an accurate representation we need to use technology. For instance, Figure 8 shows a
computer-generated graph of the curve with parametric equations
x − s4 1 sin 20td cos t y − s4 1 sin 20td sin t z − cos 20t
It’s called a toroidal spiral because it lies on a torus. Another interesting curve, the
trefoil knot, with equations
x − s2 1 cos 1.5td cos t y − s2 1 cos 1.5td sin t z − sin 1.5t
is graphed in Figure 9. It wouldn’t be easy to plot either of these curves by hand.
z z

x
y y
x

FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9
A toroidal spiral A trefoil knot

Even when a computer is used to draw a space curve, optical illusions make it difficult
to get a good impression of what the curve really looks like. (This is especially true in
Figure 9. See Exercise 60.) The next example shows how to cope with this problem.

EXAMPLE 8 Use a calculator or computer to draw the curve with vector equation
rstd − kt, t 2, t 3 l. This curve is called a twisted cubic.
SOLUTION We start by plotting the curve with parametric equations x − t, y − t 2,
z − t 3 for 22 < t < 2. The result is shown in Figure 10(a), but it’s hard to see the true
nature of the curve from that graph alone. Some three-dimensional graphing software
allows the user to enclose a curve or surface in a box instead of displaying the coordi-
nate axes. When we look at the same curve in a box in Figure 10(b), we have a much
clearer picture of the curve. We can see that it climbs from a lower corner of the box to
the upper corner nearest us, and it twists as it climbs.

z
_2 6
6 6
z 0
z 0
2
x _6 2 _6
0 _2
4 y _6
_2
y2 0 x
0 x
0 2
4 2 4 2
y
(a) (b) (c)
_2 8 8

_1 4 4

0 x z 0 z 0

1 _4 _4

2 _8 _8
0 1 2 3 4 2 1 0 _1 _2 0 1 2 3 4
y x y
(d) (e) (f )

FIGURE 10 Views of the twisted cubic

We get an even better idea of the curve when we view it from different vantage
z points. Part (c) shows the result of rotating the box to give another viewpoint. Parts (d),
(e), and (f ) show the views we get when we look directly at a face of the box. In par-
ticular, part (d) shows the view from directly above the box. It is the projection of the
curve onto the xy-plane, namely, the parabola y − x 2. Part (e) shows the projection
onto the xz-plane, the cubic curve z − x 3. It’s now obvious why the given curve is
called a twisted cubic. ■
x y
Another method of visualizing a space curve is to draw it on a surface. For instance,
the twisted cubic in Example 8 lies on the parabolic cylinder y − x 2. (Eliminate the
parameter from the first two parametric equations, x − t and y − t 2.) Figure 11 shows
both the cylinder and the twisted cubic, and we see that the curve moves upward through
the origin along the surface of the cylinder. We also used this method in Example 4 to
FIGURE 11 visualize the helix lying on the circular cylinder (see Figure 2).

A third method for visualizing the twisted cubic is to realize that it also lies on the
cylinder z − x 3. So it can be viewed as the curve of intersection of the cylinders y − x 2
and z − x 3. (See Figure 12.)

FIGURE 12
Some graphing software provides us
with a clearer picture of a space curve
We have seen that an interesting space curve, the helix, occurs in the model of DNA.
by enclosing it in a tube. Such a plot
enables us to see whether one part of Another notable example of a space curve in science is the trajectory of a positively
a curve passes in front of or behind charged particle in orthogonally oriented electric and magnetic fields E and B. Depend-
another part of the curve. For example, ing on the initial velocity given the particle at the origin, the path of the particle is either
Figure 14 shows the curve of Fig a space curve whose projection onto the horizontal plane is the cycloid we studied in
ure 13(b) as rendered by the tube- Section 10.1 [Figure 13(a)] or a curve whose projection is the trochoid investigated in
plot command in Maple. Exercise 10.1.49 [Figure 13(b)].

B B

E E

t t

(b) r(t) = k sin t, 1- 2 cos t, t l

3 3
(a) r(t) = kt-sin t, 1-cos t, t l t- 2 FIGURE 14

FIGURE 13 For further details concerning the physics involved and animations of the trajectories
Motion of a charged particle in of the particles, see the following websites:
orthogonally oriented electric and ● www.physics.ucla.edu/plasma-exp/Beam/
magnetic fields
● www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=36

13.1 Exercises
1–2 Find the domain of the vector function. 3–6 Find the limit.

1. rstd − lnst 1 1d, K t

s9 2 t 2
, 2t L 3. lim e23t i 1
tl0
S t2
sin 2t
j 1 cos 2t k D
S D
1
2. rstd − cos t i 1 ln t j 1 k t2 2 t sin t
t22 4. lim i 1 st 1 8 j 1 k
tl1 t21 ln t

5. lim
tl `
K 1 1 t2
12t
21
2 , tan t,
1 2 e 22t
t
L 30. x − cos 2 t, y − sin2 t, z − t

I z II z

Kt3 1 t
6. lim te , 3
tl `
2t

2t 2 1
, t sin
1
t
L
x y
7–16 Sketch the curve with the given vector equation. Indicate y
with an arrow the direction in which t increases. x

7. rstd − k2cos t, t l 8. rstd − kt 2 2 1, tl

z z
9. rstd − k3 sin t, 2 cos tl 10. rstd − e t i 1 e2t j III IV

11. rstd − kt, 2 2 t, 2tl

12. rstd − ksin t, t, cos tl

y
x
13. rstd − k3, t, 2 2 t 2 l
y
x
14. rstd − 2 cos t i 1 2 sin t j 1 k
V z VI z
15. rstd − t 2 i 1 t 4 j 1 t 6 k

16. rstd − cos t i 2 cos t j 1 sin t k

17–18 Draw the projection of the curve onto the given plane. x y
17. rstd − kt , t , t
2 3 23
l, yz-plane x y

18. rstd − kt 1 1, 3t 1 1, cossty2dl, xy-plane

31–34 Find an equation of the plane that contains the curve with
the given vector equation.
19–20 Draw the projections of the curve onto the three coordinate
planes. Use these projections to help sketch the curve. 31. rstd − kt, 4, t 2 l 32. rstd − kt, t 2, tl
19. rstd − kt, sin t, 2 cos tl 20. rstd − kt, t, t 2 l 33. rstd − ksin t, cos t, 2cos tl

21–24 Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the 34. rstd − k2t, sin t, t 1 1l
line segment that joins P to Q.
21. Ps22, 1, 0d, Qs5, 2, 23d 35. S
how that the curve with parametric equations x − t cos t,
y − t sin t, z − t lies on the cone z 2 − x 2 1 y 2, and use this
22. Ps0, 0, 0d, Qs27, 4, 6d fact to help sketch the curve.

23. Ps3.5, 21.4, 2.1d, Qs1.8, 0.3, 2.1d 36. S

how that the curve with parametric equations x − sin t,
y − cos t, z − sin 2t is the curve of intersection of the surfaces
24. Psa, b, cd, Qsu, v, wd z − x 2 and x 2 1 y 2 − 1. Use this fact to help sketch the
curve.
25–30 Match the parametric equations with the graphs 37. Find three different surfaces that contain the curve
(labeled I–VI). Give reasons for your choices.
rstd − 2t i 1 e t j 1 e 2t k
25. x − t cos t, y − t, z − t sin t, t > 0
38. Find three different surfaces that contain the curve
26. x − cos t, y − sin t, z − 1ys1 1 t d 2
rstd − t 2 i 1 ln t j 1 s1ytd k
27. x − t, y − 1ys1 1 t 2 d, z − t 2 t what points does the curve rstd − t i 1 s2t 2 t 2 d k inter-
39. A
sect the paraboloid z − x 2 1 y 2 ?
28. x − cos t, y − sin t, z − cos 2t
t what points does the helix rstd − ksin t, cos t, tl intersect
40. A
29. x − cos 8t, y − sin 8t, z − e 0.8t, t > 0 the sphere x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 − 5?

; 41–45 Graph the curve with the given vector equation. Make ; 56. T
ry to sketch by hand the curve of intersection of the
sure you choose a parameter domain and viewpoints that reveal parabolic cylinder y − x 2 and the top half of the ellipsoid
the true nature of the curve. x 2 1 4y 2 1 4z 2 − 16. Then find parametric equations for
this curve and use these equations and a computer to graph
41. rstd − kcos t sin 2t, sin t sin 2t, cos 2tl
the curve.
42. rstd − k te t, e 2t, tl
57–58 Intersection and Collision If two objects travel through
43. rstd − k sin 3t cos t, 14 t, sin 3t sin t l space along two different curves, it’s often important to know
44. rstd − kcoss8 cos td sin t, sins8 cos td sin t, cos tl whether they will collide. (Will a missile hit its moving target?
Will two aircraft collide?) Their paths might intersect, but we
45. rstd − kcos 2t, cos 3t, cos 4tl need to know whether the objects are in the same position at the
same time. (See Exercises 10.1.55–57.)
; 46. Graph the curve with parametric equations 57. The trajectories of two particles are given by the vector
x − sin t y − sin 2t z − cos 4 t functions

Explain its shape by graphing its projections onto the three r1 std − kt 2, 7t 2 12, t 2 l r2 std − k4t 2 3, t 2, 5t 2 6l
coordinate planes.
for t > 0. Do the particles collide?
; 47. Graph the curve with parametric equations
58. Two particles travel along the space curves
x − s1 1 cos 16td cos t
r1 std − kt, t 2, t 3 l r2 std − k1 1 2t, 1 1 6t, 1 1 14tl
y − s1 1 cos 16td sin t
Do the particles collide? Do their paths intersect?

z − 1 1 cos 16t
Explain the appearance of the graph by showing that it lies
; 59. (a) Graph the curve with parametric equations
on a cone.
; 48. Graph the curve with parametric equations x − 27 8
26 sin 8t 2 39 sin 18t
27 8
x − s1 2 0.25 cos 2 10t cos t y − 226 cos 8t 1 39 cos 18t
y − s1 2 0.25 cos 2 10t sin t z − 144
65 sin 5t

z − 0.5 cos 10t (b) Show that the curve lies on the hyperboloid of one
Explain the appearance of the graph by showing that it lies
sheet 144x 2 1 144y 2 2 25z 2 − 100.
on a sphere. refoil Knot The view of the trefoil knot shown in Figure 9
60. T
how that the curve with parametric equations x − t 2,
49. S is accurate, but it doesn’t reveal the whole story. Use the
y − 1 2 3t, z − 1 1 t 3 passes through the points s1, 4, 0d parametric equations
and s9, 28, 28d but not through the point s4, 7, 26d.
x − s2 1 cos 1.5td cos t
50–54 Find a vector function that represents the curve of y − s2 1 cos 1.5td sin t
intersection of the two surfaces.
z − sin 1.5t
50. The cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 4 and the surface z − xy
51. The cone z − sx 2 1 y 2 and the plane z − 1 1 y to sketch the curve by hand as viewed from above, with
gaps indicating where the curve passes over itself. Start by
52. The paraboloid z − 4x 2 1 y 2 and the parabolic showing that the projection of the curve onto the xy-plane
cylinder y − x 2 has polar coordinates r − 2 1 cos 1.5t and − t, so r var-
53. The hyperbolic paraboloid z − x 2 2 y 2 and the ies between 1 and 3. Then show that z has maximum and
cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 1 minimum values when the projection is halfway between
r − 1 and r − 3.
54. The semiellipsoid x 2 1 y 2 1 4z 2 − 4, y > 0, and the
;
When you have finished your sketch, use a computer to
cylinder x 2 1 z 2 − 1 draw the curve with viewpoint directly above and compare
with your sketch. Then plot the curve from several other
; 55. T
ry to sketch by hand the curve of intersection of the circu- viewpoints. You can get a better impression of the curve if
lar cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 4 and the parabolic cylinder z − x 2. you plot a tube with radius 0.2 around the curve. (Use the
Then find parametric equations for this curve and use these tubeplot command in Maple or the tubecurve or
equations and a computer to graph the curve. Tube command in Mathematica.)

roperties of Limits Suppose u and v are vector functions

61. P lim fustd vstdg − lim ustd lim vstd
(c)
tla tla tla
that possess limits as t l a and let c be a constant. Prove the
following properties of limits. lim fustd 3 vstdg − lim ustd 3 lim vstd
(d)
tla tla tla
lim fustd 1 vstdg − lim ustd 1 lim vstd
(a) 62. Show that lim t l a rstd − b if and only if for every « . 0
t la t la t la
there is a number . 0 such that
lim custd − c lim ustd
(b)
tla tla
| |
if 0 , t 2 a , then rstd 2 b , « | |

13.2 Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Functions

Later in this chapter we are going to use vector functions to describe the motion of plan-
ets and other objects through space. Here we prepare the way by developing the calculus
of vector functions.

■ Derivatives
The derivative r9 of a vector function r is defined in much the same way as for real-
valued functions:

dr rst 1 hd 2 rstd
1 − r9std − lim
dt h l 0 h

if this limit exists. The geometric significance of this definition is shown in Figure 1.
l
If the points P and Q have position vectors rstd and rst 1 hd, then PQ represents the vec-
tor rst 1 hd 2 rstd, which can therefore be regarded as a secant vector. If h . 0, the
scalar multiple s1yhdsrst 1 hd 2 rstdd has the same direction as rst 1 hd 2 rstd. As
h l 0, it appears that this vector approaches a vector that lies on the tangent line. For
this reason, the vector r9std is called the tangent vector to the curve defined by r at the
point P, provided that r9std exists and r9std ± 0. The tangent line to C at P is defined to
be the line through P parallel to the tangent vector r9std.

z z
r(t+h)-r(t)
r(t+h)-r(t) h
rª(t)
Q
P P
Q
Notice that when 0 , h , 1, r(t) r(t)
multiplying the secant vector by 1yh r(t+h)
r(t+h)
stretches the vector, as shown in C C
Figure 1(b). 0 0

x y x y

FIGURE 1 (a) The secant vector PQ (b) The tangent vector rª(t)

The following theorem gives us a convenient method for computing the derivative of
a vector function r: just differentiate each component of r.

2 Theorem If rstd − k f std, tstd, hstdl − f std i 1 tstd j 1 hstd k, where f , t, and
h are differentiable functions, then
r9std − k f 9std, t9std, h9stdl − f 9std i 1 t9std j 1 h9std k

PROOF
1
r9std − lim frst 1 Dtd 2 rstdg
Dt l 0 Dt
1
− lim fk f st 1 Dtd, tst 1 Dtd, hst 1 Dtdl 2 k f std, tstd, hstdlg
Dt l 0 Dt

− lim
Dt l 0
K f st 1 Dtd 2 f std tst 1 Dtd 2 tstd hst 1 Dtd 2 hstd
Dt
,
Dt
,
Dt
L
− K lim
Dt l 0
f st 1 Dtd 2 f std
Dt
, lim
Dt l 0
tst 1 Dtd 2 tstd
Dt
, lim
Dt l 0
hst 1 Dtd 2 hstd
Dt
L
− k f 9std, t9std, h9stdl ■

A unit vector that has the same direction as the tangent vector is called the unit tan-
gent vector T and is defined by
r9std
Tstd −
r9std | |
EXAMPLE 1
(a) Find the derivative of rstd − s1 1 t 3 d i 1 te2t j 1 sin 2t k.
(b) Find the unit tangent vector at the point where t − 0.
SOLUTION
(a) According to Theorem 2, we differentiate each component of r:
r9std − 3t 2 i 1 s1 2 tde2t j 1 2 cos 2t k
(b) Since rs0d − i and r9s0d − j 1 2k, the unit tangent vector at the point s1, 0, 0d is
r9s0d j 1 2k 1 2
Ts0d − − − j1 k ■
| r9s0d |
s1 1 4 s5 s5

y EXAMPLE 2 For the curve rstd − st i 1 s2 2 td j, find r9std and sketch the position
2 vector rs1d and the tangent vector r9s1d.
SOLUTION We have
(1, 1)
1 1
r(1)
rª(1) r9std − i 2 j and r9s1d − i2j
2st 2

0 1 x The curve is a plane curve and elimination of the parameter from the equations
x − st , y − 2 2 t gives y − 2 2 x 2, x > 0. In Figure 2 we draw the position vector
rs1d − i 1 j starting at the origin and the tangent vector r9s1d starting at the corre-
FIGURE 2 sponding point s1, 1d. ■

Notice from Figure 2 that the tangent

EXAMPLE 3 Find parametric equations for the tangent line to the helix with para-
vector points in the direction of
increasing t. (See Exercise 60.)
metric equations
x − 2 cos t y − sin t z − t
at the point s0, 1, y2d.
SOLUTION The vector equation of the helix is rstd − k2 cos t, sin t, tl, so
r9std − k22 sin t, cos t, 1l

The parameter value corresponding to the point s0, 1, y2d is t − y2, so the tangent
vector there is r9sy2d − k22, 0, 1l. The tangent line is the line through s0, 1, y2d
parallel to the vector k22, 0, 1l, so by Equations 12.5.2 its parametric equations are

x − 22t y − 1 z − 1 t ■
2

8
The helix and the tangent line in z
Example 3 are shown in Figure 3.
4
_2
0 0 x
_1 _0.5 0 0.5 2
y 1
FIGURE 3

In Section 13.4 we will see how r9std Just as for real-valued functions, the second derivative of a vector function r is the
and r0std can be interpreted as the derivative of r9, that is, r0 − sr9d9. For instance, the second derivative of the function in
velocity and acceleration vectors of a Example 3 is
particle moving through space with
position vector rstd at time t. r0std − k22 cos t, 2sin t, 0l

■ Differentiation Rules
The next theorem shows that the differentiation formulas for real-valued functions have
their counterparts for vector-valued functions.

3 Theorem Suppose u and v are differentiable vector functions, c is a scalar,

and f is a real-valued function. Then
d
1. fustd 1 vstdg − u9std 1 v9std
dt
d
2. fcustdg − cu9std
dt
d
3. f f std ustdg − f 9std ustd 1 f std u9std
dt
d
4. fustd vstdg − u9std vstd 1 ustd v9std
dt
d
5. fustd 3 vstdg − u9std 3 vstd 1 ustd 3 v9std
dt
d
6. fus f stddg − f 9stdu9s f stdd (Chain Rule)
dt

This theorem can be proved either directly from Definition 1 or by using Theorem 2
and the corresponding differentiation formulas for real-valued functions. The proof of
Formula 4 follows; the remaining formulas are left as exercises.

PROOF OF FORMULA 4 Let

ustd − k f1std, f2std, f3stdl vstd − kt1std, t2std, t3stdl
3
Then ustd vstd − f1std t1std 1 f2std t2std 1 f3std t3std − o fi std ti std
i−1

so the ordinary Product Rule gives

3 3
d d d
dt
fustd vstdg −
dt
o fi std ti std −
i−1
o f fi std ti stdg
i−1 dt
3
− o f fi9std ti std 1 fi std t9i stdg
i−1
3 3
− o
i−1
fi9std ti std 1 o fi std t9i std
i−1

− u9std vstd 1 ustd v9std ■

We use Formula 4 to prove the following theorem.

| |
4 Theorem If rstd − c (a constant), then r9std is orthogonal to rstd for all t.

z
PROOF Since
rstd rstd − rstd | |
2
− c2
rª(t) and c 2 is a constant, Formula 4 of Theorem 3 gives
r(t)
d
0− frstd rstdg − r9std rstd 1 rstd r9std − 2r9std rstd
dt
y
x Thus r9std rstd − 0, which says that r9std is orthogonal to rstd. ■

Geometrically, Theorem 4 says that if a curve lies on a sphere with center the origin,
then the tangent vector r9std is always perpendicular to the position vector rstd. (See
FIGURE 4 Figure 4.)

■ Integrals
The definite integral of a continuous vector function rstd can be defined in much the
same way as for real-valued functions except that the integral is a vector. But then we can
express the integral of r in terms of the integrals of its component functions f , t, and h
as follows. (We use the notation of Chapter 5.)
n

y o rsti*d Dt
b
rstd dt − lim
a nl ` i−1

− lim
nl `
FS o n

i−1
D So
f sti*d Dt i 1
i−1
n
tsti*d Dt j 1 D So n

i−1
hsti*d Dt k DG
and so

y a
b
rstd dt − Sy D Sy D Sy D
a
b
f std dt i 1
b

a
tstd dt j 1
a
b
hstd dt k

This means that we can evaluate an integral of a vector function by integrating each com-
ponent function.
We can extend the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to continuous vector functions
as follows:

y g
b b
rstd dt − Rstd a − Rsbd 2 Rsad
a

where R is an antiderivative of r, that is, R9std − rstd. We use the notation y rstd dt for
indefinite integrals (antiderivatives).

EXAMPLE 4 If rstd − 2 cos t i 1 sin t j 1 2t k, then

S
y rstd dt − y 2 cos t dt D Sy D Sy D
i1 sin t dt j 1 2t dt k

− 2 sin t i 2 cos t j 1 t 2 k 1 C
where C is a vector constant of integration, and
2
y f g
y2 y2
rstd dt − 2 sin t i 2 cos t j 1 t 2 k 0
− 2i 1 j 1 k ■
0 4

13.2 Exercises
1. The figure shows a curve C given by a vector function rstd. 3–8
(a) Draw the vectors rs4.5d 2 rs4d and rs4.2d 2 rs4d. (a) Sketch the plane curve with the given vector equation.
(b) Draw the vectors (b) Find r9std.
(c) Sketch the position vector rstd and the tangent vector r9std for
rs4.5d 2 rs4d rs4.2d 2 rs4d
and the given value of t.
0.5 0.2
3. rstd − kt 2 2, t 2 1 1l, t − 21
(c) Write expressions for r9s4d and the unit tangent
vector Ts4d. 4. rstd − kt 2, t 3 l, t − 1
(d) Draw the vector Ts4d. 5. rstd − e 2t i 1 e t j, t − 0
y 6. rstd − e t i 1 2t j, t − 0
C R
7. rstd − 4 sin t i 2 2 cos t j, t − 3y4
r(4.5)
1 Q 8. rstd − scos t 1 1d i 1 ssin t 2 1d j, t − 2y3
r(4.2)

P 9–16 Find the derivative of the vector function.

r(4) 9. rstd − k st 2 2 , 3, 1yt 2 l
0 1 x 10. rstd − ke 2t, t 2 t 3, ln tl
11. rstd − t 2 i 1 cosst 2 d j 1 sin 2 t k
2. (a) Make a large sketch of the curve described by the vector
function rstd − kt 2, t l, 0 < t < 2, and draw the vectors 1 t t2
12. rstd − i1 j1 k
rs1d, rs1.1d, and rs1.1d 2 rs1d. 11t 11t 11t
(b) Draw the vector r9s1d starting at (1, 1), and compare it 13. rstd − t sin t i 1 e t cos t j 1 sin t cos t k
with the vector
rs1.1d 2 rs1d 14. rstd − sin 2 at i 1 te bt j 1 cos 2 ct k
0.1 15. rstd − a 1 t b 1 t 2 c
Explain why these vectors are so close to each other in 16. rstd − t a 3 sb 1 t cd
length and direction.

17–20 Find the unit tangent vector Tstd at the point with the t what point do the curves r1std − kt, 1 2 t, 3 1 t 2 l and
36. A
given value of the parameter t. r2ssd − k3 2 s, s 2 2, s 2 l intersect? Find their angle of
intersection correct to the nearest degree.
17. rstd − k t 2 2 2t, 1 1 3t, 13 t 3 1 12 t 2 l , t − 2
18. rstd − ktan 21 t, 2e 2t, 8te t l, t − 0 37–42 Evaluate the integral.
y
2
37. st i 2 t 3 j 1 3t 5 kd dt
19. rstd − cos t i 1 3t j 1 2 sin 2t k, t − 0 0

y (2t i 1 st 1 1d st k) dt
4
20. rstd − sin2 t i 1 cos2 t j 1 tan2 t k, t − y4 38. 3y2
1

21–22 Find the unit tangent vector Tstd at the given point on the
curve.
39. y 0
1
S 1
t11
i1 2
1
t 11
j1 2
t
t 11
k dt D
21. rstd − kt 3 1 1, 3t 2 5, 4yt l, s2, 22, 4d
y
y4
40. ssec t tan t i 1 t cos 2t j 1 sin 2 2t cos 2t kd dt
0
22. rstd − sin t i 1 5t j 1 cos t k, s0, 0, 1d

23. If rstd − kt 4, t, t 2 l, find r9std, Ts1d, r0std, and r9std 3 r0std.

41. yS 1
1 1 t2
i 1 te t j 1 st k dt
2
D
yS D
24. If rstd − ke 2t, e23t, t l, find r9s0d, Ts0d, r0s0d, and 1
42. t cos t 2 i 1 j 1 sec 2 t k dt
r9s0d 3 r0s0d. t
25–28 Find parametric equations for the tangent line to the
curve with the given parametric equations at the specified point. 43. Find rstd if r9std − 2t i 1 3t 2 j 1 st k and rs1d − i 1 j.
2
25. x − t 2 1 1, y − 4st , z − e t 2t ; s2, 4, 1d 44. Find rstd if r9std − t i 1 e t j 1 te t k and rs0d − i 1 j 1 k.
26. x − lnst 1 1d, y − t cos 2t, z − 2 t ; s0, 0, 1d 45. Prove Formula 1 of Theorem 3.

27. x − e2t cos t, y − e2t sin t, z − e2t; s1, 0, 1d 46. Prove Formula 3 of Theorem 3.

28. x − st 2 1 3 , y − lnst 2 1 3d, z − t; s2, ln 4, 1d 47. Prove Formula 5 of Theorem 3.

48. Prove Formula 6 of Theorem 3.
29. F
ind a vector equation for the tangent line to the curve
49. If ustd − ksin t, cos t, tl and vstd − kt, cos t, sin tl, use
of intersection of the cylinders x 2 1 y 2 − 25 and
Formula 4 of Theorem 3 to find
y 2 1 z 2 − 20 at the point s3, 4, 2d.
d
ind the point on the curve rstd − k2 cos t, 2 sin t, e t l,
30. F fustd vstdg
dt
0 < t < , where the tangent line is parallel to the plane
s3 x 1 y − 1. 50. If u and v are the vector functions in Exercise 49, use
Formula 5 of Theorem 3 to find
; 31–33 Find parametric equations for the tangent line to the
curve with the given parametric equations at the specified point. d
Illustrate by graphing both the curve and the tangent line on a fustd 3 vstdg
dt
common screen.
51. Find f 9s2d, where f std − ustd vstd, us2d − k1, 2, 21l,
31. x − t, y − e 2t, z − 2t 2 t 2; s0, 1, 0d
u9s2d − k3, 0, 4l, and vstd − kt, t 2, t 3 l.
32. x − 2 cos t, y − 2 sin t, z − 4 cos 2t; (s3 , 1, 2)
52. If rstd − ustd 3 vstd, where u and v are the vector func-
33. x − t cos t, y − t, z − t sin t; s2, , 0d tions in Exercise 51, find r9s2d.
53. If rstd − a cos t 1 b sin t, where a and b are constant
34. (a) Find the point of intersection of the tangent lines to the vectors, show that rstd 3 r9std − a 3 b.
curve rstd − ksin t, 2 sin t, cos tl at the points
54. I f r is the vector function in Exercise 53, show that
where t − 0 and t − 0.5.
r 0std 1 2 rstd − 0.
; (b) Illustrate by graphing the curve and both tangent lines.
55. Show that if r is a vector function such that r0 exists, then
35. The curves r1std − kt, t 2, t 3 l and r2std − ksin t, sin 2t, tl
intersect at the origin. Find their angle of intersection cor- d
frstd 3 r9stdg − rstd 3 r0std
rect to the nearest degree. dt

56. Find an expression for

d
fustd svstd 3 wstddg. | |
tangent vector r9std, then rstd is constant and thus the curve
dt lies on a sphere with center the origin.

d 1 59. If ustd − rstd fr9std 3 r0stdg, show that

57. If rstd ± 0, show that
dt|rstd − | |
rstd
rstd r9std.
| u9std − rstd fr9std 3 r-stdg

fHint: rstd
| |2
− rstd rstdg 60. S
how that the tangent vector to a curve defined by a vector
function rstd points in the direction of increasing t.
58. P
rove the converse of Theorem 4: if a curve has the property [Hint: Refer to Figure 1 and consider the cases h . 0 and
that the position vector rstd is always orthogonal to the h , 0 separately.]

13.3 Arc Length and Curvature

z ■ Arc Length
In Section 10.2 we defined the length of a plane curve with parametric equations x − f std,
y − tstd, a < t < b, as the limit of lengths of approximating polygonal paths and, for the
case where f 9 and t9 are continuous, we arrived at the formula

0 1 L − y sf f 9stdg 2 1 ft9stdg 2 dt −
a
b
y a
b
ÎS D S D dx
dt
2
1
dy
dt
2
dt
y
x The length of a space curve is defined in exactly the same way (see Figure 1). Suppose
FIGURE 1 that the curve has the vector equation rstd − k f std, tstd, hstdl, a < t < b, or, equivalently,
The length of a space curve is the limit the parametric equations x − f std, y − tstd, z − hstd, where f 9, t9, and h9 are continu-
of lengths of approximating polygonal ous. If the curve is traversed exactly once as t increases from a to b, then it can be shown
paths. that its length is

L − y sf f 9stdg 2 1 ft9stdg 2 1 fh9stdg 2 dt

2
− y a
b
ÎS D S D S D
dx
dt
2

1
dy
dt
2

1
dz
dt
2

Notice that both of the arc length formulas (1) and (2) can be put into the more com-
pact form

L−y | r9std | dt
b
In Section 13.4 we will see that if rstd 3
a
is the position vector of a moving
object at time t, then r9std is the
velocity vector and r9std is the| | because, for plane curves rstd − f std i 1 tstd j,
speed. Thus Equation 3 says that to
compute distance traveled, we
integrate speed. | r9std | − | f 9std i 1 t9std j | − sf f 9stdg 2
1 ft9stdg 2

and for space curves rstd − f std i 1 tstd j 1 hstd k,

| r9std | − | f 9std i 1 t9std j 1 h9std k | − sf f 9stdg 2

1 ft9stdg 2 1 fh9stdg 2

Figure 2 shows the arc of the helix EXAMPLE 1 Find the length of the arc of the circular helix with vector equation
whose length is computed in rstd − cos t i 1 sin t j 1 t k from the point s1, 0, 0d to the point s1, 0, 2d.
Example 1.
SOLUTION Since r9std − 2sin t i 1 cos t j 1 k, we have
z
| r9std | − ss2sin td 2 1 cos 2 t 1 1 − s2

The arc from s1, 0, 0d to s1, 0, 2d is described by the parameter interval 0 < t < 2
(1, 0, 2π) and so, from Formula 3, we have

L−y | r9std | dt − y
2 2
s2 dt − 2s2 ■
(1, 0, 0) 0 0

x
y A single curve C can be represented by more than one vector function. For instance,
FIGURE 2 the twisted cubic
4 r1std − kt, t 2, t 3 l 1 < t < 2

could also be represented by the function

5 r2sud − ke u, e 2u, e 3u l 0 < u < ln 2

where the connection between the parameters t and u is given by t − e u. We say that
Equations 4 and 5 are parametrizations of the curve C. If we were to use Equation 3 to
compute the length of C using Equations 4 and 5, we would get the same answer. This is
because arc length is a geometric property of the curve and hence is independent of the
parametrization that is used.

■ The Arc Length Function

Now we suppose that C is a curve given by a vector function

rstd − f stdi 1 tstd j 1 hstdk a < t < b

z where r9 is continuous and C is traversed exactly once as t increases from a to b. We
s(t) define its arc length function s by

y ÎS D S D S D
2 2 2
C t dx dy dz
sstd − y r9sud du − | |
t
6 1 1 du
r(t) a a du du du
r(a)
(Compare to Equation 10.2.7.) Thus sstd is the length of the part of C between rsad and
0 rstd. (See Figure 3.) If we differentiate both sides of Equation 6 using Part 1 of the Fun-
y damental Theorem of Calculus, we obtain
x
ds
FIGURE 3 7
dt
− r9std | |
It is often useful to parametrize a curve with respect to arc length because arc
length arises naturally from the shape of the curve and does not depend on a particular
coordinate system or a particular parametrization. If a curve rstd is already given in terms
of a parameter t and sstd is the arc length function given by Equation 6, then we may be
able to solve for t as a function of s: t − tssd. Then the curve can be reparametrized in
terms of s by substituting for t: r − rstssdd. Thus, if s − 3 for instance, rsts3dd is the posi-
tion vector of the point 3 units of length along the curve from its starting point.

EXAMPLE 2 Reparametrize the helix rstd − cos t i 1 sin t j 1 t k with respect to arc
length measured from s1, 0, 0d in the direction of increasing t.
SOLUTION The initial point s1, 0, 0d corresponds to the parameter value t − 0. From
Example 1 we have

ds
dt |
− r9std − s2 |

s − sstd − y r9sud du − y s2 du − s2 t
| |
t t
and so
0 0

Therefore t − sys2 and the required reparametrization is obtained by substituting

for t:

rstssdd − cos(sys2 ) i 1 sin(sys2 ) j 1 (sys2 ) k ■

■ Curvature
A parametrization rstd is called smooth on an interval I if r9 is continuous and r9std ± 0
z on I. A curve is called smooth if it has a smooth parametrization. A smooth curve has no
sharp corner or cusp; when the tangent vector turns, it does so continuously.
If C is a smooth curve defined by the vector function r, recall that the unit tangent
vector Tstd is given by
0 r9std
C Tstd −
x
y
| r9std |
FIGURE 4 and indicates the direction of the curve. From Figure 4 you can see that Tstd changes
Unit tangent vectors at equally spaced direction very slowly when C is fairly straight, but it changes direction more quickly
points on C when C bends or twists more sharply.
The curvature of C at a given point is a measure of how quickly the curve changes
direction at that point. Specifically, we define it to be the magnitude of the rate of change
of the unit tangent vector with respect to arc length. (We use arc length so that the defini-
tion of curvature will be independent of the parametrization.) Because the unit tangent
vector has constant length, only changes in direction contribute to the rate of change
of T.

8 Definition The curvature of a curve is

− Z Z
dT
ds

where T is the unit tangent vector.

The curvature is easier to compute if it is expressed in terms of the parameter t instead

of s, so we use the Chain Rule (Theorem 13.2.3, Formula 6) to write

dT
dt
−
dT ds
ds dt
›? − Z Z Z
dT
ds
−
dTydt
dsydt Z
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SECTION 13.3 Arc Length and Curvature 907

|
But dsydt − r9std from Equation 7, so |

9 std − | T9std |
| r9std |
EXAMPLE 3 Show that the curvature of a circle of radius a is 1ya.
SOLUTION We can take the circle to have center the origin, and then a parametrization
is
rstd − a cos t i 1 a sin t j

Therefore r9std − 2a sin t i 1 a cos t j and r9std − a | |

r9std
so Tstd − − 2sin t i 1 cos t j
| r9std |
and T9std − 2cos t i 2 sin t j

| |
This gives T9std − 1, so using Formula 9, we have

std − | T9std | − 1 ■
| r9std | a
The result of Example 3 shows that small circles have large curvature and large circles
have small curvature, in accordance with our intuition. We can see directly from the defi
nition of curvature that the curvature of a straight line is always 0 because the tangent
vector is constant.
Although Formula 9 can be used in all cases to compute the curvature, the formula
given by the following theorem is often more convenient to apply.

10 Theorem The curvature of the curve given by the vector function r is

std − | r9std 3 r0std |

| r9std | 3

PROOF Since T − r9y r9 and r9 − dsydt, we have | | | |

ds
r9 − r9 T −| | dt
T

so the Product Rule (Theorem 13.2.3, Formula 3) gives

d 2s ds
r0 − 2 T 1 T9
dt dt

Using the fact that T 3 T − 0 (see Example 12.4.2), we have

r9 3 r0 − SD ds
dt
2
sT 3 T9d

| |
Now Tstd − 1 for all t, so T and T9 are orthogonal by Theorem 13.2.4. Therefore, by
Theorem 12.4.9,

| r9 3 r0 | − S D| ds
dt
2
T 3 T9 − | S D|ds
dt
2

|| |
T T9 − S D| ds
dt
2
T9 |

| T9 | − | sdsydtd | − | | r9 | |
r9 3 r0 r9 3 r0
Thus 2 2

− | | − |
T9 r9 3 r0 |
and ■
| r9 | | r9 | 3

EXAMPLE 4 Find the curvature of the twisted cubic rstd − kt, t 2, t 3 l at a general point
and at s0, 0, 0d.
SOLUTION We first compute the required ingredients:

r9std − k1, 2t, 3t 2 l r0std − k0, 2, 6tl

| r9std | − s1 1 4t 2 1 9t 4

r9std 3 r0std − Z i
1
0
j
2t
2
k

6t
Z
3t 2 − 6t 2 i 2 6t j 1 2 k

| r9std 3 r0std | − s36t 4 1 36t 2 1 4 − 2s9t 4 1 9t 2 1 1

Theorem 10 then gives

std − | r9std 3 r0std | − 2s1 1 9t 1 9t 2 4

| r9std | s1 1 4t 1 9t d
3 2 4 3y2

At the origin, where t − 0, the curvature is s0d − 2. ■

For the special case of a plane curve with equation y − f sxd, we choose x as the
parameter and write rsxd − x i 1 f sxd j. Then r9sxd − i 1 f 9sxd j and r0sxd − f 0sxd j.
Since i 3 j − k and j 3 j − 0, it follows that r9sxd 3 r0sxd − f 0sxd k. We also have
| |
r9sxd − s1 1 f f 9sxdg 2 and so, by Theorem 10,

11 sxd − | f 0sxd |
f1 1 s f 9sxdd2 g 3y2

y
y=≈
EXAMPLE 5 Find the curvature of the parabola y − x 2 at the points s0, 0d, s1, 1d,
2 and s2, 4d.
SOLUTION Since y9 − 2x and y0 − 2, Formula 11 gives

y=k(x) sxd −
y0 | | −
2
f1 1 sy9d2 g 3y2 s1 1 4x 2 d3y2
0 1 x
The curvature at s0, 0d is s0d − 2. At s1, 1d it is s1d − 2y5 3y2 < 0.18. At s2, 4d it is
FIGURE 5 s2d − 2y17 3y2 < 0.03. Observe from the expression for sxd or the graph of in
The parabola y − x 2 and its curvature Figure 5 that sxd l 0 as x l 6`. This corresponds to the fact that the parabola
function appears to become nearly straight as x l 6`. ■

■ The Normal and Binormal Vectors

At a given point on a smooth space curve rstd, there are many vectors that are orthogonal
z to the unit tangent vector Tstd. We single out one by observing that, because Tstd − 1 | |
for all t, we have Tstd T9std − 0 by Theorem 13.2.4, so T9std is orthogonal to Tstd. Note
B that, typically, T9std is itself not a unit vector. But at any point where ± 0 we can define
the principal unit normal vector Nstd (or simply unit normal) as

T T9std
Nstd −
N
| T9std |
We can think of the unit normal vector as indicating the direction in which the curve is
y
turning at each point. The vector
Bstd − Tstd 3 Nstd
x
is called the binormal vector. It is perpendicular to both T and N and is also a unit vec-
FIGURE 6 tor. (See Figure 6.)

Figure 7 illustrates Example 6 by EXAMPLE 6 Find the unit normal and binormal vectors for the circular helix
showing the vectors T, N, and B at
two locations on the helix. In general, rstd − cos t i 1 sin t j 1 t k
the vectors T, N, and B, starting at
SOLUTION We first compute the ingredients needed for the unit normal vector:
the various points on a curve, form a
set of orthogonal vectors, called the
TNB frame, that moves along the
r9std − 2sin t i 1 cos t j 1 k r9std − s2 | |
curve as t varies. This TNB frame r9std 1
Tstd − − s2sin t i 1 cos t j 1 kd
plays an important role in the branch
of mathematics known as differential
| r9std |s2
1 1
geometry and in its applications to
the motion of spacecraft.
T9std −
s2
s2cos t i 2 sin t jd T9std − | | s2
z T9std
Nstd − − 2cos t i 2 sin t j − k2cos t, 2sin t, 0l
T
| T9std |
B This shows that the unit normal vector at any point on the helix is horizontal and points
N
toward the z-axis. The binormal vector is
B

N
T
Bstd − Tstd 3 Nstd −
s2
1
F i
2sin t
2cos t
j
cos t
2sin t
k
1 −
0
G1
s2
ksin t, 2cos t, 1l ■

y EXAMPLE 7 Find the unit tangent, unit normal, and binormal vectors and the curva
x ture for the curve rstd − k t, s2 ln t, 1yt l at the point s1, 0, 1d.

FIGURE 7 SOLUTION We start by finding T and T9 as functions of t.

r9std − k 1, s2 yt, 21yt 2 l

| r9std | − Î 11
2
t
1 1
2 1 4 − 2
t t
st 4 1 2t 2 1 1

1 1
− 2
sst 2 1 1d 2 − 2 st 2 1 1d sbecause t 2 1 1 . 0d
t t

Tstd −
|
r9std
r9std
− 2
|
t2
st 1 1d
K 1,
s2
t
1
,2 2
t
L −
1
st 1 1d
2 k t 2, s2 t, 21 l
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910 CHAPTER 13 Vector Functions

We use Formula 3 of Theorem 13.2.3 to differentiate T:

22t 1
T9std − kt 2, s2 t, 21l 1 2 k2t, s2 , 0l
st 2 1 1d2 st 1 1d

The point s1, 0, 1d corresponds to t − 1, so we have

Ts1d − 12 k1, s2 , 21l

T9s1d − 212 k1, s2 , 21l 1 12 k2, s2 , 0l − 12 k1, 0, 1l

1
T9s1d k1, 0, 1l 1
Ns1d − − 1 2 − k1, 0, 1l
| T9s1d |
2 s1 1 0 1 1 s2

1
Bs1d − Ts1d 3 Ns1d − ks2 , 22, 2s2 l − 12 k1, 2s2 , 21l
2s2
and, by Formula 9, the curvature is

s1d − | T9s1d | − s2 y2 − s2
| r9s1d | 2 4

We could also use Theorem 10 to compute s1d; you can check that we get the same
answer. ■

z The plane determined by the normal and binormal vectors N and B at a point P on a
osculating plane curve C is called the normal plane of C at P. It consists of all lines that are orthogonal
normal to the tangent vector T. The plane determined by the vectors T and N is called the oscu-
plane lating plane of C at P. (See Figure 8.) The name comes from the Latin osculum, mean-
B
ing “kiss.” It is the plane that comes closest to containing the part of the curve near P.
T (For a plane curve, the osculating plane is simply the plane that contains the curve.)
N
P The circle of curvature, or the osculating circle, of C at P is the circle in the osculat-
ing plane that passes through P with radius 1y and center a distance 1y from P along
y
the vector N. The center of the circle is called the center of curvature of C at P. We can
think of the circle of curvature as the circle that best describes how C behaves near P— it
x
shares the same tangent, normal, and curvature at P. Figure 9 illustrates two circles of
FIGURE 8 curvature for a plane curve.

y P
C

P
0 x
FIGURE 9

EXAMPLE 8 Find equations of the normal plane and osculating plane of the helix in
Example 6 at the point Ps0, 1, y2d.

Figure 10 shows the helix and the SOLUTION The point P corresponds to t − y2 and the normal plane there has normal
osculating plane in Example 8. vector r9sy2d − k21, 0, 1l, so an equation of the normal plane is

z=_x+π2
z
21sx 2 0d 1 0s y 2 1d 1 1 z 2 S D
2
− 0 or z − x 1

2
The osculating plane at P contains the vectors T and N, so a vector normal to the oscu
lating plane is T 3 N − B. From Example 6 we have

SD K L
P
1 1 1
Bstd − k sin t, 2cos t, 1 l B − , 0,
x
y s2 2 s2 s2

FIGURE 10 The vector k 1, 0, 1 l is parallel to Bsy2d (so also normal to the osculating plane). Thus
an equation of the osculating plane is

1sx 2 0d 1 0sy 2 1d 1 1 z 2 S D
2
− 0 or z − 2x 1

2
■

y EXAMPLE 9 Find and graph the osculating circle of the parabola y − x 2 at the origin.
osculating y=≈
circle
SOLUTION From Example 5, the curvature of the parabola at the origin is s0d − 2 so
the radius of the osculating circle there is 1y − 12. Moving this distance in the direction
of N − k0, 1l (the tangent vector is horizontal at the origin so the normal vector is
vertical) leads us to the center of curvature at (0, 12 ), so an equation of the circle of
1
2
curvature is
x 2 1 ( y 2 21 ) − 14
2

0 1 x
This circle is graphed in Figure 11. ■

FIGURE 11 We summarize here the formulas for unit tangent, unit normal and binormal vectors,
Notice that the circle and the parabola and curvature.
appear to bend similarly at the origin.

z dB ■ Torsion
ds
| |
Curvature − d Tyds at a point P on a curve C indicates how tightly the curve
“bends.” Since T is a normal vector for the normal plane, d Tyds tells us how the normal
B dT plane changes as P moves along C. [Note that the vector d Tyds is parallel to N
ds
(Exercise 63), so as P moves along C, the tangent vector at P rotates in the direction
T of N. A space curve can also lift or “twist” out of the osculating plane at P.] Since B is
N
P normal to the osculating plane, d Byds gives us information about how the osculating
y plane changes as P moves along C. (See Figure 12.)
In Exercise 65 you are asked to show that d Byds is parallel to N. Thus there is a scalar
x
such that
dB
FIGURE 12 12 − 2N
ds

(It is customary to include the negative sign in Equation 12.) The number is called the
torsion of C at P. If we take the dot product with N of each side of Equation 12 and note
that N N − 1, we get the following definition.

13 Definition The torsion of a curve is

dB
−2 N
ds

Intuitively, the torsion at a point P Torsion is easier to compute if it is expressed in terms of the parameter t instead of s,
on a curve is a measure of how much so we use the Chain Rule to write
the curve “twists” at P. If is positive,
the curve twists out of the osculating dB d B ds dB d Bydt B9std
− so − −
plane at P in the direction of the
binormal vector B; if is negative, the
dt ds dt ds dsydt r9std | |
curve twists in the opposite direction. Now from Definition 13 we have

B9std Nstd
14 std − 2
|
r9std |
EXAMPLE 10 Find the torsion of the helix rstd − k cos t, sin t, t l.
SOLUTION In Example 6 we computed dsydt − r9std − s2 , | |
Nstd − k2cos t, 2sin t, 0l, and Bstd − (1ys2 ) ksin t, 2cos t, 1l. Then
B9std − (1ys2 ) kcos t, sin t, 0l and Formula 14 gives

B9std Nstd 1 1
std − 2 − 2 kcos t, sin t, 0l k2cos t, 2sin t, 0l − ■
|
r9std 2| 2

Figure 13 shows the unit circle rstd − k cos t, sin t, 0l in the xy-plane and Figure 14
shows the helix of Example 10. Both curves have constant curvature, but the circle has
constant torsion 0 whereas the helix has constant torsion 12 . We can think of the circle as
bending at each point but never twisting, while the helix both bends and twists (upward)
at each point.

z z
2π

It can be shown that under certain

conditions, the shape of a space curve
is completely determined by the
values of curvature and torsion at
each point on the curve. 0 0
1 y 1 y
1 1
x x

FIGURE 13 − 1, − 0 FIGURE 14 − 12 , − 1

The following theorem gives a formula that is often more convenient for computing
torsion; a proof is outlined in Exercise 72.

15 Theorem The torsion of the curve given by the vector function r is

f r9std 3 r0stdg r09std

std −
|
r9std 3 r0std 2 |

In Exercises 68–70 you are asked to use Theorem 15 to compute the torsion of a
curve.

13.3 Exercises
1–2 15–16
(a) Use Equation 2 to compute the length of the given line (a) Find the arc length function for the curve measured from the
segment. point P in the direction of increasing t and then reparame
(b) Compute the length using the distance formula and compare trize the curve with respect to arc length starting from P.
to your answer from part (a). (b) Find the point 4 units along the curve (in the direction of
increasing t) from P.
1. rstd − k3 2 t, 2t, 4t 1 1l, 1 < t < 3
15. rstd − s5 2 td i 1 s4t 2 3d j 1 3t k, Ps4, 1, 3d
2. rstd − st 1 2d i 2 t j 1 s3t 2 5d k, 21 < t < 2
16. rstd − e t sin t i 1 e t cos t j 1 s2 e t k, P (0, 1, s2 )

3–8 Find the length of the curve.

uppose you start at the point s0, 0, 3d and move 5 units
17. S
3. rstd − k t, 3 cos t, 3 sin t l, 25 < t < 5 along the curve x − 3 sin t, y − 4t, z − 3 cos t in the posi-
4. rstd − k 2t, t 2, 13 t 3 l , 0 < t < 1 tive direction. Where are you now?

18. Reparametrize the curve

5. rstd − s2 t i 1 e t j 1 e2t k, 0 < t < 1

6. rstd − cos t i 1 sin t j 1 ln cos t k, 0 < t < y4

2 3
rstd − S 2
t2 1 1
21 i1 2
2t
t 11
j D
7. rstd − i 1 t j 1 t k, 0 < t < 1
with respect to arc length measured from the point (1, 0) in
2
8. rstd − t i 1 9t j 1 4t 3y2
k, 1 < t < 4 the direction of increasing t. Express the reparametrization in
its simplest form. What can you conclude about the curve?

9–11 Find the length of the curve correct to four decimal places. 19–24
(Use a calculator or computer to approximate the integral.) (a) Find the unit tangent and unit normal vectors Tstd and Nstd.
(b) Use Formula 9 to find the curvature.
9. rstd − k t 2, t 3, t 4 l, 0 < t < 2
19. rstd − kt 2, sin t 2 t cos t, cos t 1 t sin t l, t . 0
10. rstd − k t, e , te l, 1 < t < 3
2t 2t
20. rstd − k5 sin t, t, 5 cos t l
11. rstd − kcos t, 2t, sin 2tl, from s1, 0, 0d to s1, 4, 0d
21. rstd − k t, t 2, 4 l

12. G
raph the curve with parametric equations x − sin t, 22. rstd − k t, t, 12 t 2 l
y − sin 2t, z − sin 3t. Find the total length of this curve, 23. rstd − k t, 12 t 2, t 2 l
correct to four decimal places.
24. rstd − k s2 t, e t, e 2t l
13. Let C be the curve of intersection of the parabolic cylinder
x 2 − 2y and the surface 3z − xy. Find the exact length of C
from the origin to the point s6, 18, 36d. 25–27 Use Theorem 10 to find the curvature.
25. rstd − t 3 j 1 t 2 k 26. rstd − t i 1 t 2 j 1 e t k
14. F
ind, correct to four decimal places, the length of the curve
of intersection of the cylinder 4x 2 1 y 2 − 4 and the plane 27. rstd − s6 t 2 i 1 2t j 1 2t 3 k
x 1 y 1 z − 2.

ind the curvature of rstd − k t 2, ln t, t ln t l at the

28. F 42–43 Two graphs, a and b, are shown. One is a curve y − f sxd
point s1, 0, 0d. and the other is the graph of its curvature function y − sxd.
Identify each curve and explain your choices.
29. Find the curvature of rstd − k t, t 2, t 3 l at the point (1, 1, 1).
42. 43.
; 30. G
raph the curve with parametric equations x − cos t,
y y
y − sin t, z − sin 5t and find the curvature at the
point s1, 0, 0d. a a

31–33 Use Formula 11 to find the curvature. b b

4
31. y − x 32. y − tan x
x x

33. y − xe x

44. (a) Graph the curve rstd − ksin 3t, sin 2t, sin 3t l. At how
34–35 At what point does the curve have maximum curvature? many points on the curve does it appear that the curva-
What happens to the curvature as x l ` ? ture has a local or absolute maximum?
(b) Use a computer algebra system to find and graph the
34. y − ln x 35. y − e x curvature function. Does this graph confirm your
conclusion from part (a)?
he graph of rstd − k t 2 32 sin t, 1 2 32 cos t, t l is shown in
45. T
36. F
ind an equation of a parabola that has curvature 4 at the
Figure 13.1.13(b). Where do you think the curvature is larg-
origin.
est? Use a computer algebra system to find and graph the
37. (a) Is the curvature of the curve C shown in the figure curvature function. For which values of t is the curvature
greater at P or at Q? Explain. largest?
(b) Estimate the curvature at P and at Q by sketching the 46–49 Curvature of Plane Parametric Curves The curvature of
osculating circles at those points. a plane parametric curve x − f std, y − tstd is given by

y − ?2 |
?x??y 2 y? ??
x |
P fx 1 y? 2 g 3y2
C
where the dots indicate derivatives with respect to t.
46. Use Theorem 10 to prove the given formula for curvature.
1
47. Find the curvature of the curve x − t 2, y − t 3.
Q
48. Find the curvature of the curve x − a cos t, y − b sin t.
0 1 x
49. Find the curvature of the curve x − e t cos t, y − e t sin t.

; 38–39 Use a graphing calculator or computer to graph both the 50. C

onsider the curvature at x − 0 for each member of the
curve and its curvature function sxd on the same screen. Is the family of functions f sxd − e cx. For which members is s0d
graph of what you would expect? largest?
38. y − x 4 2 2x 2 39. y − x 22
51–52 Find the vectors T, N, and B at the given point.
51. rstd − k t 2, 23 t 3, t l , (1, 23 , 1)
40–41 Use a computer algebra system to compute the curvature 52. rstd − k cos t, sin t, ln cos t l, s1, 0, 0d
function std. Then graph the space curve and its curvature
function. Comment on how the curvature reflects the shape of
the curve. 53–54 Find equations of the normal plane and osculating plane
of the curve at the given point.
40. rstd − k t 2 sin t, 1 2 cos t, 4 cossty2d l, 0 < t < 8
53. x − sin 2t, y − 2cos 2t, z − 4t; s0, 1, 2d
41. rstd − k te t, e2t, s2 t l , 25 < t < 5 54. x − ln t, y − 2t, z − t 2 ; s0, 2, 1d

; 55. F
ind equations of the osculating circles of the ellipse 68–70 Use Theorem 15 to find the torsion of the given curve at
9x 2 1 4y 2 − 36 at the points s2, 0d and s0, 3d. Use a graph- a general point and at the point corresponding to t − 0.
ing calculator or computer to graph the ellipse and both
68. rstd − k t, 12 t 2, 13 t 3 l 69. rstd − ke t, e2t, t l
osculating circles on the same screen.
70. rstd − kcos t, sin t, sin t l
; 56. F
ind equations of the osculating circles of the parabola
y − 12 x 2 at the points s0, 0d and (1, 12 ). Graph both oscu
lating circles and the parabola on the same screen. 71–72 Frenet-Serret Formulas The following formulas, called
the Frenet-Serret formulas, are of fundamental importance in
t what point on the curve x − t 3, y − 3t, z − t 4 is the
57. A
differential geometry:
normal plane parallel to the plane 6x 1 6y 2 8z − 1?
1. dTyds − N
58. I s there a point on the curve in Exercise 57 where the 2. dNyds − 2T 1 B
osculating plane is parallel to the plane x 1 y 1 z − 1? 3. dByds − 2 N
[Note: You will need a computer algebra system for differ- (Formula 1 comes from Exercise 63 and Formula 3 is Equa-
entiating, for simplifying, and for computing a cross tion 12.)
product.]
71. Use the fact that N − B 3 T to deduce Formula 2 from
59. F
ind equations of the normal and osculating planes of the Formulas 1 and 3.
curve of intersection of the parabolic cylinders x − y 2 and 72. U
se the Frenet-Serret formulas to prove each of the follow-
z − x 2 at the point s1, 1, 1d. ing. (Primes denote derivatives with respect to t. Start as in
60. Show that the osculating plane at every point on the curve the proof of Theorem 10.)
rstd − k t 1 2, 1 2 t, 12 t 2 l is the same plane. What can you (a) r0 − s0T 1 ss9d2 N
conclude about the curve? (b) r9 3 r0 − ss9d3 B
(c) r- − f s- 2 2ss9d3 g T 1 f 3s9s0 1 9ss9d2 g N
61. Show that at every point on the curve 1 ss9d3 B
rstd − ke t cos t, e t sin t, e t l s r9 3 r0 d r -
(d) −
the angle between the unit tangent vector and the z-axis is

r9 3 r0 2| |
the same. Then show that the same result holds true for the
unit normal and binormal vectors. how that the circular helix rstd − k a cos t, a sin t, bt l,
73. S
where a and b are positive constants, has constant curvature
he Rectifying Plane The rectifying plane of a curve
62. T and constant torsion. (Use Theorem 15.)
at a point is the plane that contains the vectors T and B
at that point. Find the rectifying plane of the curve 74. F
ind the curvature and torsion of the curve x − sinh t,
rstd − sin t i 1 cos t j 1 tan t k at the point y − cosh t, z − t at the point s0, 1, 0d.
(s2 y2, s2 y2, 1). 75. Evolute of a Curve The evolute of a smooth curve C is the
curve generated by the centers of curvature of C.
how that the curvature is related to the tangent and
63. S
normal vectors by the equation (a) Explain why the evolute of a curve given by r is
1
dT re std − rstd 1 Nstd std ± 0
− N std
ds
(b) Find the evolute of the helix in Example 6.
64. S
how that the curvature of a plane curve is − dyds , | | (c) Find the evolute of the parabola in Example 5.
where is the angle between T and i; that is, is the angle
of inclination of the tangent line. (This shows that the 76. Planar Curves A space curve C given by
definition of curvature is consistent with the definition for rstd − k xstd, ystd, zstdl is called planar if it lies in a plane.
plane curves given in Exercises 10.2.79 – 83.) (a) Show that C is planar if and only if there exist
scalars a, b, c, and d, not all zero, such that
65. (a) Show that d Byds is perpendicular to B.
axstd 1 bystd 1 czstd − d for all t .
(b) Show that d Byds is perpendicular to T.
(b) Show that if C is planar, then the binormal vector B is
(c) Deduce from parts (a) and (b) that d Byds is parallel to N.
normal to the plane containing C.
66–67 Use Formula 14 to find the torsion at the given value of t. (c) Show that if C is a planar curve then the torsion of C is
zero for all t .
66. rstd − ksin t, 3t, cos t l, t − y2
(d) Show that the curve rstd − kt, 2t, t 2 l is planar and find
67. rstd − k 12 t 2, 2t, t l , t−1 an equation of the plane that contains the curve. Use
this equation to find the binormal vector B.

77. T
he DNA molecule has the shape of a double helix (see (a) Find a polynomial P − Psxd of degree 5 such that the
Figure 13.1.3). The radius of each helix is about 10 angstroms function F defined by

H
(1 Å − 1028 cm). Each helix rises about 34 Å during each
complete turn, and there are about 2.9 3 10 8 complete turns. 0 if x < 0
Estimate the length of each helix. Fsxd − Psxd if 0 , x , 1
1 if x > 1
78. L
et’s consider the problem of designing a railroad track to
make a smooth transition between sections of straight track. is continuous and has continuous slope and continuous
Existing track along the negative x-axis is to be joined curvature.
smoothly to a track along the line y − 1 for x > 1. ; (b) Graph F.

13.4 Motion in Space: Velocity and Acceleration

In this section we show how the ideas of tangent and normal vectors and curvature
can be used in physics to study the motion of an object—including its velocity and
acceleration—along a space curve. In particular, we follow in the footsteps of Newton by
using these methods to derive Kepler’s First Law of planetary motion.

■ Velocity, Speed, and Acceleration

z r(t+h)-r(t) Suppose a particle moves through space so that its position vector at time t is rstd. Notice
h from Figure 1 that, for small values of h, the vector
rª(t)
Q
P rst 1 hd 2 rstd
1
r(t) h
r(t+h)
approximates the direction of the particle moving along the curve rstd. Its magnitude mea-
C sures the size of the displacement vector per unit time. The vector (1) gives the average
0
velocity over a time interval of length h and its limit is the velocity vector vstd at time t:
y
x
rst 1 hd 2 rstd
FIGURE 1 2 vstd − lim − r9std
hl0 h

Thus the velocity vector is also the tangent vector and points in the direction of the tan-
gent line.
The speed of the particle at time t is the magnitude of the velocity vector, that is,

Compare to Equation 10.2.8, where

As in the case of one-dimensional motion, the acceleration of the particle is defined as

the derivative of the velocity:
astd − v9std − r0std

EXAMPLE 1 The position vector of an object moving in a plane is given by

rstd − t 3 i 1 t 2 j. Find its velocity, speed, and acceleration when t − 1 and illustrate
geometrically.
SOLUTION The velocity and acceleration at time t are
vstd − r9std − 3t 2 i 1 2t j astd − r0std − 6t i 1 2 j

y and the speed is

v(1) | vstd | − ss3t d 1 s2td2 − s9t 4 1 4t 2
2 2

When t − 1, we have
a(1)
(1, 1)
vs1d − 3 i 1 2 j as1d − 6 i 1 2 j | vs1d | − s13
0 x
These velocity and acceleration vectors are shown in Figure 2. ■

FIGURE 2 EXAMPLE 2 Find the velocity, acceleration, and speed of a particle with position
vector rstd − kt 2, e t, te t l.
Figure 3 shows the path of the par
ticle in Example 2 with the velocity SOLUTION vstd − r9std − k 2t, e t, s1 1 tde t l
and acceleration vectors when t − 1.
astd − v9std − k2, e t, s2 1 tde t l
z
a(1)
| vstd | − s4t 2 1 e 2t 1 s1 1 td2 e 2t ■
v(1)
NOTE Earlier in the chapter we saw that a curve can be parametrized in different ways
but the geometric properties of a curve—arc length, curvature, and torsion—are indepen-
dent of the choice of parametrization. On the other hand, velocity, speed, and accelera-
tion do depend on the parametrizations used. You can think of the curve as a road and a
1
y parametrization as describing how you travel along that road. The length and curvature
x of the road do not depend on how you travel on it, but your velocity and acceleration do.

FIGURE 3 The vector integrals that were introduced in Section 13.2 can be used to find position
vectors when velocity or acceleration vectors are known, as in the next example.

EXAMPLE 3 A moving particle starts at an initial position rs0d − k1, 0, 0 l with initial
velocity vs0d − i 2 j 1 k. Its acceleration is astd − 4t i 1 6t j 1 k. Find its velocity
and position at time t.
SOLUTION Since astd − v9std, we have

vstd − y astd dt − y s4t i 1 6t j 1 kd dt

− 2t 2 i 1 3t 2 j 1 t k 1 C
To determine the value of the constant vector C, we use the fact that vs0d − i 2 j 1 k.
The expression for rstd that we The preceding equation gives vs0d − C, so C − i 2 j 1 k and
obtained in Example 3 was used to
plot the path of the particle in vstd − 2t 2 i 1 3t 2 j 1 t k 1 i 2 j 1 k
Figure 4 for 0 < t < 3. − s2t 2 1 1d i 1 s3t 2 2 1d j 1 st 1 1d k
Since vstd − r9std, we have

rstd − y vstd dt
6

z 4 − y fs2t 2 1 1d i 1 s3t 2 2 1d j 1 st 1 1d kg dt
2 (1, 0, 0) 0
0 x − ( 23 t 3 1 t) i 1 st 3 2 td j 1 ( 12 t 2 1 t) k 1 D
0 5 10 20
15 20
y Putting t − 0, we find that D − rs0d − i, so the position at time t is given by
FIGURE 4 rstd − ( 23 t 3 1 t 1 1) i 1 st 3 2 td j 1 ( 12 t 2 1 t) k ■

In general, vector integrals allow us to recover velocity when acceleration is known

and position when velocity is known:

vstd − vst0d 1 y asud du rstd − rst0d 1 y vsud du

t t

t0 t0

If the force that acts on a particle is known, then the acceleration can be found from
Newton’s Second Law of Motion. The vector version of this law states that if, at any
time t, a force Fstd acts on an object of mass m producing an acceleration astd, then
Fstd − mastd

EXAMPLE 4 An object with mass m that moves in a circular path with constant
angular speed has position vector rstd − a cos t i 1 a sin t j. Find the force acting
on the object and show that it is directed toward the origin.
The object moving with position P SOLUTION To find the force, we first need to know the acceleration:
has angular speed − dydt, where
is the angle shown in Figure 5. vstd − r9std − 2a sin t i 1 a cos t j

y astd − v9std − 2a 2 cos t i 2 a 2 sin t j

P
Therefore Newton’s Second Law gives the force as
¨ Fstd − mastd − 2m 2sa cos t i 1 a sin t jd
0 x
Notice that Fstd − 2m 2 rstd. This shows that the force acts in the direction opposite
to the radius vector rstd and therefore points toward the origin (see Figure 5). Such a
force is called a centripetal (center-seeking) force. ■
FIGURE 5
■ Projectile Motion
y EXAMPLE 5 A projectile is fired with angle of elevation and initial velocity v0 . (See
Figure 6.) Assuming that air resistance is negligible and the only external force is due
v¸
to gravity, find the position function rstd of the projectile. What value of maximizes
the range (the horizontal distance traveled)?
a SOLUTION We set up the axes so that the projectile starts at the origin. Since the force
0 x due to gravity acts downward, we have
d
F − ma − 2mt j
FIGURE 6
| |
where t − a < 9.8 mys 2. Thus
a − 2t j

Since v9std − a, we have vstd − 2tt j 1 C

where C − vs0d − v0. Therefore

r9std − vstd − 2tt j 1 v0
Integrating again, we obtain
rstd − 212 tt 2 j 1 t v0 1 D
But D − rs0d − 0, so the position vector of the projectile is given by

3 rstd − 212 tt 2 j 1 t v0

| |
If we write v0 − v0 (the initial speed of the projectile), then
v0 − v0 cos i 1 v0 sin j
and Equation 3 becomes

f
rstd − sv0 cos dt i 1 sv0 sin dt 2 12 tt 2 j g
The parametric equations of the trajectory are therefore
If you eliminate t from Equations 4,
you will see that y is a quadratic
4 x − sv0 cos dt y − sv0 sin dt 2 12 tt 2
function of x. So the path of the
projectile is part of a parabola.
The horizontal distance d is the value of x when y − 0. Setting y − 0, we obtain t − 0
or t − s2v0 sin dyt. This second value of t then gives
2v0 sin v02s2 sin cos d v02 sin 2
d − x − sv0 cos d − −
t t t
Clearly, d has its maximum value when sin 2 − 1, that is, − 45°. ■

EXAMPLE 6 A projectile is fired with initial speed 150 mys and angle of elevation 30°
from a position 10 m above ground level. Where does the projectile hit the ground, and
with what speed?
SOLUTION If we place the origin at ground level, then the initial position of the
projectile is (0, 10) and so we need to adjust Equations 4 by adding 10 to the expres-
sion for y. With v 0 − 150 mys, − 30°, and t − 9.8 mys2, we have
x − 150 coss30°dt − 75s3 t
y − 10 1 150 sins30°dt 2 12 s9.8dt 2 − 10 1 75t 2 4.9t 2

Impact occurs when y − 0, that is, 4.9t 2 2 75t 2 10 − 0. Using the quadratic formula
to solve this equation (and taking only the positive value of t), we get
75 1 s5625 1 196
t− < 15.44
9.8
Then x < 75s3s15.44d < 2006, so the projectile hits the ground about 2006 m away.
The velocity of the projectile is

vstd − r9std − 75s3 i 1 s75 2 9.8td j

So its speed at impact is

| vs15.44d | − s(75 s3 ) 2
1 s75 2 9.8 15.44d2 < 151 mys ■

■ Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration

When we study the motion of a particle, it is often useful to resolve the acceleration into
two components, one in the direction of the tangent and the other in the direction of the
| |
normal. If we write v − v for the speed of the particle, then
r9std vstd v
Tstd − − −
| r9std |vstd v | |
and so v − vT

If we differentiate both sides of this equation with respect to t, we get

5 a − v9 − v9T 1 v T9

If we use the expression for the curvature given by Equation 13.3.9, then we have

6
| T9 | − | T9 | so | T9 | − v
−
| r9 | v

The unit normal vector was defined in Section 13.3 as N − T9y | T9 |, so (6) gives

T9 − | T9| N − v N
and Equation 5 becomes

7 a − v9T 1 v 2 N
aT
T
Writing a T and a N for the tangential and normal components of acceleration, we have
a
N a − aT T 1 aN N
where
aN
8 a T − v9 and a N − v 2

FIGURE 7 This resolution is illustrated in Figure 7.

Let’s look at what Formula 7 says. The first thing to notice is that the binormal vector
B is absent. No matter how an object moves through space, its acceleration always lies in
the plane of T and N (the osculating plane). (Recall that T gives the direction of motion
and N points in the direction the curve is turning.) Next we notice that the tangential
component of acceleration is v9, the rate of change of speed, and the normal component
of acceleration is v 2, the curvature times the square of the speed. This makes sense if we
think of a passenger in a car—a sharp turn in a road means a large value of the curvature
, so the component of the acceleration perpendicular to the motion is large and the pas-
senger is thrown against the car door. High speed around the turn has the same effect; in
fact, if you double your speed, aN is increased by a factor of 4.
Although we have expressions for the tangential and normal components of accelera-
tion in Equations 8, it’s desirable to have expressions that depend only on r, r9, and r0.
To this end we take the dot product of v − v T with a as given by Equation 7:

v a − v T sv9T 1 v 2 Nd

− vv9T T 1 v 3 T N

− vv9 (since T T − 1 and T N − 0)
Therefore
va r9std r0std
9 a T − v9 − −
v |
r9std |
Using the formula for curvature given by Theorem 13.3.10, we have

10 aN − v2 − | r9std 3 r99std | | r9std | 2

EXAMPLE 7 A particle moves with position function rstd − kt 2, t 2, t 3 l . Find the
tangential and normal components of acceleration.
SOLUTION rstd − t 2 i 1 t 2 j 1 t 3 k

r9std − 2t i 1 2t j 1 3t 2 k

r0std − 2 i 1 2 j 1 6t k

| r9std | − s8t 2 1 9t 4

Therefore Equation 9 gives the tangential component as

r9std r0std 8t 1 18t 3

aT − −
|
r9std |s8t 2 1 9t 4

Since
i j k
Z
r9std 3 r0std − 2t 2t 3t 2 − 6t 2 i 2 6t 2 j
2 2 6t
Z
Equation 10 gives the normal component as

aN − | r9std 3 r0std | − 6s2 t 2

■
| r9std | s8t 1 9t 2 4

■ Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

We now describe one of the great accomplishments of calculus by showing how the
material of this chapter can be used to prove Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. After
20 years of studying the astronomical observations of the Danish astronomer Tycho
Brahe, the German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) formu-
lated the following three laws.

Kepler’s Laws
1. A planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one focus.
2. The line joining the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The square of the period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of
the length of the major axis of its orbit.

In his book Principia Mathematica of 1687, Sir Isaac Newton was able to show that
these three laws are consequences of two of his own laws, the Second Law of Motion and
the Law of Universal Gravitation. In what follows we prove Kepler’s First Law. The
remaining laws are left as exercises (with hints).
Since the gravitational force of the sun on a planet is so much larger than the forces
exerted by other celestial bodies, we can safely ignore all bodies in the universe except the
sun and one planet revolving about it. We use a coordinate system with the sun at the
origin and we let r − rstd be the position vector of the planet. (Equally well, r could be
the position vector of the moon or a satellite moving around the earth or a comet moving

around a star.) The velocity vector is v − r9 and the acceleration vector is a − r0. We use
the following laws of Newton:
Second Law of Motion: F − ma
GMm GMm
Law of Gravitation: F−2 r−2 2 u
r3 r
where F is the gravitational force on the planet, m and M are the masses of the planet and
the sun, G is the gravitational constant, r − r , and u − s1yrdr is the unit vector in the| |
direction of r.
We first show that the planet moves in one plane. By equating the expressions for F in
Newton’s two laws, we find that
GM
a−2 3 r
r
and so a is parallel to r. It follows that r 3 a − 0. We use Formula 5 in Theorem 13.2.3 to
write
d
sr 3 vd − r9 3 v 1 r 3 v9
dt
−v3v1r3a−010−0

Therefore r3v−h

where h is a constant vector. (We may assume that h ± 0; that is, r and v are not paral-
lel.) This means that the vector r − rstd is perpendicular to h for all values of t, so the
planet always lies in the plane through the origin perpendicular to h. Thus the orbit of
the planet is a plane curve.
To prove Kepler’s First Law we rewrite the vector h as follows:

h − r 3 v − r 3 r9 − r u 3 sr ud9
− r u 3 sr u9 1 r9ud − r 2 su 3 u9d 1 rr9su 3 ud
− r 2 su 3 u9d
Then
2GM
a3h− u 3 sr 2 u 3 u9d − 2GM u 3 su 3 u9d
r2
− 2GM fsu u9du 2 su udu9g (by Theorem 12.4.11, Property 6)

But u u − u | | 2
| |
− 1 and, since ustd − 1, it follows from Theorem 13.2.4 that

u u9 − 0

Therefore a 3 h − GM u9

and so sv 3 hd9 − v9 3 h 1 v 3 h9 − v9 3 h − a 3 h − GM u9

Integrating both sides of this equation, we get

11 v 3 h − GM u 1 c

where c is a constant vector.

At this point it is convenient to choose the coordinate axes so that the standard
basis vector k points in the direction of the vector h. Then the planet moves in the

z xy-plane. Since both v 3 h and u are perpendicular to h, Equation 11 shows that c lies
in the xy-plane. This means that we can choose the x- and y-axes so that the vector i lies
in the direction of c, as shown in Figure 8.
h If is the angle between c and r, then sr, d are polar coordinates of the planet. From
c
Equation 11 we have
¨
y r sv 3 hd − r sGM u 1 cd − GM r u 1 r c
r
v
x
| || |
− GMr u u 1 r c cos − GMr 1 rc cos
u
where c − c . Then | |
FIGURE 8
r sv 3 hd 1 r sv 3 hd
r− −
GM 1 c cos GM 1 1 e cos
where e − cysGMd. But
r sv 3 hd − sr 3 vd h − h h − h | | 2
− h2
where h − h . So | |
h 2ysGMd eh 2yc
r− −
1 1 e cos 1 1 e cos
Writing d − h 2yc, we obtain the equation
ed
12 r−
1 1 e cos
Comparing with Theorem 10.6.6, we see that Equation 12 is the polar equation of a conic
section with focus at the origin and eccentricity e. We know that the orbit of a planet is a
closed curve and so the conic must be an ellipse.
This completes the derivation of Kepler’s First Law. We will guide you through
the derivation of the Second and Third Laws in the Applied Project following this sec-
tion. The proofs of these three laws show that the methods of this chapter provide a
powerful tool for describing some of the laws of nature.

13.4 Exercises
1. The table gives coordinates of a particle moving through (a) Draw a vector that represents the average velocity of
space along a smooth curve. the particle over the time interval 2 < t < 2.4.
(a) Find the average velocities over the time intervals (b) Draw a vector that represents the average velocity over
[0, 1], [0.5, 1], [1, 2], and [1, 1.5]. the time interval 1.5 < t < 2.
(b) Estimate the velocity and speed of the particle (c) Write an expression for the velocity vector vs2d.
at t − 1. (d) Draw an approximation to the vector vs2d and estimate
the speed of the particle at t − 2.
t x y z y

0 2.7 9.8 3.7

0.5 3.5 7.2 3.3 r(2.4)
1.0 4.5 6.0 3.0 2 r(2)
1.5 5.9 6.4 2.8
2.0 7.3 7.8 2.7 1 r(1.5)

2. The figure shows the path of a particle that moves with 0 1 2 x

position vector rstd at time t.

3–8 Find the velocity, acceleration, and speed of a particle with 23. A
projectile is fired with an initial speed of 200 mys and
the given position function. Sketch the path of the particle and angle of elevation 60°. Find (a) the range of the projectile,
draw the velocity and acceleration vectors for the specified value (b) the maximum height reached, and (c) the speed at impact.
of t.
24. R
ework Exercise 23 if the projectile is fired from a position
3. rstd − k221 t 2, t l , t − 2 100 m above the ground.
4. rstd − kt 2, 1yt 2 l, t − 1 25. A
ball is thrown upward at an angle of 45° to the ground. If
the ball lands 90 m away, what was the initial speed of the
5. rstd − 3 cos t i 1 2 sin t j, t − y3
ball?
6. rstd − e t i 1 e 2t j, t − 0
26. A
projectile is fired from a tank with initial speed 400 mys.
7. rstd − t i 1 t 2 j 1 2 k, t − 1 Find two angles of elevation that can be used to hit a target
3000 m away.
8. rstd − t i 1 2 cos t j 1 sin t k, t − 0
27. A
rifle is fired with angle of elevation 36°. What is the ini-
tial speed if the maximum height of the bullet is 1600 ft?
9–14 Find the velocity, acceleration, and speed of a particle
with the given position function. 28. A
batter hits a baseball 3 ft above the ground toward the
9. rstd − k t 2 1 t, t 2 2 t, t 3 l center field fence, which is 10 ft high and 400 ft from home
plate. The ball leaves the bat with speed 115 ftys at an
10. rstd − k 2 cos t, 3t, 2 sin t l angle 50° above the horizontal. Is it a home run? (In other
11. rstd − s2 t i 1 e t j 1 e2t k words, does the ball clear the fence?)

12. rstd − t 2 i 1 2t j 1 ln t k 29. A

medieval city has the shape of a square and is protected
by walls with length 500 m and height 15 m. You are the
13. rstd − e t scos t i 1 sin t j 1 t kd commander of an attacking army and the closest you can
get to the wall is 100 m. Your plan is to set fire to the city by
14. rstd − k t 2, sin t 2 t cos t, cos t 1 t sin t l , t > 0
catapulting heated rocks over the wall (with an initial speed
of 80 mys). At what range of angles should you tell your
15–16 Find the velocity and position vectors of a particle that men to set the catapult? (Assume the path of the rocks is
has the given acceleration and the given initial velocity and perpendicular to the wall.)
position.
30. S
how that a projectile reaches three-quarters of its maxi-
15. astd − 2 i 1 2t k, vs0d − 3 i 2 j, rs0d − j 1 k mum height in half the time needed to reach its maximum
16. astd − sin t i 1 2 cos t j 1 6t k, vs0d − 2k, height.
rs0d − j 2 4 k 31. A
ball is thrown eastward into the air from the origin (in
the direction of the positive x-axis). The initial velocity is
17–18 50 i 1 80 k, with speed measured in feet per second. The
(a) Find the position vector of a particle that has the given spin of the ball results in a southward acceleration of
acceleration and the specified initial velocity and position. 4 ftys2, so the acceleration vector is a − 24 j 2 32 k.
; (b) Graph the path of the particle. Where does the ball land and with what speed?

17. astd − 2t i 1 sin t j 1 cos 2t k, vs0d − i, rs0d − j 32. A

ball with mass 0.8 kg is thrown southward into the air
with a speed of 30 mys at an angle of 30° to the ground.
18. astd − t i 1 e t j 1 e 2t k, vs0d − k, rs0d − j 1 k A west wind applies a steady force of 4 N to the ball in
an easterly direction. Where does the ball land and with
19. T
he position function of a particle is given by what speed?
rstd − k t 2, 5t, t 2 2 16t l . When is the speed a minimum?
; 33. W
ater traveling along a straight portion of a river normally
20. What force is required so that a particle of mass m has the flows fastest in the middle, and the speed slows to almost
position function rstd − t 3 i 1 t 2 j 1 t 3 k ? zero at the banks. Consider a long straight stretch of river
flowing north, with parallel banks 40 m apart. If the maxi-
21. A force with magnitude 20 N acts directly upward from the
mum water speed is 3 mys, we can use a quadratic function
xy-plane on an object with mass 4 kg. The object starts at
as a basic model for the rate of water flow x units from the
the origin with initial velocity vs0d − i 2 j. Find its posi- 3
west bank: f sxd − 400 xs40 2 xd.
tion function and its speed at time t.
(a) A boat proceeds at a constant speed of 5 mys from a
22. S
how that if a particle moves with constant speed, then the point A on the west bank while maintaining a heading
velocity and acceleration vectors are orthogonal. perpendicular to the bank. How far down the river on

the opposite bank will the boat touch shore? Graph the he magnitude of the acceleration vector a is 10 cmys2. Use
43. T
path of the boat. the figure to estimate the tangential and normal components
(b) Suppose we would like to pilot the boat to land at the of a.
point B on the east bank directly opposite A. If we y
maintain a constant speed of 5 mys and a constant
heading, find the angle at which the boat should head. a
Then graph the actual path the boat follows. Does the
path seem realistic?
34. A
nother reasonable model for the water speed of the river in
Exercise 33 is a sine function: f sxd − 3 sins xy40d. If a 0 x
boater would like to cross the river from A to B with constant
heading and a constant speed of 5 mys, determine the angle at
which the boat should head. 44. Angular Momentum and Torque If a particle with mass m
moves with position vector rstd, then its angular momen
particle has position function rstd. If r9std − c 3 rstd,
35. A tum is defined as Lstd − mrstd 3 vstd and its torque as
where c is a constant vector, describe the path of the particle. t std − mrstd 3 astd. Show that L9std − tstd. Deduce that if
t std − 0 for all t, then Lstd is constant. (This is the law of
36. (a) If a particle moves along a straight line, what can you say
conservation of angular momentum.)
about its acceleration vector?
(b) If a particle moves with constant speed along a curve, 45. The position function of a spacecraft is
what can you say about its acceleration vector?

37–40 Find the tangential and normal components of the

rstd − s3 1 td i 1 s2 1 ln td j 1 7 2 S 4
t2 1 1
D k

acceleration vector. and the coordinates of a space station are s6, 4, 9d. The cap-
37. rstd − st 2 1 1d i 1 t 3 j, t > 0 tain wants the craft to coast into the space station. When
should the engines be turned off?
38. rstd − 2t 2 i 1 (32 t 3 2 2t) j
46. A
rocket burning its onboard fuel while moving through
39. rstd − cos t i 1 sin t j 1 t k space has velocity vstd and mass mstd at time t. If the exhaust
gases escape with velocity ve relative to the rocket, it can be
40. rstd − t i 1 2e t j 1 e 2t k deduced from Newton’s Second Law of Motion that
dv dm
41–42 Find the tangential and normal components of the m − ve
dt dt
acceleration vector at the given point.
ms0d
41. rstd − ln t i 1 st 2 1 3td j 1 4 st k, s0, 4, 4d (a) Show that vstd − vs0d 2 ln ve.
mstd
1 1 1 (b) For the rocket to accelerate in a straight line from rest to

42. rstd − i 1 2 j 1 3 k, s1, 1, 1d
t t t twice the speed of its own exhaust gases, what fraction of
its initial mass would the rocket have to burn as fuel?

APPLIED PROJECT KEPLER’S LAWS

Johannes Kepler stated the following three laws of planetary motion on the basis of massive
amounts of data on the positions of the planets at various times.

(continued )

Kepler formulated these laws because they fitted the astronomical data. He wasn’t able to
see why they were true or how they related to each other. But Sir Isaac Newton, in his
Principia Mathematica of 1687, showed how to deduce Kepler’s three laws from two of
Newton’s own laws, the Second Law of Motion and the Law of Universal Gravitation. In
Section 13.4 we proved Kepler’s First Law using the calculus of vector functions. In this
project we guide you through the proofs of Kepler’s Second and Third Laws and explore
some of their consequences.
1. U
se the following steps to prove Kepler’s Second Law. The notation is the same as in
the proof of the First Law in Section 13.4. In particular, use polar coordinates so that
r − sr cos d i 1 sr sin d j.
d
(a) Show that h − r 2 k.
dt

d
(b) Deduce that r 2 − h.
dt

y (c) If A − Astd is the area swept out by the radius vector r − rstd in the time interval ft0 , tg
as in the figure, show that
r(t)
A(t) r(t¸) dA d
− 12 r 2
dt dt

0 x (d) Deduce that

dA
− 12 h − constant
dt

This says that the rate at which A is swept out is constant and proves Kepler’s Second
Law.
2. Let T be the period of a planet about the sun; that is, T is the time required for it to travel
once around its elliptical orbit. Suppose that the lengths of the major and minor axes of the
ellipse are 2a and 2b.
(a) Use part (d) of Problem 1 to show that T − 2abyh.
h2 b2
(b) Show that − ed − .
GM a

4 2 3
(c) Use parts (a) and (b) to show that T 2 − a .
GM
This proves Kepler’s Third Law. [Notice that the proportionality constant 4 2ysGMd is
independent of the planet.]
3. T
he period of the earth’s orbit is approximately 365.25 days. Use this fact and Kepler’s
Third Law to find the length of the major axis of the earth’s orbit. You will need
the mass of the sun, M − 1.99 3 10 30 kg, and the gravitational constant,
G − 6,67 3 10 211 N ∙ m 2ykg 2.
4. I t’s possible to place a satellite into orbit about the earth so that it remains fixed above a
given location on the equator. Compute the altitude that is needed for such a satellite. The
earth’s mass is 5.98 3 10 24 kg; its radius is 6.37 3 10 6 m. (This orbit is called the Clarke
Geosynchronous Orbit after Arthur C. Clarke, who first proposed the idea in 1945. The first
such satellite, Syncom II, was launched in July 1963.)

13 REVIEW
CONCEPT CHECK Answers to the Concept Check are available at StewartCalculus.com.

1. What is a vector function? How do you find its derivative and 6. (a) What is the definition of curvature?
its integral? (b) Write a formula for curvature in terms of r9std and T9std.
(c) Write a formula for curvature in terms of r9std and r0std.
2. What is the connection between vector functions and space
(d) Write a formula for the curvature of a plane curve with
curves?
equation y − f sxd.
3. How do you find the tangent vector to a smooth curve at a
point? How do you find the tangent line? The unit tangent 7. (a) Write formulas for the unit normal and binormal vectors
vector? of a smooth space curve rstd.
(b) What is the normal plane of a curve at a point? What is
4. If u and v are differentiable vector functions, c is a scalar, and the osculating plane? What is the osculating circle?
f is a real-valued function, write the rules for differentiating
the following vector functions. 8. (a) How do you find the velocity, speed, and acceleration of a
(a) ustd 1 vstd (b) custd (c) f std ustd particle that moves along a space curve?
(d) ustd vstd (e) ustd 3 vstd (f) us f stdd (b) Write the acceleration in terms of its tangential and
normal components.
5. How do you find the length of a space curve given by a vector
function rstd? 9. State Kepler’s Laws.

TRUE-FALSE QUIZ

Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, 7. If Tstd is the unit tangent vector of a smooth curve, then the
explain why. If it is false, explain why or give an example that curvature is − dTydt . | |
disproves the statement.
8. The binormal vector is Bstd − Nstd 3 Tstd.
1. The curve with vector equation rstd − t 3 i 1 2t 3 j 1 3t 3 k is
a line. 9. Suppose f is twice continuously differentiable. At an inflec-
tion point of the curve y − f sxd, the curvature is 0.
2. The curve rstd − k 0, t 2, 4t l is a parabola.
10. If std − 0 for all t, the curve is a straight line.
3. The curve rstd − k 2t, 3 2 t, 0 l is a line that passes through
the origin. | | | |
11. If rstd − 1 for all t, then r9std is a constant.
12. If | rstd | − 1 for all t, then r9std is orthogonal to rstd for all t.
4. The derivative of a vector function is obtained by differen-
tiating each component function. 13. T
he osculating circle of a curve C at a point has the same tan-
gent vector, normal vector, and curvature as C at that point.
5. If ustd and vstd are differentiable vector functions, then
14. D
ifferent parametrizations of the same curve result in identi-
d cal tangent vectors at a given point on the curve.
fustd 3 vstdg − u9std 3 v9std
dt 15. The projection of the curve rstd − kcos 2t, t, sin 2t l onto the
xz-plane is a circle.
6. If rstd is a differentiable vector function, then
16. The vector equations rstd − kt, 2t, t 1 1l and
d rstd − kt 2 1, 2t 2 2, t l are parametrizations of the
dt | | |
rstd − r9std | same line.

EXERCISES

1. (a) Sketch the curve with vector function 16. T

he figure shows the curve C traced by a particle with posi-
tion vector rstd at time t.
rstd − t i 1 cos t j 1 sin t k t > 0 (a) Draw a vector that represents the average velocity of the
(b) Find r9std and r0std. particle over the time interval 3 < t < 3.2.
(b) Write an expression for the velocity vs3d.
2. Let rstd − ks2 2 t , se t 2 1dyt, lnst 1 1d l . (c) Write an expression for the unit tangent vector Ts3d and
(a) Find the domain of r. draw it.
(b) Find lim t l 0 rstd.
(c) Find r9std. y
3. Find a vector function that represents the curve of inter
section of the cylinder x 2 1 y 2 − 16 and the plane
C
x 1 z − 5.
1
; 4. Find parametric equations for the tangent line to the curve r(3)
x − 2 sin t, y − 2 sin 2t , z − 2 sin 3t at the point
( 1, s3 , 2). Graph the curve and the tangent line on a r(3.2)
common screen.
5. If rstd − t 2 i 1 t cos t j 1 sin t k, evaluate y01 rstd dt . 0 x
1
6. Let C be the curve with equations x − 2 2 t 3, y − 2t 2 1,
z − ln t. Find (a) the point where C intersects the xz-plane,
(b) parametric equations of the tangent line at s1, 1, 0d, and 17. A
particle moves with position function
(c) an equation of the normal plane to C at s1, 1, 0d. rstd − t ln t i 1 t j 1 e2t k. Find the velocity, speed, and
acceleration of the particle.
7. Use Simpson’s Rule with n − 6 to estimate the length of
the arc of the curve with equations x − t 2, y − t 3, z − t 4, 18. F
ind the velocity, speed, and acceleration of a particle moving
0 < t < 3. with position function rstd − s2t 2 2 3d i 1 2t j. Sketch the
8. Find the length of the curve rstd − k2t 3y2, cos 2t, sin 2t l, path of the particle and draw the position, velocity, and accel-
0 < t < 1. eration vectors for t − 1.

9. The helix r1std − cos t i 1 sin t j 1 t k intersects the curve particle starts at the origin with initial velocity i 2 j 1 3 k.
19. A
r2std − s1 1 td i 1 t 2 j 1 t 3 k at the point s1, 0, 0d. Find the Its acceleration is astd − 6t i 1 12t 2 j 2 6t k. Find its posi-
angle of intersection of these curves. tion function.
eparametrize the curve rstd − e t i 1 e t sin t j 1 e t cos t k
10. R
20. A
n athlete throws a shot at an angle of 45° to the horizontal
with respect to arc length measured from the point s1, 0, 1d
at an initial speed of 43 ftys. It leaves the athlete’s hand 7 ft
in the direction of increasing t.
above the ground.
or the curve given by rstd − ksin 3 t, cos 3 t, sin 2 tl,
11. F (a) Where is the shot 2 seconds later?
0 < t < y2, find (b) How high does the shot go?
(a) the unit tangent vector. (c) Where does the shot land?
(b) the unit normal vector.
(c) the unit binormal vector. 21. A
projectile is launched with an initial speed of 40 mys from
(d) the curvature. the floor of a tunnel whose height is 30 m. What angle of ele-
(e) the torsion. vation should be used to achieve the maximum possible hori-
zontal range of the projectile? What is the maximum range?
12. F
ind the curvature of the ellipse x − 3 cos t, y − 4 sin t at
the points s3, 0d and s0, 4d. 22. Find
the tangential and normal components of the accelera-
13. Find the curvature of the curve y − x 4 at the point s1, 1d. tion vector of a particle with position function

; 14. F
ind an equation of the osculating circle of the curve rstd − t i 1 2t j 1 t 2 k
y − x 4 2 x 2 at the origin. Graph both the curve and its
osculating circle. 23. A
disk of radius 1 is rotating in the counterclockwise
direction at a constant angular speed . A particle starts at the
15. F
ind an equation of the osculating plane of the curve
center of the disk and moves toward the edge along a fixed
x − sin 2t, y − t, z − cos 2t at the point s0, , 1d.

radius so that its position at time t, t > 0, is given by shown in the figure. It looks reasonable at first glance.
rstd − t Rstd, where Show that the function

Rstd − cos t i 1 sin t j
(a) Show that the velocity v of the particle is
v − cos t i 1 sin t j 1 t vd
1
Fsxd − s1 2 x 2
s2 2 x
H if x < 0
if 0 , x , 1ys2
if x > 1ys2

is continuous and has continuous slope, but does not have
where vd − R9std is the velocity of a point on the edge of
continuous curvature. Therefore f is not an appropriate
the disk.
transfer curve.
(b) Show that the acceleration a of the particle is
a − 2 vd 1 t a d y
y=F(x)
where a d − R0std is the acceleration of a point on 1
the edge of the disk. The extra term 2 vd is called the
Coriolis acceleration; it is the result of the interaction of
the rotation of the disk and the motion of the particle.
One can obtain a physical demonstration of this accel- 0 1 x
eration by walking toward the edge of a moving œ„
2
merry-go-round.
(c) Determine the Coriolis acceleration of a particle that ; (b) Find a fifth-degree polynomial to serve as a transfer curve
moves on a rotating disk according to the equation between the following straight line segments: y − 0 for
rstd − e2t cos t i 1 e2t sin t j x < 0 and y − x for x > 1. Could this be done with a
fourth-degree polynomial? Use a graphing calculator or
24. I n designing transfer curves to connect sections of straight rail- computer to sketch the graph of the “connected” function
road tracks, it’s important to realize that the acceleration of the and check to see that it looks like the one in the figure.
train should be continuous so that the reactive force exerted by
the train on the track is also continuous. Because of the formu- y
las for the components of acceleration in Section 13.4, this will y=x
be the case if the curvature varies continuously.
(a) A logical candidate for a transfer curve to join existing
tracks given by y − 1 for x < 0 and y − s2 2 x for
transfer curve
y=0

x > 1ys2 might be the function f sxd − s1 2 x 2 ,
0 1 x

0 , x , 1ys2 , whose graph is the arc of the circle

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Problems Plus
y 1. A particle P moves with constant angular speed around a circle whose center is at the ori-
gin and whose radius is R. The particle is said to be in uniform circular motion. Assume that
the motion is counterclockwise and that the particle is at the point sR, 0d when t − 0. The
position vector at time t > 0 is rstd − R cos t i 1 R sin t j.
v vt (a) Find the velocity vector v and show that v r − 0. Conclude that v is tangent to the
r
circle and points in the direction of the motion.
x | |
(b) Show that the speed v of the particle is the constant R. The period T of the particle is
the time required for one complete revolution. Conclude that

2R 2
T− −
| |
v
FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 1
(c) Find the acceleration vector a. Show that it is proportional to r and that it points toward

the origin. An acceleration with this property is called a centripetal acceleration. Show
that the magnitude of the acceleration vector is a − R 2. | |
(d) Suppose that the particle has mass m. Show that the magnitude of the force F that is

required to produce this motion, called a centripetal force, is

| F | − |R |
2
m v

2. A circular curve of radius R on a highway is banked at an angle so that a car can safely
F traverse the curve without skidding when there is no friction between the road and the tires.
The loss of friction could occur, for example, if the road is covered with a film of water or
ice. The rated speed vR of the curve is the maximum speed that a car can attain without
skidding. Suppose a car of mass m is traversing the curve at the rated speed vR. Two forces
are acting on the car: the vertical force, mt, due to the weight of the car, and a force F
exerted by, and normal to, the road (see the figure).

¨
mg The vertical component of F balances the weight of the car, so that F cos − mt. The | |
horizontal component of F produces a centripetal force on the car so that, by Newton’s
Second Law and part (d) of Problem 1,

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 2 m vR2

| F | sin − R

(a) Show that vR2 − Rt tan .

(b) Find the rated speed of a circular curve with radius 400 ft that is banked at an angle

of 12°.
(c) Suppose the design engineers want to keep the banking at 12°, but wish to increase the

rated speed by 50%. What should the radius of the curve be?
3. A projectile is fired from the origin with angle of elevation and initial speed v0. Assuming
that air resistance is negligible and that the only force acting on the projectile is gravity, t,
y we showed in Example 13.4.5 that the position vector of the projectile is

f
rstd − sv0 cos dt i 1 sv0 sin dt 2 12 tt 2 j g

We also showed that the maximum horizontal distance of the projectile is achieved when
− 45° and in this case the range is R − v02yt.
_R 0 R x (a)
At what angle should the projectile be fired to achieve maximum height and what is the
maximum height?
(b) Fix the initial speed v0 and consider the parabola x 2 1 2Ry 2 R 2 − 0, whose graph is

FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 3 shown in the figure at the left. Show that the projectile can hit any target inside or on the
boundary of the region bounded by the parabola and the x-axis, and it can’t hit any tar-
get outside this region.

930
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
(c) Suppose that the gun is elevated to an angle of inclination in order to aim at a target

that is suspended at a height h directly over a point D units downrange (see the follow-
ing figure). The target is released at the instant the gun is fired. Show that the projectile
always hits the target, regardless of the value v0, provided the projectile does not hit the
ground “before” D.

0 D x

y
4. (a) A projectile is fired from the origin down an inclined plane that makes an angle with
the horizontal. The angle of elevation of the gun and the initial speed of the projectile
v¸
are and v0, respectively. Find the position vector of the projectile and the parametric
a equations of the path of the projectile as functions of the time t. (Ignore air resistance.)
¨ x (b) Show that the angle of elevation that will maximize the downhill range is the angle
halfway between the plane and the vertical.
(c) Suppose the projectile is fired up an inclined plane whose angle of inclination is . Show
that, in order to maximize the (uphill) range, the projectile should be fired in the direc-
tion halfway between the plane and the vertical.
(d) In a paper presented in 1686, Edmond Halley summarized the laws of gravity and pro-
FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 4 jectile motion and applied them to gunnery. One problem he posed involved firing a pro-
jectile to hit a target a distance R up an inclined plane. Show that the angle at which the
projectile should be fired to hit the target but use the least amount of energy is the same
as the angle in part (c). (Use the fact that the energy needed to fire the projectile is pro-
portional to the square of the initial speed, so minimizing the energy is equivalent to
minimizing the initial speed.)

5. A ball rolls off a table with a speed of 2 ftys. The table is 3.5 ft high.
(a) Determine the point at which the ball hits the floor and find its speed at the instant of
3.5 ft ¨ ¨ impact.
(b) Find the angle between the path of the ball and the vertical line drawn through the
point of impact (see the figure).
(c) Suppose the ball rebounds from the floor at the same angle with which it hits the floor,
FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 5 but loses 20% of its speed due to energy absorbed by the ball on impact. Where does the
ball strike the floor on the second bounce?

6. Find the curvature of the curve with parametric equations

x − y sin (21 2) d y − y cos (21 2) d

t t

0 0

7. If a projectile is fired with angle of elevation and initial speed v, then parametric equa-
tions for its trajectory are

x − sv cos dt y − sv sin dt 2 21 tt 2

(See Example 13.4.5.) We know that the range (horizontal distance traveled) is maximized
when − 45°. What value of maximizes the total distance traveled by the projectile?
(State your answer correct to the nearest degree.)

931
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
8. A cable has radius r and length L and is wound around a spool with radius R without over-
lapping. What is the shortest length along the spool that is covered by the cable?

9. Show that the curve with vector equation

rstd − ka1 t 2 1 b1 t 1 c1, a 2 t 2 1 b2 t 1 c2, a 3 t 2 1 b3 t 1 c3 l

lies in a plane and find an equation of the plane.

932
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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