Interaction This theory Bruner

emphasises the
interaction between
children and their
care-givers.
Input or Interactionist Theories

In contrast to the work of Chomsky, more recent theorists have

stressed the importance of the language input children receive
from their care-givers. Language exists for the purpose of
communication and can only be learned in the context of
interaction with people who want to communicate with you.
Interactionists such as Jerome Bruner suggest that the language
behaviour of adults when talking to children (known by several
names by most easily referred to as child-directed speech or CDS)
is specially adapted to support the acquisition process. This
support is often described to as scaffolding for the child's
language learning. Bruner also coined the term Language Acquisition
Support System or LASS in response to Chomsky's LAD. Colwyn
Trevarthen studied the interaction between parents and babies
who were too young to speak. He concluded that the turn-taking
structure of conversation is developed through games and non-
verbal communication long before actual words are uttered.

Limitations of Input theories

These theories serve as a useful corrective to Chomsky's early

position and it seems likely that a child will learn more quickly with
frequent interaction. However, it has already been noted that
children in all cultures pass through the same stages in acquiring
language. We have also seen that there are cultures in which adults
do not adopt special ways of talking to children, so CDS may be
useful but seems not to be essential. As stated earlier, the various
theories should not be seen simply as alternatives. Rather, each of
them offers a partial explanation of the process.

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Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory

Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning

theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the
learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing
knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be
learned. Students interact with the world by exploring and
manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies,
or performing experiments. As a result, students may be more
more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on
their own (in contrast to a transmissionist model). Models that are
based upon discovery learning model include: guided discovery,
problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based
learning, incidental learning, among others. Proponents of this
theory believe that discovery learning has many advantages,
including: • encourages active engagement • promotes motivation •
promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence • the development
of creativity and problem solving skills. • a tailored learning
experience Critics have sometimes cited disadvantages including: •
creation of cognitive overload • potential misconceptions • teachers
may fail to detect problems and misconceptions The theory is
closely related to work by Jean Piaget and Seymour Papert.

Interactionist Theory and ESL

How does the Interactionist Theory fit in with ESL in a classroom?

When faced with learning English as a second language, the student
is essentially an infant. They cannot communicate with the teacher
except through non-verbal communication. Therefore, it is up to
the teacher to act as the adult in the infant-adult relationship. He
or she is responsible for leading all interaction at first, and as the
student becomes more familiar with the English language and able
to communicate, the control of the interaction can be relinquished
a bit and the students can take more control of their own language
learning. Also, if students are encouraged to experiment with the
language and learn that it is okay to make mistakes, they will be
able to discover for themselves how to combine words and phrases
to form full sentences and dialogues.

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What is the Interactionist Theory?

The interactionist theory was first suggested

by Jerome Bruner in 1983 who believed that, although children do
have an innate ability to learn language, they also require plenty
of direct contact and interaction with others to achieve full
language fluency.
In other words, the theory of interaction suggests that children
can't learn to speak just by watching TV or listening to
conversations. They have to fully engage with others and
understand the contexts in which language is used.
Caregivers tend to provide the linguistic support that helps a child
learn to speak. They correct mistakes, simplify their own speech
and build the scaffolding that helps a child to develop
language. This support from caregivers can also be referred to as
the 'Language Acquisition Support System' (LASS).
The interactionist approach looks at both social and biological
perspectives to explain how children develop language. It moves
away from Noam Chomsky's Nativist Theory which failed to
recognise the importance of the social environment in language
acquisition.

The interactionist theory also suggests that:

 Children learn language as they have the desire to

communicate with the world around them (i.e., it is a
communication tool to do things like interact with others, ask
for food, and demand attention!)
 Language develops depending on social interactions. This
includes the people with whom a child may interact and the
overall experience of the interaction.
 The social environment a child grows up in greatly affects
how well and how quickly they develop their language skills.

Interactionist Theory meaning

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) first laid the foundations for the

interactionist theory when he developed the sociocultural theory
of language development.

Vygotsky suggested that children acquire their cultural values and

beliefs through interacting and collaborating with more
knowledgeable people in their community (conveniently called the
'more knowledgeable other'). He also emphasised the importance
of the cultural and social context in language learning, arguing that
social learning often comes before language development.
In other words, we pay a lot of attention to the world, the culture,
and the people around us!

Interactionist Theory example

What are some examples of the interactionist theory?

Think about how different cultures have different cultural norms

that affect the language they use.
For example, Brits may have a better understanding of sarcasm,
which is common in the British language. Vygotsky argued that
these social understandings are learned through social interaction,
especially with caregivers in early development.
Vygotsky developed key concepts such as:

 Cultural-specific tools - these are 'tools' specific to a

certain culture. This includes technical tools such as books
and media as well as psychological tools such as language,
signs, and symbols.

 Private speech - this is basically talking out loud to yourself,

for example, if a child is trying to figure out a maths question
they may talk themselves through it. After this stage,
children's private speech will become internalised monologues
(i.e., the inner speech in your own head) - although we all do
talk to ourselves sometimes!

 The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - This is the zone

of potential development in which a child can develop skills
that require the support of a more knowledgeable
teacher. This teacher can provide scaffolding, encouraging
the child and helping them to master skills and gain more
knowledge.
Characteristics of Interactionist Theory

Let's have a look at some of the key concepts within the

interactionist theory such as scaffolding, the Language Acquisition
Support System, and Child-Directed Speech.

What is scaffolding?

With regards to the interactionist theory, Bruner used the

concept of 'scaffolding' to explain the role of caregivers in child
language development. He first developed the idea from
Vygotsky's theory of proximal development which emphasised that
children need a more knowledgeable other to develop their
knowledge and skills.

Think of scaffolding on a building - it is there to support the

building whilst the bricks and windows are being put into place
before it is then gradually removed once the building is finished
and stable.

Bruner argued that caregivers provide the same kind of support

for children. They provide support (referred to as the 'Language
Acquisition Support System' (LASS) and this is gradually
removed as the child learns and develops by themselves.

What is the Language Acquisition Support System (LASS)?

LASS is a term used to describe the support from

caregivers/parents/teachers in a child's early language
development. They provide active support in social
interactions such as:
  Adjusting language to suit the child. This is sometimes
referred to as 'motherese', 'caregiver speech', 'baby talk',
or 'Child-Directed Speech (CDS)'.
 Collaborative learning such as joint reading. This can involve
an adult looking at picture books with a child and pointing out
key vocabulary, for example, by saying 'this is a banana' as
they point to a picture of a banana.
 Encouraging the child and providing feedback through
interactions. For example, the adult may smile when the child
talks and say 'yes, good, that's a banana!'
 Providing examples for the child to imitate. This includes
using certain vocabulary in certain social situations, for
example, by encouraging the child to 'say hi!' or 'say thank
you!'
 Games such as 'peek-a-boo' that practice the turn-
taking that is necessary for interactions

Bruner developed the concept of the LASS in response to

Noam Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Both concepts
of the LASS and LAD argue that we are born with an innate ability
to acquire language, however, the LASS takes this one step
further, arguing that we also require interaction with others to
learn.

What is Child-Directed Speech (CDS)?

In the interactionist theory, child-directed speech (CDS for short)

refers to the way in which caregivers and adults typically speak
to children. It is thought to enhance communication between child
and caregiver by helping the child to identify sounds, syllables, and
words in sentences. The slow and melodic speech is also thought to
hold the attention of toddlers.
What are examples of Child-Directed Speech?

Some examples of Child-Directed Speech in the theory of

interaction includes:

 Simplified language - generally, adults will use

straightforward language when talking to children so that
they are more easily understood, e.g., by using a more limited
vocabulary and grammatically simplified sentences.
 Repetitive questioning - e.g., 'what is it? what's this?'
 Repetitive language - e.g., 'it's a cat. Look, it's a cat'
 Slowed speech
 Higher and more melodic pitch - i.e., by making their voice go
up and down
 More frequent and longer pauses

Evidence for Interactionist Theory

The interactionist theory is supported by some studies that

emphasise the importance of interaction in language learning. This
includes the following:

The importance of parent-child social interaction

A study by Carpenter, Nagell, Tomasello, Butterworth, and

Moore (1998) showed the importance of parent-child social
interaction when learning to speak. They studied factors such as
joint attentional engagement (e.g., reading a book together), gaze
and point following, gestures, and understanding/producing
language. The results showed a correlation between parent-child
social interactions (e.g., joint attention) and language skills,
suggesting that interaction is important in a child's development of
language.
The importance of joint attention

The importance of joint attention in language learning is also

shown in Kuhl's (2003) study. Joint attention helped children to
recognise speech boundaries (i.e., where one word ends and another
begins).

The importance of a lack of interaction

The Genie Case Study about Genie the 'feral' child' (1970) shows

how a lack of interaction in early life negatively affects
language learning. Genie was kept locked in a room and deprived of
contact for her first 13 years of life. This early stage is believed
to be the critical period of language acquisition (i.e., the key
timeframe in which a child acquires language).

When she was discovered, Genie lacked basic language skills,

however, she had a strong desire to communicate. Over the next
few years, although she did learn to acquire plenty of new words,
she never managed to apply grammatical rules and speak language
fluently. Genie's lack of language skills and failure to acquire
fluent language can therefore support the idea that interaction
with a caregiver is vital in language acquisition.

Limitations of Interactionist Theory

There are some limitations to the interactionist theory:

1. Researchers such as Elinor Ochs and Bambi B.

Schieffelin have suggested that the data collected from
studies supporting the Interactionist theory are
actually over-representative of middle-class, white,
 western families. This means that the data may not be as
applicable to parent-child interactions in other classes or
cultures who may speak to their children differently but still
acquire fluent speech.
2. It has been noted that children from cultures where Child-
Directed Speech isn't used as frequently (e.g., Papua New
Guinea) still develop fluent language and pass through the
same stages when acquiring language. This suggests that
Child-Directed Speech isn't essential in language acquisition.

Interactionist Theory - Key takeaways

 The interactionist theory emphasises the importance

of interaction and social environment in acquiring language,
whilst also recognising that language is innate, suggesting
that children develop language because they desire to
communicate with the world.

 The theory was first suggested

by Jerome Bruner in 1983 and derives from Vygotsky's socio-
cultural theory which emphasises the importance of culture
and social context in language learning.

 The sociocultural theory highlights the importance of social-

pragmatic cues (e.g., body language, tone of voice) that are
taught to a child alongside language in relation to
the context of a situation.

 Scaffolding, first inspired by Vygotsky's 'Zone of Proximal

Development', refers to the assistance provided by a more
 knowledgeable caregiver that helps a child to develop their
language.

 A limitation of the theory is that some linguists believe the

data supporting the theory is over-representative of middle-
class, Western families.

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