Perret Mahindra Seminar
Perret Mahindra Seminar
Perret Mahindra Seminar
Meg Perret
“Why Do Pandas Have So Little Sex?”
Representations of Giant Panda Reproduction in Zoo Captive-Breeding Programs
“Pandas are so stupid about sex that they just don’t have what it takes for a species to stay afloat.”
—The Washington Post
Abstract: Giant pandas are notoriously difficult to breed in captivity. Captive breeding programs
have sought to improve the reproductive success of captive giant pandas by using assisted
reproductive technologies, administering Viagra to the pandas, showing the pandas pornography, and
arranging panda “speed dating.” This chapter analyzes representations of captive panda
reproduction in captive breeding programs between 1985 and 2020 in popular culture and scientific
research conducted by conservation biologists in the U.S. and China. Between 1985 and 2015, both
scientists and the media characterized low male libido in which male pandas almost never showed
sexual interest in females in captivity as the primary causes of poor reproductive
outcomes. Then, following a series of studies conducted by researchers at the San Diego Zoo,
scientists instead emphasized the issue of mate compatibility in determining captive breeding
outcomes between 2015 and 2020. Yet, media narratives remained focused on male panda’s sexual
deficiency until 2018 when right-wing media outlets described male pandas as “sex crazed.” Using
methods from feminist theory, this chapter examines the influence of cultural norms of gender and
sexuality on the history of representations of captive panda reproduction. While previous scholars
have analyzed panda exhibitions in zoos, representations of panda reproduction in scientific research,
popular scientific magazines, and documentary film remain understudied. This case study has
implications for understanding how representations of endangered species are entangled with
narratives about the future of human gender and sexuality.
Introduction
Giant pandas are notoriously difficult to breed in captivity. As the symbol of the environmental
nonprofit, World Wildlife Fund, the giant panda has possibly raised more funds for conservation
than all other species combined.1 Yet, scientists still struggle to get them to reproduce reliably in
captive breeding programs. In order to improve the reproductive success of pandas, scientists
have used assisted reproductive technologies, administered Viagra to the pandas, increased
panda sexual stamina through “sexercises,” and arranged panda “speed dating.”2 Further, to
encourage sexual interest in male pandas, conservation organizations have collaborated with the
sex.3 In an animated promotional video for the PornHub collaboration, a sad female panda with a
big pink bow struggles to get a male panda interested in sex, meanwhile he turns from her to
watch TV and munch on bamboo.4 Relatedly, at the crossroads of environmentalism and human
reproductive politics, condom company sells “pandoms,” or condoms with pandas printed on
them, and donates a portion of their profits to endangered species conservation and to the
1
The title is from: Edward Wong, “Lousy Libidos: Why Do Pandas Have So Little Sex?,” New
York Times, September 30, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/01/world/what-in-the-world/lousy-
libidos-why-do-pandas-have-so-little-sex.html. The epigraph is from: Rick Weiss, “For Zookeepers, the
Obsession with Survival Has One Focus,” Washington Post, January 10, 2001,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/01/10/for-zookeepers-the-obsession-with-
survival-has-one-focus/db689ef5-d4c7-4cc9-9916-bf6e6cd63101/.
2
“Panda Porn and Speed Dating Key to Species’ Survival,” ABC News, May 24, 2017,
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-05-24/pandas-shown-breeding-animals-in-research-program/8551190.
When I asked biologist Meghan Martin-Wintle about if pandas thought that the people in panda suits were
actually pandas, she replied that she has not seen panda porn used in the zoos she has collaborated with.
3
PornHub, “Panda Style,” video, March 16–April 17, 2014,
https://www.pornhub.com/cares/panda-style.
4
PornHub, “Panda Style.” The narrator asks, “How can you help pandas reproduce? Well, you can
help PornHub create panda style porn!”
5
The company hopes to intervene into extinction and human population politics and illustrates its
website with evolutionary imagery of a series of babies evolving from pandas to orangutans to humans;
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Figure 1: “Make Love, Save Pandas! Panda Style,” Promotional material for Pornhub “Panda
Porn” Project
YouTube video, Pandas Are Worse at Sex Than You, which relays that male pandas have tried to
mate with an ear or foot, and that males have disproportionately small penises and tire easily
during mating.6 With New York Times headlines such as “Lousy Libido: Why Do Pandas Have
So Little Sex” and popular-science articles such as “The Complicated Sex Lives of Giant
Pandas,” media depictions often use gendered rhetoric to emphasize difficulties in panda
reproduction.7
Conservationists consider the giant panda to be possibly the most adored zoo animal in
the world.8 Endemic to the mountains of Sichuan, Gansu, and Shaanxi provinces in China, the
Hobby Link Japan, “Panpan: Panda Condoms,” accessed June 15, 2022, https://www.hlj.com/panpan-
panda-condoms-1box-48pcs-nkn67405.
6
Animalogic, “Pandas Are Worse at Sex Than You,” video, series Animal Attractions, written and
produced by Dylan Dubeau, produced by Alex Sopinka, filmed and edited by Andrew Strapp, hosted by
Danielle Dufault, May 6, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IToO8mlYXzY.
7
Joseph Castro, “The Complicated Sex Lives of Giant Pandas,” Live Science, September 27, 2016,
https://www.livescience.com/56269-animal-sex-giant-pandas.html; Wong, “Lousy Libidos: Why Do
Pandas Have So Little Sex?”
8
Avie Schneider, “Agreed, Baby Pandas Are Cute. But Why?,” NPR, January 10, 2013,
https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/01/10/169057467/agreed-baby-pandas-are-cute-but-why.
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giant panda is also a flagship species, or a species selected as an ambassador for conservation of
a whole geographic region. Chinese Wolong National Nature Reserve, Smithsonian National
Zoo, and San Diego Zoo have collaborated on developing assisted reproductive technologies and
captive breeding programs for the giant panda. The amount of resources dedicated to the captive
breeding of pandas has been a topic of controversy, with British naturalist Christopher Packham
offering to “eat the last panda” if doing so would free up conservation funding for other species.9
This chapter considers debates in biodiversity science and the media surrounding why
examination of this case study, this chapter considers how cultural norms of gender and sexuality
influence how scientists, zoos, and popular culture describe the reproduction of endangered
species. My methodology draws upon scholarship in feminist science studies that uses rhetorical
analysis to study the inextricability of scientific and cultural discourses, especially around issues
of gender, sexuality, and race.10 This chapter focuses on the interplay between scientific research
in conservation biology and popular science sources that seek to educate the public about
conservation issues, including such magazines as National Geographic and Scientific American,
and publications by the San Diego Zoo and the Smithsonian National Zoo. I conducted discourse
analysis of representations of captive-panda reproduction between 1963 and 2021, with the
majority of documents analyzed dated between 2000 and 2018. I analyzed two science
documentary films, The Panda Baby (2001), produced by the San Diego Zoo, and The Life of
Rare Pandas (2018), created by National Geographic. I conducted in-depth 45-minute semi-
9
David Owen, “Bears Do It,” New Yorker, August 26, 2013,
https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/09/02/bears-do-it.
10
Haraway, Primate Visions; Subramaniam, Ghost Stories for Darwin.
11
I interviewed Meghan Martin-Wintle and Ron Swaisgood.
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between 1985 and 2015 cites abnormal male reproductive behavior, especially either lack of
male libido or excessive aggression of the male toward the female, as the primary cause of failed
mating. While much less research focuses on maternal care, high infant mortality was also
considered an issue for captive-breeding programs. By 2015, there was a shift in scientific
research that instead emphasized mate compatibility as the central issue in panda captive
breeding. Conservation biologist Meghan Martin-Wintle and the San Diego Zoo were
instrumental in the development of this research trajectory. Throughout the history of scientific
research in this subfield, scientists have referred to the importance of developing ecologically
informed captive-breeding programs that mimic the social and sexual systems of wild pandas.
Yet, as I show through my analysis in this chapter, both scientific and popular-science
representations persistently described the behavior of captive pandas through reference to human
gender and sexual stereotypes that are normalized and naturalized. Additionally, I find that
biodiversity discourse often frames the future of endangered species with cultural anxieties about
This chapter makes scholarly interventions into feminist science studies and critical
animal studies. In an examination of pandas at the Smithsonian National Zoo in the 1970s and
1980s, Lisa Uddin argues that the zoo’s exhibit emphasizes nationalist heterosexual reproductive
anxieties, which the presenters project onto the pandas as objects of nation-building.12 Analyzing
the panda exhibit at the Toronto National Zoo in 2013, Marianna Szczygielska describes how the
display projects cultural ideas of race and sexuality onto the pandas as a fantasy of controlled,
12
Lisa Uddin, “Panda Gardens and Public Sex at the National Zoological Park,” Public, 2010,
https://public.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/public/article/view/32015.
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representations of pandas in zoo exhibitions, this chapter examines the history of scientific
research on captive pandas and its relationship to depictions of pandas in popular science. This is
also one of the first published analyses focused on pandas at the San Diego Zoo.
Historians such as Nigel Rothfels and Elizabeth Hanson have shown that modern zoos
began integrating conservation goals with their existing commitments to entertainment and
scientific research in the middle of the twentieth century.14 My discussion of scientific research
on panda captive-breeding programs contributes to debates in animal studies on the role of zoos
in shaping the future of endangered species in the context of a biodiversity crisis.15 Moreover,
representations of the future of endangered species builds upon previous work by scholars in
media studies who have analyzed depictions of zoo animals in popular culture.16
Section I details the history of research on the reproduction of giant pandas in captivity in
China and the United States between 1963—when captive-breeding centers were first
established—and the present day. Section II examines scientific and popular representations
between 1985 and 2020 of problems in male panda reproductive behaviors—typically, lack of
male libido or excessive male aggression toward females—that prevent successful mating in
captivity. I show how scientific and media depictions of male pandas often reference cultural
13
Marianna Szczygielska, “Pandas and the Reproduction of Race and Heterosexuality in the Zoo,”
in Zoo Studies: A New Humanities, ed. Tracy McDonald and Daniel Vandersommers (Montreal: McGill-
Queen’s University Press, 2019), 211–36.
14
Nigel Rothfels, Savages and Beasts: The Birth of the Modern Zoo, Animals, History, Culture
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), Kindle; Elizabeth Hanson, Animal Attractions:
Nature on Display in American Zoos (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), Kindle.
15
Carrie Friese, Cloning Wild Life: Zoos, Captivity, and the Future of Endangered Animals (New
York: New York University Press, 2013).
16
Noël Sturgeon, Environmentalism in Popular Culture.
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ideas about the “naturalness” of male sexual aggression. Section III scrutinizes scientific
research on the importance of mate choice in panda reproduction, which has been incredibly
successful in increasing the chances of mating in captivity. I examine this research in relation to
documentary films.
Originally indexed in 1965 with the IUCN red list, a global database of species
considered to be at risk for extinction, the giant panda has since become an icon for biodiversity
conservation. The reproduction of captive panda populations became a target for scientific
management in China in the 1960s. Captive-breeding centers for pandas were first established in
1963, the same year as the first managed-care birth, at the Peking Zoo in Beijing, China.17 This
first cub, named Ming-Ming, was born on September 9, 1963, by natural mating in captivity.18
The use of artificial insemination in panda captive-breeding programs began later, in 1965, and
Captive-breeding programs in zoos in China and abroad had new successes in the 1970s
and 1980s. In 1972, the Chinese government gifted President Nixon a pair of pandas named
Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing; they were housed at the Smithsonian National Zoo, which then
became the first U.S. zoo to exhibit giant pandas.20 In 1978, Yuan Jing became the first panda
17
George B. Schaller, The Giant Pandas of Wolong (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
18
Schaller, Giant Pandas of Wolong.
19
Schaller, Giant Pandas of Wolong.
20
There was some concern among those in the U.S. that China might send two animals of the same
sex, and then anxiety arose over inability to tell which panda was male and which was female. Newspaper
articles bemoaned the use of Chinese names that prevented interested “fans” in the U.S. from easily
knowing the sex of each panda.
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successfully produced by artificial insemination at the Peking Zoo.21 A couple of years later, the
first cub resulting from artificial insemination with frozen sperm was born at the Chengdu Zoo in
China in 1980.22 After a decade of trial and error, Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing at the Smithsonian
National Zoo mated naturally for the first time in 1983.23 The pair produced four cubs between
In 1992, the San Diego Zoo’s Center for the Reproduction of Endangered Species
captivity.25 The San Diego Zoo was the first U.S. institution to be approved for the importation
of pandas under the new guidelines created by the American Association of Zoological Parks and
Aquariums (AAZPA) and IUCN, which specified that the exportation of pandas from China to
foreign countries must involve research that directly benefited species conservation.26 In 1995,
the U.S. Department of the Interior approved the first five years of a twelve-year loan to the San
Diego Zoo of a pair of pandas for research on panda communication and reproduction.27
American zoos have since been instrumental in the implementation of “species survival plans”
which were developed with the IUCN and the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), an
international organization of zoos, with the goal of using captive breeding to save species from
extinction.28
21
David E. Wildt et al., eds., Giant Pandas: Biology, Veterinary Medicine and Management
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), Kindle.
22
Wildt et al., Giant Pandas.
23
Susan Lumpkin and John Seidensticker, Smithsonian Book of Giant Pandas (Washington, DC:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002).
24
Lumpkin and Seidensticker, Smithsonian Book of Giant Pandas.
25
San Diego Zoological Society, The Panda Baby, video, 2001,
https://archive.org/details/ThePandaBaby.
26
Center for Reproduction of Endangered Species (CRES) Newsletter, Spring 1995,
https://calisphere.org/item/ark:/13960/t8kf0pk0n/.
27
Center for Reproduction of Endangered Species Newsletter, Spring 1995.
28
Association of Zoos and Aquariums, “Species Survival Plan Programs,” accessed July 2, 2022,
https://www.aza.org/species-survival-plan-programs?locale=en.
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In the 1990s, as part of the collaboration between the San Diego Zoo and Wolong,
scientists created new protocols for caring for when pandas give birth to twins. Scientists
developed the method of “twin swapping,” which involves rotating each cub between maternal
rearing and the nursey, which was “highly successful,” with nearly all the cubs surviving, and is
China expanded its captive-breeding programs in the 1990s, establishing three large
breeding programs for giant pandas in China during that period: the China Conservation and
Research Center for the Giant Panda in the Woolong Reserve, the Chengdu Research Base of
Giant Panda Breeding, and the Beijing Peking Zoo.30 The largest and most successful of these
centers is the Woolong Reserve, which also provides a study population for much of the research
on captive pandas. Eighteen individuals were taken from the wild from 1991 through 1996 for
technologies (ART) and infant rearing, the number of pandas at the captive-breeding programs in
China has increased exponentially.32 The first surviving cub outside of China was born using the
methods of artificial insemination at the San Diego Zoo in 1999.33 China owns all pandas that are
In 1996, the Chinese Association of Zoological Gardens requested advice from the
29
William Holt, Janine Brown, and Pierre Comizzoli, eds., Reproductive Sciences in Animal
Conservation (New York: Springer International AG, 2019), ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/harvard-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5888989.
30
Wildt et al., Giant Pandas.
31
Songster, Panda Nation.
32
Songster, Panda Nation.
33
Karyl Carmignani, “Panda Cub Number One,” ZOONOOZ [San Diego Zoo], March 29, 2019,
https://zoonooz.sandiegozoo.org/2019/03/29/panda-cub-number-one/.
34
Songster, Panda Nation.
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Group, in order to “resolve health and reproductive problems facing giant pandas.”35 The book
that summarizes the findings of this collaboration, Giant Pandas: Biology, Veterinary Medicine,
and Management (2006), is the first book devoted to captive panda management and breeding.36
Scientists involved with the captive breeding of giant pandas are a multidisciplinary team of
biologists who conduct research primarily in zoos. While this chapter focuses on the case study
of giant pandas, difficulties with captive breeding are not unique to that species, as zoos have
Scientific research on wild giant pandas began in the 1970s.38 As one of the pioneers of
panda research, George B. Schaller led a research collaboration between the World Wildlife
Fund and the New York Zoological Society.39 As a mammologist and conservation biologist who
studies African and Asian mammals, Schaller spent most of his career working as a field
biologist and is known for his observations of pandas, lions, and gorillas.40 He served as the
director of the New York Zoological Society’s International Conservation Program, which was
35
Wildt et al., Giant Pandas, xxi.
36
Wildt et al., Giant Pandas.
37
Leslie Kaufman, “Date Night at the Zoo, If Rare Species Play Along,” New York Times, July 5,
2012, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/science/matchmaking-at-zoos-is-rising-for-threatened-
species.html.
38
San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) Fact Sheet: Summary,
ca. 2001–2018, last updated March 9, 2021, http://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/giantpanda.
39
The change in the IUCN risk status of pandas was controversial among conservationists;
Schaller, Giant Pandas of Wolong.
40
Schaller, Giant Pandas of Wolong.
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Schaller’s first book on pandas, published in 1985, was The Giant Pandas of Wolong.41
In the book, Schaller observes that pandas have a polyandrous mating system, with male
competition in which the dominant male mates with a female in estrus. Schaller also notes that
females are seasonally estrus, with a window of fertility that lasts two to three days per year. The
book documents two observational events in which he witnessed panda mating behavior.
Because pandas are rare and difficult to observe in nature, these observations still constitute the
In his 1985 book, Schaller argues that lack of “synchronization” between the
reproductive states of males and females causes male sexual aggression and low libido in
“Remaining apart, but near each other until the female is fully receptive and subordinate to the
male, a pair is likely to have less quarrelsome interactions.”42 This framing draws upon sexist
ideas of female sexual passivity and submission, and resonates with findings in previous feminist
scholarship that document how scientists impose gender norms onto animals and interpret
observations of animal reproduction through the lens of gender and sexual normatively.43
Well into the 1990s, captive-breeding programs struggled to get pandas to mate
“naturally” in captivity.44 In 1996, the IUCN Captive Breeding Specialist Group met in Chengdu,
China, where they estimated that only six living males in captivity had ever mated naturally.
Similarly, Lindburg, Huang, and Huang estimated that only 30% of living males in captivity had
41
Schaller, Giant Pandas of Wolong.
42
Schaller, Giant Pandas of Wolong, 187.
43
Haraway, Primate Visions.
44
In biodiversity discourse, mating “naturally” generally references reproduction without artificial
insemination.
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ever mated naturally.45 The San Diego Zoo, the Smithsonian Zoo, and the Chinese Wolong
Research and Conservation Center for the Giant Panda are the three primary institutions that
behaviorist and biological anthropologist, Donald Lindburg, the head of the Office of Giant
Panda Conservation at the Zoological Society of San Diego, managed the zoo’s international
collaborations with the Chinese Wolong Nature Reserve, including the twelve-year loan of
pandas for scientific research on panda reproduction in captivity. This research was undertaken
in collaboration with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums,
Early research on captive panda mating attributes the lack of reproductive success to
male aggression toward females and to male sexual indifference. As the result of a collaboration
between researchers at the San Diego Zoo and Chinese scientists, Zhang, Swaisgood, and Zhang
evaluated the behavioral factors influencing reproductive success and failure in captive giant
pandas by conducting surveys of reproductive behavior at the Wolong Reserve.46 Zhang and
colleagues argue that “the primary factor that limits mating success is a lack of male sexual
motivation and/or copulatory proficiency.”47 As the first survey of captive giant panda
reproduction, the study finds: “Most instances of mating failure were attributed to male behavior.
45
D. G. Lindburg, X. Huang, and S. Huang, “Reproductive Performance of Giant Panda Males in
Chinese Zoos,” in International Symposium on the Protection of the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda
melanoleuca), ed. A. Zhang and G. He (Chengdu, China: Sichuan Publishing House of Science and
Technology, 1998), 67–71.
46
Guiquan Zhang, Ronald R. Swaisgood, and Hemin Zhang, “Evaluation of Behavioral Factors
Influencing Reproductive Success and Failure in Captive Giant Pandas,” Zoo Biology 23, no. 1 (2004):
15–31.
47
Zhang, Swaisgood, and Zhang, “Evaluation of Behavioral Factors,” 28.
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In nearly half of mating failures, the male mounted but did not copulate. In about one-third of
mating failures, the male lacked sexual motivation, and showed excessive aggression 20% of the
time.”48 The failed matings were the occurrence of sexual mounting without penetration, which
indicates that the male “was only marginally sexually aroused and/or appears to lack the
A 2001 documentary produced by the San Diego Zoo titled The Panda Baby documents
the birth of the first panda baby at the San Diego Zoo’s captive-breeding program for giant
pandas.50 Much of the film focuses on the difficulties of getting the female panda, Bai Yun, and
the male panda, Shi Shi, to reproduce. In portraying the initial attempts at introducing Bai Yun to
Shi Shi for mating, the documentary narrates how “she does her best to attract him” but “each
time he rejects her.”51 Donald Lindburg says that this was a “supreme disappointment.”52 He
continues, “What will it take to get this male interested in her? It is as though his brain had been
short circuited in some way.”53 The documentary shows a news clip from spring 1998 that says:
“She’s in the mood but he could care less. But that’s panda love at the San Diego Zoo.”54
Media articles in the 2000s similarly focused on the low libidos of male pandas. For
example, in 2010, Scientific American draws on stereotypes of masculinity in writing that “From
a human perspective, the notion of a male who is only interested in sex for a short period of time
48
Zhang, Swaisgood, and Zhang, “Evaluation of Behavioral Factors,” 15.
49
Zhang, Swaisgood, and Zhang, “Evaluation of Behavioral Factors,” 21.
50
San Diego Zoological Society, The Panda Baby, video, 2001,
https://archive.org/details/ThePandaBaby.
51
San Diego Zoological Society, Panda Baby.
52
San Diego Zoological Society, Panda Baby.
53
San Diego Zoological Society, Panda Baby.
54
San Diego Zoological Society, Panda Baby.
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each year is laughable. But not all male mammals are ready to go at it wherever, whenever.”55
Similarly, the Washington Post writes that scientists can “only guess” why “captive male pandas
so often respond to fertile female with hostility instead of hugs—or worse yet, by yawning and
walking away. So abiding is romantic ennui among captive male pandas that some scientists
have actually considered slipping the big brutes some Viagra.”56 The article continues that some
people consider pandas to be a “failure of evolution,” doomed to extinction in part because their
social and sexual needs are so specialized.57 According to the article, others say that pandas are
“so stupid about sex that they just don’t have what it takes for a species to stay afloat.”58 The
article quotes biologist Ron Swaisgood, of the San Diego Zoo’s Center for Reproduction of
Endangered Species, refuting these claims and explaining that describing pandas as sexually
In an analysis of cultural discourse, feminist scholar Lisa Uddin argues that male pandas
such as Hsing-Hsing at the Smithsonian National Zoo have been portrayed as emasculated
because they are unable to mate naturally with females.60 Zhang, Swaisgood, and Zhang’s
portrayals of abnormalities in male panda reproductive behavior also inadvertently resonate with
the underlying gendered narrative that portrays male pandas as sexually deficient because of
their lack of aggression. This reinforces sexual stereotypes of men as being more sexually
aggressive and having higher libidos than women. Moreover, the gendered framings of panda
55
Ferris Jabr, “In the Heat for a Moment: The Male Giant Panda’s Sex Drive Fluctuates to Match
the Female’s Short-Lived Libido,” Scientific American, April 4, 2012,
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/male-panda-sex-drive/.
56
Rick Weiss, “For Zookeepers, the Obsession with Survival Has One Focus,” Washington Post,
January 10, 2001, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/01/10/for-zookeepers-the-
obsession-with-survival-has-one-focus/db689ef5-d4c7-4cc9-9916-bf6e6cd63101/.
57
Weiss, “For Zookeepers, the Obsession with Survival Has One Focus.”
58
Weiss, “For Zookeepers, the Obsession with Survival Has One Focus.”
59
Weiss, “For Zookeepers, the Obsession with Survival Has One Focus.”
60
Uddin, “Panda Gardens and Public Sex.”
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mating in zoos reflect how early scientific research was guided by an assumption that captive
males often lacked the “natural” male aggression observed in the wild.
Research in the 2000s found that aggression was a significant factor in determining
mating outcomes. Coedited by Donald Lindburg at the San Diego Zoological Society and Karen
Baragona at the World Wildlife Fund, Giant Pandas: Biology and Conservation report in 2004
pandas.61 Susie Ellis at Conservation International is the lead author on the chapter that
concludes that multiple factors were impeding panda mating in captivity, including unknown
paternity; genetic overrepresentation; poor nutrition; male reproductive health conditions; and
behavioral problems, especially male aggressiveness. They report that male aggression often
limited the introduction of males to females for mating. Seemingly paradoxically, of the twenty-
three behaviorally based personality characteristics assessed using keeper surveys, being wild-
born and aggressiveness contributed most significantly to successful breeding and the
researchers found no significant sex differences. Despite aggression’s often limiting the
introduction to breeding, the survey found that aggressiveness as a personality trait in pandas
increased breeding success if both sexes in the mating encounter were aggressive.
between the Smithsonian National Zoo, San Diego Zoo, and Chinese scientists, Wildt et al. write
that reproduction has been “poor” due to the “lack of male libido or aggressive behaviors
towards conspecific females” that included “injuries that prevented safe introduction for
61
Donald Lindburg and Karen Baragona, eds., Giant Pandas: Biology and Conservation (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2004).
62
Wildt et al., Giant Pandas, loc. 1124 and 1159, Kindle (quote from chapter 3 titled “Factors
limiting reproductive success in the giant panda as revealed by a biomedical survey”).
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evaluated on a continuum based on keeper surveys. Their behavioral survey found that mating
was most likely to occur when both sexes were aggressive but not when only one partner was
aggressive. Wildt et al. conclude: “[A]ggression in captive giant pandas may be a useful
behavioral characteristic for both males and females even though male hyper-aggression has
been cited for breeding failure in captivity.”63 They speculate that males may be aggressive
because of misplaced aggression toward females that would have been naturally expressed as
male competition in the wild, and argue that “it makes sense that a behaviorally aggressive
female is more competent at handling an aggressive male, and perhaps breeding is less
successful when only one of the animals is aggressive.”64 Acknowledging the complexity of
these findings, Wildt et al. write: “Obviously, there is a fine line between ‘healthy’ aggressive
Wildt et al. interpret the behavior of captive animals in relation to the behavior of wild
pandas despite the pandas being in a human-dominated environment that drastically alters how
they relate to one another socially. Moreover, depictions of panda mating reference notions of
natural aggression in the wild, despite the paucity of observations of wild-panda mating by field
underdetermined by the current evidence available, meaning that more evidence would be
needed to solidify these interpretations of wild-panda mating.66 This rhetoric about male
63
Wildt et al., Giant Pandas, loc. 1175, Kindle (quote from chapter 3 titled “Factors limiting
reproductive success in the giant panda as revealed by a biomedical survey”).
64
Wildt et al., Giant Pandas, loc. 1780, Kindle (Quote from chapter 3 titled “Factors limiting
reproductive success in the giant panda as revealed by a biomedical survey”).
65
Wildt et al., Giant Pandas, loc. 1124, Kindle (Quote from chapter 3 titled “Factors limiting
reproductive success in the giant panda as revealed by a biomedical survey”).
66
For more on the underdetermination, see Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge:
Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
Perret Draft 16
aggression during mating shares some similarities with 1970s and 1980s sociobiological theories
of the naturalness of male sexual aggression, which at its most extreme describes rape as a
reproductive strategy and aggression in females as an adaptation to avoid rape. Feminist critics
most recently contested these theories after the publication of Thornhill and Palmer’s 2000 book,
A Natural History of Rape, which argues that rape is an evolutionarily adaptive and biologically
Interestingly, media articles reporting on excessive male panda sexual aggression were
largely absent from popular discourse during the 2000s. Instead, the narrative that captive male
pandas are sexually deficient persisted into the early 2010s. This could be because this narrative
resonates with narratives of masculinity in crisis already present within cultural discourse. For
example, the New York Times ran a story titled “Lousy Libidos: Why Do Pandas Have So Little
Sex?” by Edward Wong.68 The author writes, “Pandas are cuddly, but not to each other. They
muster about as much enthusiasm for sex as a human does for a root canal.”69 Wong continues
that pandas have “very little notion of how to go about it.”70 They conclude, “Captivity is a real
mood-killer.”71 Much of the 2010s discourse documents outlandish efforts of scientists to get
pandas to mate in captivity, including panda porn, speed dating, Viagra, and so on. In a 2010
Scientific American article titled “Porn for Pandas,” author Jason Goldman states that “pandas
are endangered in part because the males often prefer eating to mating.”72 He continues: “[G]iant
67
Cheryl Brown Travis, ed., Evolution, Gender, and Rape (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003). It is
important to note that, despite some rhetorical commonalities, conservation biology and sociobiology
have very different political motivations.
68
Wong, “Lousy Libidos.”
69
Wong, “Lousy Libidos,” sec. A, p. 5.
70
Wong, “Lousy Libidos,” sec. A, p. 5.
71
Wong, “Lousy Libidos,” sec. A, p. 5.
72
Jason G. Goldman, “Porn for Pandas!,” The Thoughtful Animal (blog), Scientific American, July
5, 2010, https://blogs-scientificamerican-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/thoughtful-animal/porn-for-
pandas/.
Perret Draft 17
panda dudes in captivity would rather sit around and munch on bamboo than get it on with
females.”73 The article reports on several measures to try to increase male libido, including
showing the pandas “panda porn” or videos of pandas having sex. As Goldman describes: “In the
privacy of their own cages, captive male pandas watch the sights and sounds of love-making on
TV” (Figure 2, below)74 He also details the pandas’ “sexercises,” or exercises intended to
strengthen the males’ legs to increase sexual stamina. Lastly, scientists choreograph an
“occasional menage a trois,” which is not explained by the article but likely refers to exposing
Representations in popular culture also insinuate that these reproductive issues may cause
pandas to go extinct. A 2021 TikTok video by Mamadou Ndiaye opens with the statement that
giant pandas “are bad at literally everything.”76 The video continues: “They are so bad at sex”
73
Goldman, “Porn for Pandas!”
74
Goldman, “Porn for Pandas!”
75
Translation from French: an arrangement (often domestic) where three people share a sexual
relationship.
76
Mamadou Ndiaye, TikTok (@mndiaye_97), accessed June 27, 2021.
Perret Draft 18
because female pandas are fertile only two days a year. “They are bad at staying alive” because
sometimes the mom “accidentally sits on [her babies] and takes them out.” If pandas have twins,
they will raise one and abandon the other, and thus they “are bad at parenting.” The video
concludes: “Their only real talent is being cute and if they weren’t we wouldn’t be spending
millions of dollars protecting an animal that nature doesn’t have a plan for.” The narrator implies
that pandas are so bad at reproducing that perhaps they are destined for extinction. In a 2016
YouTube video, Pandas Are Worse at Sex Than You, the narrator says, that pandas “seem to
have done everything in their power to go extinct. I am not convinced that pandas want to
live.”77 She relays that male pandas have tried to mate with ear or foot, and that males have
disproportionately small penises and tire easily during mating. Journalist Timothy Lavin wrote a
column for Bloomberg titled “Why I Hate Pandas and You Should Too” writes that pandas are a
“hopeless and wasteful species the world should've given up on long ago.”78
Reports on male panda sexual aggression surfaced later, in the late 2010s. The Wall
Street Journal reported that the “uncuddly truth about pandas” is that “bears are tough, sexually
potent survivors, not the hapless bunglers we have created as zoo attractions.”79 The author
writes that the male that wins competitions for the female would have sex over 40 times in a
single afternoon, and that “the real panda is a secret stud, with a taste for flesh and a fearsome
bite, at least in its natural habitat.”80 In 2018, Fox News commentator Tucker Carlson, inspired
by the Wall Street Journal story, stated that pandas are “sex-crazed and aggressive” (Figure 3,
77
Animalogic, “Pandas Are Worse at Sex Than You,” video, series Animal Attractions, written and
produced by Dylan Dubeau, produced by Alex Sopinka, filmed and edited by Andrew Strapp, hosted by
Danielle Dufault, May 6, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IToO8mlYXzY.
78
Timothy Lavin, “Why I Hate Pandas and You Should Too,” Bloomberg Opinion, August 27,
2013, https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2013-08-27/why-i-hate-pandas-and-you-should-too.
79
Lucy Cooke, “The Un-Cuddly Truth about Pandas,” Wall Street Journal, April 6, 2018,
https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-un-cuddly-truth-about-pandas-1523025742.
80
Cooke, “Un-Cuddly Truth about Pandas.”
Perret Draft 19
below).81 He said: “You know the official story about pandas—they’re cute, they’re adorably
helpless, which is why they’re almost extinct. But like a lot of what we hear, that’s a lie…
They’re not against sex, either, they just hate unsexy zoos. But when they’re in the wild, male
pandas engage in a fierce sexual contest.”82 A 2021 BBC News story, “The Truth about Giant
Pandas,” reported:
There is a lot of confusion about giant pandas, possibly more than any other species alive.
But to smirk at the diminutive size of the male panda’s winkie, to mock the female panda
for being frigid and to propose the species only has itself to blame for its endangered
status is nothing short of biological ignorance. It turns out that threesome or more-somes
are pretty standard for giant pandas in the wild, an arrangement that would be hard to
replicate in any zoo. In just over three hours, Schaller recorded the large male mating
with Zhen-Zhen at least 48 times, roughly once every three minutes. This is way more
sex than most humans get in a year.83
This quote references the biologist Schaller’s 1985 observations of panda mating in the
wild. The focus on male panda sexual aggression constitutes a reversal of previous media
rhetoric that focused on the lack of sexual desire in pandas. Instead, this portrayal of panda
mating resonates with popular discourse that depicts domesticity and sexual desire as “naturally”
incompatible, such as Mating in Captivity: Unlocking Erotic Intelligence, a self-help book about
81
Jon Levine, “Tucker Carlson Exposes Aggressive Sex-Crazed Pandas: ‘Secret Stud with a Taste
for Flesh’ (Video),” TheWrap, April 10, 2018, https://www.thewrap.com/tucker-carlson-aggressive-sex-
crazed-pandas/.
82
Levine, “Tucker Carlson.”
83
Henry Nicholls, “The Truth about Giant Pandas,” BBC Earth, 2015, Accessed March 22, 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150310-the-truth-about-giant-pandas. This source is no longer
available online.
84
Ester Perel, Mating in Captivity: Unlocking Erotic Intelligence (New York: Harper Paperbacks,
2017).
Perret Draft 20
the scientific literature. This became clear when claims surrounding the role of male aggression
in panda reproduction resurfaced in 2020, when a PBS nature documentary, titled Pandas: Born
to Be Wild, captured the first footage of pandas breeding in their natural habitat.85 The video
narration describes the aggression and competition between two males who pursue a female and
“hold her hostage” in a tree.86 The film compares and contrasts mating in captivity with that in
the wild, commenting that these differences may explain why it is so difficult for pandas to mate
in captivity. As seen in both the film and popular culture, representations of panda sexualities
draw upon discourses of heteronormativity, such as normative conceptions of men competing for
While researchers initially downplayed the role of mate choice, research in the 2010s
85
Jacky Poon, prod., Pandas: Born to Be Wild, photog. Yuanqi Wu, documentary, PBS, premiered
October 21, 2020, https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/preview-pandas-born-be-wild/22896/.
86
Poon, Pandas: Born to Be Wild.
Perret Draft 21
preference for one another—in pandas. Trained in conservation biology and animal behavior,
Martin-Wintle is a specialist in captive breeding and led research with pandas at the San Diego
Zoo Global’s Institute for Conservation and Research as a postdoctoral fellow.87 She is currently
increase reproductive success.88 While at the San Diego Zoo, she led a research collaboration
among scientists at the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research, the Department of
Biology at Portland State University, and the Bifengxia Chinese Conservation and Research
Center for the Giant Panda (CCRCGP) in the Sichuan province of China, which provided the
study population.89 These researchers found that mutual mate choice significantly increases the
reproductive success of giant pandas.90 Because pandas paired with preferred partners have
higher copulation and birth rates, the paper contends that “informed behavioral management
could make the difference between success and failure of these programs.”91 Rates of
intromission and cub production are 50% if only one partner is preferred, and 0% if neither is
preferred.92 Intromission success is 80% when both partners are preferred, with a 90% chance of
intromissions producing a cub. As noted by feminist biologists, female mate choice provides an
87
Meghan S. Martin-Wintle, interview by author, July 26, 2021.
88
“About PDXWildlife,” PDXWildlife, August 28, 2011, https://www.pdxwildlife.com/about/.
89
Meghan S. Martin-Wintle, interview by author, July 26, 2021.
90
Meghan S. Martin-Wintle et al., “Free Mate Choice Enhances Conservation Breeding in
the Endangered Giant Panda,” Nature Communications 6 (December 2015): 10125.
91
Martin-Wintle et al., “Free Mate Choice,” 10125.
92
Intromission refers to mating that results in penetrative sex.
93
Patricia Gowaty, Feminism and Evolutionary Biology: Boundaries, Intersections, and Frontiers
(Berlin, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media, 1997).
Perret Draft 22
colleagues studied how personality traits impact mate compatibility and offspring production.94
fearfulness, and general activity) using surveys with zookeepers and novel-object tests. They
found “specific combinations of personality traits that resulted in higher intromission or greater
cub production.”95 As they summarize the findings: “Trait dissimilarity (for Excitability and
Food Anticipatory) and trait similarity (for Fearfulness) were associated with better reproductive
outcomes. Excitable males paired with Low-Excitable females had better reproductive outcomes,
and pairs with Low-Fearful males regardless of the female’s Fearfulness performed better.”96
They note that fearfulness is an obstacle to mating, especially for males, and pairs were most
likely to mate when both were low-fearful, which corroborates the findings of an earlier similar
combinations for breeding managers, which includes pairing low-fearful or high-fearful females
with low-fearful males, and to not pairing low-fearful or high-fearful females with high-fearful
males.
Aggression females paired with High-Aggression males had higher mating and cub production
than other pairings, especially those where the male was rated low for Aggressiveness.”98 As
they interpret the application of these findings for captive breeding, they write: “Managers often
94
Meghan S. Martin-Wintle et al., “Do Opposites Attract? Effects of Personality Matching in
Breeding Pairs of Captive Giant Pandas on Reproductive Success,” Biological Conservation 207 (March
2017): 27–37.
95
Martin-Wintle et al., “Do Opposites Attract?,” 31.
96
Martin-Wintle et al., “Do Opposites Attract?,” 27.
97
David M. Powell and Joseph T. Svoke, “Novel Environmental Enrichment May Provide a Tool
for Rapid Assessment of Animal Personality: A Case Study with Giant Pandas (Ailuropoda
Melanoleuca),” Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 11, no. 4 (2008): 301–18.
98
Martin-Wintle et al., “Do Opposites Attract?,” 33.
Perret Draft 23
try to minimize aggression during breeding, but these findings point to the need to allow the
expression of at least a certain amount of aggression. In fact, our results suggest that
aggressiveness scores fall too low on the continuum.”99 They note that aggression is a natural
part of the mating system in wild pandas and thus should not be surprising that it has a favorable
influence on mating success and forms the basis for assortative mating. They recommend pairing
low-aggressive males with high-aggressive females and not low-aggressive females with low-
aggressive males.
LiveScience article titled “The key to Making Baby Pandas? Love,” states: “There’s a secret to
making panda babies, and it looks a little bit like love… If ‘love’ is too strong a word for this
preference, it’s safe to say that panda lust, at least, plays a role in reproductive success.”100
Similarly, Traci Watson, in a National Geographic article titled “Pandas Have More Babies If
They Can Pick Their Mates,” writes: “Giant Pandas that are crazy about each other produce more
cubs than panda couples lacking that mysterious spark.”101 The article is illustrated with an
image of a male and female pandas in a playful pose (Figure 4, below). Watson continues, “Even
a one-sided romance has better odds of producing a baby than a mutually indifferent union.” In
describing the pair of pandas at the Smithsonian, she remarks, “Such unsatisfying arranged
marriages are all too common for pandas” because they are lacking in “the amorous arts.”102 To
99
Martin-Wintle et al., “Do Opposites Attract?,” 33.
100
Stephanie Pappas, “The Key to Making Baby Pandas? Love,” Live Science, December 18, 2015,
https://www.livescience.com/53158-key-to-panda-mating.html.
101
Traci Watson, “Pandas Have More Babies If They Can Pick Their Mates,” National
Geographic, December 15, 2015, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/151215-giant-
pandas-animals-science-mating-sex-china.
102
Watson, “Pandas Have More Babies” (no page numbers given).
Perret Draft 24
characterize the results of Martin-Wintle et al. (2017), Watson relays “females who’d made
whoopee were twice as likely to give birth to cubs if their partner was a love interest rather than
just the boring guy next door.”103 The article quotes Martin-Wintle as saying that panda
A Smithsonian Magazine article, “Why Panda Sex Isn’t Black and White,” asks experts,
“Is it true that giant pandas don’t know how to have sex?”105 Martin-Wintle responds: “Imagine
you being told, ‘Hey, this male is genetically not related to you, so you guys would make great
babies. Here, go in a room, have babies, and let us know how that goes.”106 The article continues
that zoos may consider a panda-matching app, and references similar initiatives such as the
“[T]inder for orangutans” experiment in which orangutans were given a touch-screen tablet with
103
Watson, “Pandas Have More Babies” (no page numbers given).
104
Watson, “Pandas Have More Babies” (no page numbers given).
105
Rachel Gross, “Why Panda Sex Isn’t Black and White,” in Pandemonium, special report,
Smithsonian Magazine, February 14, 2017, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/only-thing-
harder-finding-love-human-finding-love-panda-180962165/.
106
Gross, “Why Panda Sex Isn’t Black and White.”
Perret Draft 25
behaviors in relation to human romance and sex. Although mostly absent from her scientific
writing, Martin-Wintle reinforces the anthropocentrism through her quotes featured in National
Geographic107 and Smithsonian Magazine108 that compare panda mate preference to attraction in
humans. The articles described in this section are also an example of how gender and sexual
norms can travel across the human-animal binary. The title of Martin-Wintle et al.’s scientific
article “Do Opposites Attract?” reflects heterosexual framings of women and men as “opposite
sexes.” It references the scientific doctrine of sexual complementarity, which holds that male and
female sexualities are polar opposites that complement one another and are determined by
such as describing babies as the goal of sex and invoking heterosexual romantic tropes like “the
guy next door.” Descriptions of introductions of captive pandas for mating as “arranged
“other” that constitutes the opposite of normative Western family structures.110 This also
resonates with what Cynthia Chris, a scholar of media studies, describes as racialized depictions
Rhetoric surrounding genetics and compatibility in captive breeding programs may also
107
Watson, “Pandas Have More Babies” (no page numbers given).
108
Gross, “Why Panda Sex Isn’t Black and White.”
109
Cynthia Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood, rev. ed.
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
110
Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978).
111
Chris, Watching Wildlife.
112
Harriet Ritvo, The Platypus and the Mermaid: And Other Figments of the Classifying
Imagination (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998).
Perret Draft 26
In 2018, National Geographic produced a documentary, The Life of Rare Pandas, that
showed the inner workings of the Wolong captive-breeding program.113 As I show in the
following analysis, wildlife documentary films often encode and reinforce historically contingent
understandings of gender and sexuality. These findings confirm work done by feminist scholars
in the field of animal studies. For example, Cynthia Chris argues that the preoccupation with
mating in wildlife documentaries on popular channels such as National Geographic and Animal
Similarly, Greg Mitman details how wildlife films reflect and reinforce ideals of nuclear family,
domesticity, and solidified gender roles within a family.115 As seen in The Rare Life of Pandas,
documentaries about panda mating not only portray the expectations placed upon pandas in
The Life of Rare Pandas depicts the process of matching pandas for breeding, featuring
footage of mating introductions as well as interviews with Li Desheng, the director of the center,
and zoo keepers. The documentary tells us that “only one in ten male pandas can mate naturally”
and that “the three males [in the captive-breeding program] are expected to service all of the
breeding females.”117 National Geographic films Fe-Fe, whose name means “concubine,” as she
rubs her genitals and bleats, a sound used to communicate to males that she is in estrous. The
113
Nat Geo Wild, Life of Rare Panda, National Geographic, February 3, 2018, documentary shared
on YouTube, 47:01, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yYp_Shk7XcI.
114
Chris, Watching Wildlife.
115
Gregg Mitman, Reel Nature: America’s Romance with Wildlife on Film, Weyerhaeuser
Environmental Classics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009).
116
Said, Orientalism.
117
Nat Geo Wild, Life of Rare Panda.
Perret Draft 27
encounter between Fe-Fe and one of the males, the documentary narrates: “[T]he couple has to
be formally introduced before they take things any further,” and when they finally are
introduced, the male “is too focused on his stomach.”119 Fe-Fe is instead artificially inseminated.
The film narrates that the “pressure is on for the male pandas to perform.”120
The video shows the efforts to get female panda Lu Lu to mate with male panda Me Jing.
Me Jing is aggressive toward Lu Lu, but the keepers do not separate the animals. Li Desheng at
the Wolong captive-breeding program explains that males in the wild fight before mating, so
“they don’t have any energy to beat up the female.”121 He continues that males in captivity have
a lot of energy to “beat up the female,” which causes such injuries as “cut ears or even lost limbs
but never death.”122 The two pandas mate and Lu Lu is released from the cage. She runs and
climbs to the top of another cage. The narrator comments that she is “clearly terrified” but has no
endangered female orangutans that occurs at captive-breeding programs and that conservation
environment changes orangutan social behavior and thus creates more violence against females.
The documentary reinforces the naturalness of male aggression through portraying Me Jing’s
behavior as part of panda male sexuality that would be expressed (albeit differently) in the wild.
118
Said, Orientalism.
119
Nat Geo Wild, Life of Rare Panda.
120
Nat Geo Wild, Life of Rare Panda.
121
Nat Geo Wild, Life of Rare Panda.
122
Nat Geo Wild, Life of Rare Panda.
123
Nat Geo Wild, Life of Rare Panda.
124
Parreñas, Decolonizing Extinction.
Perret Draft 28
In the second breeding season, male panda Wu Gang does not show interest in the female
pandas, and, as the narrator describes, “at one point the roles even reversed,” which references
normative gender roles and positions during sex.125 The documentary narrates: “Lovesick Lu Lu
has to show Wu Gang how it’s done.”126 When introduced to a female panda, “Instead of … his
usual aggressive way, they play” and “both behave like mating is a big game.”127 The footage
shows that Wu Gang interacts with the female with playfulness and without aggression and
violence. The documentary portrays the success of the mating behavior in terms of match-
Feminist scholars in the field of animal studies have documented how representations of
animals are often anthropomorphized and gendered in ways that reinforce normative ideas of
sexuality and reproduction.128 For example, in Primate Visions, Donna Haraway argues that
representations of primate sexualities and reproduction reify the naturalness and primacy of
heterosexuality and the nuclear family in human social relations.129 In the case of representations
of panda mating, popular science and documentaries reinforce the naturalness and inevitability of
Conclusion
of an imperiled future for masculinity and heterosexuality. As I’ve argued in previous chapters,
cultural anxieties about the future of human gender and sexuality permeates biodiversity
125
Parreñas, Decolonizing Extinction.
126
Parreñas, Decolonizing Extinction.
127
Parreñas, Decolonizing Extinction.
128
Parreñas, Gender: Animals.
129
Haraway, Primate Visions.
Perret Draft 29
discourse. In this chapter, I demonstrate that biodiversity discourse frames “natural” and
breeding. More specifically, most scientific and popular discourse on panda reproduction in
captivity between 1985 and 2015 focuses on abnormalities in male reproductive behavior. These
depictions often portray male pandas as emasculated, sexually deficient, and lacking supposed
aggressiveness found in the wild. These findings extend insights from previous chapters that
heterosexuality in crisis. After a series of scientific journal articles in 2015 and 2017, there was a
programs. Popular-science depictions of mate choice in such programs explained the importance
of mate compatibility with reference to heteronormative tropes, such as the idea that “opposites
attract.”
Although gendered rhetoric used to describe panda reproduction changed over the course
panda reproduction persistently describe the behavior of captive pandas through reference to
normalized and naturalized human sexual stereotypes and tropes. These stereotypes include
female sexual passivity, male aggression, and gender roles in heterosexual sex. Biodiversity
discourse also draws upon tropes of heteronormative romance, such as narrative framings of men
courting women. These findings corroborate existing feminist scholarship on the role of
discourses of gender and sexual normativity in how scientists and the media describe the
reproduction of animals.130
130
Haraway, Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium.FemaleMan_Meets_OncoMouse: Feminism
and Technoscience; Erika Lorraine Milam, Looking for a Few Good Males: Female Choice in
Evolutionary Biology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010); Fausto-Sterling, Sexing the
Body; Franklin, Dolly Mixtures.
Perret Draft 30
During early years of captive breeding, there was debate regarding whether the problems
with panda reproduction were due to the conditions of captivity or something intrinsic to panda
decisions on managing captive panda populations were made in reference to what scientists
described as natural aggression in the mating system of wild pandas. Yet, behavior that is
constructions of “wild” and “natural” depend upon culturally mediated understandings of the
In the 1980s, few pandas could reproduce in captivity. By the 2000s, captive-breeding
programs created self-sustaining captive populations through the use of artificial reproductive
technologies, twin-swapping protocols, and, in the 2010s, the application of knowledge about
mate choice. As the result of these successes, in 2016 the IUCN downgraded the giant panda’s
survival level from “endangered” to “vulnerable,” but the panda is still considered endangered by
the Chinese government.132 In describing the future of the management of pandas in captive-
increased chemical and acoustic communication between pandas.”133 Martin-Wintle also points
to the need for more research on panda pregnancies, male competition, and panda social systems
131
William Cronon, “The Trouble with Wilderness: Or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature,”
Environmental History 1, no. 1 (1996): 7–28.
132
This change in status indicates a lower extinction risk; Ron Swaisgood, D. Wang, and F. Wei,
Ailuropoda melanoleuca (errata version pub’d 2017); the giant panda was most recently assessed April
11, 2016, for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, e.T712A121745669,
2016, https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T712A45033386.en.
133
Holt, Brown, and Comizzoli, Reproductive Sciences in Animal Conservation.
134
Holt, Brown, and Comizzoli, Reproductive Sciences in Animal Conservation.
Perret Draft 31
The pair of pandas at the San Diego Zoo returned to China in April 2019 after a two-
decade loan and research collaboration.135 In 2020, following the closure of zoos to the public as
the result of the coronavirus pandemic, a pair of pandas at the Hong Kong Zoo mated for the first
time in ten years, which has raised questions regarding how the stress of captivity may impact
their ability to reproduce.136 While environmentalists consider the development of panda captive-
breeding programs to be a major success, questions still exist regarding whether captive breeding
benefits wild populations—given that initiatives to release pandas back into their habitat have
environmental futures. Environmental historians have shown that the management of the
reproduction of zoo animals depends upon historically and culturally specific understandings of
our relationship with nature.138 In Cloning Wild Life, Carrie Friese argues that captive breeding
into the future.”139 Management of captive endangered species such as giant pandas could be
interpreted as a means through which humans grapple with the future of reproduction, including
135
Anica Colbert and Ebone Monet, “San Diego Zoo Giant Pandas Moving to China,” KPBS
evening edition, April 2, 2019, https://www.kpbs.org/news/2019/apr/02/san-diegans-have-only-weeks-
left-see-giant-pandas-/.
136
Amanda Hess, “The Rise of the Coronavirus Nature Genre,” New York Times, April 17, 2020,
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/17/arts/coronavirus-nature-genre.html.
137
James Owen, “First Panda Freed into Wild Found Dead,” National Geographic, May 31, 2007,
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/china-freed-panda-death-animals.
138
Hanson, Animal Attractions.
139
Friese, Cloning Wild Life, 7; emphasis in original.