COURSE MATERIAL

AUTOTRONICS

Prepared by
Dr. S. Vijaya Bhaskar
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SRI CHANDRASEKHARENDRA SARASWATHI VISWA
MAHAVIDYALAYA
(Deemed to be University U/S 3 of UGC Act 1956) Accredited with "A" Grade by NAAC
Enathur, Kanchipuram – 631 561.
 Name of the Course : Autotronics
Name of the Unit : Introduction - Autotronics
Name of the Topic : Automotive Electronics

AUTOTRONICS

AIM & OBJECTIVE

 To make the students understand the evolution of electronics in automobiles and

basics of charging and starting system
 To provide student with knowledge on ignition and injection systems
 To make the students learn about various sensors and actuators for controlling
engine parameters
 To acquaint students with various engine control systems.
 To teach the students about various chassis and safety system operation and
applications

PRE-TEST

a) A transducer is basically a device which converts

(a) mechanical energy into electrical
(b) energy or information from one form to another
(c) mechanical displacement into electrical
(d) none of these

b) Q.116.The principle of operation of LVDT is based on variation of

(a) self-inductance
(b) mutual inductance
(c) reluctance
(d) permeance

c) The capacity of a battery is usually expressed in terms of

(a) Volts
(b) Amperes
(c) Weight
(d) Ampere hours

d) The most commonly used power plant in automobiles is

(a) Gas turbine
(b) I.C. engine
(c) Battery
(d) None of these
 e) In a petrol engine, the high voltage for spark plug is in the order of
(a) 1000 volts
(b) 2000 volts
(c) 11 kilovolts
(d) 22 kilovolts

f) Q.126.Which of the following devices cannot be used for measurement of

temperature?
(a) RTD
(b) Thermocouple
(c) LVDT
(d) Pyrometer

g) The starter motor is driven by

(a) Chain drive
(b) Gear drive
(c) Flat belt drive
(d) V-belt drive

h) The major purpose of an electronically controlled automatic transmission is

that this type of transmission
(a) Eliminates gear clutches
(b) Eliminates the gear shaft lever
(c) Reduces the number of automatic transmission components
(d) Reduces shift shock and achieves more efficient transmission of
engine torque

i) The main task of a battery in automobiles is to

(a) Supply electricity to the alternator
(b) Act as a reservoir or stabilizer of electricity
(c) Supply electricity to the vehicle's electrical system at all times while the
engine is running
(d) Supply a large amount of power to turn the starter motor when the
engine is being started

j) The ignition coil is used to

(a) Step up current
(b) Step down current
(c) Step up voltage
(d) Step down voltage

PREREQUISITES

 Basic Automobile Engineering

 Basic Electronics Engineering
SYLLABUS: AUTOTRONICS

UNIT – I : INTRODUCTION

Evolution of electronics in automobiles – emission laws – introduction to Euro I,

Euro II, Euro III, Euro IV, Euro V standards – Equivalent Bharat Standards.
Charging systems: Working and design of charging circuit diagram – Alternators
– Requirements of starting system - Starter motors and starter circuits.

UNIT – II : IGNITION AND INJECTION SYSTEMS

Ignition systems: Ignition fundamentals - Electronic ignition systems - Programmed

Ignition – Distribution less ignition - Direct ignition – Spark Plugs. Electronic fuel
Control: Basics of combustion – Engine fuelling and exhaust emissions – Electronic
control of carburetion – Petrol fuel injection – Diesel fuel injection.

UNIT – III : SENSOR AND ACTUATORS

Working principle and characteristics of Airflow rate, Engine crankshaft angular

position, Hall effect, Throttle angle, temperature, exhaust gas oxygen sensors – study
of fuel injector, exhaust gas recirculation actuators, stepper motor actuator, vacuum
operated actuator.

UNIT – IV : ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Control modes for fuel control-engine control subsystems – ignition control

methodologies – different ECU‟s used in the engine management – block diagram of
the engine management system. In vehicle networks: CAN standard, format of CAN
standard – diagnostics systems in modern automobiles.

UNIT – V : CHASSIS AND SAFETY SYSTEMS

Traction control system – Cruise control system – electronic control of automatic

transmission – antilock braking system – electronic suspension system – working of
airbag and role of MEMS in airbag systems – centralized door locking system –
climate control of cars
THEORY BEHIND

INTRODUCTION - AUTOTRONICS

The Autotronics is referred as the modern automotive technology and also

commonly known as Automotive Mechatronics. Autotronics is the combination of
automobile and electronics. Also, the use of electronics science in automobile
vehicles is called autotronics. The use of electronics in the automobile field makes
the system safe, improved and efficient. In a vehicle almost all significant parts are
featured with electronic items.

Figure 1: Automotive electronics in modern passenger car

Today’s vehicles contain many electronically controlled and operated systems; and
the number of systems controlled and operated electronically increases every year.
Electronics have enabled manufacturers to design and produce vehicles that offer:
• improved fuel economy.
• lower emission outputs.
• improved powertrain performance (for example, easier cold starts and
smoother acceleration).
 • improved steering and suspension systems.
• more accurate driving and vehicle information systems.
• improved safety devices.
• increased operator comfort.

Figure 2: Sensors used in passenger car

At present, in the new generation automobiles almost 75%-85% of automobile parts

are embedded with electronics system. The main areas of automobiles using
autotronics are engine controlling system, airbags, antilock braking system,
lightening interiors, GPS, music systems etc. The application area of autotronics is
very vast, brakes, steering system, engine controlling unit, transmission and
suspension in the vehicles are the main phases where autotronics are used.

EVOLUTION OF AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

Electronics have been relatively slow in coming to the automobile primarily because
of the relationship between the added cost and the benefits. Historically, the first
electronics (other than radio) were introduced into the commercial automobile during
the late 1950s and early 1960s. However, these features were not well received by
customers, so they were discontinued from production automobiles. Two major
events occurred during the 1970s that started the trend toward the use of modern
electronics in the automobile:

(2) the introduction of government regulations for exhaust emissions and fuel
economy, which required better control of the engine than was possible
with the methods being used; and

(3) the development of relatively low cost per function solid-state digital
electronics that could be used for engine control and other applications.

Trends in automotive systems

CAR Technology TRAFFIC DRIVER SKILLS

> 1891 mechanical system very low very high technical skills
+ pneumatic systems high technical skills
> 1920 low
+ hydraulic systems low driving skills

good technical skills

> 1950 + electric systems increasing
increasing driving skills

+ electronic systems low technical skills

> 1980 Congestion starts
+ optronic systems high driving skills

Congested
+ micro-electronics very low technical skills
> 2010 optimization
+ biotronic systems decreasing driving skills
starts

+ robotics maximal and no technical skills

> 2040
+ nanotechnology optimized no driving skills

Why is advancement in automotive systems important?

 The century-old automobile – the preferred mode for personal mobility

throughout the developed world – is rapidly becoming a complex
electromechanical system. (Google – “Autotronics”).
  Technologies are being added to automobiles to improve operational safety,
reduce congestion and energy consumption, and minimize environmental
impact.
 There is a huge demand for safer, smarter & energy-efficient transportation
system.
 Automotive electronics plays a crucial role for realization of these
mechatronic systems. Examples include hybrid powertrains, electronic
engine and transmission, controls, cruise control, antilock brakes, differential
braking, and active/semi-active, suspensions.

Timeline of automotive electronics

This evolution (some might say “revolution”) of automotive electronics also is

enabled by recent advances in relevant technologies, including solid-state
electronics, computer technology, and control theory.

Year Examples of automotive electronics available

1965 Solid-state radio, alternator rectifier
1970 Speed control
1975 Electronic ignition, digital clock
Electronic voltage regulator, electronic engine controller, electronic
1980
instrument cluster, electronic fuel injection
Clock integrated with radio, audio graphic equalizer, electronic air
1985
suspension
Antilock brakes. integrated engine and speed control, cellular phones,
1990 power doors andwindows

Navigation systems. advanced entertainment / information systems,

1995
active suspensions
Collision avoidance, autonomous cruise control, vehicle stability
2000
enhancement, CVT
Hybrid electric vehicles. driver monitoring. drive-by-wire, integrated
2005
vehicle controls
Driver-assist systems (e.g.. automated parallel parking). integrated
2010 telematics (i.e..location-aware vehicles via mobile devices), plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles
APPLICATIONS:

Electronics are being used now in the automobile and probably will be used even
more in the future. Some of the present and potential applications for electronics are
1. Electronic engine control for minimizing exhaust emissions and
maximizing fuel economy
2. Instrumentation for measuring vehicle performance parameters and for
diagnosis of on-board system malfunctions
3. Driveline control
4. Vehicle motion control
5. Safety and convenience
6. Entertainment/communication/navigation

The various systems are given below

1. Autotronic braking system/Electronic braking system
The braking system in such a system is denoted s EBS (electronic braking
system). A braking system is defined by its stopping distance. The system with
shortest stopping distance is considered the best braking system. So, the
development phase in the braking system is to minimize the stopping distance
of vehicle but without compromising the safety.

The ECB solve these purposes with an advance control system. The anti-lock
braking system and traction control system are the essential components of
ECB.ABS is responsible for maneuver control by deciding the braking
pressure and wheel rotation control. Traction means providing movement or
acceleration to a vehicle. So, to control the acceleration, the control on
traction system should be applied. This system controls the movement of
wheel and its steadiness.

2. Control of steering system

In the vehicle the power steering system is used. Which maintains the
communication between pressure applied by steering system on the hydraulic
pump and the speed of the automobile.
 The EPS (electric power steering) uses sensors and motors, which controls
the manoeuvre. Motor controls the steering motions and sensors gives signal
to the wheels by analysing the speed and torque.
3. Suspension system
Suspension system makes the ride on vehicle shock free, comfortable and
safe. There are three types of suspension system 1. Passive, 2. Semi active,
and 3. Active suspension system.

The important task of the system is to dissipate the heat produced in the
system due to friction. The conventional method of suspension is called
passive suspension and when we add electronic sensors and hydraulic
system then its performance increases and it is called active suspension
system.

4. Transmission control

The transmission of gearing system controls the shifting of gears. Using the
electronic gear transmission improves the shifting operation and increases the
fuel efficiency by reducing the losses.

5. Electronic control of fuel intake in engine

The electronic system used to analyze the amount of fuel to supply to the
cylinder of engine so that the maximum efficiency can be achieved with
minimum loss of energy.

MCQ POST-TEST

1. The starting system includes

a) A battery, a starter, and an ignition switch
b) A battery, a distributor, and an ignition switch
c) A battery, a starter, and a distributor
d) A distributor, a starter, and an ignition switch

2. The most accurate ignition system of a spark ignition engine is

a) Magneto system
b) Battery system
c) Electronic control unit system
d) Magneto and electronic system
3. The fuel pump in the programmed fuel injection (PFI) system is located
a) Between the fuel filler pipe and fuel tank
b) In the fuel tank
c) On the distributor mounting in the engine compartment
d) On the engine compartment bulkhead

4. The fuel pump of a programmed fuel injection (PFI) system operates for two
seconds when the ignition is turned to the start position to
a) Enable the pump's fault diagnosis function to operate
b) Warm up and lubricate the pump
c) Supplies a large amount of fuel and thereby creates a choke effect
d) Pressurise the fuel system before the engine is started

5. . Tachometer in a vehicle measure

a) Speed
b) Distance
c) Engine r.p.m.
d) Fuel consumption

6. The brake pedal during ABS operation

a) Is pushed upward forcefully
b) Pedal stroke becomes longer
c) Transmits slight kickback to the driver's foot
d) All of the above

7. Odometer is an instrument used for measurement of

a) Power
b) Fuel consumption
c) Engine r.p.m.
d) Distance

8. The temperature indicating instrument in vehicles indicates the temperature of

a) Engine piston
b) Engine cylinder
c) Lubricating oil
d) Jacket cooling water

9. How many cells are used in a 12 volt car battery?

a) 2
b) 4
c) 6
d) 8

10. The function of anti-lock brake system (ABS) is that is

a) Reduces the stopping distance
b) Minimizes the brake fade
c) Maintains directional control during braking by preventing the wheels
from locking
 d) Prevents nose dives during braking and thereby postpones locking of the
wheels
CONCLUSION

Upon completion of this course, Students should be able to

 understand the evolution of electronics in automobiles and basics of charging

and starting system
 acquire the knowledge on ignition and injection systems
 learn about various sensors and actuators for controlling engine parameters
 understand the operation various engine control systems.
 learn about various chassis and safety system operation and applications

REFERENCES

1. Ribbens, "Understanding Automotive Electronics", 7th Edition, Elsevier,

Indian Reprint, 2013.

2. Tom Denton, “Automobile Electrical and Electronics Systems”, Edward

Arnold Publishers, 2000.

3. Barry Hollembeak, “Automotive Electricity, Electronics & Computer

Controls”, Delmar Publishers, 2001.

4. Richard K. Dupuy “Fuel System and Emission controls”, Check Chart

Publication, 2000.

5. Ronald. K. Jurgon, “Automotive Electronics Handbook”, McGraw-Hill,

1999.

VIDEOLINKS FOR REFERENCE

1. https://youtu.be/c0zl7449pwE
2. https://youtu.be/z94jk49JzCk

ASSIGNMENT

1. Briefly explain ABS and ESC with neat layout

2. Write a case study on the recent advancements in the automotive

electronics
 Name of the Course : Autotronics

Name of the Unit : Introduction - Autotronics

Name of the Topic : Emission Laws

PREREQUISITES

 Internal Combustion Engines

AIM & OBJECTIVE

 To make the students understand various vehicular emission norms

 To provide student with knowledge on European emission standards
 To acquaint students with knowledge of equivalent Bharat Standards related
to vehicle emission
PRE-TEST

1. The major air pollutants that may be released from automobiles after
combustion in IC Engines
(a) Carbon Monoxide
(b) Oxides of Nitrogen
(c) Hydrocarbons
(d) All the above

2. Vehicle emission standards followed by European union

(a) CEPA
(b) CARB
(c) Euro
(d) Bharath Stage

3. Vehicle emission standards followed in India

(a) CEPA
(b) CARB
(c) Euro
(d) Bharath Stage

4. Emission standards are not applicable to __________.

(a) Airplanes
(b) Seagoing Ships
(c) both a and b
 (d) none of the above

EMISSION STANDARDS

Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released into
the atmosphere. Emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible amount
of specific air pollutants that may be released from specific sources over specific
timeframes. They are generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to
protect human life. Different regions and countries have different standards for
vehicle emissions.

Many emissions standards focus on regulating pollutants released by automobiles

(motor cars) and other powered vehicles. Others regulate emissions from industry,
power plants, small equipment such as lawn mowers and diesel generators, and
other sources of air pollution.

The first automobile emissions standards were enacted in 1963 in the United States,
mainly as a response to Los Angeles' smog problems. Three years later Japan
enacted their first emissions rules, followed between 1970 and 1972 by Canada,
Australia, and several European nations. The early standards mainly concerned
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC). Regulations on nitrogen oxide
emissions (NOx) were introduced in the United States, Japan, and Canada in 1973
and 1974, with Sweden following in 1976 and the European Economic Community in
1977. These standards gradually grew more and more stringent but have never been
unified.

There are largely three main sets of standards: United States, Japanese, and
European, with various markets mostly using these as their base. Sweden,
Switzerland, and Australia had separate emissions standards for many years but
have since adopted the European standards. India, China, and other newer markets
have also begun enforcing vehicle emissions standards (derived from the European
requirements) in the twenty-first century, as growing vehicle fleets have given rise to
severe air quality problems there, too.
Since the early 1990s, new car models have had to meet increasingly stringent
exhaust pollution limits, known as the Euro emissions standards, before they can be
put on sale. The first European exhaust emissions standard for passenger cars was
introduced in 1970. 22 years passed before the next big change when, in 1992 the
'Euro 1' standard heralded the fitting of catalytic converters to petrol cars to reduce
carbon monoxide (CO) emissions.

The latest standard, 'Euro 6', applies to new type approvals from September 2014
and all new cars from September 2015 and reduces some pollutants by 96%
compared to the 1992 limits. The Euro 6 test became more stringent from
September 2017 with the addition of an extended on-road emission test known as
Real Driving Emissions or RDE.
Abbreviations: CO = Carbon Monoxide
NOx = Oxides of Nitrogen
HC = Hydrocarbons
PM = Particulate Matter
PN = Particulate Number

Euro 1 (EC93) - July 1992 (January 1993)

The introduction of the Euro 1 standard in 1992 required the switch to unleaded
petrol and the universal fitting of catalytic converters to petrol cars to reduce carbon
monoxide (CO) emissions.
Euro 1 emission limits
o CO — 2.72 g/km (petrol and diesel)
o HC+ NOx — 0.97 g/km (petrol anddiesel)
o PM — 0.14 g/km (diesel only)

Euro 2 (EC96) - January 1996 (January 1997)

The Euro 2 standard further reduced the limit for carbon monoxide emissions and
also reduced the combined limit for unburned hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen
for both petrol and diesel vehicles. Euro 2 introduced different emissions limits for
petrol and diesel.
Euro 2 emission limits (petrol)
o CO — 2.2 g/km
o HC+ NOx — 0.5 g/km
o PM — no limit
 Euro 2 emission limits (diesel)
o CO — 1.0 g/km
o HC+ NOx — 0.7 g/km
o PM — 0.08 g/km

Euro 3 (EC2000) - January 2000 (January 2001)

Euro 3 modified the test procedure to eliminate the engine warm-up period and
further reduced permitted carbon monoxide and diesel particulate limits. Euro 3 also
added a separate NOx limit for diesel engines and introduced separate HC and NOx
limits for petrol engines.
Euro 3 emission limits (petrol)
o • CO — 2.3 g/km
o • HC — 0.20 g/km
o • NOx - 0.15
o • PM — no limit
Euro 3 emission limits (diesel)
o • CO — 0.64 g/km
o • HC+ NOx — 0.56 g/km
o • NOx — 0.50 g/km
o • PM — 0.05 g/km

Euro 4 (EC2005) - January 2005 (January 2006)

Euro 4 (January 2005) and the later Euro 5 (September 2009) concentrated on
cleaning up emissions from diesel cars, especially reducing particulate matter (PM)
and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Some Euro 4 diesel cars were fitted with particulate
filters.
Euro 4 emission limits (petrol)
o CO — 1.0 g/km
o HC — 0.10 g/km
o NOx — 0.08
o PM — no limit
Euro 4 emission limits (diesel)
o CO — 0.50 g/km
o HC+ NOx — 0.30 g/km
o NOx — 0.25 g/km
o PM — 0.025 g/km

Euro 5 - September 2009 (January 2011)

Euro 5 further tightened the limits on particulate emissions from diesel engines and
all diesel cars needed particulate filters to meet the new requirements. There was
some tightening of NOx limits too (28% reduction compared to Euro 4) as well as, for
the first time, a particulates limit for petrol engines — applicable to direct injection
engines only. Addressing the effects of very fine particle emissions, Euro 5
introduced a limit on particle numbers for diesel engines in addition to the particle
weight limit. This applied to new type approvals from September 2011 and to all new
diesel cars from January 2013.
Euro 5 emission limits (petrol)
o CO — 1.0 g/km
o HC - 0.10 g/km
o NOx — 0.06 g/km
o PM — 0.005 g/km (direct injection only)
Euro 5 emission limits (diesel)
o • CO — 0.50 g/km
o • HC+ NOx — 0.23 g/km
o • NOx — 0.18 g/km
o • PM — 0.005 g/km
o • PN — 6.0x10^11/km

Euro 6September 2014 (September 2015)

The Euro 6 standard imposes a further, significant reduction in NOx emissions from
diesel engines (a 67% reduction compared to Euro 5) and establishes similar
standards for petrol and diesel. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) — replacing some
of the intake air (containing 80% nitrogen) with recycled exhaust gas — reduces the
amount of nitrogen available to be oxidised to NOx during combustion but further
exhaust after treatment may be required in addition to the Diesel Particulate Filters
required to meet Euro 5.

Euro 6 diesel cars may also be fitted with: A NOx adsorber (Lean NOx Trap) which
stores NOx and reduces it to Nitrogen over a catalyst Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR) which uses an additive (Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) or AdBlue) containing urea
injected into the exhaust to convert NOx into Nitrogen and water. The use of Cerium,
a fluid injected into the fuel tank each time the vehicle is refuelled which assists the
DPF regeneration by lowering the temperature needed for regeneration.

Euro 6 emission limits (petrol)

o CO — 1.0 g/km
o HC — 0.10 g/km
o NOx — 0.06 g/km
o PM — 0.005 g/km (direct injection only)
o PN — 6.0x10^11/km (direct injectiononly)
Euro 6 emission limits (diesel)
o CO — 0.50 g/km
o HC+ NOx — 0.17 g/km
o NOx — 0.08 g/km
 o PM — 0.005 g/km
o PN — 6.0x10 ^11/km

Euro 6d-Temp, Euro 6d and RealDriving Emissions (RDE)

From 1 September 2017, more stringent and realistic tests will be used to certify new
car models against the Euro 6 emission limits. A new laboratory test cycle known as
WLTP (the Worldwide harmonised Light duty Test Procedure) will apply to all new
type approvals and a year later, from 1 September 2018, will apply to all new car
registrations. An additional, on road, emissions test known as the Real Driving
Emissions or RDE test has been introduced alongside the WLTP laboratory test to
help make sure that cars meet emissions limits in a much wider range of driving
conditions. An RDE test will last between 90 and 120 minutes and take in a mix of
'normal' urban, rural and motorway driving.
RDE is being introduced in twosteps:

RDE step 1 — applies to new type approvals from 1 September 2017 and to
all new registrations from 1 September 2019. For RDE1 a NOx conformity
factor of 2.1 will apply meaning that NOx emissions in the RDE1 test can be up
to 2.1 times the Euro 6 laboratory limit of 80mg/km. Cars type approved
during this period will be described as meeting Euro 6d-temp.

RDE step 2 — applies to new type approvals from 1 January 2020 and to all
new registrations from 1 January 2021. For RDE2 the NOx conformity factor is
1.0 but with an error margin of 0.5 meaning that NOx emissions in the RDE2
test can be up to 1.5 times the Euro 6 laboratory limit of 80mg/km. Cars type
approved during this period will be described as meeting Euro 6d.

Bharat Stage Emission Standards (BSES)

The first emission norms for Indian motor vehicles were the idle emission limits that
came into effect in 1989. These regulations were replaced by mass emission limits
for petrol engines in 1991 and diesel engines in 1992. By 1995, the use of catalytic
converters was made compulsory for all cars that were sold in metros.
These norms are instituted by the Government of India to define the output of
permissible air pollutants from an internal combustion engine that power the motor
vehicles. These emission norms and the timelines for their introduction are decided
by the Central Pollution Control Board, which comes under the Ministry of
Environment & Forests and climate change.

The Bharat Stage Emission Standards are based on European norms, which are
commonly classified as ‘Euro 2’, ‘Euro 3’, et al. The regulations were first launched in
India in 2000 and have seen several revisions in the last two decades. India 2000,
which was based on the Euro 1 standards, was replaced with Bharat Stage II (BSII)
norms in 2001. These were followed by BS3, while the latter was then replaced with
BS4 standards. India is now all set to leapfrog to BS6 emission standards, which will
roll out on 1 April 2020. The sale of BSIV-compliant vehicles will be banned with the
introduction of the next level of emission standards.

The implementation schedule of automotive emission standards in India is

summarised in the following table

Standard Reference YEAR Region

India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide
NCR, Mumbai, Kolkata,
2001
Chennai
Bharat Stage II Euro 2
2003 NCR + 13 Cities†
2005 Nationwide
2005 NCR*, 13 Cities†
Bharat Stage III Euro 3
2010 Nationwide
2010 NCR*, 13 Cities‡
Bharat Stage IV Euro 4
2017 Nationwide
Bharat Stage V Euro 5 (to be skipped)
Bharat Stage VI Euro 6 2018 Nationwide

What is BSI?

Technically speaking, Bharat Stage 1 or BS1 is an incorrect way to refer to the

country’s first automotive emission norm that was in reference to the European
standards. While it was equivalent to the Euro 1 regulations, the first standard was
known as ‘India 2000.’ It allowed a maximum Carbon Monoxide emission of 2.72
g/km, Hydro carbons+Nitrogen Oxides discharge of 0.97 g/km, and Respirable
suspended particulate matter discharge of 0.14.

To achieve India2000-compliance, the carmakers were required to re-tune the

carburetor, secondary air intake system, exhaust gas recirculation system, increase
the catalyser capacity along with the addition of a trimetal coating to the system.

What is BSII?

Sales of BSII-compliant cars took place between 2001 and 2010. A major change
that was required by the carmakers to upgraded to Bharat Stage II standards was the
replacement of the carburettor by a Multi-point Fuel Injection (MPFI) system. BSII
norms led to a vast reduction in the emissions, with a maximum permissible Carbon
Monoxide emission of 2.2 g/km, Hydro carbons+Nitrogen Oxides discharge of 0.50
g/km, and Respirable suspended particulate matter discharge of 0.08. Moreover, the
Sulphur content in the Bharat Stage II-compliant fuels was restricted to 500 PPM.

What is BSIII?

BSIII regulation was first rolled out in 2005 and their sale was made mandatory
across the nation by 2010. The introduction of the more stringent norms led to a
remarkable reduction in emissions from petrol-powered passenger vehicles, with a
maximum permissible Carbon Monoxide emission of 2.3 g/km, Hydro
carbons+Nitrogen Oxides discharge of 0.35 g/km, and Respirable suspended
particulate matter discharge of 0.05.

The diesel models emitted a peak carbon monoxide of 0.64 g/km, a nitrous oxide of
0.50 g/km, and Hydro carbons+Nitrogen Oxides discharge of 0.56 g/km.
Furthermore, the Sulphur content in the Bharat Stage III-compliant fuels was
restricted to 100 PPM.

Carmakers achieved compliance with the BSIII emissions by installing a catalytic

converter that curbed the discharge of Carbon Monoxide and Hydrocarbons.

What is BSIV?
BSIV norms were made mandatory across the country in April 2017. The pollutants
from petrol-powered passenger vehicles were restricted to a Carbon Monoxide
emission of 1.0 g/km, Hydro carbons+Nitrogen Oxides discharge of 0.18 g/km, and
Respirable suspended particulate matter discharge of 0.025.

The diesel models emitted a peak carbon monoxide of 0.50 g/km, a nitrous oxide of
0.25 g/km, and Hydro carbons+Nitrogen Oxides discharge of 0.30 g/km. Also, the
Sulphur content in the Bharat Stage IV-compliant fuels was restricted to 50 PPM.

In order to convert BSIII-compliant engines to BSIV units, car manufacturers added

bigger catalytic converters to minimise nitrogen-based emissions. Additionally, the
carmakers tweaked the ECU to ensure more efficient combustion. BSIV motors also
received modified air intakes and exhaust systems.

What is BSVI?

India will embrace BSVI emission norms on 1 April 2020, which means our country
will skip on BSV and will directly jump to Bharat Stage VI regulations. The upcoming
emission standards will restrict tailpipe discharge from petrol cars to a Carbon
Monoxide emission of 1.0 g/km, Hydro carbons+Nitrogen Oxides discharge of 0.16
g/km, and Respirable suspended particulate matter discharge of 0.05.

The diesel models will emit a peak carbon monoxide of 0.50 g/km, a nitrous oxide of
0.06 g/km, and Hydro carbons+Nitrogen Oxides discharge of 0.17 g/km. Also, the
Sulphur content in the Bharat Stage VI-compliant fuels will be restricted to 10 PPM.

MCQ POST-TEST

1. Which of the following cannot be reduced by thermal converters?

a) CO
b) HC
c) Soot
d) NOx

2. Bharath stage is based on

a) Chinese norms
b) Japanese norms
c) Euro norms
d) American norms
 3. India decided to skip which stage of Bharath norms and implement which
stage from 1 April 2020 respectively?
a) Stage V, Stage VI
b) Stage III, Stage V
c) Stage VI, Stage VII
d) Stage III, Stage IV
4. Limit of CO for Petrol Engines in Euro 5 norms
a) 1.0 g/km
b) 2.2 g/km
c) 2.3 g/km
d) 2.72 g/km

5. EGR stands for

a) Exhaust Gas Recycling
b) Energy Gas Recycling
c) Exhaust Gas Recirculation
d) Emergency Gas Recirculation

APPLICATION

 Fuel Technology
 Inspection & Maintenance (I&M) of In-use Vehicles
 Road & Traffic Management

CONCLUSION

Upon completion of this course, Students should be able to

 understand various vehicular emission norms
 acquire the knowledge on European emission standards
 learn about equivalent Bharat Standards related to vehicle emission

REFERENCES

1. Watson AY, Bates RR, Kennedy D, editors. Air Pollution, the Automobile,
and Public Health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US);
1988.

2. Asif Faiz, Christopher S. Weaver, Michael P. Walsh, “Air Pollution from

Motor Vehicles: Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions”,
World Bank Publications, 1996.

3. https://www.araiindia.com

VIDEO LINKS FOR REFERENCE

1. https://youtu.be/fYlbNJQSuY8
2. https://youtu.be/HBPtdm9lErI
ASSIGNMENT

1. Briefly explain EURO norms for the passenger cars

2. What are the equivalent Bharath Norms followed in India? Explain

Name of the Course : Autotronics

Name of the Unit : Introduction - Autotronics

Name of the Topic : Charging System

PREREQUISITES

 Internal Combustion Engines

 Batteries in automobiles

AIM & OBJECTIVE

 To make students understand the working of charging system in automobiles

 To provide student with knowledge on alternators in charging system
 To acquaint students with knowledge of starting system in automobiles

MCQ PRE-TEST

1. Which component in the DC generator produces a magnetic field?

a) Stator
b) Commutator
c) Armature
d) Carbon brushes

2. The main function of alternator is to convert

a) mechanical energy into electrical energy
b) electrical energy into mechanical energy
c) chemical energy into electrical energy
d) chemical energy into mechanical energy

3. Which component in alternator produces a magnetic field?

a) Frame
b) Stator
c) Regulator
d) Rotor

4. At the start of the engine, the charging voltage is _______

a) Lower
b) Higher
c) Same
d) Zero
 5. If a conductor is moved through a magnetic field:
a) heat is created.
b) voltage is created.
c) the magnetic field is increased.
d) the magnetic field is decreased.

THE CHARGING SYSTEM

The automotive storage battery is not capable of supplying the demands of the
electrical systems for an extended period of time. Every vehicle must be equipped
with a means of replacing the energy that is being drawn from the battery. A
charging system is used to restore to the battery the electrical power that was used
during engine starting. In addition, the charging system must be able to react quickly
to high load demands required of the electrical system. It is the vehicle’s charging
system that generates the current to operate all of the electrical accessories while
the engine is running.

The purpose of the charging system is to convert the mechanical energy of the
engine into electrical energy to recharge the battery and run the electrical
accessories. When the engine is first started, the battery supplies all the current
required by the starting and ignition systems.

Figure 3 Components of the charging system.

As illustrated in Figure 3, the entire charging system consists of the following
components:
1. Battery.
2. AC generator or DC generator.
3. Drive belt.
4. Voltage regulator.
5. Charge indicator (lamp or gauge).
6. Ignition switch.
7. Cables and wiring harness.
8. Starter relay (some systems).
9. Fusible link (some systems).

All charging systems use the principle of electromagnetic induction to generate the
electrical power. A voltage regulator controls the output voltage of the AC generator,
based on charging system demands, by controlling fi eld current. Th e battery, and
the rest of the electrical system, must be protected from excessive voltages. To
prevent early battery and electrical system failure, regulation of the charging system
is very important. Also, the charging system must supply enough current to run the
vehicle’s electrical accessories when the engine is running.

Alternator

An alternator is a generator producing alternate current (AC). It gets mechanical

energy, as input, in the form of rotation of shaft from the internal combustion engine
in an automobile. This energy is converted into electrical energy. The regulator, an
essential part, controls the voltage and does not allow it to go beyond permissible
limit.

When a bar magnet is moved through a conductor the flow of electrons occurs in the
conductor. It is shown in Figure 4. This shows a rotating bar magnet. The magnetic
field, thus produced, passes through the two sides of stationary wire loop. When
South Pole moves past the upper side of loop current is induced in one direction. At
the same time, as the North Pole moves past the lower side of the loop, current is
induced in the opposite direction. The current is induced but in opposite directions
when similar thing happens and North Pole moves past the upper side of loop and
South Pole moves past the lower side of loop. Thus, alternate current (AC) flows in
the loop. The current can be increased by enhancing the strength of magnetic field,
speed of rotation of magnetic field and by increasing the number of loops.

Figure 4 Electromagnetic Induction

Alternator has got one stator that has stationary conductor loop assembled into a
laminated iron frame and rotor or armature that is a magnet. Brushes are provided
through which the current flows. Brushes are on the upper side of slip rings. Each
slip ring is connected to one end of winding. Figure 5 represents an alternator.

Figure 5 Alternator
The alternate current (AC) is produced by alternator whereas most of the equipment
in an automobile require direct current (DC). This is done by providing the rectifiers
that convert the alternate current (AC) in direct current (DC). Figure 6 shows the
rectifier. This is a six-diode rectifier. The diode allows current flow only in one
direction. The loops in the stator are divided into three groups and these form a
delta-connected stator or Y-connector stator. The six diodes are connected to three
legs as shown.

Figure 6 Rectifier Circuit

An alternator while producing electricity, generates some heat also as whole of the
input cannot be converted into useful electric current and a part of it is wasted in
term of heat. This loss is mainly due to friction between different moving
components. The heat so generated would accumulate in the alternator and would
ultimately damage its components. Therefore, it is essential to dissipate this heat. For
this purpose, a fan is provided behind the pulley (Fig. 5). There are vents provided so
that cool atmospheric air can enter. This helps to keep cool the alternator
The Starting System

In an automobile, starting system cranks the engine initially. It has replaced manual
effort to crank the engine with the help of cranking rod that was used in ancient days.
Initially, the engine requires cranking but once the cycle is completed it starts and
runs on its own. In two wheelers, it is common to ‘kick start’ the engine but in recent
times a number of manufacturers have introduced ‘button start’. For initial cranking
an electric motor is provided that gets electric current as input from battery. The
mechanical energy, in the form of rotation of shaft, is transmitted to engine. This
provides initial movement of crankshaft, connecting rod and piston. As soon as spark
occurs the fuel is ignited and output becomes available from engine. No more
cranking is needed and starting system stops working and engine runs on its own.
The starting system makes starting of vehicle convenient.
Requirements of the Starting System

An internal combustion engine requires

(i) a combustible mixture,

(ii) compression stroke,
(iii) a form of ignition, and
(iv) the minimum initial starting speed (about 100 rpm) in order to start and
continue running.

To meet the first three of these requirements the minimum starting speed must be
attained. This is where the electric starter comes in. The attainment of this minimum
speed is again dependent on a number of factors, such as;
 The rated voltage of the starting system.
 The lowest possible temperature at which the engine can still be started. This
is known as the starting limit temperature.
 The torque required to crank the engine at its starting limit temperature
(including the initial stalled torque).
 The battery characteristics.
 The voltage drop between the battery and the starter.
 The starter to ring gear ratio.
 The characteristics of the starter.
 The minimum cranking speed of the engine at the starting limit temperature
Construction and Working

The starting system is a combination of mechanical and electrical parts that work
together to start the engine. Th e starting system is designed to change the electrical
energy, which is being supplied by the battery, into mechanical energy. For this
conversion to be accomplished, a starter or cranking motor is used.

A starting system consists of starting motor, magnetic switch, safety switch, battery,
cables and ignition switch. These components are connected with each other
through two circuits. One is starting circuit, in which high current flows which is used
to start the engine. Second is control circuit, in which low current flows. The ignition
switch acts as switch for starting circuits also. In starting circuit, the current flows
from battery to starter motor through solenoid or magnetic switch. The control circuit
connects magnetic switch with, battery through ignition switch (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Major components of the starting system.

Th e basic starting system includes the followingcomponents (Figure 6):
1. Battery.
2. Cable and wires.
3. Ignition switch.
4. Starter solenoid or relay.
5. Starter motor.
6. Starter drive and flywheel ring gear.
7. Starting safety switch.

Starter Motor

The starter motor is like any other electrical motor but it is designed to work under
high electrical overloads and produces very high power. Due to this, the motor can
operate for short durations. High current is needed to operate it that generates heat.
Time is also required to dissipate this heat. Therefore, it is advisable that the motor
be given enough gaps between more than one starting attempts.

The motor has got field coils with pole shoes, armature and a housing that encloses
them. Apart from these it has brushes, bushings that make its operation efficient.

The field coils and pole shoes produce strong stationary electromagnetic fields as
current is passed through them. Magnetic polarity (N or S) depends upon the
direction in which the current flows. The magnetic fields produced are opposite in
nature.

The armature is located between drive and end frames. It has windings and the
commutator mounted on the armature shaft. The windings are made of a number of
coils of a single loop each. These are insulated from each other and fit into slots in
the armature shaft. The commutator has heavy copper segments surrounding the
shaft but are insulated from each other and the shaft. The armature is surrounded by
field coils. Current is supplied to armature and it produces magnetic field in each
conductor. The magnetic fields are also produced by field coils. The reaction
between these magnetic fields causes the rotation of armature. The rotation is
transferred to crankshaft of the engine through armature shaft. This causes cranking
of engine.

The current from field coils to the armature is transferred through brushes. These
brushes are held with the help of springs against the commutator. The brushes can
be from two to six in number for smooth motion and constant torque delivery. Figure
7 represents starter motor
 Figure 7 Starter motor

Starting System Circuits

The starter circuit is very simple in comparison with most other circuits on the
modern vehicle. The voltage drop in the main supply wires is the problem with the
system which is to be overcome. This problem is because of the high current
required by the starter particularly under adverse starting conditions such as very
low temperature. The starter is usually operated by a spring-loaded key switch,
which also controls the ignition and accessories. The supply from the key switch,
through a relay in many cases, causes the starter solenoid to operate and this in turn,
controls the heavy current through a set of contacts. In some cases, an extra terminal
on the starter solenoid provides an output while cranking, usually used to bypass a
dropping resistor on the ignition or fuel pump circuits. Figure 8 illustrates basic
circuit for the starting system.

Figure. 8 Basic starting circuit. A. Inertia starter circuit. B. Pre-engaged starter circuit.

For a light vehicle engine, a typical cranking current is around 150 A, which may
increase to the order of 500 A to provide the initial stalled torque. A maximum
voltage drop of only 0.5 V is generally allowed between the battery and starter when
the latter is operating. Using Ohm’s law a maximum allowed circuit resistance can be
calculated as 2.5 mfi for a 12 V supply. This is a worst situation and generally lower
resistance values are used. The selection of suitable conductors in the starter circuit
is highly important.

MCQ POST-TEST

1. To be usable in an automotive electrical system, the ac output ofthe alternator

must be
a) biased
b) relayed
c) stratified
d) rectifiedinto dc.

2. All ofthe following are major parts of a typical 12-volt charging system except:
a) drive belt.
b) alternator.
c) commutator.
d) voltage regulator.

3. To properly charge the vehicle battery, alternator output is typically____volts.

a) lessthan 12
b) 13-15
c) 16-20
d) more than 20

4. In an alternator, which component controls the output?

a) Voltage regulator
b) Cut-out relay
c) Current regulator
d) Diode

5. The small (S) terminal on the starting-motor solenoid is connected to the:

a) starter control circuit.
b) starter load (battery) circuit.
c) both a and b.
d) both neither a nor b.

6. A basic starter control circuit energizes the magnetic switch through the
ignition switch and the:
a) solenoid.
b) neutral start switch.
c) starter over-running clutch.
d) regulator.

APPLICATIONS
The Charging and Starting systems find their main applications in automobile
vehicles. The charging system maintain the charge in the vehicle’s battery and
provide the main source of electrical energy while the engine is running while the
starting system electrical energy from the batteries into mechanical energy to turn
the engine over.

CONCLUSION

Upon completion of this course, Students should be able to

 understand the working of charging system in automobiles

 acquire the knowledge on alternators in charging system
 learn aboutstarting system and starting circuits in automobiles

REFERENCES

1. Tom Denton, “Automotive Electric and Electronic Systems”,3rd

Edition,Elsevier,2004.

2. Sudhir Kumar Saxena, “Automobile Engineering” 2nd Edition, University

Science Press 2015.

VIDEO LINKS FOR REFERENCE

1. https://youtu.be/EthVIixON4o
2. https://youtu.be/jdSKlg80DjU

ASSIGNMENT

1. With a neat sketch explain the working of charging system in automobiles.

2. How a startingsystem works? Explain in detail with relevant circuits

 Name of the Course : Autotronics
Name of the Unit : Ignition and Injection Systems
Name of the Topic : Ignition Systems

AIM & OBJECTIVE

• To provide student with the fundamental knowledge on ignition systems.

• To make the students understand the basic functions of electronic ignition system.
• To make the students learn about programmed ignition system.
• To acquaint students with the knowledge on distribution less ignition.
• To teach the students about direct ignition and spark plug.

PRE-TEST

1. Which instrument is used for adjusting the ignition timing?

a) Accurate clock
b) Tachometer
c) Stopwatch
d) Stroboscopic light

2. What is the dwell time?

a) It is the time for which the contact breaker points remain closed
b) It is the time for which the contact breaker points remain open
c) The time during which inlet and exhaust valves open
d) The time during which inlet and exhaust valves close

3. Which of the following is the disadvantage of the magneto ignition system?

a) Magneto ignition system has a poor quality of spark during starting
b) Magneto ignition system occupies more space
c) Magneto ignition system has more maintenance problems
d) Magneto ignition system is used largely in four wheels

4. Which of the following is the wrong statement?

a) In the exhaust, retarded timing causes burning of the hydrocarbons
b) The retarded timing improves fuel economy
c) The retarded timing requires the small opening for correct burning of the fuel
d) The exhaust gas temperature becomes higher due to retarded time

5. The function of the ignition system is to _____________ the flame propagation

process.
a) stop
b) initiate
c) balance
d) none of the mentioned

PREREQUISITES

• IC Engines
THEORY BEHIND

IGNITION SYSTEMS

The ignition system must provide an adequate voltage to initiate a discharge across
the spark plug electrodes and supply sufficient energy to ignite the air-fuel mixture.
This must occur for all engine operating conditions and at the appropriate time on the
compression stroke.

Since 1965, new requirements for ignition systems have come up which could not be
met by the conventional inductive ignition system. The introduction of new exhaust
emission criteria in 1965 and the demand for improved fuel economy in 1975, has
forced designers to turn to electronic for providing a system to satisfy the statutory
requirements for an automobile. Legislative requirements and driver demand for better
engine performance, added to the manufacturers need to offer a more sophisticated
vehicle to counter a competitor’s product all show why electronic innovation in this
field is taking place.

On modern engines, it is normal for the ignition system to form a subsection of an

integrated management system, sharing sensors and circuits, with fuelling and
(occasionally) transmission control systems.

IGNITION FUNDAMENTALS

Functional Requirements

The ignition system supplies a spark inside the cylinder, near the end of the
compression stroke, to ignite the compressed charge of air-petrol vapour. Under
normal atmospheric (101 k Pa) conditions a voltage of 2 to 3 kV is required for a spark
to jump across an air gap of 0.6 mm. For a spark to jump across a similar gap in an
engine cylinder, having a compression ratio of 8:1 approximately 8 kV is required and
for higher compression ratios and weaker mixtures, a voltage up to 20 kV may be
required. Therefore, ignition system transforms the normal battery voltage of 12 V to
approximately 8-20 kV and delivers it to the right cylinder, at the right time. Some
ignition systems are capable of supplying up to 40 kV to the spark plugs.
The fundamental operation of most ignition systems is very similar. Conventional
ignition is the precursor of the more advanced electronic systems. A coil ignition
system is composed of various components and sub-assemblies. The actual design
and construction of this depend mainly on the engine with which the system is
associated. While designing an ignition system the most important factors to be
considered include:

(i) Combustion chamber design.

 (ii) Air-fuel ratio.
(iii) Engine speed range.
(iv) Engine load.
(v) Engine combustion temperature.
(vi) Intended use.
(vii) Emission regulations.

Various Types

The conventional (mechanical) and electronic ignition are the two basic types of
ignition system. Programmed ignition, distributor less ignition and direct ignition can
be considered as the advancement of basic systems. The basic choice for various
types of ignition system is classified as follows:

Type Conventional Electronic Programmed Distributor

Trigger Mechanical Electronic Electronic Electronic
Advance Mechanical Mechanical Electronic Electronic
Voltage source Inductive Inductive Inductive Inductive
Distribution Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Electronic

Generation of high tension

If two coils (known as the primary and secondary) are wound on to the same iron core
then any change in magnetism of one coil will induce a voltage into the other. This
happens when a current is switched on and off to the primary coil. If the number of
turns of wire on the secondary coil is more than the primary, a higher voltage can be
produced. This is called transformer action and is the principle of the ignition coil.

Figure 1. Ignition Coil

The value of this ‘mutually induced’ voltage depends upon:
• The primary current.
• The turns ratio between the primary and secondary coils.
• The speed at which the magnetism changes.

Figure 1 shows a typical ignition coil in section. The two windings are wound on a
laminated iron core to concentrate the magnetism. Some coils are oil filled to assist
with cooling.

Ignition Advance Angle

The ideal ignition timing is dependent mainly on engine speed and engine load. With
the increase in engine speed, the ignition timing is required to be advanced. It is
because the cylinder charge or air-fuel mixture requires a certain time to burn, and
hence it is necessary to ignite it earlier at higher engine speeds. The ignition advance
angle for optimum efficiency should be sufficient to cause the maximum combustion
pressure to occur about 10 degrees after TDC. A change in timing due to engine load
is also required. Since the weaker mixture used in low load condition burns at a slower
rate, ignition advance is necessary. A change in residual gas content and a lower
charge in the cylinder cause a longer ignition delay and lower combustion rate in the
mixture, thereby requiring the ignition angle to be advanced.

Spark advance is achieved in a number of ways, the simplest of which is a mechanical

system consisting of centrifugal advance mechanism and a vacuum control unit. The
manifold pressure is proportional to the engine load. Electronic ignition systems may
also adjust the timing in relation to the temperature and mixture strength. The values
of all ignition timing functions are considered and combined either mechanically or
electronically to obtain the ideal ignition point. The ignition coil stores energy in the
form of a magnetic field. A dual period is incorporated to ensure that the coil is charged
before the ignition point.

Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emissions

The spark time is critical for maximum power and economy. The ignition timing has a
considerable effect on fuel consumption, torque, driveability and exhaust emissions.
Out of the three most important pollutants of exhaust emissions, hydrocarbons (HC),
carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), the emissions of HC increase as
timing is advanced. NOx emissions also increase with advanced timing because of the
higher combustion temperature. CO changes insignificantly with timing and is mostly
dependent on air-fuel ratio.

A change in timing required to improve exhaust emissions also increases fuel

consumption. A larger advance is necessary with the leaner mixtures used nowadays,
to compensate for the slower burning rate. This provides lower consumption and high
torque but the mixture must be controlled accurately to achieve the best compromise
with regard to emissions.

ELECTRONIC IGNITION

The increased requirements for ignition systems could not be met by the conventional
inductive ignition system since 1960. The introduction of new exhaust emission criteria
in 1965 and the demand for improved fuel economy in 1975, have forced to use
electronics into ignition system to meet the statutory requirements for a vehicle.
Legislative requirements and driver demand for better engine performance, added to
the manufacturer’s marketing strategy to offer a more sophisticated vehicle are the
impetus for electronic innovation in this field.

Drawbacks of a Conventional System.

The basic principle of a conventional inductive ignition system has not changed for
several decades till it became unable to meet the needs as regards energy output and
contact breaker performance. In contrast to an ignition output of 10 – 15 kV used in
earlier day, the modern high-speed engine needs an output of 15 – 30 kV to ignite the
weaker mixtures required to provide better economy and emission. To meet this
requirement a low-inductive coil is often used. Due to much higher current flow in this
coil, the erosive wear of the contact breaker is unacceptable. This reason alone is
sufficient to adopt an electronic system in place of the mechanical breaker. The other
drawbacks, however, of the breaker are:

(i) Ignition varies from specified value due to the change in speed because of
(a) wear at the contact heel, cam and spindle,
(b) erosion of the contact faces, and
(c) contact bounce and the inability of the heel to follow the cam at high speed.
(ii) Adverse effect on the dwell time as a result of dwell angle variation.
(iii) Frequent servicing.

Electronic Ignition System

Electronic ignition is now fitted to almost all spark ignition vehicles. This is because the
conventional mechanical system has some major disadvantages.
• Mechanical problems with the contact breakers, not the least of which is the
limited lifetime.
• Current flow in the primary circuit is limited to about 4 A or damage will occur
to the contacts or at least the lifetime will be seriously reduced.
• Legislation requires stringent emission limits, which means the ignition timing
must stay in tune for a long period of time.
• Weaker mixtures require more energy from the spark to ensure successful
ignition, even at very high engine speed.
 Figure 2. Electronic Ignition System

These problems can be overcome by using a power transistor to carry out the
switching function and a pulse generator to provide the timing signal. Very early forms
of electronic ignition used the existing contact breakers as the signal provider. This
was a step in the right direction but did not overcome all the mechanical limitations,
such as contact bounce and timing slip. Most (all?) systems nowadays are constant
energy, ensuring high performance ignition even at high engine speed.

Digital Ignition System

Electronic Ignition System is as follow:

(a) Capacitance Discharge Ignition system
(b) Transistorized system
(c) Piezo-electric Ignition system
(d) The Texaco Ignition system

Capacitance Discharge Ignition System

It mainly consists of 6-12 V battery, ignition switch, DC to DC convertor, charging

resistance, tank capacitor, Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), SCR-triggering device,
step up transformer, spark plugs. A 6-12-volt battery is connected to DC-to-DC
converter i.e., power circuit through the ignition switch, which is designed to give or
increase the voltage to 250-350 volts. This high voltage is used to charge the tank
capacitor (or condenser) to this voltage through the charging resistance. The charging
resistance is also so designed that it controls the required current in the SCR.
 Figure 3. Capacitance Discharge Ignition System

Depending upon the engine firing order, whenever the SCR triggering device, sends
a pulse, then the current flowing through the primary winding is stopped. And the
magnetic field begins to collapse. This collapsing magnetic field will induce or step-up
high voltage current in the secondary, which while jumping the spark plug gap
produces the spark, and the charge of air fuel mixture is ignited.
Transistorized Assisted Contact (TAC) Ignition System

Figure 4. Transistorized Assisted Contact Ignition System

Advantages

(a) The low breaker-current ensures longer life.

(b) The smaller gap and lighter point assembly increase dwell time minimize
contact bouncing and improve repeatability of secondary voltage.
(c) The low primary inductance reduces primary inductance reduces primary
current drop-off at high speeds.
Disadvantages

(a) As in the conventional system, mechanical breaker points are necessary for
timing the spark.
(b) The cost of the ignition system is increased.
(c) The voltage rise-time at the spark plug is about the same as before.

Piezo-electric Ignition System

The development of synthetic piezo-electric materials producing about 22 kV by

mechanical loading of a small crystal resulted in some ignition systems for single
cylinder engines. But due to difficulties of high mechanical loading need of the order
of 500 kg timely control and ability to produce sufficient voltage, these systems have
not been able to come up.

The Texaco Ignition System

Due to the increased emphasis on exhaust emission control, there has been a sudden
interest in exhaust gas recirculation systems and lean fuel-air mixtures. To avoid the
problems of burning of lean mixtures, the Texaco Ignition system has been developed.
It provides a spark of controlled duration which means that the spark duration in crank
angle degrees can be made constant at all engine speeds. It is a AC system. This
system consists of three basic units, a power unit, a control unit and a distributor
sensor. This system can give stable ignition up to A/F ratios as high as 24: 1.

Electronically–Assisted and Full Electronic Ignition System

The need for higher mileage, reduced emissions and greater reliability has led to the
development of the electronic ignition systems. These systems generate a much
stronger spark which is needed to ignite leaner fuel mixtures. Breaker point systems
needed a resistor to reduce the operating voltage of the primary circuit in order to
prolong the life of the points. The primary circuit of the electronic ignition systems
operates on full battery voltage which helps to develop a stronger spark. Spark plug
gaps have widened due to the ability of the increased voltage to jump the larger gap.
Cleaner combustion and less deposit have led to longer spark plug life.

On some systems, the ignition coil has been moved inside the distributor cap. This
system is said to have an internal coil as opposed to the conventional external one.
Electronic Ignition systems are not as complicated as they may first appear. In fact,
they differ only slightly from conventional point ignition systems. Like conventional
ignition systems, electronic systems have two circuits: a primary circuit and a
secondary circuit. The entire secondary circuit is the same as in a conventional ignition
system. In addition, the section of the primary circuit from the battery to the battery
terminal at the coil is the same as in a conventional ignition system.

Electronic ignition systems differ from conventional ignition systems in the distributor
component area. Instead of a distributor cam, breaker plate, points, and condenser,
an electronic ignition system has an armature (called by various names such as a
trigger wheel, reluctor, etc.), a pickup coil (stator, sensor, etc.), and an electronic
control module. Essentially, all electronic ignition systems operate in the following
manner: With the ignition switch turned on, primary (battery) current flows from the
battery through the ignition switch to the coil primary windings. Primary current is
turned on and off by the action of the armature as it revolves past the pickup coil or
sensor. As each tooth of the armature nears the pickup coil, it creates a voltage that
signals the electronic mod ule to turn off the coil primary current. A timing circuit in
the module will turn the current on again after the coil field has collapsed. When the
current is off, however, the magnetic field built up in the coil is allowed to collapse,
which causes a high voltage in the secondary windings of the coil.

It is now operating on the secondary ignition circuit, which is the same as in a

conventional ignition system. Troubleshooting electronic ignition systems ordinarily
requires the use of a voltmeter and/or an ohmmeter. Sometimes the use of an ammeter
is also required. Because of differences in design and construction, troubleshooting is
specific to each system.

PROGRAMMED IGNITION

General Description

The term programmed ignition is used by Rover and some other manufacturers. Ford,
Bosch and some others name it electronic spark advance (ESA). Constant energy
electronic ignition is commonly used in countless applications. Its limitations, however,
lies on the dependence upon mechanical components for speed and load advance
characteristics. In many cases these did not match ideally the requirements of the
engine. Programmed ignition systems operate digitally, which is the major difference
compared to earlier systems. In this system sensed information regarding the
operating requirements of a particular engine can be programmed into memory of the
electronic control unit. The data for storage in read only memory (ROM) is obtained
from rigorous testing on an engine under various operating conditions. Programmed
ignition has several advantages as follows:

(i) The ignition timing can be accurately matched to the individual application
under a range of various operating conditions.
(ii) Control inputs like coolant temperature and ambient air temperature can be
used. Other inputs such as engine knock can be taken into account.
(iii) Starting is improved, fuel consumption as well as emissions are reduced, and
idle control is better.
(iv) The number of wearing components is considerably reduced in this system.
Programmed ignition or ESA can be installed as a separate system or included
as part of the fuel control system. This provides numerous possibilities in the
management of the engine control.
Sensors and Inputs

The layout of the Rover programmed ignition system is shown in Figure 5 Certain input
information is required by the ECU to calculate suitable timing and dwell outputs.

Figure 5. Programmed Ignition System

Crankshaft Sensor for Engine Speed and Position.

The crankshaft sensor is a simple reluctance sensor (Fig. 6), which is consisted of a
permanent magnet, a winding and a soft iron core and is mounted close to a reluctor
disc. The disc has 34 teeth spaced at 10 degrees intervals around the periphery of the
disc and has two teeth missing at 180 degrees, and at a known position before TDC.
This technique, with minor changes is used by many manufacturers. When a tooth of
the reluctor disc passes the core of the sensor the reluctance of the magnetic circuit
is changed, which induces a voltage in the winding, because the frequency of the wave
form is proportional to the engine speed. The missing tooth causes a missed output
wave, which is used to determine engine position.

Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor for Engine Load.

Since engine load is proportional to manifold pressure, high load conditions produce
high pressure and lower load conditions such as cruise produce lower pressure. Load
sensors are therefore pressure transducers and are either mounted in the ECU or as
a separate unit. They are connected to the inlet manifold with a pipe. The pipe often
has a restriction to damp out fluctuations and a vapour trap to prevent petrol fumes
reaching the sensor.

Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor.

Coolant temperature measurement is carried out by a simple thermistor, which is also
used, in many cases, for the operation of the temperature gauge and to provide
information to the fuel control system. The basic timing settings are corrected using a
separate memory map.
Detonation (Knock) Sensor.

An engine may face serious damage due to combustion knock or detonation if

subjected for long periods. The over-advanced ignition timing causes this knock. On
the other hand, an engine in general runs most efficiently when the timing is advanced
as far as possible. To achieve this, the basic timing map should provide the data as
close to the knock limit of the engine is possible (Fig. 7). The knock sensor provides a
margin for error. The sensor is often of the piezo-electric type accelerometer and fitted
in the engine block between cylinders two and there on in-line four-cylinder engines.
V-engines require two sensors, one on each side. The ECU receives the signals from
the knock sensor in the engine’s knock window for each cylinder. This is often just a
few degrees each side of TDC. This prevents clatter from the valve mechanism being
interpreted as knock. If detonation is detected, the ignition timing is retarded on the
fourth ignition pulse in four-cylinder engine in steps until knock is no longer detected.
A 2 degrees step is typical although the steps vary between manufacturers. The timing
is then advanced slowly in steps of less than 1 degree over a number of engine
revolutions, until the advance required is restored. This fine control allows the engine
to be run very close to the knock limit without risk of engine damage.

Figure 6. Reluctance engine speed and Figure 7. Knock limit of an engine.

position, crankshaft sensor.

Battery Voltage.

A lower voltage supply to the coil requires a slightly higher dwell figure, therefore
correction to dwell settings becomes necessary when the battery voltage falls. This
information is often stored in the form of a dwell correction map.
Electronic Control Unit

With the increase of sophistication of systems, the information held in the memory
chips of the ECU has also increased. The earlier versions of programmed ignition
system of Rover attained ignition timing accuracy of ± 1.8 degrees, whereas a
conventional distributor is accurate to ± 8 degrees. The information, which is obtained
from dynamometer tests and running tests in the vehicle, is stored in ROM. The basic
timing map contains the correct ignition advance for 16 engine speeds and 16 engine
load conditions (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Cartographic representation of a basic timing map.

A separate three-dimensional map, containing eight speed and eight temperature

locations, is also used to incorporate corrections for engine coolant temperature to the
basic timing settings. This improves driveability and can be used to decrease the
warm-up time of the engine. The data also need an additional load correction below
343 K. Figure 9 represents a flow chart for logical selection of the optimum ignition
settings. The ECU also incorporates corrections to the dwell angle, due to changes in
battery voltage and also as a function of engine speed to provide constant energy
output. A slightly longer dwell is required for a lower battery voltage and a slightly
shorter dwell for higher voltage.

A block diagram of a typical programmed ignition ECU is shown in Fig. 10. Input signals
are processed and the data provided is stored in RAM whereas the program and pre-
set data are held in ROM. A micro-controller is used to execute sequences demanded
by the program. The sensors readings are converted to a digital representation in an
analogue-to-digital circuit. Many manufacturers including Rover use an on-board
pressure sensor to indicate engine load and is consisted of an aneroid chamber and
strain gauges.
 Fig. 9. Flow chart for the logical selection of optimum ignition timing.

Figure 9 shows a flow chart used to represent the program held in ROM. The
programmed ignition system of Rover including the electronic control unit was quite
advanced and shown high reliability compared to other contemporary systems.

Ignition Output
The output from this programmed ignition is very simple and is in common with most
electronic ignition. The output stage consists of a heavy-duty transistor, which forms
part of, or is driven by, a Darlington pair. This allows control of the high ignition primary
current. The switch-off point of the coil controls ignition timing whereas the switch-on
point controls the dwell period.
High Tension Distribution
The high-tension distribution is similar to a conventional system. The rotor arm,
however, is installed at the end of the camshaft. The distributor cap is positioned over
the top and is fixed on a base plate made of Crasline. This mounting point prevents
any oil, which leaks from the camshaft seal, fouling the cap and rotor arm. The cap is
made of Vela, which is similar to epoxy resin but has better electrical characteristics.
The mounting plate also prevents the build-up of harmful gases such as ozone and
nitric oxide by venting them to the atmosphere. These gases are generated by the
electrolytic action of the spark as it jumps the air gap between the rotor arm and the
cap segment. The rotor arm is also made of Crasline and is reinforced with a metal
insert to relieve fixing stresses.

Fig. 10. Programmed ignition ECU block diagram.

DISTRIBUTORLESS IGNITION

Principle of Operation

Distributor less ignition system used extensively by Ford incorporates all the features
of electronic spark advance systems, except a special type of ignition coil is used in
place of HT distributor. The system is generally used only on four- or six-cylinder
engines, because the control system becomes highly complex for higher number of
cylinders. It works on the principle of the lost spark. The spark distribution is achieved
by the help of two double ended coils, fired alternately by the ECU. The ignition timing
is obtained from a crankshaft speed and position sensor as well as through load and
other corrections. When one of the coils is fired, a spark is delivered to two engine
cylinders, either 1 and 4, or 2 and 3. The spark delivered to the cylinder on the
compression stroke ignites the mixture as normal. Whereas the spark in other cylinder
causes no effect, as this cylinder is just completing its exhaust stroke. Because of the
low compression and the exhaust gases in the lost spark cylinder, the voltage only of
about 3 kV is needed for the spark to jump the gap. This is similar to cap voltage of the
more conventional rotor arm. The spark produced in the compression cylinder is
therefore not affected.
It may be noted that the spark on one of the cylinders jumps from the earth electrode
to the spark plug centre, whereas in others it jumps from the centre electrode. This is
because the energy available from modern constant energy systems produces a spark
of suitable quality in either direction. However, the disadvantage is that the spark plugs
may wear more quickly with this system.
System Components
The distributor less ignition system contains three main components such as the
electronic module, a crankshaft position sensor and the distributor less ignition coil.
Many systems use a manifold absolute pressure sensor, integrated in the module. The
module functions almost in the same way as the electronic spark advance system.
The crankshaft position sensor operates in the similar way to the one described in the
previous section. It is also a reluctance sensor positioned against the front of the
flywheel or against a reluctor wheel just behind the front crankshaft pulley. The tooth
pattern uses 36-1 teeth, which are spaced at 10-degree intervals, with a gap for the
36th tooth. The missing tooth is located at 90 degrees before TDC for numbers 1 and
4 cylinders. This reference position is located a fixed number of degrees before TDC
for calculating the timing or ignition point as a fixed angle after the reference mark.
The distributor less ignition coil (Fig. 11) has a low-tension winding, which is supplied
with battery voltage to a centre terminal. The appropriate half of the winding is then
connected to earth in the module. The high-tension windings are separate and are
specific to cylinders 1 and 4, or 2 and 3. Figure 12 shows a typical Ford distributor less
ignition coil. The Citroen 2 CV has been using a double ended ignition coil together
with contact breakers for many years.

Fig. 11. Distributor-less ignition Fig. 12. Distributor less ignition coils.
coil as part of the complete A. 2-Spark coil. B. 2 x 2 Spark coil.
system. C. 3 x 2 spark coil (Bosch).

DIRECT IGNITION

General Description

Direct ignition is in a way the extension of the distributor less ignition. This system has
an inductive coil for each cylinder. Figure 16.58 shows a cross section of the direct
ignition coil. These coils are mounted directly on the spark plugs. The use of an
individual coil for each plug provides a very fast rise time for the low inductance
primary winding, which ensures a very high voltage and high energy spark. This
voltage can be in excess of 40 kV, due to which efficient initiation of the combustion
process takes place under cold starting conditions and with weak mixtures. Some
direct ignition systems such as the SAAB system use capacitor discharge ignition.
Igniter units are used to switch the ignition coils and these units can control up to three
coils. These in fact are simply the power stages of the control unit, but located in a
separate container to avoid interference in the main ECU due to heavy current
switching.

Control of Ignition
Ignition timing and dwell are controlled in the same manner as described in previous
systems. One important additional feature in this system is a camshaft sensor used to
identify the cylinder, which is on the compression stroke. The Bosch Motronic 1.8
system also uses information from the automatic transmission control unit. This helps
in retardation of timing in order to assist gear changes. A system is available, which
does not require a sensor such as a crankshaft sensor to determine the cylinder that
is on compression. To do this initially all of the coils are fired. A voltage is then applied
across the plugs. The measurement of the current of each spark indicates the cylinder
that is on its combustion stroke. The cylinder with the highest current at this point is
the cylinder on the combustion stroke, because a burning mixture has a lower
resistance. An additional feature is provided in some systems where the engine is
cranked over for an excessive time, causing flooding. The plugs are all fired with multi-
sparks for a period of time after the ignition is left in the on position for five seconds.
This burns away any excess fuel. In difficult starting conditions, multi-sparking is also
used by some systems (SAAB) during 70 degrees of crank rotation before TDC. This
assists with starting and then, once the engine is running, the timing retrns to its normal
calculated position.

SPARK PLUG

The spark plug provides the gap across which the high-tension current jumps to give
the spark for ignition of the petrol air mixture. Since the Frenchman Etienne Lenoir
invented the spark plug in I860, many significant improvements have taken place
thereafter, but the basic construction has remained the same, which is consisted of a
highly-insulated electrode connected to the HT cable and an earth electrode joined to
the plug body.

Functional Requirements

The spark plug allows a spark to form within the combustion chamber, which initiates
burning. While achieving this plug withstands severe conditions. For example, a four-
cylinder four-stroke engine with a compression ratio of 9 to 1, running at speeds up to
5000 rpm, the following conditions is typical. At this speed the four-stroke cycle is
repeated every 24 ms.

• End of induction stroke is at 88 kPa and 338 K.

• Ignition firing point at 883 kPa and 623 K.
• Highest value during power stroke at 4415 kPa and 3273 K.
• Power stroke completed at 392 kPa and 1373 K.
Besides the above, the spark plug must withstand severe vibration and a harsh
chemical environment. Also, the spark plug’s insulation must with stand voltages upto
40 kV.

Construction

The construction details of a typical spark plug are shown in Fig. 13. A stud connects
to the centre electrode to the top terminal. The electrode is made of a nickel-based
alloy. Silver and platinum are also used for some applications. To improve the thermal
conduction properties a copper core is also used in the electrode.
The ‘sillment compressed powder seals’ prevent gas leakage past the insulator. A
gasket or tapered seat stops leakage between the cylinder head and the shell. A single-
earth electrode of rectangular cross-section is welded to the shell. A hexagon is
machined on the shell for easy installation and removal of the plug. Ribs formed on the
outside of the insulator increase the length of the flashover or tracking down path
outside of the plug insulation and also improve the grip of the lead covers, fitted to
prevent penetration of moisture. The insulating material is high grade ceramic based
and aluminium oxide, AI2O3 (95% pure) is a common choice. It is bonded into the metal
parts and glazed on the outside surface. The properties of most suitable insulating
material are.

The above values may be considered as a guide only, as actual values vary with slight
manufacturing changes. The electrically conductive glass seal between the electrode
and terminal stud is also used as a resistor. This resistor damps the current at the
instant of ignition. Therefore, it prevents burn off of the centre electrode, and also it
reduces radio interference.
 Fig. 13. Typical spark plug (Bosch).

Electrode Features and Materials

Electrode Features.
Generally, nickel alloy is used for plug electrodes, which provides resistance to
corrosive attack by combustion products or erosion from high-voltage discharges.
Platinum is sometimes used in engines where corrosion and erosion are severe. Both
electrodes must be strong to withstand vibration from combustion effects. They must
also be correctly shaped for the production of a spark with minimum voltage (Fig. 14A).

Under normal operating conditions, electrodes are eroded and hence after a period of
time the earth electrode shape becomes pointed (Fig. 14B). In this condition it requires
a higher voltage to produce a spark. The increase in the voltage requirement of the
plug is accompanied by the deterioration in the output voltage of the ignition generator
system. If regularly not attended the system may fail, and most likely this happens
during starting of the engine on a cold, damp day.
 Fig. 14. Electrode shape.

The material for the spark plug electrode must have

• High thermal conductivity,

• High corrosion resistance, and
• High resistance to burn-off.

For operation under normal conditions, alloy of nickel with chromium, manganese,
silicon and magnesium as the alloying constituents are used for the electrode material.
These alloys have excellent properties with respect to corrosion and burn-off
resistance. To improve on the thermal conductivity, compound electrodes are
preferred. This can have a greater nose projection for the same temperature range. A
common example of this type of plug is the copper core spark plug.
Silver electrodes are used for specialist applications because this material has very
good thermal and electrical properties. Also, these plugs can have higher nose length
within the same temperature range. The thermal conductivities of some electrode
materials are:

• Silver – 407W/mK
• Copper – 384W/mK
• Platinum – 70W/mK
• Nickel – 59W/mK
Compound electrodes have an average thermal conductivity of about 200 W/mK
Platinum tips are used for some spark plug applications as this material has very high
burn-off resistance so that much smaller diameter electrodes can be used. This
increases mixture accessibility. As platinum has a catalytic effect, it also accelerates
the combustion process.

Copper-cored Electrode
By increasing the insulator nose length, the risk of carbon fouling can be reduced when
the vehicle is operated on short journeys, but the spark plug seriously overheats if the
vehicle is driven at high speeds for long period. To overcome this temperature problem
expensive electrode materials such as platinum, iridium, silver or gold-palladium, are
used. A cheaper alternative to improve thermal conductivity is a copper-cored
electrode (Fig. 15).

Electrode Polarity.
When the centre electrode is negative with respect to the polarity of HT circuit a lower
voltage is needed to produce a spark at the plug. A hot surface emits electrons. The
centre electrode being the hotter of the two, the natural flow of electrons is from the
centre electrode to the earth electrode. If the circuit is connected to allow this direction
of flow, then the natural flow of electrons aids, rather than opposing the electron
movement provided by the ignition coil. The direction of electron flow in the secondary
depends on the polarity of the primary winding. Nowadays the LT terminals on most
coils are marked (+) and (-) to indicate the connections required to give a negative
spark. Electronic diagnostic equipment is used to test the coil’s polarity. If this
equipment is not available, a pencil test can be carried out (Fig. 16). Inspection of a
plug, already used for a long time, shows more erosion on the earth electrode when
the centre electrode is negative.

Fig. 15. Copper-cored electrode. Fig. 16. Pencil test to determine polarity.

Electrode Gap
For cold starting an engine and for igniting weak mixtures, the duration of the spark is
critical. The plug gap must be as large as possible to allow easy access for the mixture
to prevent quenching of the flame. Wider gaps are sometimes used for engines, which
run on a mixture weaker than normal. These mixtures are more difficult to ignite, so a
higher voltage is required.
Spark plug electrode gaps in general increases with the increase of power of the
ignition systems driving the spark (leaving aside engine operating conditions). Since,
the energy available to form a spark is constant at a fixed engine speed, a higher
voltage when used across a larger gap results in a spark of shorter duration. Therefore,
a smaller gap allows a longer duration spark. The final selection of the gap is therefore
a compromise decided based on testing for a particular application. Plug gaps in the
region of 0.7 to 1.0 mm is a common choice at present. A typical spark plug gap is 0.6
mm.
An auxiliary gap (or booster gap) is used on some models. This series gap is formed
between the terminal and the end of the electrode. This reduces the build-up of carbon
on the insulator nose and so improves the plug performance when the engine is
operated at low power for a considerable time. The introduction of an extra series gap
in the circuit raises the HT voltage and as a result causes the spark to jump the gap
rather than short down the carbon on the insulator. To restore normal sparking the
plug lead is held, by suitably-insulated tongs, about 6 mm from the plug terminal and
the engine is started. After a short time, the plug begins to operate normally.

MCQ POST-TEST

1. The ignition component that steps up voltage is the:

a) capacitor
b) condenser
c) coil
d) king lead.

2. Setting spark plug gaps too wide will cause running problems because the firing
voltage will:
a) increase and the spark duration will decrease
b) increase and the spark duration will increase
c) decrease and the spark duration will increase
d) decrease and the spark duration will decrease.

3. A spark is created as the coil primary winding is:

a) switched on
b) switched off
c) charged
d) stabilized.

4. Cruising conditions require the ignition timing to be:

a) retarded
b) reversed
c) allocated
d) advanced.

5. An inductive pulse generator in an ignition distributor will NOT produce an output

voltage when the engine is:
a) running
b) cranking
c) stopped
d) over revving.

6. A ‘hot running’ engine must be fitted with a:

a) hot spark plug
b) cold spark plug
c) taper seat spark plug
d) washer seat spark plug.

7. Changes in pressure to a MAP sensor are converted in many cases to a:

a) variable voltage output
b) variable current output
c) steady state reading
d) steady waveform reading.
APPLICATION

An ignition system generates a spark or heats an electrode to a high temperature to

ignite a fuel-air mixture in spark ignition internal combustion engines, oil-fired and gas-
fired boilers, rocket engines, etc. The widest application for spark ignition internal
combustion engines is in petrol (gasoline) road vehicles such as cars and motorcycles.

CONCLUSION

Upon completion of this course, Students should be able to

• acquire the fundamental knowledge on ignition systems
• learn about the basic functions of electronic ignition system.
• understand programmed ignition system and distribution less ignition.
• learn the working principle of spark plug.

REFERENCES

1. Ribbens, "Understanding Automotive Electronics", 7th Edition, Elsevier,

Indian Reprint, 2013.
2. Tom Denton, “Automotive Electric and Electronic Systems”,3rd Edition,
Elsevier, 2004.
3. https://www.mechanicalbooster.com

VIDEO LINKS FOR REFERENCE

1. https://youtu.be/OMLSNwQiiKg
2. https://youtu.be/QYx8J_5l5wY

ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe the purpose of an ignition system.

2. Draw the circuit of a programmed ignition system and clearly label each part.
 Name of the Course : Autotronics
Name of the Unit : Ignition and Injection Systems
Name of the Topic : Electronic fuel Control

AIM & OBJECTIVE

• To provide student with the fundamental knowledge on combustion.

• To make the students understand the engine fuelling and exhaust emissions.
• To make the students learn about electronic control of carburetion.
• To acquaint students with the knowledge on petrol and diesel fuel injection.

PRE-TEST

1. Which of the following is not the part of the injector assembly?

a) Needle valve
b) Nozzle
c) Diaphragm
d) Compressor spring

2. Which of the following is not the function of the fuel injection system?
a) Time the fuel injection
b) Filter the fuel
c) Atomize the fuel to fine particles
d) Control the engine speed

3. In spark ignition engines a nearly ____________ mixture of air and fuel is formed
in the carburettor.
a) heterogeneous
b) homogeneous
c) solid
d) none of the mentioned

4. The complete combustion of ____________ mixture, and droplet combustion

result in the smoke and odour.
a) heterogeneous
b) homogeneous
c) solid
d) none of the mentioned

PREREQUISITES

• IC Engines

THEORY BEHIND

BASICS OF COMBUSTION

The process of combustion in spark and compression ignition engines is best

considered for petrol and diesel engines in turn. The knowledge of the more practical
aspects of combustion has been gained after years of research and is by no means
complete even now. For a complete picture of the factors involved, further reference
should be made to appropriate sources. However, the combustion section here will
give enough details to allow considered opinion about the design and operation of
electronic fuel control systems.

Spark ignition engine combustion process

A simplified description of the combustion process within the cylinder of a spark

ignition engine is as follows. A single high intensity spark of high temperature passes
between the electrodes of the spark plug leaving behind it a thin thread of flame. From
this thin thread combustion spreads to the envelope of mixture immediately
surrounding it at a rate that depends mainly on the flame front temperature, but also,
to a lesser degree, on the temperature and density of the surrounding envelope.

In this way, a bubble of flame is built up that spreads radially outwards until the whole
mass of mixture is burning. The bubble contains the highly heated products of
combustion, while ahead of it, and being compressed by it, is the still unburnt mixture.

If the cylinder contents were at rest this bubble would be unbroken, but with the air
turbulence normally present within the cylinder, the filament of flame is broken up into
a ragged front, which increases its area and greatly increases the speed of advance.
While the rate of advance depends on the degree of turbulence, the direction is little
affected, unless some definite swirl is imposed on the system. The combustion can be
considered in two stages.

1. Growth of a self-propagating flame.

2. Spread through the combustion chamber.
The first process is chemical and depends on the nature of the fuel, the temperature
and pressure at the time and the speed at which the fuel will oxidize or burn. Shown
in Figure 1, it appears as the interval from the spark (A) to the time when an increase
in pressure due to combustion can first be detected (B).

Figure 1. The speed at which fuel will oxidize or burn

This ignition delay period can be clearly demonstrated. if fuel is burned at constant
volume, having been compressed to a self-ignition temperature, the pressure—time
relationship is as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Fuel is burned at a constant volume having been compressed to a self-

ignition temperature. The pressure-time relationship is shown

The time interval occurs with all fuels but may be reduced with an increase of
compression temperature. A similar result can be demonstrated, enabling the effect of
mixture strength on ignition delay to be investigated

Referring to Figure 1, with the combustion under way, the pressure rises within the
engine cylinder from (B) to (C), very rapidly approaching the 'constant volume' process
of the four-stroke cycle. While (C) represents the peak cylinder pressure and the
completion of flame travel, all available heat has not been liberated due to re-
association, and what can be referred to as after-burning continues throughout the
expansion stroke.

Range and rate of burning

The range and rate of burning issue can be summarised by reference to the following
graphs:

Figure 3 shows the approximate relation between flame temperature and the time from
spark to propagation of flame for a hydrocarbon fuel.

Figure 4 shows the relation between the flame temperature and the mixture strength.

Figure 5 shows the relationship between mixture strength and rate of burning.

These graphs show that the minimum delay time (A to B) is about 0.2 ms seconds with
the mixture slightly rich. While the second stage (B to C) is roughly dependent upon
the degree of the turbulence (and on the engine speed) the initial delay necessitates
ignition advance as the engine speed increases.
 Figure 3. Approximated relationship Figure 4. Relationship between flame
between flame temperature and the time temperature and mixture strength
from spark to propagation of flame for a
hydrocarbon fuel

Figure 5. Relationship between mixture Figure 6. Effects of incorrect ignition timing

strength and rate of burning on fuel burn

Figure 6 shows the effects of incorrect ignition timing. As the ignition is advanced there
is an increase in firing pressure or maximum cylinder pressure, generally accompanied
by a reduction in exhaust temperature. The effect of increasing the range of the
mixture strength speeds the whole process up and thus increases the tendency to
detonate.
Detonation

The detonation phenomenon is the limiting factor on the output and efficiency of the
spark ignition engine. The mechanism of detonation is the setting up within the engine
cylinder of a pressure wave travelling at such velocity as, by its impact against the
cylinder walls, to set them in vibration, and thus produce a high pitched ‘ping’. When
the spark ignites a combustible mixture of the fuel and air, a small nucleus of flame
builds up, slowly at first but accelerating rapidly. As the flame front advances it
compresses the remaining unburned mixture ahead of it. The temperature of the
unburned mixture is raised by compression and radiation from the advancing flame
until the remaining charge ignites spontaneously. The detonation pressure wave
passes through the burning mixture at a very high velocity and the cylinder walls emit
the ringing knock.

Detonation is not too dangerous in small engines because it is usually avoided at the
first warning by easing the load, but at higher speeds, where the noise level is high,
the characteristic noise can and often does go undetected. It can be extremely
dangerous, prompting pre-ignition and possibly the complete destruction of the
engine.

High compression temperature and pressure tend to promote detonation. In addition,

the ability of the unburnt mixture to absorb or get rid of the heat radiated to it by the
advancing flame front is also important. The latent enthalpy of the mixture and the
design of the combustion chamber affect this ability. The latter must be arranged for
adequate cooling of the unburnt mixture by placing it near a well-cooled feature such
as an inlet valve.

The length of flame travel should be kept as short as possible by careful positioning of
the point of ignition. Other factors include the time (hence the ignition timing), since
the reaction in the unburnt mixture must take some time to develop; the degree of
turbulence (in general, higher turbulence tends to reduce detonation effects); and,
most importantly, the tendency of the fuel itself to detonate.

Some fuels behave better in this respect. Fuel can be treated by additives (e.g. tetra-
ethyl lead) to improve performance. However, this aggravates an already difficult
pollution problem. A fuel with good anti-knock properties is iso-octane, and a fuel that
is susceptible to detonation is normal heptane.

To obtain the octane number or the anti-knock ratings of a particular blend of fuel, a
test is carried out on an engine run under carefully monitored conditions, and the onset
of detonation is compared with those values obtained from various mixtures of iso-
octane and normal heptane. If the performance of the fuel is identical to, for example,
a mixture of 90% iso-octane and 10% heptane, then the fuel is said to have an octane
rating of 90.
Mixing water, or methanol and water, with the fuel can reduce detonation. A mainly
alcohol-based fuel, which enables the water to be held in solution, is also helpful so
that better use can be made of the latent enthalpy of the water

Pre-ignition

Evidence of the presence of pre-ignition is not so apparent at the onset as detonation,

but the results are far more serious. There is no characteristic ‘ping’. In fact, if audible
at all, it appears as a dull thud. Since it is not immediately noticeable, its effects are
often allowed to take a serious toll on the engine. The process of combustion is not
affected to any extent, but a serious factor is that control of ignition timing can be lost.

Pre-ignition can occur at the time of the spark with no visible effect. More seriously,
the ‘auto-ignition’ may creep earlier in the cycle. The danger of pre-ignition lies not so
much in development of high pressures but in the very great increase in heat flow to
the piston and cylinder walls. The maximum pressure does not, in fact, increase
appreciably although it may occur a little early.

In a single-cylinder engine, the process is not dangerous since the reduction usually
causes the engine to stall. In a multiple-cylinder engine the remaining cylinders (if only
one is initially affected), will carry on at full power and speed, dragging the pre-igniting
cylinder after them. The intense heat flow in the affected cylinder can result in piston
seizure followed by the breaking up of the piston with catastrophic results to the whole
engine.

Pre-ignition is often initiated by some form of hot spot, perhaps red-hot carbon or some
poorly cooled feature of combustion space. In some cases, if the incorrect spark plug
is used, over-heated electrodes are responsible, but often detonation is the prime
cause. The detonation wave scours the cylinder walls of residual gases present in a
film on the surface with the result that the prime source of resistance to heat flow is
removed and a great release of heat occurs. Any weaknesses in the cooling system
are tested and any hot spots formed quickly give rise to pre-ignition.

Combustion chamber

To avoid the onset of detonation and pre-ignition, a careful layout of the valves and
spark plugs is essential. Smaller engines, for automotive use, are firmly tied to the
poppet valve. This, together with the restriction of space involved with high
compression ratios, presents the designer with interesting problems.

The combustion chamber should be designed bearing in mind the following factors:

• The compression ratio should be 9: 1 for normal use, 11 or 12: 1 for higher
performance.
 • The plug or plugs should be placed to minimize the length of flame travel.
They should not be in pockets or otherwise shrouded since this reduces
effective cooling and also increases the tendency toward cyclical variations.

Experimental evidence shows a considerable variation in pressure during successive

expansion stokes. This variation increases, as the mixture becomes too weak or too
rich. Lighter loads and lower compression ratios also aggravate the process. While the
size and position of the point of maxi-mum pressure changes, the mean effective
pressure and engine output is largely unaffected.

Stratification of cylinder charge

A very weak mixture is difficult to ignite but has great potential for reducing emissions
and improving economy. One technique to get around the problem of igniting weak
mixtures is stratification.

It is found that if the mixture strength is increased near the plug and weakened in the
main combustion chamber an overall reduction in mixture strength results, but with a
corresponding increase in thermal efficiency. To achieve this, petrol injection is used
– stratification being very difficult with a conventional carburation system. A system
that uses this technique is gasoline direct injection, which can allow a petrol engine to
run with much weaker air-to-fuel ratios.

Mixture strength and performance

The effect of varying the mixture strength while maintaining the throttle position, engine
speed and ignition timing constant is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Effect of varying mixture strength

while keeping throttle position, engine speed Figure 8. Effect operating at part throttle with
and ignition timing constant varying mixture strength

ignition timing constant

Figure 8 shows the effect of operating at part throttle with varying mixture strength.
The chemically correct mixture of approximately 14.7: 1 lies between the ratio that
provides maximum power (12: 1), and minimum consumption (16: 1). The
stoichiometric ratio of 14.7: 1 is known as a lambda value of one. Figure 9 compares
engine power output and fuel consumption with changes in air—fuel ratio.

Figure 9. Comparison of engine

Figure 10. Phases of diesel
power output and fuel consumption
combustion timing constant
with changes in air-fuel ratio

Compression ignition (CI) engines

The process of combustion in the compression ignition engine differs from that in a
spark ignition engine. In this case the fuel is injected in a liquid state, into a highly
compressed, high-temperature air supply in the engine cylinder. Each minute droplet
is quickly surrounded by an envelope of its own vapour as it enters the highly heated
air. This vapour, after a certain time, becomes inflamed on the surface. A cross-section
of any one droplet would reveal a central core of liquid, a thin surrounding film of
vapour, with an outer layer of flame. This sequence of vaporization and burning
persists as long as combustion continues.

The process of combustion (oxidization of the hydrocarbon fuel), is in itself a lengthy

process, but one that may be accelerated artificially by providing the most suitable
conditions. The oxidization of the fuel will proceed in air at normal atmospheric
temperatures, but it will be greatly accelerated if the temperature is raised. It will take
years at 20 °C, a few days at 200 °C and just a few minutes at 250 °C. In these cases,
the rate of temperature rise due to oxidization is less than the rate at which the heat is
being lost due to convection and radiation. Ultimately, as the temperature is raised, a
critical stage is reached where heat is being generated by oxidization at a greater rate
than it is being dissipated.

The temperature then proceeds to rise automatically. This, in turn, speeds up the
oxidization process and with it the release of heat. Events now take place very rapidly;
a flame is established and ignition takes place. The temperature at which this critical
change takes place is usually termed the self-ignition temperature of the fuel. This,
however, depends on many factors such as pressure, time and the ability to transmit
heat from the initial oxidization.

At a temperature well above the ignition point, the extreme outer surface of the droplet
immediately starts to evaporate, surrounding the core with a thin film of vapour. This
involves a supply of heat from the air surrounding the droplet in order to supply the
latent enthalpy of evaporation. This supply is maintained by continuing to draw on the
main supply of heat from the mass of hot air,

Ignition can and will occur on the vapour envelope even with the core of the droplet
still liquid and relatively cold. Once the flame is established, the combustion proceeds
at a more rapid rate. This causes a delay period, after injection commences and before
ignition takes place. The delay period therefore depends on:

• Excess of air temperature over and above the self-ignition temperature of the
fuel.
• Air pressure, both from the point of view of the supply of oxygen and improved
heat transfer between the hot air and cold fuel.

Once the delay period is over, the rate at which each flaming droplet can find fresh
oxygen to replenish its consumption controls the rate of further burning. The relative
velocity of the droplet to the surrounding air is thus of considerable importance. In the
compression ignition engine, the fuel is injected over a period of perhaps 40-500 of
crank angle. This means that the oxygen supply is absorbed by the fuel first injected,
with a possible starvation of the last fuel injected.

This necessitates a degree of turbulence of the air so that the burnt gases are
scavenged from the injector zone and fresh air is brought into contact with the fuel. It
is clear that the turbulence should be orderly and not disorganized, as in a spark
ignition engine, where it is only necessary in order to break up the flame front.

In a compression ignition engine the combustion can be regarded as occurring in three

distinct phases as shown in Figure 10

• Delay period
• Rapid pressure rise.
• After-burning, i.e. the fuel is burning as it leaves the injector.
The longer the delay, the greater and more rapid the pressure rise since more fuel will
be present in the cylinder before the rate of burning comes under direct control of the
rate of injection. The aim should be to reduce the delay as much as possible, both for
the sake of smooth running, the avoidance of knock and also to maintain control over
the pressure change. There is, however, a lower limit to the delay since, without delay,
all the droplets would burn as they leave the nozzle. This would make it almost
impossible to provide enough combustion air within the concentrated spray and the
delay period also has its use in providing time for the proper distribution of the fuel.
The delay period therefore depends on:

• The pressure and temperature of the air.

• The cetane rating of the fuel.
• The volatility and latent enthalpy of the fuel.
• The droplet size.
• Controlled turbulence.

The effect of droplet size is important, as the rate of droplet burning depends primarily
on the rate at which oxygen becomes available. It is, however, vital for the droplet to
penetrate some distance from the nozzle around which burning will later become
concentrated. To do this, the size of the droplets must be large enough to obtain
sufficient momentum at injection. On the other hand, the smaller the droplet the
greater the relative surface area exposed and the shorter the delay period. A
compromise between these two effects is clearly necessary.

With high compression ratios (15: 1 and above) the temperature and pressure are
raised so that the delay is reduced, which is an advantage. However, high compression
ratios are a disadvantage mechanically and also inhibit the design of the combustion
chamber, particularly in small engines where the bumping clearance consumes a large
proportion of the clearance volume.

Combustion chamber design – diesel engine

The combustion chamber must be designed to:

• Give the necessary compression ratio.

• Provide the necessary turbulence.
• Position for correct and optimum operation of the valves and injector.

These criteria have effects that are interrelated. Turbulence is normally obtained at the
expense of volumetric efficiency. Masked inlet valves (which are mechanically
undesirable) or ‘tangent’ directional ports restrict the air flow and therefore are
restrictive to high-speed engines.

To assist in breathing, four or even six valves per cylinder can be used. This
arrangement has the advantage of keeping the injector central, a desirable aim for
direct injection engines. Large valves and their associated high lift, in addition to
providing mechanical problems often require heavy piston recesses, which disturb
squish and orderly movement of the air.

A hemispherical combustion chamber assists with the area available for valves, at the
expense of using an offset injector. Pre-combustion chambers, whether of the air cell
or ‘combustion swirl’ type have the general disadvantage of being prone to
metallurgical failure or at least are under some stress since, as they are required to
produce a ‘hot spot’ to assist combustion, the temperature stresses in this region are
extremely high. There is no unique solution and the resulting combustion chamber is
always a compromise.

ENGINE FUELLING AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS

Operating conditions

The ideal air-fuel ratio is about 14.7: 1. This is the theoretical amount of air required to
burn the fuel completely. It is given a 'lambda (λ)’ value of 1.

λ.= actual air quantity ÷ theoretical air quantity

The air-fuel ratio is altered during the following operating conditions of an engine to
improve its performance, drivability, consumption and emissions.

• Cold starting - a richer mixture is needed to compensate for fuel condensation

and improves drivability.
• Load or acceleration - a richer mixture to improve performance.
• Cruise or light loads - a weaker mixture for economy.
• Overrun - very weak mixture (if any) to improve emissions and economy.

The more accurately the air-fuel ratio is controlled to cater for external conditions, then
the better the overall operation of the engine.

Exhaust emissions

Figure 11 shows, first, the theoretical results of burning a hydrocarbon fuel and,
second, the actual combustion results. The top part of the figure is ideal but the lower
part is the realistic result under normal conditions. Note that this result is prior to any
further treatment, for example by a catalytic converter.

Figure 12 shows the approximate percentages of the various exhaust gas emissions.
The volume of pollutants is small but, because they are so poisonous, they are
undesirable and strong legislation now exists to encourage their reduction. The actual
values of these emissions varies depending on engine design, operating conditions,
temperature and smooth running, to name just a few variables.
Figure 11. Theoretical results of burning a hydrocarbon fuel and actual combustion
results

Figure 12. Composition of exhaust

Leaded and unleaded fuel

Tetra-ethyl lead was first added to petrol in the 1920s to slow down the rate of burning,
improve combustion and increase the octane rating of the fuel. All this was achieved
using the lead additive - at less cost than further refining by the petrol companies.

The first real push for unleaded fuel was from Los Angeles in California. To reduce this
city’s severe smog problem, the answer at the time seemed to be to employ catalytic
converters. However, if leaded fuel is used, the ‘cat’ can be rendered inoperative. A
further study showing that lead causes brain damage in children sounded the death
knell for leaded fuel. This momentum spread worldwide and still exists.

New evidence is now coming to light showing that the additives used instead of lead
were ending up in the environment. The two main culprits are benzene, which is
strongly linked to leukaemia, and methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), which poisons
water and is very toxic to almost all living things. This is potentially a far worse problem
than lead, which is now not thought to be as bad as the initial reaction suggested.

MTBE as a petrol/gasoline additive, is used as an oxygenate and to raise the octane

number. Its use has declined in response to environmental and health concerns. It has
been found to easily pollute large quantities of groundwater when fuel with MTBE is
spilled or leaked at refuelling stations. MTBE spreads more easily underground than
other gasoline components due to its higher solubility in water It is important, however,
to note that this is still in the ‘debate’ stage; further research is necessary for a fully
reasoned conclusion. Note though, how any technological issue usually has far more
to it than first meets the eye!

Modern engines are now designed to run on unleaded fuel, with one particular
modification being hardened valve seats. In Europe and other places, leaded fuel has
now been phased out completely. This is a problem for owners of classic vehicles.
Many additives are available but these are not as good as lead. Here is a list of
comments I have collated from a number of sources.
• All engines with cast iron heads and no special hardening of the exhaust valve
seats will suffer some damage running on unleaded. The extent of the damage
depends on the engine and on the engine revs.
• No petrol additives prevent valve seat recession completely. Some are better
than others but none replace the action of lead.
• The minimum critical level of lead in the fuel is about 0.07 g Pb/l. Current levels
in some leaded fuel are 0.15 g Pb/l and so mixing alternate tanks of leaded and
unleaded is likely to be successful.
• It is impossible to predict wear rates accurately and often wear shows up
predominantly in only one cylinder.
 • Fitting hardened valve seats or performing induction hardening on the valve
seats is effective in engines where either of these processes can be done.
• Tests done by Rover appear to back up the theory that, although unleaded
petrol does damage all iron heads, the less spirited driver will not.

ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF CARBURATION

Basic carburation

Figure 13 shows a simple fixed choke carburettor, which shows the principles and
operation of this device. The float and needle valve assembly ensure a constant level
of petrol in the float chamber. The Venturi causes an increase in air speed and hence
a drop in pressure in the area of the outlet. The main jet regulates how much fuel can
be forced into this intake air stream by the higher pressure now apparent in the float
chamber. The basic principle is that as more air is forced into the engine then more
fuel will be mixed into the air stream.

Figure 14 shows the problem with this very simple system; the amount of fuel forced
into the air stream does not linearly follow the increase in air quantity. This means
further compensation fuel and air jets are required to meet all operating requirements.

Figure 15 shows a variable Venturi carburettor, which keeps the air pressure in the
Venturi constant, and uses a tapered needle to control the amount of fuel.

Figure 13 Simple fixed choice carburettor

 Figure 14. Fuel forced into the air stream Figure 15. Variable Venturi carburettor
does not linearly follow the increase in air
quantity with a simple fixed choke
carburettor

Areas of control

One version of the variable Venturi carburettor (Figure 16) has been used with
electronic control. In general, electronic control of a carburettor is used in the following
areas.

Figure 16. HIF variable Venturi carburettor with electronic control components
 Idle speed
Controlled by a stepper motor to prevent stalling but still allow a very low idle
speed to improve economy and reduce emissions. Idle speed may also be
changed in response to a signal from an automatic gearbox to prevent either
the engine from stalling or the car from trying to creep.

Fast idle
The same stepper motor as above controls fast idle in response to a signal from
the engine temperature sensor during the warm up period.

Choke (warm up enrichment)

A rotary choke or some other form of valve or flap operates the choke
mechanism depending on engine and ambient temperature conditions.

Overrun fuel cut off

A small solenoid operated valve or similar cuts off the fuel under particular
conditions. These are often that the engine temperature is above a set level, the
engine speed is above a set level and that the accelerator pedal is in the off
position.

The main control of the air–fuel ratio is a function of the mechanical design and
is very difficult to control by electrical means. Some systems have used
electronic control of a needle and jet but this did not prove to be very popular.

FUEL INJECTION

Advantages of fuel injection

The major advantage of any type of fuel injection system is accurate control of the fuel
quantity injected into the engine. The basic principle of fuel injection is that if petrol is
supplied to an injector (electrically controlled valve), at a constant differential pressure,
then the amount of fuel injected will be directly proportional to the injector open time.

Most systems are now electronically controlled even if containing some mechanical
metering components. This allows the operation of the injection system to be very
closely matched to the requirements of the engine. This matching process is carried
out during development on test beds and dynamometers, as well as development in
the car. The ideal operating data for a large number of engine operating conditions are
stored in a read only memory in the ECU. Close control of the fuel quantity injected
allows the optimum setting for mixture strength when all operating factors are taken
into account (see the air–fuel ratio section).
Further advantages of electronic fuel injection control are that overrun cut off can
easily be implemented, fuel can be cut at the engine’s rpm limit and information on
fuel used can be supplied to a trip computer.

Fuel injection systems can be classified into two main categories:

• Single-point injection
• Multipoint injection

System overview

Figure 17 shows a typical control layout for a fuel injection system. Depending on the
sophistication of the system, idle speed and idle mixture adjustment can be either
mechanically or electronically controlled.

Figure 17. Typical control layout for a fuel injection system

Figure 18. Block diagram of inputs and outputs common to most fuel injection
systems
Figure 18 shows a block diagram of inputs and outputs common to most fuel injection
systems. Note that the two most important input sensors to the system are speed and
load. The basic fuelling requirement is determined from these inputs in a similar way
to the determination of ignition timing.

This information forms part of a read only memory (ROM) chip in the ECU. When the
ECU has determined the look-up value of the fuel required (injector open time),
corrections to this figure can be added for battery voltage, temperature, throttle
change or position and fuel cut off.

Idle speed, and fast idle, are also controlled by the ECU and a suitable actuator. It is
also possible to have a form of closed loop control with electronic fuel injection. This
involves a lambda sensor to monitor exhaust gas oxygen content. This allows very
accurate control of the mixture strength, as the oxygen content of the exhaust is
proportional to the air—fuel ratio. The signal from the lambda sensor is used to adjust
the injector open time.

Components of a fuel injection system

The following components, with some additions, are typical of the Bosch `L' Jetronic
systems. This system is not now used as almost all cars have full engine management
(i.e. combined ignition and fuel control systems). However, it is a good example to use
as an introduction to the subject. The various components are only discussed briefly,
as most are included in other sections in more detail.

Flap type air flow sensor

A Bosch vane-type sensor is shown which moves due to the air being forced into the
engine. The information provided to the ECU is air quantity and engine load.

Engine speed sensor

Most injection systems, which are not combined directly with the ignition, take a signal
from the coil negative terminal. This provides speed data but also engine position to
some extent. A resistor in series is often used to prevent high voltage surges reaching
the ECU.

Temperature sensor
A simple thermistor provides engine coolant temperature information.

Throttle position sensor

Various sensors are shown consisting of the two-switch types, which only provide
information that the throttle is at idle, full load or anywhere else in between; and
potentiometer types, which give more detailed information.
Lambda sensor
This device provides information to the ECU on exhaust gas oxygen content. From this
information, corrections can be applied to ensure the engine is kept at or very near to
stoichiometry. Also shown in this figure is a combustion chamber pressure sensor.

Idle or fast idle control actuator

Bimetal or stepper motor actuators are used but the one shown is a pulsed actuator.
The air that it allows through is set by its open/close ratio.

Fuel injector(s)
Two types are shown — the pintle and disc injectors. They are simple solenoid-
operated valves designed to operate very quickly and produce a finely atomized spray
pattern.

Injector resistors
These resistors were used on some systems when the injector coil resistance was very
low. A lower inductive reactance in the circuit allows faster operation of the injectors.
Most systems now limit injector maximum current in the ECU in much the same way
as for low resistance ignition on coils.

Fuel pump
The pump ensures a constant supply of fuel to the fuel rail. The volume in the rail acts
as a swamp to prevent pressure fluctuations as the injectors operate. The pump must
be able to maintain a pressure of about 3 bar.

Fuel pressure regulator

This device ensures a constant differential pressure across the injectors. It is a
mechanical device and has a connection to the inlet manifold.

Cold start injector and thermo-time switch

An extra injector was used on earlier systems as a form of choke. This worked in
conjunction with the thermo-time switch to control the amount of cold enrichment.
Both engine temperature and a heating winding heat it. This technique has been
replaced on newer systems, which enrich the mixture by increasing the number of
injector pulses or the pulse length.

Combination relay
This takes many forms on different systems but is basically two relays, one to control
the fuel pump and one to power the rest of the injection system. The relay is often
controlled by the ECU or will only operate when ignition pulses are sensed as a safety
feature. This will only allow the fuel pump to operate when the engine is being cranked
or is running.

Electronic control unit

Earlier ECUs were analogue in operation. All ECUs now in use employ digital
processing.

DIESEL FUEL INJECTION

Diesel engines have the fuel injected into the combustion chamber where it is ignited
by heat in the air charge. This is known as compression ignition (CI) because no spark
is required. The high temperature needed to ignite the fuel is obtained by a high
compression of the air charge. Diesel fuel is injected under high pressure from an
injector nozzle, into the combustion chambers. The fuel is pressurised in a diesel
injection pump. It is supplied and distributed to the injectors through high pressure fuel
pipes or directly from a rail and/ or an injector. The high pressure generation is from a
direct acting cam or a separate pump.

The air flow into a diesel engine is usually unobstructed by a throttle plate so a large
air charge is always provided. Throttle plates may be used to provide control for
emission devices. Engine speed is controlled by the amount of fuel injected. The
engine is stopped by cutting off the fuel delivery. For all engine operating conditions a
surplus amount of air is needed for complete combustion of the fuel.

Small high speed diesel engine compression ratios are about 20:1 for direct injection
systems. This compression ratio is capable of raising the air charge to temperatures
of between 500 °C and 800 °C. Very rapid combustion of the fuel therefore occurs
when it is injected into the hot air charge.

The combustion process in a diesel engine follows three phases. These are ignition
delay, flame spread and controlled combustion. In addition, an injection lag occurs in
the high-pressure pipes, of earlier systems, as the pressure builds up just before
injection.

The most important phase of controlled combustion is when fuel is being injected into
a burning mixture. This must be at a rate that maintains an even combustion pressure
onto the piston throughout the critical crankshaft rotational angles. This gives
maximum torque and efficient fuel usage, because temperatures remain controlled
and the heat lost to the exhaust is minimised. The low temperatures also help to keep
nitrogen oxide emissions (NOx) to a minimum.

The speed of flame spread in a diesel engine is affected by the air charge temperature
and the atomisation of the fuel. These characteristics are shared with the delay period.
A sufficiently high air charge temperature, of at least 450 °C, is a minimum requirement
for optimum ignition and combustion.

The delay phase or ignition lag for diesel fuel combustion lasts a few milli-seconds. It
occurs immediately on injection as the fuel is heated up to the self-ignition
temperature. The length of the delay is dependent on the compressed air charge
temperature and the grade of fuel. The air charge temperature is also affected by the
intake air temperature and the engine temperature.

A long delay period allows a high volume of fuel to be injected before ignition and flame
spread occurs. In this situation diesel knock is at its most severe. When a diesel engine
is cold, there may be insufficient heat in the air charge to bring the fuel up to the self-
ignition temperature. When ignition is slow, heavy knocking occurs.

To aid starting and to reduce diesel knock, cold start devices may be used. For indirect
injection engines, starting at lower-than-normal operating temperatures requires
additional combustion chamber heating. For direct injection engines, cold start devices
are only required in frosty weather.

An initial delay, known as injection lag, occurs in the high-pressure fuel lines of rotary
pumped systems. This occurs between the start of the pressure rise and the point
when pressure is sufficient to overcome the compression spring force in the injectors.

Ignition of the fuel occurs in the combustion chamber at the time of injection into the
heated air charge. The injection point and the ignition timing are therefore effectively
the same thing. Diesel engine injection timing is equivalent to the ignition timing for
petrol engines. Injection timing must fall within a narrow angle of crankshaft rotation. It
is advanced and retarded for engine speed and load conditions. Injection timing is set
by accurate positioning of the fuel injection pump. Incorrect timing leads to power loss.
An increase in the production of nitrogen oxides (NOx) when too far advanced or an
increase in the hydrocarbon (HC) emissions, when too far retarded also occurs.

Particulate emissions result from incomplete combustion of fuel. Particulates are seen
as black carbon smoke in the exhaust under heavy load or when fuel delivery and/or
timing is incorrect. White smoke may also be visible at other times, such as when the
injection pump timing is incorrect. It also occurs when compression pressures are low
or when coolant has leaked into the combustion chambers.

Recent developments in electronic diesel fuel injection control have made it possible
to produce small direct injection engines. Diesel engines are built to withstand the
internal stresses, which are greater than other engines. Diesel engines are particularly
suitable for turbocharging, which improves power and torque outputs.

EGR is used to reduce nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions on petrol engines; this is also
true for diesel engines (Figure 19). Additionally, a small quantity of hot exhaust gas in
the air charge of a cold engine helps to reduce the delay period and the incidence of
cold engine diesel knock.

Many diesel engined vehicles are now fitted with oxidation catalytic converters that
work in conjunction with other emission components to reduce hydrocarbon and
particulate emissions.
 Figure 19. Diesel exhaust gas recirculation (EGR): 1 -ECU and sensors, 2-EGR
actuator and control valve

The fuel systems for traditional direct and indirect injection are similar and vary only in
injection pressures and injector types. Until more recently, all light high speed diesel
engines used rotary diesel fuel injection pumps. These pumps producing injection
pressures of over 100 bar for indirect engines. However, these can rise up to 1000 bar
at the pump outlet, for turbocharged direct injection engines.

Injectors operate with a pulsing action at high pressure to break the fuel down into
finely atomised parts. Atomisation is critical to good fuel distribution in the compressed
air charge. The air charge pressure may be in excess of 60 bar. The pressure
differential, between the fuel injection pressure and air charge pressure, must be
sufficient to overcome the resistance during injection. This will also give good fuel
atomisation and a shorter injection time.

The main components of a diesel fuel system provide for either the low pressure or
the high-pressure functions. The low-pressure components are the fuel tank, the fuel
feed and return pipes and hoses, a renewable fuel filter with a water trap and drain tap,
and a priming or lift pump. The high-pressure components are the fuel injector pump,
the high-pressure pipes and the injectors. Other components provide for cold engine
starting. Electronically controlled systems include sensors, an electronic diesel control
(EDC) module and actuators in the injection pump.
All diesel fuel entering the injection pump and injectors must be fully filtered. The
internal components of the pump and injectors are manufactured to very fine
tolerances. Even very small particles of dirt could be damaging to these components.

The most common rotary injection pumps are axial-piston designs having a roller ring
and cam plate attached to an axial piston or plunger in the distributor head to generate
the high pressure. The latest versions have full electronic control.

The high pressure pipes are of double thickness steel construction and are all of the
same length. This is so that the internal pressure rise characteristics are identical for
all cylinders. The high pressure connections are made by rolled flanges on the pipe
ends and threaded unions securing the rolled flanges to convex, or occasionally
concave, seats in the delivery valves and injectors.

The fuel injectors are fitted into the cylinder head with the nozzle tip projecting into the
pre-combustion (IDI) or combustion chamber (DI). The injectors for indirect
combustion are of a pintle or ‘pintaux’ design (similar to petrol injectors in many ways)
and produce a conical spray pattern on injection. The injectors for direct injection (DI)
are of a pencil type multi-hole design that produces a broad distribution of fuel on
injection.

Fuel injectors are held closed by a compression spring. They are opened by hydraulic
pressure when it is sufficient to overcome the spring force on the injector needle. The
hydraulic pressure is applied to a face on the needle where it sits in a pressure
chamber. The fuel pressure needed is in excess of 100 bar (1500 psi). This pressure
lifts the needle and opens the nozzle, so that fuel is injected in a fine spray pattern into
the combustion chamber

Electronic control of diesel injection

The advent of electronic control over the diesel injection pump has allowed many
advances over the purely mechanical system. The production of high pressure and
injection is, however, still mechanical with all current systems. The following
advantages are apparent over the non-electronic control system.

• More precise control of fuel quantity injected.

• Better control of start of injection.
• Idle speed control.
• Control of exhaust gas recirculation.
• Drive by wire system (potentiometer on throttle pedal).
• An anti-surge function.
• Output to data acquisition systems etc.
• Temperature compensation.
• Cruise control.
A distributor-type injection pump can be used with electronic control. Because fuel
must be injected at high pressure, the hydraulic head, pressure pump and drive
elements are still used. An electromagnetic moving iron actuator adjusts the position
of the control collar, which in turn controls the delivery stroke and therefore the
injected quantity of fuel. Fuel pressure is applied to a roller ring and this controls the
start of injection. A solenoid-operated valve controls the supply to the roller ring. These
actuators together allow control of the start of injection and injection quantity.

Figure 20. Layout of an electrical diesel control system

Ideal values for fuel quantity and timing are stored in memory maps in the electronic
control unit. The injected fuel quantity is calculated from the accelerator position and
the engine speed. The start of injection is determined from the following:

• Fuel quantity.
• Engine speed.
• Engine temperature.
• Air pressure.

The ECU is able to compare start of injection with actual delivery from a signal
produced by the needle motion sensor in the injector.

Control of exhaust gas recirculation is by a simple solenoid valve. This is con-trolled

as a function of engine speed, temperature and injected quantity. The ECU is also in
control of the stop solenoid and glow plugs via a suitable relay. Figure 20 is the
complete layout of an electronic diesel control system.
MCQ POST-TEST
1. The ratio, by mass, of air to fuel that ensures complete and clean combustion is:
a) 14.7:1
b) 10:1
c) 1:10
d) 1: 14.7

2. 4. 1:14.7Which of the following is not the part of the injector assembly?

a) Needle valve
b) Nozzle
c) Diaphragm
d) Compressor spring

3. Which of the following is not the function of the fuel injection system?
a) Time the fuel injection
b) Filter the fuel
c) Atomize the fuel to fine particles
d) Control the engine speed

4. What is the range of pressure is achieved in the injection pump?

a) 120 – 200 bar
b) 10 – 20 bar
c) 400 – 500 bar
d) < 10 bar

5. A valve fitted to the fuel rail in a petrol/gasoline injection system is used to:
a) bleed air
b) depressurize the system or test pressure
c) replace fuel after changing the filter
d) connect a compression tester.

APPLICATION

• Automobiles with IC Engines

• Gas turbine engines.

CONCLUSION

Upon completion of this course, Students should be able to

• acquire the fundamental knowledge on combustion
• understand the engine fuelling and exhaust emissions
• learn about the about electronic control of carburetion
• learn the working principle of petrol and diesel fuel injection

REFERENCES

1. Ribbens, "Understanding Automotive Electronics", 7th Edition, Elsevier,

Indian Reprint, 2013.
2. Tom Denton, “Automotive Electric and Electronic Systems”,3rd Edition,
Elsevier, 2004.
3. https://www.mechanicalbooster.com
VIDEO LINKS FOR REFERENCE

1. https://youtu.be/qId3Th6_a4U
2. https://youtu.be/xG1w3l41lmQ

ASSIGNMENT

1. With reference to the combustion process, describe the effects of ignition timing
and mixture strength.
2. List all the main components of an electronic carburation control system and
state the purpose of each component.
3. Make a clearly labelled sketch to show the operation of a fuel injector.
 Name of the Course : AUTOTRONICS
Name of the Unit : SENSOR AND ACTUATORS
Name of the Topic : SENSOR AND ACTUATORS

AIM & OBJECTIVE

• To provide student with the knowledge on working principle and characteristics of

various sensors used in automobiles.
• To make the students understand the working principle and characteristics of various
automotive actuators.

PRE-TEST

1. Change in output of sensor with change in input is ____________

a) Threshold
b) Slew rate
c) Sensitivity
d) None of the mentioned

2. Smallest change which a sensor can detect is ____________

a) Resolution
b) Accuracy
c) Precision
d) Scale
3. Inductive sensors usually produce a:
a) square wave
b) saw tooth wave
c) sine wave
d) triangle.
4. A component, which makes use of the magnetic effect of an electric current in
a vehicle electrical system, is:
a) an ignition warning light
b) an alternator rotor
c) a fuel tank unit
d) an oil pressure gauge.

PREREQUISITES

• Instrumentation & Control Systems

• IC Engines
THEORY BEHIND

AIRFLOW RATE SENSOR

A mass (air) flow sensor (MAF) is a sensor used to determine the mass flow rate of air
entering a fuel-injected internal combustion engine.
The air mass information is necessary for the engine control unit (ECU) to balance and
deliver the correct fuel mass to the engine. Air changes its density with temperature
and pressure. In automotive applications, air density varies with the ambient
temperature, altitude and the use of forced induction, which means that mass flow
sensors are more appropriate than volumetric flow sensors for determining the
quantity of intake air in each cylinder. The air flow sensor is located directly in the
intake sir stream, between the air cleaner and throttle body as shown in Figure 1,
where it can measure incoming air.

Figure 1. Location of air flow sensor

There are two common types of mass airflow sensors in use on automotive engines.
These are the vane meter and the hot wire. Neither design employs technology that
measures air mass directly. However, with additional sensors and inputs, an engine's
ECU can determine the mass flow rate of intake air.
Both approaches are used almost exclusively on electronic fuel injection (EFI) engines.
Both sensor designs output a 0.0–5.0 volt or a pulse-width modulation (PWM) signal
that is proportional to the air mass flow rate, and both sensors have an intake air
temperature (IAT) sensor incorporated into their housings for most post on-board
diagnostics (OBDII) vehicles. Vehicles prior to 1996 could have MAF without an IAT.
An example is 1994 Infiniti Q45.
When a MAF sensor is used in conjunction with an oxygen sensor, the engine's air/fuel
ratio can be controlled very accurately. The MAF sensor provides the open-loop
controller predicted air flow information (the measured air flow) to the ECU, and the
oxygen sensor provides closed-loop feedback in order to make minor corrections to
the predicted air mass. Also see manifold absolute pressure sensor (MAP sensor).
Since around 2012, some MAF sensors include a humidity sensor.
 Fig 2. A mass (air) flow sensor Fig 3. Intake-air flap type flowmeter
Moving vane meter
The VAF (volume air flow) sensor measures the air flow into the engine with a spring-
loaded air vane (flap/door) attached to a variable resistor (potentiometer). The vane
moves in proportion to the airflow. A voltage is applied to the potentiometer and a
voltage appears on the output terminal of the potentiometer proportional to the angle
the vane rotates, or the movement of the vane may directly regulate the amount of fuel
injected, as in the K-Jetronic system.
Many VAF sensors have an air-fuel adjustment screw, which opens or closes a small
air passage on the side of the VAF sensor. This screw controls the air-fuel mixture by
letting a metered amount of air flow past the air flap, thereby leaning or richening the
mixture. By turning the screw clockwise the mixture is enriched and counterclockwise
the mixture is leaned.
The vane moves because of the drag force of the air flow against it; it does not measure
volume or mass directly. The drag force depends on air density (air density in turn
depends on air temperature), air velocity and the shape of the vane, see drag equation.
Some VAF sensors include an additional intake air temperature sensor (IAT sensor) to
allow the engines ECU to calculate the density of the air, and the fuel delivery
accordingly.
The vane meter approach has some drawbacks:

• it restricts airflow which limits engine output

• its moving electrical or mechanical contacts can wear
• finding a suitable mounting location within a confined engine compartment is
problematic
• the vane has to be oriented with respect to gravity.
• in some manufacturers fuel pump control was also part on the VAF internal
wiring.
Hot wire sensor (MAF)
A hot wire mass airflow sensor determines the mass of air flowing into the engine’s air
intake system. The theory of operation of the hot wire mass airflow sensor is similar to
that of the hot wire anemometer (which determines air velocity). This is achieved by
heating a wire suspended in the engine’s air stream, like a toaster wire, by applying a
constant voltage over the wire. The wire's electrical resistance increases as the wire’s
temperature increases, which varies the electrical current flowing through the circuit,
according to Ohm's law. When air flows past the wire, the wire cools, decreasing its
resistance, which in turn allows more current to flow through the circuit, since the
supply voltage is a constant. As more current flows, the wire’s temperature increases
until the resistance reaches equilibrium again. The current increase or decrease is
proportional to the mass of air flowing past the wire. The integrated electronic circuit
converts the proportional measurement into a proportional voltage which is sent to the
ECU.
If air density increases due to pressure increase or temperature drop, but the air
volume remains constant, the denser air will remove more heat from the wire indicating
a higher mass airflow. Unlike the vane meter's paddle sensing element, the hot wire
responds directly to air density. This sensor's capabilities are well suited to support the
gasoline combustion process which fundamentally responds to air mass, not air
volume.
This sensor sometimes employs a mixture screw, but this screw is fully electronic and
uses a variable resistor (potentiometer) instead of an air bypass screw. The screw
needs more turns to achieve the desired results. A hot wire burn-off cleaning circuit is
employed on some of these sensors. A burn-off relay applies a high current through
the platinum hot wire after the vehicle is turned off for a second or so, thereby burning
or vaporizing any contaminants that have stuck to the platinum hot wire element.
The hot film MAF sensor works somewhat similar to the hot wire MAF sensor, but
instead it usually outputs a frequency signal. This sensor uses a hot film-grid instead
of a hot wire. It is commonly found in late 1980s and early 1990s fuel-injected vehicles.
The output frequency is directly proportional to the air mass entering the engine. So
as mass flow increases so does frequency. These sensors tend to cause intermittent
problems due to internal electrical failures. The use of an oscilloscope is strongly
recommended to check the output frequency of these sensors. Frequency distortion
is also common when the sensor starts to fail. Many technicians in the field use a tap
test with very conclusive results. Not all HFM systems output a frequency. In some
cases, this sensor works by outputting a regular varying voltage signal.
Some of the benefits of a hot-wire MAF compared to the older style vane meter are:
• responds very quickly to changes in air flow
• low airflow restriction
• smaller overall package
• less sensitive to mounting location and orientation
 • no moving parts improve its durability
• less expensive
• separate temperature and pressure sensors are not required to determine air
mass, even though the intake air temperature sensor is still sometimes included
inside the MAF assembly.

There are some drawbacks:

• dirt and oil can contaminate the hot-wire deteriorating its accuracy
• installation requires a laminar flow across the hot-wire
• the sensor contains a thin platinum wire, which can break if handled incorrectly

Figure 4. Hot Wire Mass Air Flow Sensor

ENGINE CRANKSHAFT ANGULAR POSITION SENSOR

One of the important measurements for electronic engine control is the angular
position of the crankshaft relative to a reference position. The crankshaft angular
position is often termed the “engine angular position” or simply “engine position.” It
will be shown that the sensor for measuring crankshaft angular position can also be
used to calculate its instantaneous angular speed. It is highly desirable that this
measurement be made without any mechanical contact with the rotating crankshaft.
Such noncontact measurements of any rotating shafts (i.e., in engine or drivetrain) can
be made in a variety of ways, but the most common of these in automotive electronics
use magnetic or optical phenomena as the physical basis. Magnetic means of such
measurements are generally preferred in engine applications since they are
unaffected by oil, dirt, or other contaminants. There are other applications in vehicular
systems of a sensor capable of measuring angular position/velocity.

The principles involved in measuring rotating shafts are illustrated by this example that
is one of the most significant applications for engine control (the measurement of
crankshaft angular position or angular velocity (i.e., RPM)). Imagine the engine as
viewed from the rear, as shown in Fig. 5.
On the rear of the crankshaft is a large, circular steel disk called the flywheel that is
connected to and rotates with the crankshaft A point on the flywheel is denoted the
flywheel mark, as shown in Fig. 5. A reference line is taken to be a line through the
crankshaft axis of rotation and a point (b) on the engine block. For the present
discussion, the reference line is taken to be a horizontal line. The crankshaft angular
position is the angle between the reference line and the line through the axis and the
flywheel mark.

Figure 5. Illustration of crankshaft angular position representation.

Imagine that the flywheel is rotated so that the mark is directly on the reference line.
This is an angular position of 0 degree. For our purposes, assume that this angular
position corresponds to the no. 1 cylinder at top dead center (TDC) on either intake or
power strokes. As the crankshaft rotates, this angle increases from 0 to 360 degrees
in one revolution. However, one full engine cycle from intake through exhaust requires
two complete revolutions of the crankshaft; that is, one complete engine cycle
corresponds to the crankshaft angular position going from 0 to 720 degrees. During
each cycle, it is important to measure the crankshaft position relative to the reference
for each cycle in each cylinder. This information is used by the electronic engine
controller to set ignition timing and to set the fuel injector pulse timing.

In automobiles with electronic engine control systems, angular position θe can be

sensed on the crankshaft directly or on the camshaft. Recall that the piston drives the
crankshaft directly, while the valves are driven from the camshaft. The camshaft is
driven from the crankshaft through a 1:2 reduction drivetrain, which can be gears, belt,
or chain. Therefore, the camshaft rotational speed is one-half that of the crankshaft, so
the camshaft angular position goes from 0 to 360 degrees for one complete engine
cycle. Either or both of these sensing locations can be used in electronic control
systems.

Although the crankshaft location is potentially superior for accuracy because of

torsional and gear backlash errors in the camshaft drivetrain, many production
systems locate this sensor such that it measures camshaft position. For the
measurement of engine position via a crankshaft sensor, an unambiguous
measurement of the crankshaft angular position relative to a unique point in the cycle
for each cylinder requires some measurement of camshaft position and crankshaft
position. Typically, it is sufficient to sense camshaft position at one point in a complete
revolution. Traditionally, engine position involved measuring crankshaft position
directly in combination with measuring camshaft position. In principle, it is sufficient for
engine control purposes to measure crankshaft/camshaft position at a small number
of fixed points. The number of such measurements (or samples), for example, could
be determined by the number of cylinders.

HALL-EFFECT POSITION SENSOR

Hall-effect sensor can be used to measure either camshaft position or crankshaft

position. A Hall-effect position sensor is shown in Fig. 6. This sensor is similar to the
reluctance sensor in that it employs a steel disk having protruding tabs and a magnet
for coupling the disk to the sensing element. Another similarity is that the steel disk
varies the reluctance of the magnetic path as the tabs pass between the magnet pole
pieces. This sensor is useful for measuring the angular position θ of any shaft (e.g.,
crankshaft) relative to a reference line. Its operation depends upon a phenomenon
known as the Hall effect. For convenience, this reference line is the intersection of the
vertical plane of symmetry of the magnet with the flat surface of the disk. In Fig. 6, θn
is the angle between the reference line and the center of the nth tab as shown.

Figure. 6. Representative Hall-effect sensor configuration.

The operation of the angular position sensor configuration depicted in Fig. 5.13 is
based upon the variation of magnetic flux density normal to the Hall element and its
relationship to the terminal voltage Vo derived above. Recall that the magnetic flux
density is essentially constant along a closed path through the magnetic pole pieces
and across the two gaps.

This flux density has a relatively low magnitude for all shaft positions for which the
protruding tabs are away from the lower gap shown in Fig. 5.13. As a tab approaches
this gap, it begins to fill the gap with a ferromagnetic material having a much higher
magnetic permeability than air. The magnitude of the flux density increases in
proportion to the projected overlap area of the tab on the magnet pole face (i.e., the
face orthogonal to the magnetic path). This magnetic flux density reaches a maximum
when any of the tabs is symmetrically located within the magnet’s lower gap. If the
angular position of the nth tab is denoted θn (as shown in Fig. 5.13), then the terminal
voltage Vo of the sensor has a waveform as depicted in Fig. 5.15; that is, the terminal
voltage reaches a maximum whenever θn¼0 (n¼1,2,…,N) where N¼number of tabs.
Thus, this sensor produces a voltage pulse of the general waveform of Fig. 5.15 each
time a tab passes through the gap. As in the case of the active variable reluctance
sensor discussed above, if this sensor is used for crankshaft position measurement, it
must be combined with a camshaft angular position sensor (possibly also a Hall-effect
sensor) for unambiguous timing within each engine cycle.

THROTTLE ANGLE SENSOR

Still another variable that must be measured for electronic engine control is the throttle
plate angular position. In most automobiles, the throttle plate is linked mechanically to
the accelerator pedal and moves with it. When the driver depresses the accelerator
pedal, this linkage causes the throttle plate angle to increase, allowing more air to enter
the engine and thereby increasing engine power.

Most throttle angle sensors are essentially potentiometers. A potentiometer consists

of a resistor with a movable contact, as illustrated in Fig. 7.

Figure. 7 Potentiometer schematic circuit.

The basis for the throttle angle position sensor is the influence of geometric size and
shape on the resistance of a conductive material. To illustrate this relationship,
consider the resistance of a long section of a conductor of length L with a uniform
cross-sectional area A with a voltage VS applied at the ends along the long axis. As
long as the lateral dimensions are small compared with length (i.e., √𝐴≪L), the current
density is essentially uniform across the cross-sectional area. The current density
magnitude of a current flowing through this area J is related to the electric field
intensity magnitude E along the conductor long axis by Eq. (1)

J =σE (1)

where σ is the conductivity of the material. The total current through the conductor I
for uniform J is given by
I = ∫𝐴 𝐽𝑑𝑠 (2)

 JA

where the integral is taken over the cross-sectional area of the conductive material.
Furthermore, the terminal voltage at the conductor ends is given by
𝐿
𝑉𝑠 = ∫0 𝐸𝑑𝑥 (3)
 EL

where the x-coordinate is along the long axis. The voltage relative to ground at
contact point x, which is denoted Vo in Fig. 7, varies linearly with position x:
𝑥
𝑉0 (𝑥) = ∫0 𝐸𝑑𝑥 0≤x≤L (4)

𝑉𝑠 𝑥
=
𝐿
The resistance R of this conductor is defined as

𝑉 𝐸𝐿
R= = (5)
𝐼 𝜎𝐸𝐴

𝐿𝜌
R= (6)
𝐴

where ρ = 1/σ = material resistivity (ohm m).

Consider now a resistive material formed in a segment of a circle of radius r as

depicted in Fig. 8. Let the radial dimension and the thickness of the material be uniform
and small compared with the circumferential distance along the arc (rα). A movable
metallic contact that pivots about the center of the circular arc makes contact with the
resistive material at an angle α (measured from a line through the center and the
grounded end of the resistive material). The opposite end of the material (at an angle
αmax) is connected to a constant voltage Vs. A structure such as that depicted in Fig.
8 is known as a rotary potentiometer (or just as a potentiometer). Let the total
resistance from the end of the material that is connected to Vs be denoted Rp and the
resistance from the movable contact to ground at any angle α be denoted R(α). With
the assumptions of uniform geometry given above, this resistance varies linearly with
arc length rα. Thus, the resistance R(α) can be shown to be given by
 𝑅𝑝 𝛼
R(α) = (7)
𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥

The current I flowing into this potentiometer is given by

𝑉𝑠
I= (8)
𝑅𝑝

Figure 8. Throttle angle sensor, a potentiometer.

A potentiometer is made by connecting the movable contact to a shaft at the pivot

point whose axis is orthogonal to the plane of the conductor. If this shaft is
mechanically connected to another rotary shaft (e.g., the throttle plate pivot shaft), the
configuration of Fig. 8 is a sensor for measuring the angular position (α) of that other
shaft. In the case of the throttle plate shaft, this potentiometer constitutes a throttle
angle sensor in which the voltage V(α) provides a measurement of the throttle angle
and thereby yields a measurement of the driver command for engine power. For digital
engine control, the voltage V(α) must be converted to digital format using an analog-
to-digital converter.

TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Temperature (T) is an important parameter throughout the automotive system. In the

operation of an electronic fuel control system, it is vital to know the temperature of the
coolant, the temperature of the inlet air, and the temperature of the exhaust gas oxygen
sensor. Several sensor configurations are available for measuring these temperatures,
but we can illustrate the basic operation of most of the temperature sensors by
explaining the operation of a typical coolant sensor. The temperature sensor for any
given application is designed to meet the expected temperature range. For example,
a coolant, temperature sensor experiences far lower temperatures than a sensor
exposed to exhaust gases.

Figure. 9 Coolant temperature sensor.

A typical coolant sensor, shown in Fig. 9, consists of a thermistor mounted in a housing

that is designed to be inserted in the coolant stream. This housing is typically threaded
such that it seals the assembly against coolant leakage.

A thermistor is a two-terminal semiconductor whose resistance varies inversely with

its temperature. The theory of operation is based upon the influence of temperature
on the charge carrier concentrations that, in turn, depend upon the difference in
energy between the valence and conduction band and are an exponential function of
temperature. The resistance of a thermistor is a nonlinear function of temperature that
can be modeled over a given temperature range by a polynomial function of T.
However, a relatively commonly used model that is valid over the range of coolant
temperatures represents the thermistor resistance RT as a logarithmic function of T is
given by

𝐴
ln (RT) = −𝐵 (9)
𝑇

where, for an exemplary sensor, the coefficients are approximately A  5000 and B 
3.96, and T is absolute temperature (K).

Figure 10. Temperature sensor circuit

The sensor is typically connected in an electrical circuit like that shown in Fig. 10, in
which the coolant temperature sensor resistance is denoted RT. This resistance is
connected to a reference voltage through a fixed resistance R. The sensor output
voltage, VT, is given by the following equation:

𝑅𝑇
VT =V (10)
𝑅+ 𝑅𝑇

Combining Eqs. (9), (10) yields the following equation for temperature T:

T = A/{B+ln[VT R/(V-VT)]}

The terminal voltage VT is input to the digital engine control system (e.g., via an A/D
converter) where RT is computed from VT. Then, temperature is obtained using the
model for RT(T) given above or another model (e.g., polynomial).

EXHAUST GAS OXYGEN SENSOR

The amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas is used as an indirect measurement of the
intake air/fuel ratio. As a result, one of the most significant automotive engine sensors
in use today is the exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensor. This sensor is often called a
lambda sensor from the Greek letter lambda (λ), which is commonly used to denote
the equivalence ratio.

λ= (air/fuel) / (air/fuel @ stoichiometry)

Whenever the air/fuel ratio is at stoichiometry, the value for λ is 1. When the air-fuel
mixture is lean, the condition is represented by λ>1. Conversely, when the air-fuel
mixture is rich, the condition is represented by (λ<1).

The two types of EGO sensors that have been used are based on the use of active
oxides of two types of materials. One uses zirconium dioxide (ZrO2), and the other
uses titanium dioxide (TiO2). The former is traditionally the most commonly used type.
Fig. 11A is a photograph of a traditional ZrO2 EGO sensor. Fig. 11B schematically
depicts the mounting of the sensor on the exhaust system. Fig. 11C schematically
shows the structure of the individual components and the way in which the exhaust
gas acts on the EGO sensor.

In essence, the EGO sensor consists of a thimble-shaped section of ZrO2 with thin
platinum electrodes on the inside and outside of the ZrO2. The inside electrode is
exposed to air, and the outside electrode is exposed to exhaust gas through a porous
protective overcoat.

A simplified explanation of EGO sensor operation is based on the distribution of oxygen

ions. Oxygen ions have two excess electrons such that the ions are negatively charged.
The ZrO2 has a tendency to attract the oxygen ions, which accumulate on the ZrO2
surface just inside the platinum electrodes.

Figure 11. Illustration of EGO sensor. (A) Picture of exemplary EGO sensor;
(B) Illustrative installation; and (C) Exposure to exhaust gas.

The platinum plate on the air reference side of the ZrO2 is exposed to a much higher
concentration of oxygen ions than the exhaust gas side. The air reference side
becomes electrically more negative than the exhaust gas side; therefore, an electric
field exists across the ZrO2 material and a voltage, Vo, results. The polarity of this
voltage is positive on the exhaust gas side and negative on the air reference side of
the ZrO2. The magnitude of this voltage depends on the concentration of oxygen in
the exhaust gas and on the sensor temperature.

The quantity of oxygen in the exhaust gas is represented by the oxygen partial
pressure. Basically, this partial pressure is that proportion of the total exhaust gas
pressure slightly above (but nearly at atmospheric pressure) that is due to the
concentration of oxygen in the composite exhaust gas. The exhaust gas oxygen partial
pressure for a rich mixture varies over the range of 10-16 – 10-32 of atmospheric
pressure. The oxygen partial pressure for a lean mixture is roughly 10 -2 atm.
Consequently, for a rich mixture, there is a relatively low oxygen concentration in the
exhaust and a higher EGO sensor output voltage. For a fully warmed EGO sensor, the
output voltage is about 1 V for a rich mixture and about 0.1 V for a lean mixture.

Desirable EGO characteristics

The EGO sensor characteristics that are desirable for the type of limit-cycle fuel control
system are as follows:
1. Abrupt change in voltage at stoichiometry
2. Rapid switching of output voltage in response to exhaust gas oxygen changes
3. Large difference in sensor output voltage between rich and lean mixture conditions
4. Stable voltages with respect to exhaust temperature

FUEL INJECTOR

A fuel injector is (in essence) a solenoid-operated valve. The valve opens or closes to
permit or block fuel flow to the engine. The valve is attached to the movable element
of the solenoid and is switched by the solenoid activation.

Fuel injector signal

Consider an idealized fuel injector as shown in Fig. 12, in which the injector is open
when the applied voltage is on and is closed when the applied voltage is off. In this
configuration, a solenoid has a movable element in the form of a pintle with a conical
tip that fits into a conical section forming a nozzle. A spring holds the pintle such that
the nozzle is closed.

Figure. 12. Simplified fuel injector configuration.

Behind this nozzle is a small fuel-filled chamber holding fuel under pressure that is
supplied by a tube known as the fuel rail. With no control voltage applied (i.e., Vc =0)
and no current I flowing, the spring holds the pintle in a closed position such that no
fuel flows through the nozzle. With voltage of sufficient amplitude applied, the solenoid
pulls the pintle out of its seat, and fuel flows through the nozzle into the intake system.

Once the pintle is pulled fully toward the solenoid center post, the fuel flow rate through
the nozzle is constant for a given regulated fuel pressure and nozzle geometry.
Therefore, except for brief transient periods, the quantity of fuel injected into the
airstream is proportional to the time the valve is open. The control current that operates
the fuel injector is pulsed on and off to deliver precise quantities of fuel.

EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION ACTUATOR

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is used to reduce NOx emissions. The amount of EGR
is regulated by the engine controller. When the correct amount of EGR has been
determined by the controller based on measurements from the various engine control
sensors, the controller sends an electrical signal to the EGR actuator. Typically, this
actuator is a variable position valve that regulates the EGR as a function of intake
manifold pressure and exhaust gas pressure.

Although there are many EGR configurations, only one representative example will be
discussed to explain the basic operation of this type of actuator. The example EGR
actuator is shown schematically in Fig. 13.

Figure 13. EGR actuator.

This actuator is a vacuum-operated diaphragm valve with a spring that holds the valve
closed if no vacuum is applied. The vacuum that operates the diaphragm is supplied
by the intake manifold and is controlled by a solenoid-operated valve. This solenoid
valve is controlled by the output of the control system.

This solenoid operates essentially in the same manner as that explained in the
discussion on fuel injectors. Whenever the solenoid is energized (i.e., by current
supplied by the control system flowing through the coil), the EGR valve is opened by
the applied vacuum.

The amount of valve opening is determined by the average pressure on the vacuum
side of the diaphragm. This pressure is regulated by pulsing the solenoid with a
variable-duty-cycle electrical control current. The duty cycle (see discussion on fuel
injectors) of this pulsing current controls the average pressure in the chamber that
affects the diaphragm deflection, thereby regulating the amount of EGR.

STEPPER MOTORS

The configuration of Fig. 14 is similar in form to another important motor having

automotive applications, which is called a stepper motor. Normally, a stepper motor
has application where torque loads are relatively low. In most cases, the stepper motor
output employs a reduction gear system in which the gear output shaft rotates at only
a fraction of the stepper motor output shaft.

Fig. 14 Brushless DC motor. (A) Two-pole motor configuration; (B) Magnetic poles;
(C) Motor control block diagram.
A stepper motor of the configuration depicted in Fig. 14 has excitation currents iA and
iB that are sequences of nonoverlapping pulses. The relative phasing of the pulses
determines the direction of motor rotation. The motor rotates a fixed angular increment
for each pair of pulses iA and iB. Very precise angular position control is obtained for a
stepper motor by the number and relative phasing of pairs of such pulses. A control
system can advance the load placed on the stepper motor-gear system by a specified
amount via the number of output pulses sent to the motor. Feedback via a position
sensor of the load movement can be used in conjunction with the output pulses to
assure the desired displacement of the load object on the motor/gear system.

The speed of motion of the output shaft is proportional to the pulse frequency of the
sequences of pulses on iA and iB. However, any such stepper motor has an upper bound
on this speed such that the driving pulses are nonoverlapping in time.

VACUUM OPERATED ACTUATOR

Actuators are commonly used in automobiles to operate different aspects of the

vehicle. Headlights, air conditioning and cruise control are all different parts of a
vehicle that use an actuator to operate. In older model vehicles, there are vacuum
actuators that also control the doors. In different cars, there may be either an electrical
actuator or a vacuum pull actuator. Electrical actuators rely on the electrical system to
operate, while vacuum pull actuators rely on the engine vacuum system.

Function
While a vacuum actuator acts in conjunction with both valves and throttles, the general
function of the actuator remains the same. A vacuum actuator has a chamber that it
uses to create vacuum pressure. As air leaves the actuator, a vacuum is created, which
causes outside pressure to act on the diaphragm of the actuator. The pressure then
overtakes the spring inside the actuator and allows it to open. This action sends
pressure through the cables and to the throttle.

Vacuum Control
Within the engine, there is a canister or reservoir that creates a vacuum. Vacuum
pressure used by the actuator is initiated within this reservoir. The actuator attaches
to the vacuum system through a series of tubes run from the vacuum system to the
actuator. The vacuum operates through a solenoid valve and engages or disengages
the throttle. In newer model cars, the vacuum pull actuator is part of a system that
helps control speed based on how close the vehicle is in proximity to the vehicle
driving in front of it.

Cruise Control
In a cruise control system, the cables attach to the vacuum actuator and the gas pedal.
The computer that operates the cruise control has a vacuum valve control signal that
sends a signal to the vacuum actuator. The actuator has a valve that attaches to a
cable, which then attaches to the throttle valve. This valve controls the throttle, making
it engage or disengage according to the vacuum pressure.
MCQ POST-TEST

1. Identify which of the following flowmeters inherently measures mass flow rate:
a) Thermal
b) Magnetic
c) Vortex
d) Venturi tube

2. What is the principle of operation of Potentiometric position sensor?

a) Resistive Effect
b) Hall Effect
c) Mutual Inductance
d) Eddy current effect

3. Hall Effect is a/an _____________

a) Electronic
b) Magnetic
c) Galvanic
d) Ionizing

4. A thermistor is a two-terminal_______________
a) Metal
b) Semiconductor
c) Ceramic
d) Rubber

5. The EGO sensors use active oxides of

a) zirconium
b) titanium
c) both (a) and (b)
d) none of the mentioned

APPLICATION

Sensors and actuators are the unsung heroes of the automobile world. These devices
perform most of the maintenance functions for cars in communicating the system's
status to the car's on-board computer, monitoring speed, and calculating engine
timing. These devices have several types that perform unique functions, with some
dependent on crystal vibration while others work with magnetism to correctly calibrate
automobile instrumentation.

CONCLUSION

Upon completion of this course, Students should be able to

• acquire the fundamental knowledge on working principle and characteristics
of various automobile sensors.
• learn about the working principle and characteristics of various automotive
actuators.
REFERENCES

1. Ribbens, "Understanding Automotive Electronics", 7th Edition, Elsevier,

Indian Reprint, 2013.
2. Tom Denton, “Automotive Electric and Electronic Systems”,3rd Edition,
Elsevier, 2004.
3. https://www.hella.com/

VIDEO LINKS FOR REFERENCE

1. https://youtu.be/8e4QB1DYYJU
2. https://youtu.be/R5YfLySWQAc

ASSIGNMENT

1. Make a sketch to show how a rotary idle speed actuator works and describe
how it can vary idle speed when only able to take up a closed or open
position.

2. Draw a graph showing the output signal of a Hall sensor.

3. Describe the operation of a permanent magnet stepper.