COMPUTER NETWORKING

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Syllabus:

 Introduction to Networks
 Types of Network: LAN, MAN, WAN
 Network Devices: Modem, Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway
 Network Topologies: Star, Bus, Tree, Mesh
 Introduction to Internet, URL, WWW and its applications: Web, E-mail, Chat, VoIP
 Website: Introduction, Difference between a website and webpage, Static v/s Dynamic web
page, Web Server and Hosting a website.
 Web Browser: Introduction, Commonly used browsers, Browser settings, Add-ons and Plug-
Ins, Cookies
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Introduction to Networks
A network connects computers, mobile phones, peripherals, and even Internet of Things (IoT)
devices. Switches, routers, and wireless access points are the essential networking basics. Through
them, devices connected to your network can communicate with one another and with other
networks, like the Internet.

An internet: A network of networks. On an internet, each host has an address of the form n/h where
n is the network number and h is the number of the host on network n. As long as all of the
networks in the internet have unique network numbers, combining the network number and host
number will give unique global names. Therefore from the outside an internet looks like a single
network!

Types of Network
LAN:

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a private network that connects computers and devices within a
limited area like a residence, an office, a building or a campus. On a small scale, LANs are used to
connect personal computers to printers. However, LANs can also extend to a few kilometres when
used by companies, where a large number of computers share a variety of resources like hardware
(e.g. printers, scanners, audio-visual devices etc), software (e.g. application programs) and data.

MAN:

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a larger network than LAN. It often covers multiple cities or
towns. It is quiet expensive and a single organization may not have own it.

WAN:
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a much larger network than LAN and MAN. It often covers multiple
countries or continents. It is quite expensive and a single organization may not have own it. Satellite
is used to manage WAN.

Network Devices
Modem

Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component that allows a computer

or another device, such as a router or switch, to connect to the Internet. It converts or "modulates"
an analog signal from a telephone or cable wire to digital data (1s and 0s) that a computer can
recognize. Similarly, it converts digital data from a computer or other device into an analog signal
that can be sent over standard telephone lines.

Hub

When referring to a network, a hub is the most basic networking device that connects multiple
computers or other network devices together. Unlike a network switch or router, a network hub has
no routing tables or intelligence on where to send information and broadcasts all network data
across each connection

Switch

A network switch is a hardware device that channels incoming data from multiple input ports to a
specific output port that will take it toward its intended destination. It is a small device that transfers
data packets between multiple network devices such as computers, routers, servers or other
switches.

Repeater

In telecommunications, a repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it.
Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can cover longer distances or be
received on the other side of an obstruction.

Router

The router, at least the common home network device that is usually called a router, is the piece of
network hardware that allows communication between local home network—like personal
computers and other connected devices—and the internet.

The router used in home and small networks is more accurately called a ‘residential gateway’. A
router is the first line of security from intrusion into a network. Enabling the highest level of security
on the router turns on things like the firewall, and is the best way to keep your computer system and
information safe from attack.
Gateway

A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between two networks. It may be a router,
firewall, server, or other device that enables traffic to flow in and out of the network. While a
gateway protects the nodes within network, it also a node itself. The gateway node is considered to
be on the "edge" of the network as all data must flow through it before coming in or going out of the
network. It may also translate data received from outside networks into a format or protocol
recognized by devices within the internal network.

Network Topologies
Star Topology:

A star topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all nodes are individually
connected to a central connection point, i.e. a point-to-point connection between a node and
server/hub device or a switch.

Advantages of Star Topology:

• Easy to manage and maintain the network because each node require separate cable.
• Easy to locate problems because cable failure only affect a single user.
• Easy to extend the network and removing nodes without disturbing to the entire network
• Due to Hub device network control and management is much easier.
• It provides very high speed of data transfer.

Disadvantages of Star Topology:

• Entire performance of the network depends on the single device hub or Server.
• If the hub device goes down, the entire network will be dead.
• It requires more wires compared to the other topologies.
• If the connecting network device (network switch) fails, nodes attached are disabled and cannot
participate in computer network communication.
• More expensive than linear bus topology because of the cost of the connecting devices (network
switches).

Bus Topology:

A bus topology consists of a single cable with the terminator at each end. All present nodes are
connected to the single cable. There is no limit to the number of nodes that can be attached to this
network, but the number of connected nodes can actually affect the performance of the network. In
a bus topology, one of the nodes acts as the server and transmits the data from one end to the other
in a single direction. When the data reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from
the line.

Advantages of Bus Topology:

 Easy to connect or remove devices in a network without affecting any other device.
 In case of any computer or device failure, there will be no effect on other devices or
network.
 Cable cost is less as compared to other network topology i.e. mesh and star.
 It is easy to understand topology.
 Easy to expand by joining two cables together
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:
 In the case of any device failure, it is difficult to find faults in a network.
 If the backbone cable damages the entire system/network will fail.
 If network traffic increases or devices increase, the performance of the network decreases.
 It is slower because one computer transmits at a time.
 It has low security because all the computers receive the sent signal from the source.
 The length of cable is limited.

Tree Topology:

In Tree Topology, all the computer are connected like the branches of a tree. In Computer
Networking, tree topology is known as a combination of a Bus and Start network topology. The main
advantages of this topology are better flexibility and scalability.

Tree network topology is the simplest topology in which only one route exists between any two
nodes on the network. The pattern of connection resembles a tree in which all branches spring from
one root hence (Tree Topology).

Advantages of Tree Topology:

 It is a combination of bus and star topology
 It provides high scalability, as leaf nodes can add more nodes in the hierarchical chain.
 Other nodes in a network are not affected, if one of their nodes get damaged
 It provides easy maintenance and fault identification.
 Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology:

 Large cabling is required as compared to star and bus topology.
 On the failure of a hub, the entire network fails.
 Tree network is very difficult to configure than other network topologies.

Mesh Topology:

In Mesh Topology, all the computers are inter-connected to each other in a network. Each computer
not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other computers. This type of topology is
very expensive as Its very difficult to establish the connections of the mesh topology. In a Mesh
topology every node has a point-to-point connection to the other node. The connections in the
mesh topology can be wired or wireless.

Mesh Topology can be divided into two types:

(i) Fully connected mesh topology
(ii) Partially connected mesh topology

Advantages of Mesh Topology:

 There is no traffic problem as there are dedicated point to point links for each computer.
 It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other can be accessed for data
communication.
 It provides high privacy and security.
 Fault identification is easy because of point-to-point connection.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:
 Mesh topology requires high numbers of cables and I/o ports for the communication.
 Installation is very difficult in mesh topology, as each node is connected to every node.
 Mesh topology is costly compared to the other network topologies i.e. star, bus, point to
point (p2p) topology.

Ring Topology:

Ring topology, also known as Ring network, is a type of network topology where each node is exactly
connected to two other nodes, forward and backward, thus forming a single continuous path for
signal transmission.

In a ring topology, all devices in the network are connected via a cable that loops in a logical ring or
circle. In ring topology, the data circulates in a logical ring shape within the network.

Advantages of Ring topology:

 Reduced chances of data collision as each node release a data packet after receiving the
token.
 Token passing makes ring topology perform better than bus topology under heavy traffic
 No need of server to control connectivity among the nodes
 Equal access to the resources

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

 Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination.
This makes it slower than Star topology.
 If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
 Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.

Introduction to Internet
URL (Uniform Resource Locator):
A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), colloquially termed a web address, is a reference to a web
resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL
is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), although many people use the two terms
interchangeably.

Also known as a web address, a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a form of URI and a standardized
naming convention for addressing documents accessible over the Internet and Intranet. An example
of a URL is https://www.IndoAryan.org, which is the URL for: IndoAryan School of HRD. IP address:
207.148.123.206

WWW and its applications:

(i) Web
The World Wide Web (WWW) is combination of all resources and users on the Internet that
are using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), a subset of the Internet consisting of the
pages that can be accessed by a Web browser. Web is not the same as the Internet.
However, the term Internet actually refers to the global network of servers that makes the
information sharing that happens over the Web possible. A broader definition comes from
the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C): "The World Wide Web is the universe of network-
accessible information, an embodiment of human knowledge."
 (ii) E-mail
Short for electronic mail, e-mail or email is information stored on a computer that is
exchanged between two users over telecommunications. More plainly, e-mail is a message
that may contain text, files, images, or other attachments sent through a network to a
specified individual or group of individuals.

(iii) Chat
Online chat may refer to any kind of communication over the Internet that offers a real-time
transmission of text messages from sender to receiver. Chat messages are generally short in
order to enable other participants to respond quickly. Chat may be delivered through text,
verbal, audio, visual or audio-visual (A/V) communication via the Internet. If conducted
through a desktop, chat requires software that supports Internet Relay Chat (IRC) or an
instant messenger application, where a central server manages chat communication
between different end user clients.

(iv) VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol):

VoIP services convert your voice into a digital signal that travels over the Internet. If you are
calling a regular phone number, the signal is converted to a regular telephone signal before
it reaches the destination. VoIP can allow you to make a call directly from a computer, a
special VoIP phone, or a traditional phone connected to a special adapter. In addition,
wireless "hot spots" in locations such as airports, parks, and cafes allow you to connect to
the Internet and may enable you to use VoIP service wirelessly. Advantages of VoIP is that
the telephone calls over the Internet do not incur a surcharge beyond what the user is
paying for Internet access, much in the same way that the user doesn't pay for sending
individual emails over the Internet.

Website
Introduction
The definition of a website is a page or collection of pages on the World Wide Web that contains
specific information which was all provided by one person or entity and traces back to a common
Uniform Resource Locator (URL).

Difference between a website and webpage:

Webpage:

 Webpage as a kind of digital document that appears on the Web Browser.

 It calls for basic web programming knowledge to build a webpage using HTML to structure
the document. One could deploy some CSS to adjust the look and feel of the document.

 At some level of interactivity, one could use JavaScript. One access those files with a web
browser, that translates the code into something a human being can read and understand.

 Much like an app, a webpage typically focuses on one thing or a single topic. For example, a
writer might publish the complete text of a paper they wrote on a webpage to help publicize
the ideas.
Website:

A collection of such web pages which are grouped and connected together in various ways, often
called a "web site" or simply a "site."

Let’s say one has a business. A single webpage can’t reasonably contain all the information a
potential customer will need. At least, it can’t in a way that makes information accessible. Even a
very basic website for one's business will need a range of individual webpages, such as:

 Homepage
 Services page
 About Us page
 Contact Us page

Static Web pages:

Static Web pages are very simple. It is written in languages such as HTML, JavaScript, CSS, etc. For
static web pages when a server receives a request for a web page, then the server sends the
response to the client without doing any additional process. And these web pages are seen through
a web browser. In static web pages, Pages will remain the same until someone changes it manually.

Dynamic Web Pages:

Dynamic Web Pages are written in languages such as CGI, AJAX, ASP, ASP.NET, etc. In dynamic web
pages, the Content of pages is different for different visitors. It takes more time to load than the
static web page. Dynamic web pages are used where the information is changed frequently, for
example, stock prices, weather information, etc.

Static v/s Dynamic web page

Static Web Page Dynamic Web Page

1. In static web pages, Pages will remain same 1. In dynamic web pages, content of pages is
until someone changes it manually. different for different visitors.
2. This is simple in terms of complexity. 2. Dynamic web pages are complicated.
3. Here Information changes rarely. 3. Here Information changes frequently.
4. It takes less time for loading 4. It takes more time for loading.
5. In Static Web Pages, database is not used. 5. In dynamic web pages, database is used.
6. Static web pages are written in languages 6. Dynamic web pages are written in
such as: HTML, JavaScript, CSS, etc. languages such as: CGI, AJAX, ASP,

Web Server
Definition: A web server is a computer that runs websites. It's a computer program that distributes
web pages as they are requisitioned. The basic objective of the web server is to store, process and
deliver web pages to the users. This intercommunication is done using Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP). These web pages are mostly static content that includes HTML documents, images, style
sheets, test etc. Apart from HTTP, a web server also supports SMTP (Simple Mail transfer Protocol)
and FTP (File Transfer Protocol) protocol for emailing and for file transfer and storage.

Description: The main job of a web server is to display the website content. If a web server is not
exposed to the public and is used internally, then it is called Intranet Server. When anyone requests
for a website by adding the URL or web address on a web browser’s (like Chrome or Firefox) address
bar (like www.economictimes.com), the browser sends a request to the Internet for viewing the
corresponding web page for that address. A Domain Name Server (DNS) converts this URL to an IP
Address, which in turn points to a Web Server.

Hosting a website
Web hosting is a service that allows organizations and individuals to post a website or web page
onto the Internet. A web host, or web hosting service provider, is a business that provides the
technologies and services needed for the website or webpage to be viewed in the Internet. Websites
are hosted, or stored, on special computers called servers. When Internet users want to view your
website, all they need to do is type your website address or domain into their browser. Their
computer will then connect to your server and your webpages will be delivered to them through the
browser. Most hosting companies require that one must own his domain in order to host with them.
If you do not have a domain, the hosting companies will help you purchase one.

Web Browser
Introduction
A web browser commonly referred to as a browser - is a software application for accessing
information on the World Wide Web and displays it on the desktop or mobile device. When a user
requests a web page from a particular website, the web browser retrieves the necessary content
from a web server. The information is transferred using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
which defines how text, images and video are transmitted on the web.

Commonly used browsers

 Chrome
 Edge/IE-Internet Explorer
 Firefox
 Safari
 Opera

Browser settings

Setting Chrome:
On your computer, click the Start menu.
Click Settings.
Open your default apps: Original version: Click System Default apps.
At the bottom, under "Web browser," click your current browser (typically Microsoft Edge).
In the "Choose an app" window, click Google Chrome.

Setting Internet Explorer:

You can reset Internet Explorer settings to what they were when Internet Explorer was first installed
on your PC. This is useful for troubleshooting problems that may be caused by settings that were
changed after installation. Be aware that this process isn't reversible, and all previous Internet
Explorer settings are lost after reset.

Close all open windows and programs.

Open Internet Explorer, select Tools > Internet options.
Select the Advanced tab.
In the Reset Internet Explorer Settings dialog box, select Reset.
In the box, Are you sure you want to reset all Internet Explorer settings?, select Reset.
When Internet Explorer finishes applying default settings, select Close, and then select OK. Restart
your PC to apply changes.

Setting Firefox:
Click the menu button and select Options Preferences.
In the General panel, click Make Default…. If Firefox still isn't the default browser, see Setting Firefox
as the default browser does not work - What to do.
Close the about: preferences page. Any changes you've made will automatically be saved.

Setting Safari:
Open Safari. The setting for controlling default browser in OS X is actually controlled from within
Apple's own web browser itself.
Click the "Safari" menu item and choose "Preferences”
Choose the browser you want to be the default.
Close the Preferences window.

Setting Opera:
Open Opera.
Click or Opera in the top-left corner.
Click Settings (Preferences on Mac).
Scroll down to Default browser, and click Make default.

Add-ons and Plug-Ins

Add-on and Plugin - both the terms boost the performance of browser. In Firefox we install add-ons
to add extra features as well as add plug-ins to add some missing functionalities. Despite of their
matching properties, both the terms are not same. Add-on is not a program, but small pieces of code
for better performance of the software; whereas Plug-in is a complete program.

Add-Ons are components that integrate into the graphical user interface (GUI). Most Add-Ons can
be downloaded as extensions from the extensions web site.
Choose Tools > Extension Manager to install new extensions.

Plug-in stands for DDE (Dynamic Data Exchange) and OLE (Object linking and embedding), that are
inserted in a document. Plugins can add functionality to play sounds or videos of specific formats,
among others.
The menu command Edit > Plug-in toggles the display of such objects.

Cookies
Cookies are messages that web servers pass to user’s web browser when one visits Internet sites.
Browser stores each message in a small file, called cookie.txt. When one requests another page from
the server, browser sends the cookie back to the server. These files typically contain information
about the visit to the web page, as well as any information user has volunteered, such as name,
interests, qualifications, etc.

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