THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

Background

The Grammar-Translation Method was prevalent in foreign language classrooms from the mid 19th century to the mid
20th century. It was first introduced in Latin and ancient Greek classrooms in the early 19thcentury, replacing more
communicatively-oriented methods as Latin ceased to be a spoken language. As there was no longer a strong justification
for teaching oral skills in the classical languages, the Grammar-Translation Method espoused the goal of developing the
ability to read and translate classical texts. By the mid 19th century the method had been adopted for teaching modern
languages by German scholars such as Karl Plötz and Johann Seidenstücker, and it quickly spread to classrooms
throughout Europe and the United States.

Throughout its history, the Grammar-Translation Method was criticized by advocates of more "direct" methods, who
claimed that languages ought to be learned by actually speaking and listening to them rather than merely studying about
them. One critic went so far as to claim that the Grammar-Translation Method sought to "know everything about
something rather than the thing itself"(Rouse, 1925; quoted in Kelly, 1969, p. 53). However, the Grammar-Translation
Method continued to be one of the primary methods used in U.S. classrooms, although it was partially supplanted in the
1930s by the so-called "Reading Method," which replaced the classical texts of the Grammar-Translation method with
texts written specifically for foreign language students based on word frequency studies, and encouraged students to
avoid consciously translating what they were reading.

FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS

the key features of the Grammar Translation Method are as follows:

1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.

2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.

3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.

4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of
words.

5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.

6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.

7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother
tongue.

8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

ADVANTAGES

1) The target language is quickly explained in GTM.

Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases from one language into another.

2) Teacher and students are easy to communicate/It does not need native language

Teacher’s labor is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask
comprehension questions on the text taught in the mother tongue.

3) The students easy to understand because of grammatical lessons.

ESL students taught successfully under the grammar translation method will have the ability to translate even difficult
texts from their native language into English.
DISADVANTAGES

1) No Scope for Effective Communication and Very Tedious for Learners

Direct translation is widely regarded as an inefficient way of becoming fluent in any language.

2) Ineffective Method

In the Grammar Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading. Little
attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.

3) More Importance on Grammar Rules than on Meaning

Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one language to another
is not always possible.

4) Slow Learning Rate and Making Learners Think in L1

It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes its patterns to the extent that
they form his habit.

TEACHER’S ROLE

Teachers are just guides because grammar Translation deals with the memorization of rules, manipulation of the
morphology and syntax of the foreign language.

It requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers because test of grammar rules and translation are easy to
construct and be objectively scored.

The facilitator main function is that of observation rather than corrective intervention in regards to the learners.

STUDENTS’ ROLE

Students are expected to memorize endless lists of grammar rules and vocabulary, and produce almost perfect
translations. This method means a tedious experience and often creates frustration for students.

Main activities and controls are stated by the students, he or she is the one who provides the course of the learning
process and the status of knowledge as well.

Collaborative work is of s great importance, a real cooperative behavior from the learner, is required for the lessons.

TECHNIQUES

1. Use words in sentences

In order to show that students understand the meaning and use of a new vocabulary item, they make up sentences in
which they use the new words.

2. Composition

The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. The topic is based upon some aspect of the
reading passage of the lesson. Sometimes, instead of creating a composition, students are asked to prepare a précis of
the reading passage.

3. Reading comprehension questions

Students answer questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading passage. The questions
are sequenced so that the first group of questions asks for information contained within the reading passage.

THE DIRECT METHOD

Gouin had been one of the first of the nineteenth-century reformers to attempt to build a methodology around
observation of child language learning. Other reformers toward the end of the century likewise turned their attention to
naturalistic principles of language learning, and for this reason they are sometimes referred to as advocates of a
"natural" method. In fact at various times throughout the history of language teaching, attempts have been made to
make second language learning more like first language learning.

In the sixteenth century, for example, Montaigne described how he was entrusted to a guardian who addressed him
exclusively in Latin for the first years of his life, since Montaigne's father wanted his son to speak Latin well. Among those
who tried to apply natural principles to language classes in the nineteenth century was L. Sauveur (1826-1907), who
used intensive oral interaction in the target language, employing questions as a way of presenting and eliciting language.
He opened a language school in Boston in the late 1860s, and his method soon became referred to as the Natural
Method.

Sauveur and other believers in the Natural Method argued that a foreign language could be taught without translation or
the use of the learner's native tongue if meaning was conveyed directly through demonstration and action. The German
scholar F. Franke wrote on the psychological principles of direct association between forms and meanings in the target
language (1884) and provided a theoretical justification for a monolingual approach to teaching.

According to Franke, a language could best be taught by using it actively in the classroom. Rather than using analytical
procedures that focus on explanation of grammar rules in classroom teaching, teachers must encourage direct and
spontaneous use of the foreign language in the classroom. Learners would then be able to induce rules of grammar. The
teacher replaced the textbook in the early stages of learning. Speaking began with systematic attention to pronunciation.
Known words could be used to teach new vocabulary, using mime, demonstration, and pictures.

FEATURES OF THE METHOD

1. Teaching vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials

2. Teaching grammar by using an

inductive approach (i.e. Having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target
language)

3. Centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation).

4. Focus on question-answer patterns.

5. Teacher-centering.

6. Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language.

7. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught during the initial phase; grammar, reading and writing are
introduced in intermediate phase.

8. Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer
exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.

9. Grammar is taught inductively.

10. New teaching points are introduced orally.

11. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by
association of ideas.

ADVANTAGES
(1) It makes the learning of English interesting and lively by establishing direct bond between a word and its meaning.

(2) It is an activity method facilitating alertness and participation of the pupils.

(3) According to Macnee, "It is the quickest way of getting started". In a few months over 500 of the commonest English
words can be learnt and used in sentences. This serves as a strong foundation of further learning.

(4) Due to application of the Direct Method, students are able to understand what they learn, think about it and then
express their own

ideas in correct English about what they have read and learnt.

(5) Psychologically it is a sound method as it proceeds from the concrete to the abstract.

(6) This method can be usefully employed from the lowest to the highest class.

(7) Through this method, fluency of speech, good pronunciation and power of expression are properly developed.

DISADVANTAGES

(1) There are many abstract words which cannot be interpreted directly in English and much time and energy are wasted
in making attempts for the purpose.

(2) This method is based on the principles that auditory appeal is stronger that visual. But there are children who learn
more with visual than with their oral- aural sense like ears and tongue.

(3) The method ignores systematic written work and reading activities and sufficient attention is not paid to reading and
writing.

(4) Since in this method, grammar is closely bound up with the reader, difficulty is experienced in providing readers of
such kind.

(5) There is dearth of teachers trained and interested in teaching English in this method.

(6) This method may not hold well in higher classes where the Translation Method is found suitable.

(7) In larger classes, this method is not properly applied and teaching in this method does not suit or satisfy the needs of
individual students in large classes.

THE TEACHERS’ ROLE

1. The teacher is the source for the students to know the words in target language.

2. The teachers provide information of the target language including the culture consisting of the history of the people
who speak the target language.

3. Teachers interact with the students a lot, asking them questions about relevant topics and trying to use the
grammatical structure of the day in the conversation.

4. The teacher can be the monitor of the students. He watches the students’ progress in using the target language.

5. The teacher has the students self-correct by asking them to make a choice between what they said and an alternative
answer supplied.

6. The teacher is also the initiator. He finds various techniques to get the students to self-correct whenever possible.

8. The teacher uses map drawing as a technique to give listening comprehension.

THE STUDENTS’ ROLE

2. The students’ role in direct method is the active learner.

3. They are active in exploring new words, expression, etc. in target language.

4. The students are also the observer and practitioner.

5. The students observe the target language used by the teacher in teaching and they try to get the meaning based on
the demonstration given.

TECHNIQUES

v Reading aloud

v Question answer exercise

v Fill-in-the-blank exercise

THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

Background

Richards and Rodgers (2001) provide one of the most thorough descriptions of the historical background of the Audio-
lingual Method, from which the following information has largely been drawn.

In the 1940s the United States was drawn into World War II and needed personnel who were fluent in foreign languages.
Upon finding a lack of Americans with sufficient language skills, in 1942 the U.S. government developed the Army
Specialized Training Program, an oral-based program based on intensive drilling and study. The success of this program
convinced a number of prominent linguists of the value of an intensive oral approach to language learning. Most
American schools and universities, however, continued to employ the Grammar-Translation Method or the Reading
Method well into the 1950s.

In 1957 Russia launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, causing the U.S. government to become concerned about
Americans' isolation from scientific advances in foreign countries due to their lack of proficiency in foreign languages.
The National Defense Education Act of 1958 provided funds for developing foreign language teaching materials and
training teachers, and language teaching specialists set about developing new teaching methods.

The Audiolingual Method was widely adopted in the U.S. and Canada and served as the principal approach to foreign
language teaching in the 1960s. The method's decline in the late 1960s and early 1970s was brought about by two
factors. First, linguist Noam Chomsky questioned the theoretical basis for the method, particularly the assumption that
external conditioning could account for all language learning (Chomsky, 1959). Second, some language teachers and
students experienced frustration with the method's avoidance of grammar explanations, its heavy emphasis on rote
memorization and drilling, and its failure to produce conversational ability in the foreign language (Hadley, 2001).

CHARACTERISTICS

Speech is more basic to language than the written form.

Language structure and form are more significant than meaning.

Elements in a language are produced in a rule-governed (structural) way.

Language samples could be exhaustively described at any structural level of description

Language is structural like a pyramid, that is, linguistic level is system within system.

Languages are different, since every language has its own unique system.
ADVANTAGES

1. This is the first language learning method which is grounded on a solid theory of language learning.

2. This method emphasises everyday cultural traits of the target language.

3. It provides the opportunity to learn correct pronunciation and structure.

4. This method made it possible to teach large groups of learners.

5. It puts stress on listening and speaking skills.

DISADVANTAGES

1. The theoretical foundation of the Audio-lingual Method suffers from inadequacy.

2. It is a mechanical method since it demands pattern practice, drilling, memorization or over-learning.

3. It is a teacher dominated method.

4. Here, the learners have a passive role, since they have little control over their learning.

5. This method does not put equal emphasis on the four basic skills, such as listening, speaking, reading and writing.

6. It considers only language form, not meaning.

7. This method does not pay sufficient attention to communicative competence.

8. It prefers accuracy to fluency.

LEARNER ROLES

In the Audio-lingual method the students play a passive role as they don’t have any control over the content or the
method of learning. The students are mere imitators of the teacher's model. Their sole objective is to follow the
teacher’s direction and respond as precisely and as promptly as possible.

TEACHER ROLES

In the Audio-lingual Method the teacher has an active role as he is the sole authority to control and direct the whole
learning programme. He monitors and corrects the students’ performance. He is also responsible for providing the
students with a good model for imitation. The teacher endeavours to keep the students attentive by varying drills and
tasks and choosing relevant situations to practice structures.

THE ROLE OF TEACHING/ LEARNING MATERIALS

In Audio-lingual Method the materials are predominantly teacher-oriented. The instructional materials basically contains
the structured sequence of lessons to be followed, the dialogues, drills, and other practice activities, which would
hopefully enable the teacher to develop language mastery in the student.

TECHNIQUES

Transposition Drill: This drill enables the students to be able to change the word order in a sentence when a new word is
added. For example:

Teacher: I'm not going to come with you.

Student: Neither am I.

Transformation: The teacher says a dialogue and asks the students to change the form of the sentence, such as an
affirmative sentence into a negative or an active sentence into a passive. For example:
Teacher: This is my car (affirmative).

Student: This is not my car (negative).

Dialogue Completion Drill: The teacher says an incomplete dialogue by erasing some words that the students learned
earlier. The students then try to complete the dialogue with the missing words. For instance:

Teacher: I ____ never seen such a ____ scenery before.

Students: I have never seen such a beautiful scenery before.

PRESENTATION PRACTICE PRODUCTION (PPP)

WHAT IS THE PPP METHOD?

The PPP method could be characterized as a common-sense approach to teaching as it consists of 3 stages that most
people who have learnt how to do anything will be familiar with.

STAGES

The first stage is the presentation of an aspect of language in a context that students are familiar with, much the same
way that a swimming instructor would demonstrate a stroke outside the pool to beginners.

There are a variety of ways in which new language items may be presented but most Presentations should have at least
some of the following features: meaningful, memorable and realistic examples; logical connection; context; clear models;
sufficient meaningful repetition; "staging" and "fixing"; briefness and recycling.

The second stage is practice, where students will be given an activity that gives them plenty of opportunities to practice
the new aspect of language and become familiar with it whilst receiving limited and appropriate assistance from the
teacher. To continue with the analogy, the swimming instructor allowing the children to rehearse the stroke in the pool
whilst being close enough to give any support required and plenty of encouragement.

Making a smooth transition from Presentation to Practice usually involves moving the students from the Individual Drill
stage into Pair Work (chain pair-work, closed pair-work and open pair-work). Communicative practice then leads the way
toward Production.

The final stage is production where the students will use the language in context, in an activity set up by the teacher who
will be giving minimal assistance, like the swimming instructor allowing his young charges to take their first few tentative
strokes on their own.

Some good examples of effective Production activities include situational role-plays, debates, discussions, problem-
solving, narratives, descriptions, quizzes and games.

TECHNIQUES

Role-play: in this activity the teacher can give the students a situation they will have to performe in front of the class.
Obviously, the role-play has to be related with the topic they are studying.

By doing this activity the students can practice new vocabulary so that they can internalize them and use them when
they speak.

Debates: the teacher can also organize some debates in the classroom to make the class interesting. The topics of the
debate can be created according to the topic they are studying so that the students can investigate and learn more about
it and students will be able to make the new vocabulary part of their active vocabulary.

Descriptions: the teacher can ask the students to work in pairs and write a description about their favorite place to be.
After that the students can share their descriptions with the whole class. In this activity students are going to put into
practice their writing skills and the vocabulary they have studied.
THE SEQUENCE OF A PPP LESSON

This EFL teaching method of presentation, practice and production is an approach that follows a definite sequence:

1. The teacher presents the new vocabulary and explains the form of the language in a meaningful context.

2. The students practise this new vocabulary through controlled activities such as worksheets or question and answer
activities to check comprehension.

3. The students use or produce what they have learned in a communicative activity such as a role-play, communication
game, or question and answer session.

COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING (CLL)

Background

Community Language Learning (CLL) is the name of a method developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates. Curran
was a specialist in counseling and a professor of psychology at Loyola University, Chicago. His application of psychological
counseling techniques to learning is known as Counseling-Learning. Community Language Learning represents the use of
Counseling-Learning theory to teach languages.

Within the language teaching tradition Community Language Learning is sometimes cited as an example of a "humanistic
approach." Links can also be made between CLL procedures and those of bilingual education, particularly the set of
bilingual procedures referred to as "language alternation" or "code switching”. Let us discuss briefly the debt of
Community Language Learning to these traditions.

As the name indicates, CLL derives its primary insights, and indeed its organizing rationale, from Rogerian counseling.
Counseling, as Rogerians see it, consists of one individual (the counselor) assuming "insofar as he is able the internal
frame of reference [of the client], perceiving the world as that person sees it and communicating something of this
empathetic understanding" (Rogers 1951. Community Language Learning draws on the counseling metaphor to redefine
the roles of the teacher (the counselor) and learners (the client?) in the language classroom. The basic procedures of CLL
can thus be seen as derived from the counselor-client relationship.

CHARACTERISTIC OF COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

1. Students typically have a conversation using their native language.

2. The teacher helps them express what they want to say by giving them the target language translation.

3. These words are recorded, and when they are replayed, it sounds like a fairly fluid conversation.

4. Later, a transcript is made of the conversation, and native language equivalents are written beneath the target
language words.

5. The transcription of the conversation becomes a ‘text’ with which students work.

6. Various activities are conducted (for example, examination of a grammar point, working on pronunciation of a
particular phrase, or creating new sentences with words from the transcript) that allow students to further explore the
language they have generated.

7. During the course of the lesson, students are invited to say how they feel, and in return the teacher understands them.

LEARNER’S ROLES

In Community Language Learning, learners become members of a community - their fellow learners and the teacher -
and learn through interacting with members of the community.

Learning is not viewed as an individual accomplishment but as something that is achieved collaboratively.
Learners are expected to listen attentively to the knower, to freely provide meanings they wish to express, to repeat
target utterances without hesitation, to support fellow members of the community, to report deep inner feelings and
frustrations as well as joy and pleasure, and to become counselors to other learners.

CLL learners are typically grouped in a circle of six to twelve learners, with the number of knowers varying from one per
group to one per student.

CLL has also been used in larger schools classes where special grouping arrangements are necessary, such as organizing
learners in temporary pairs in facing parallel lines.

Learner roles are keyed to the five stages of language learning outlined earlier. The view of the learner is an organic one,
with each new role growing developmentally out of the one preceding. These role changes are not easily or
automatically achieved. They are in fact seen as outcomes of affective crises.

ADVANTAGES

The threat of the all-knowing teacher, of making blunders inthe foreign language in front of classmates, of competing
against peers--all threats which can lead to afeeling of alienation and inadequacy are presumably removed.

The counselor allows the learner todetermine the type of conversation and to analyze the foreign language inductively. It
is interesting to notethat the teacher can also become a client at times: in situations in which explanation or translation
seems tobe impossible, it is often the client-learner who steps in and becomes a counselor to aid the teacher.

Thestudent-centered nature of the method can provide extrinsic motivation and capitalize on intrinsicmotivation.

DISADVANTAGES

The counselor-teacher can become too non-directive.

The student often needs direction, especially in the first stage, in which there is suchseemingly endless struggle within
the foreign language.

Supportive but assertive direction from thecounselor could strengthen the method.

Another problem with CLL is its reliance upon an inductivestrategy of learning.

TEACHER’S ROLES

In the early stages of learning the teacher operates in a supportive role, providing target language translations and a
model for imitation on request of the clients.

Later, interaction may be initiated by the students, and the teacher monitors learner utterances, providing assistance
when requested.

As learning progresses, students become increasingly capable of accepting criticism, and the teacher may intervene
directly to correct deviant utterances, supply idioms, and advise on usage and fine points of grammar.

The teacher's role is initially likened to that of a nurturing parent.

The student gradually "grows"' In ability, and the nature of the relationship changes so that the teacher's position
becomes somewhat dependent upon the learner. The knower derives a sense of self-worth through requests for the
knower's assistance.

TECHNIQUES

Listening. Students listen to a monologue by the teacher involving elements they might have elicited or overheard in
class interactions.
Free conversation. Students engage in ´free conversation with' the teacher or with other learners. This might include
discussion of what they learned as well as feelings they had about how they learned.

Group Work. Learners may engage in various group tasks, such as small-group discussion of a topic, preparing a
conversation, preparing a summary of a topic for presentation to another group, preparing a story that will be presented
to the teacher and the rest of the class.

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (TPR)

BACKGROUND

James Asher developed the total physical response method as a result of his observation of the language development of
young children. Asher saw that most of the interactions that young children experience with parents or other adults
combine both verbal and physical aspects. The child responds physically to the speech of the parent, and the parent
reinforces the child’s responses through further speech. This creates a positive feedback loop between the parent’s
speech and the child’s actions. Asher also observed that young children typically spend a long time listening to language
before ever attempting to speak, and that they can understand and react to utterances that are much more complex
than those they can produce themselves.

From his experiences, Asher outlined three main hypotheses about learning second languages that are embodied in the
total physical response method. The first is that the brain is naturally predisposed to learn language through listening.
Specifically, Asher says that learners best internalize language when they respond with physical movement to language
input. Asher hypothesizes that speech develops naturally and spontaneously after learners internalize the target
language through input, and that it should not be forced.

The second of Asher’s hypotheses is that effective language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain.
Physical movement is controlled primarily by the right hemisphere, and Asher sees the coupling of movement with
language comprehension as the key to language acquisition. He says that left-hemisphere learning should be avoided,
and that the left hemisphere needs a great deal of experience of right-hemisphere-based input before natural speech
can occur.

Asher’s third hypothesis is that language learning should not involve any stress, as stress and negative emotions inhibit
the natural language-learning process. He regards the stressful nature of most language-teaching methods as one of
their major weaknesses. Asher recommends that teachers focus on meaning and physical movement to avoid stress.

The main text on total physical response is James Asher’s Learning Another Language through Actions, first published in
1977.

CHARACTERISTICS

The coordination of speech and action facilitates language learning.

Grammar is taught inductively.

Meaning is more important than form.

Speaking is delayed until comprehension skills are established.

Effective language learning takes place in low stress environment.

The role of the teacher is central. S/he chooses the appropriate commands to introduce vocabulary and structure.

The learner is a listener and a performer responding to commands individually or collectively.

Learning is maximized in a stress free environment.

It is fun and easy

It does not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher.

It is a good tool for learning vocabulary.

Class size does not need to be a problem.

There is no age barrier.

DISADVANTAGES

It is not a very creative method. Students are not given the opportunity to express their own views and thoughts in a
creative way.

It is easy to overuse TPR.

It is limited, since everything cannot be explained with this method. It must be combined with other approaches.

TEACHER ROLES

The teacher plays an active and direct role in Total Physical Response. "The instructor is the director of a stage play in
which the students are the actors".

It is the teacher who decides what to teach, who models and presents the new materials, and who selects supporting
materials for classroom use.

The teacher is encouraged to be well prepared and well organized so that the lesson flows smoothly and predictably.

Classroom interaction and turn taking is teacher rather than learner directed.

The teacher has the responsibility of providing the best kind of exposure to language so that the learner can internalize
the basic rules of the target language.

The teacher should also allow speaking abilities to develop in learners at the learners' own natural pace.

LEARNER ROLES

Learners in Total Physical Response have the primary roles of listener and performer.

Learners are required to respond both individually and collectively.

Learners have little influence over the content of learning, since content is determined by the teacher, who must follow
the imperative-based format for lessons.

Learners are also expected to recognize and respond to novel combinations of previously taught items.

Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress.

TECHNIQUES

Total physical response: the teacher can develop an activity playing simon says. First, the students have to stand up and
form a semi circle. Then the teacher is going to say simon says touch your nose and the students will have to performe
the action. In this way the teacher can continue saying actions that the students have to performe. This activity help to
learn new vocabulary and remember it by the actions doing.
Storytelling: the teacher can ask the students to form a semi circle or sit on the floor, and the teacher can star reading a
story tale and act the story so that the students can understand the meaning of the words. The teacher can use different
levels of speech to emphasize something and performe some action to help students understand the words.

Drama activities: the teacher can ask the students to work in groups of four, and they will have to dramatize a short story
related with the toic they have been studying.

SUGGESTOPEDIA

BACKGROUND

Georgi Lozanov of Bulgaria developed the "Suggestopedia" method from a personal belief that most people fill only a
fraction of their brains' capacity during a lifetime of learning. He believed that adults set up affective obstacles to
learning by being afraid to try new experiences or by being preoccupied or nervous. Thus, to be able to learn large
amounts of information in short periods of time, all of the barriers to learning must be lowered, or "desuggested."

Suggestopedia includes such ways to reduce anxiety as breathing exercises and playing classical music while the lesson is
in progress. Comfortable chairs, indirect lighting, and colorful posters from the target language's culture help create a
relaxed atmosphere. Learners usually assume fictional identities to reduce inhibition and further increase their
willingness to experiment with the new language.

In this way, Suggestopedia parallels many innovative learning methods in other fields that encourage development of the
"whole person" or more use of the functions located at right side of the brain. Other aspects of the language instruction
in Suggestopedia - explanation of grammar, descriptions, etc.-resemble more traditional methods. The unique
contribution of Suggestopedia is in its appealing presentation of material.

Lozanov's techniques have been applied to the study of many subjects and are an important part of the "Integrative
Learning" study centers in the United States. His Institute of Suggestology in Sofia has many international visitors.

CHARACTERISTICS

Arrangement of the classroom (e.g. furniture, decoration)

Classroom arrangement should make students feel comfortable and relaxed. Suggestopedia is not designed for school
lessons as its effectiveness depends also on the way language is dealt with in classroom context. The course involves a
small number of students, comfortable seats, etc.

Why Orchestral Music and Why Baroque?

Baroque largo movements normally have the same number of beats in a minute as the heart of a person in a state of
relaxation. By introducing this music, the student’s pulse can be reduced. Note that there are different tempos in
Baroque works.

use of music in the classroom

The centrality of music and the use of musical rhythm to learning are important features of suggestopedia. The teacher
strengthens the interactive influence upon the student on the unconscious level by reciting the material to classical and
Baroque music which stimulates a change from an active state to a state of relaxed attentiveness. Presenting information
auditively and graphically activates both brain hemispheres in the processing of linguistic information.

ADVANTAGES

Suggestopedia method use music during the process of learning.

Suggestopedia methods have different class setting which make the students relax during the learning process. We know
from the explanation before that a relax state is the optimum state for learning.
Suggestopedia methods also decorate the class with posters or something which can make students’ mind relax, such as
by putting flowers or aquarium in the corner of the class.

DISADVANTAGES

Using music during the learning process also has disadvantages for some people who cannot study in the noisy class.

The teacher will be difficult to control students one by one.

TEACHER’S ROLE

The teacher in a Suggestopedia course is responsible for elimination and avoidance of all factors that might prevent
learning and the inclusion of all factors which promote learning in the interactive teaching and learning environment
both on the conscious and unconscious levels of communication.

Suggestopedic teachers practice pedagogy based on the use of positive suggestions.

LEARNER’S ROLE

Learners must not try to figure out, manipulate, or study the material presented but must maintain a pseudo-passive
state.

TECHNIQUES

Text Presentation: the teacher presents a text to the students, and they read it together performing the actions and
repiting complex words.

Imitation: the students can imitate the actions the teacher is doing while reading a story or short dialogue.

Question and answers: the teacher aks some questions to the students, and they will have to answer the questions in the
written and oral forms. In this activity students can practice their speaking and writing skills.

THE SILENT WAY

BACKGROUND

The Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. Gattegno's name is well known
for his revival of interest in the use of coloured wooden sticks called cuisenaire rods and for his series Words in Colour, an
approach to the teaching of initial reading in which sounds are coded by specific colours. His materials are copyrighted
and marketed through an organization he operates called Educational Solutions Inc., in New York. The Silent Way
represents Gattegno's venture into the field of foreign language teaching. It is based on the premise that the teacher
should be silent as much as possible in the classroom and the learner should be encouraged to produce as much
language as possible. Elements of the Silent Way, particularly the use of colour charts and the coloured cuisenaire rods,
grew out of Gattegno's previous experience as an educational designer of reading and mathematics programs.
(Cuisenaire rods were first developed by Georges Cuisenaire, a European educator who used them for the teaching of
math. Gattegno had observed Cuisenaire and this gave him the idea for their use in language teaching.)

CHARACTERISTICS

1. Learning is regarded as a “problem-solving, creative, discovering activity”(Richards & Rodgers 2001: 81), in which the
learner rather acts and participates actively than just being passive and doing nothing but listening to the teacher. If the
learner is involved directly, he automatically benefits from the so called “discovery learning”.

2. The use of special physical objects such as colored wooden rods or color -coded wall charts facilitates learning. These
physical objects “provide physical foci for student learning and also create memorable images to facilitate student recall”
(Richards & Rodgers 2001: 81).
3. Learning is facilitated by involving the learners and letting them solve problems on their own with the help of the
provided materials

ADVANTAGES

-- The use of the Silent Way enables a very high degree of interaction as well between the teacher and the students as
between the students themselves and additionally raises the participation of the students in class.

– The self-esteem of the students will be increased and this will enhance learning.

– It embodies a new approach to education in general, a respect for the individual and an awareness of the individual’s
extraordinary cognitive powers.

DISADVANTAGES

The Silent Way is a very abstract way of learning a language, the learners have to engage themselves with the artificiality
of the approach, which is extremely different from more commonly used methods of language learning.

– This method can be benefited by the teacher only in small groups of students. The teacher can gain ability in this
method by trying. The teacher is expected to enrich the materials on his/her own.

– For some learners, one limitation is the approach to language basics which begins with seemingly irrelevant discussions
about rods and which involves silence and concentration and games with the teacher about meaning. Students’
expectations and need for immediately relevant language learning may force teachers to abandon the approach (Celce-
Murcia 1979)

LEARNER’S ROLE

Learners are expected to develop independence, autonomy, and responsibility.

The autonomous learner chooses proper expressions in a given set of circumstances and situations.

Learners have only themselves as individuals and the group to rely on, and so must learn to work cooperatively rather
than competitively.

They need to feel comfortable both correcting each other and being corrected by each other.

TEACHER ROLES

Teacher silence is, perhaps, the unique and, for many traditionally trained language teachers, the most demanding
aspect of the Silent Way.

the teacher silently monitors learners' interactions with each other and may even leave the room while learners struggle
with their new linguistic tools and "pay their ogdens."

the teacher is responsible for creating an environment that encourages student risk taking and that facilitates learning.

TECHNIQUES

Word chart

• 1. There are twelve English charts containing about 500 words. The charts contain the functional vocabulary of English.

• 2. The teacher points to words in word chart in a sequence to let students to read aloud the sentences. The way the
letters are colored helps students with their pronunciation.

Fidel chart

1. There are eight Fidel charts for learning English.

Rods

• Rods can be used to provide visible actions or situations for any language structure, to introduce it, or to enable
students to practice using it.

• Rods are used to teach colors, numbers, and statements with prepositions and conditionals.

• Rods can be used abstractly as well.

• The teacher can use rods to represent each word in a sentence or to elicit the sentence from the students.

THE NATURAL APPROACH

BACKGROUND

It was developed and published as a book by Mr. Stephen Krashen and Mrs. Tracy Terrell in 1983.¢ Mr. Stephen Krashen
is a famous linguist. He is currently a professor at University of Southern California.¢ Mrs. Tracy Terrell is an educational
theorist and a professor at University of California. Natural Approach believes that adults can still acquire second
languages. The ability of language acquisition does not disappear as we grow up.

Adults have the LAD. Adults also acquire language by following the principles of Universal Grammar.¢ The different
between adult and children acquisition skill is that adults have two things to follow when they learn foreign language:
Acquisition and learning. But, children only acquire the languages.

In the book, Mr. Krashen and Mrs. Terrell consider their approach as a traditional method.

The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis – The most basic steps of all in the Krashen’s theory. — It’s the most well known
among linguists and language practitioners. — The learner has two ways of learning the second language, which are the
acquired system and the learned system.¢ The monitor hypothesis is When the learner can check and correct language
output.

People acquire language by using grammatical structures in a predictable order.¢

The input hypothesis : The acquisition of languages are in a predictable order. Everybody have the same steps of learning
acquisition.

The Affective Filter hypothesis :When the learner’s emotional state can act as a filter that can prevent input from
reaching the learner’s language acquisition device. Filter is up the Negative emotional factors and they won’t acquire
language. Filter is down the Learner will learn better.

CHARACTERISTICS

1. The goal of the approach is aimed at the goal of basic personal communication skills – “conversations, shopping,
listening to the radio,” etc.

2. Learners move through three stages: 1) the preproduction stage is the development of listening comprehension skills,
2) the early production stage, marked with errors, 3) the last stage extends the production into longer stretches of
discourse.

3. The teacher needs to focus on meaning, not on form.

4. The teacher does not correct errors.

5. The most noteworthy characteristic is its advocacy of a “silent period,” where preproduction can begin.

6. The silent period encourages the delay oforal production until speech “emerges.”
7. The Natural Approach encourages theteacher not to insist that learners speak rightaway.

8. The Natural Approach blends well withthings like TPR, which builds the learner’slanguage “ego,” and does not force
them intorisk-taking situations which could embarrass them.

ADVANTAGES

1. The classroom consisting of acquisition activities can be an excellent environment for beginners. The Natural Approach
is an attempt to simulate in the classroom an environment that will be similar to the context in which children acquire
their first language.

2. Comprehensible and meaningful practice activities are emphasized. In the Natural Approach, a focus on
comprehension and meaningful communication as well as the provision of right kinds of comprehensible input

3. The teacher creates speeches which enable students to interact using the target language.

4. Students are not forced to respond in the target language immediately. ⑸Students interact in meaningful situation at
their own level.

5. The teacher knows students’ needs and concentrates on appropriate and useful areas.

DISADVANTAGES

1. The Natural Approach ignores many factors essential in second language course design.

2. It simply borrows techniques from other methods.

3. There is nothing novel about its procedures and techniques.

4. There are still many problems in the research method.

TEACHER’S ROLE

The teacher acts as an authority in the class.

The teacher limitates the first language learning process.

The teacher creatively instructs students to do activities that benefit the language learning.

LEARNER'S ROLE

The learner responds to the teacher by physical action.

The learner interacts to teacher and other students.

TECHNIQUES

1. Affective-humanistic activities attempt to involve students’ feelings, opinions, desires, reactions, ideas, and
experiences. Open dialogues, interviews, reference ranking, personal charts, supplying personal information, description,
etc. are often used to involve students in communicating information about themselves.

2. Problem-solving activities are those in which the students’ attention is focused on finding a correct answer to a
question, a problem or a situation.

3. Games are the third group of activities.

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)

BACKGROUND
Communicative language teaching rose to prominence in the 1970s and early 1980s as a result of many disparate
developments in both Europe and the United States. First, there was an increased demand for language learning,
particularly in Europe. The advent of the European Common Market led to widespread European migration, and
consequently there was a large population of people who needed to learn a foreign language for work or for personal
reasons. At the same time, children were increasingly able to learn foreign languages in school. The number of secondary
schools offering languages rose worldwide in the 1960s and 1970s as part of a general trend of curriculum-broadening
and modernization, and foreign-language study ceased to be confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction
of comprehensive schools meant that almost all children had the opportunity to study foreign languages.

The development of communicative language teaching was also helped by new academic ideas. In Britain, applied
linguists began to doubt the efficacy of situational language teaching, the dominant method in that country at the time.
This was partly in response to Chomsky’s insights into the nature of language. Chomsky had shown that the structural
theories of language prevalent at the time could not explain the creativity and variety evident in real communication. In
addition, British applied linguists such as Christopher Candlin and Henry Widdowson began to see that a focus on
structure was also not helping language students. They saw a need for students to develop communicative skill and
functional competence in addition to mastering language structures.

In the United States, the linguist and anthropologist Dell Hymes developed the concept of communicative competence.
This was a reaction to Chomsky’s concept of the linguistic competence of an ideal native speaker. Communicative
competence redefined what it meant to “know” a language; in addition to speakers having mastery over the structural
elements of language, according to communicative competence they must also be able to use those structural elements
appropriately in different social situations

CHARACTERISTICS

Uses a variety of materials, topics, activities and ways of interacting.

Emphasis on acquisition of cultural knowledge.

Tolerance of errors.

Goal of fluency.

Teachers are guides, counselors, organisers, and facilitators.

Provides learners with opportunities to share and explore their attitudes, feeling and opinions.

Creates a genuine, realistic learning situation.

DISADVANTAGES

1. It is felt that there is not enough emphasis on the correction of pronunciation and grammar error. It is because too
much focus on meaning at the expense of form.

2. CLT approach focuses on fluency but not accuracy in grammar and pronunciation.

3. The CLT approach is great for intermediate student and advanced students, but for Beginners some controlled practice
is needed.

4. The monitoring ability of the teacher must be very good

5. Grammar Teaching Practices make application of this approach difficult.

ADVANTAGES

Theres is interaction between students and teachers.

It informs the basic knowledge and ability to skillfully combine the development.
It greatly improved the student’s interest.

TEACHER’S ROLE

The teacher has to assume the role of a facilitator or monitor, rather then simply being the model for correct speech and
the one with the primary responsibility of making students produce plenty of error-free sentences. The teacher has to
develop a different view of students errors and his/her own role in facilitating language learning.

LEARNER’S ROLE

In the CLT, learners have to participate in classroom activities that are based on a cooperative rather than in a
individualistic approach to learning. Students have to become comfortable with listening to their peers in pair or group
work tasks, rather than relying on the teachers for a model.

TECHNIQUES

Community oriented task: the teacher plan activities in which all the students can participate.

Role play: the students will have to performe a situation related with the topic they are studying. By doing this activity,
they can practice the vocabulary of the topic.

Problem solving activities: the teacher can ask the students to think and come up with the possible solutions for a certain
problem based on the topic they are studying at that moment