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Non-Destructive Testing Methods and their Application in Technology

Article · November 2021

DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.16926127

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Non-Destructive Testing Methods and
their Application in Technology
 T AB L E OF C O NT E NT S

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ---------------------------------------------- ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

1 INTRODUCTION ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3

1.1 DEFINITION OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING --------------------------------------------------------------- 3

1.2 NEED FOR NDT TECHNIQUES AND ITS APPLICATIONS ----------------------------------------------------- 4
1.3 POST-PROCESS ASSESSMENT NDT TECHNIQUES ----------------------------------------------------------- 4

2 VISUAL EVALUATION -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

2.1 KINDS OF DEFECT NOTICEABLE AND LEVEL OF SENSITIVITY ---------------------------------------------- 5

2.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6
2.3 APPLICATIONS OF VISUAL INSPECTION IN AM -------------------------------------------------------------- 6

3 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7

3.1 KINDS OF DEFECT DETECTABLE AND SENSITIVITY --------------------------------------------------------- 8

3.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 8
3.3 APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING ------------------------------------------------------------ 8

4 MAGNETIC PARTICLE SCREENING ------------------------------------------------------------------- 9

4.1 TYPES OF DEFECT NOTICEABLE AND SENSITIVITY --------------------------------------------------------- 10

4.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
4.3 APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE SCREENING ------------------------------------------------------ 11

5 EDDY PRESENT TESTING --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11

5.1 KINDS OF DEFECT DETECTABLE AND SENSITIVITY -------------------------------------------------------- 12

5.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
5.3 APPLICATIONS OF EDDY PRESENT TESTING ---------------------------------------------------------------- 13

6 ULTRASONIC TESTING ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 14

6.1 KINDS OF DEFECT DETECTABLE AND SENSITIVITY -------------------------------------------------------- 15

6.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
6.3 APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING ------------------------------------------------------------------- 16

7 RADIOGRAPHY ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17

7.1 KINDS OF DEFECT DETECTABLE AND SENSITIVITY -------------------------------------------------------- 19

7.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
7.3 APPLICATIONS OF RADIOGRAPHY --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20

8 CONCLUSION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20

9 REFERENCES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22

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 1 I NT R O DU CT I O N

Non-destructive testing (NDT) strategies are utilized in manufacturing and in-service

inspections to guarantee the product's integrity, quality, and reliability. Consistent
developments in NDT instruments are driven by the growing requirement in developing
control of manufacturing processes and preserving a uniform quality level of the product.
In this review, post-process evaluation approaches including visual evaluation; liquid
penetrant screening, magnetic particle screening, eddy present screening, ultrasonic
testing, and radiography are studied. In today’s rapidly growing industrial world where the
requirement of reliability is increasing day by day and where newer and advanced modern
materials are being introduced on a large scale, Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques
have a very important role to play [2]. NDT techniques are used for the evaluation of
defects in various materials/components and the characterization of material properties.
The use of NDT techniques leads to a better understanding of material behavior and this in
turn leads to increased confidence in the material being used [1]. Higher confidence means
a lower factor of ignorance and the designer can thus afford to opt for a lower value of the
factor of safety without sacrificing the reliability. The lower value of the factor of safety
results in decreased dimensions, leading to saving in weight and the material as such. NDT
techniques are also used for routine/periodic inspection of various industrial
processes/structures and lately, new NDT techniques have been developed for continuous
monitoring of critical industrial structures/processes. NDT techniques are practically used
in every engineering industry and widely used in more demanding industries such as the
aircraft industry, space industry, nuclear establishments, power plants, and
chemical/fertilizer plants, etc.
The Objective of this work to gain experience with and understanding of the types,
advantages, and applications of various NDT methods. To be able to choose the best NDT
method for a given part.

1.1 DEFINITION OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Non-Destructive testing may be defined as those testing methods in which the material
under test is not destroyed or to say that the future use of the material under test is not
impaired. To explain it further, one may say that unlike mechanical testing (e.g., tensile
testing, flexural testing, torsional testing, etc.) in which the material under test is made to
fail (fractured into two or more pieces) to evaluate the strength whereas in non-destructive

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testing, the material under test is not destroyed at all and the material under test retains all
its original properties (i.e., after the test, the material or component under test can be used
for the purpose it was originally intended) [3]. To drive the point further home, suppose
one wants to evaluate the burst strength of a newly fabricated pressure vessel and if a
destructive testing method such as hydrostatic failure test is opted for, one would be able
to evaluate the burst strength but only after losing the pressure vessel. On the contrary, if a
non-destructive technique is chosen for inspecting the flaws in the pressure vessel to make
sure that it would withstand the calculated pressure or the designed pressure, one may be
assured of the burst strength without causing any harm to the pressure vessel, what-so-ever.
New NDT techniques can evaluate the burst strength directly too without searching for
defects as such.

1.2 NEED FOR NDT TECHNIQUES AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Materials Scientists and Materials Engineers know that no material can be categorized as
absolutely perfect (i.e., having zero defect). One can only minimize the amount of defect
or may reduce the defect size by proper selection of manufacturing processes or by
improving the production processes. As one has to live with the defects, he/she should be
able to locate and assess the severity of the defects present in any material, component,
product, system or plant without impairing their future usefulness. To meet this
requirement, various NDT techniques are used.

1.3 POST-PROCESS ASSESSMENT NDT TECHNIQUES

Standard NDT techniques can be used as post-process examination methods by existing
requirements on additively made parts. These techniques consist of visual inspection, liquid
penetrant screening, magnetic particle screening, eddy current screening, ultrasonic testing,
and radiography. A few of these strategies consisting of visual evaluation, and ultrasonic
screening can also be used as in situ examination NDT approaches.

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 2 V I S UA L E VAL UAT I O N

Visual evaluation is the most thoroughly utilized technique among all the non-destructive
tests. It can be performed quickly, is easy, applies to a lot of specimens, and is generally
low in cost. Visual assessment often acts as a pre-inspection technique to determine the
precision of the element's fabrication, before it is examined utilizing other NDT methods.
The fundamental concept governing visual NDT is based on the lighting of the specimen
with light, which is generally in the visible light area of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
specimen is then examined with eye or light delicate optical help. The equipment required
for visual inspection is extremely easy. However, ample illumination is crucial. The
quantity of light falling upon the specimen can be quantified with a light meter. The surface
of the test specimen needs to be cleaned up previously the examination is carried out. The
eye is the most important NDT tool for visual inspection due to its extraordinary visual
perception, where it can recognize and examine visual attributes of different kinds of
problems. It can also perform precise evaluations on the size, shape, color, depth,
brightness, contrast, and texture of the test specimen. Mechanical and or optical help may
be needed for visual inspection. Mechanical help consists of devices such as calipers and
micrometers. Optical aids are used when direct watching of the test specimen is not
possible. The devices varieties from easy mirrors to complex devices, such as borescopes
and microscopic lenses [4] [5].

2.1 KINDS OF DEFECT NOTICEABLE AND LEVEL OF SENSITIVITY

Cracks, holes, deterioration, blisters, and impact damage are a few of the discontinuities
that visual assessment can find. Possible sources of mechanical fragility such as sharp
notches and the existence or absence of oxide film on the specimen's surface can also be
determined. In general, flaws that are surface area breaking or causes deformation at the
surface area are noticeable. The minimum size of flaws that the human eye can distinguish
is around 0.25 inches. The allowed working period for a human inspector needs to be
restricted to two hours continuously as errors might develop due to weakened visual
discrimination and dependability. With the use of optical aids, flaws smaller than 0.25
inches can be discovered through magnification. The sensitivity then varies with the type
of equipment utilized [6].

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2.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Visual inspection can be applied to systems of any size. From big systems, such as the
aircraft skin, too little electrical circuitries, they can all be analyzed visually If further tests
are required, before choosing. Visual assessment systems consisting of laptop-based
systems and borescopes are field-portable and suitable for remote and field examination
applications. The relative expense of evaluation for visual examination is low as compared
to other approaches, ranging from absolutely nothing to a moderate rate. Visual inspection
is limited to surface defects detection. Unattainable and internal regions of the test
specimen cannot be aesthetically examined. As this examination strategy is subjective, and
the visual perception throughout people differs, training for the inspectors is necessary.
Also, vision screening of the assessment requiring evaluations of the eye is compulsory
[7].

2.3 APPLICATIONS OF VISUAL INSPECTION IN AM

Video borescopes can be used for many applications requiring remote visual testing,
including the aerospace and power generation industries, engine manufacturing, and
marine inspections. Video borescope systems can be used to confirm questionable results
of other NDT techniques, for example, an indication can be located with ultrasonic
inspection and then visualized with the video borescope. A major use of video borescopes
is to allow several operators or engineers to view a screen simultaneously. They are also
very useful for applications requiring a critical assessment of detail or measurements, such
as when checking coatings and seals, locating corrosion and pitting, and burn-through of
pipe weld roots. In boiler tubes, chemical deposits and oxygen pits can be located at an
early stage and so help prevent tube failure. Remote inspection can be performed in
locations that would be hazardous to human operators, such as inside furnaces or high-
radiation areas of nuclear power stations, where thorough use is made of visual testing
during the plant shutdowns to test many critical components under high-stress, such as
nozzle junctions with the vessel and cladding on nozzles. Another important area of visual
inspection is in the aerospace industry, where remote visual inspection is performed on
otherwise inaccessible areas of the fuselage, where in-service problems such as fatigue
cracks or corrosion can occur on aircraft integrity-critical components, such as pins joining
the fuselage to the wings [8]. Critical visual inspection of hollow helicopter blades is

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carried out using video borescopes, as well as the inner surfaces of jet engines and wings.
The chemical industry makes wide use of visual inspection to test furnaces, combustion
chambers, heat exchangers, pressure vessels, and numerous other areas within the plant. In
the automotive industry, the internal condition of engines can be assessed, such as carbon
deposits on valves, broken transmission gear teeth and gear wear being very easy to find.

3 L I Q UI D PE NE T RA NT T E S T I N G

Liquid penetrant inspection is used to check for problems present at the surface of parts
manufactured from nonporous materials, as highlighted in Figure 1. It employs the inherent
accumulation of a fluid around a discontinuity to produce visible signs of surface area
flaws. Capillary results arising from surface stress due to cohesive force in between the
particles of the liquid, and wetting properties of the material cause the liquid to permeate
the openings on the surface. The penetrating liquid also referred to as the dye, is usually
either bright red (color contrast) or fluorescent under ultraviolet (UV) light (brightness
contrast) to alleviate visual examination of problems. After the color has permeated into
the surface cavities of the part, excess penetrant is removed before a thin layer of the
developer is used as shown in Figure 1. The main purpose of the developer is to enhance
defect presence. Visual examination of the problem is then carried out. The penetrant
evaluation approach applies to ceramics plastics, molded rubber, and glass. It is likewise
ideal for metals such as titanium, copper, aluminum, and stainless steel [9].

Figure 1 Procedure for liquid penetrant test [10]

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3.1 KINDS OF DEFECT DETECTABLE AND SENSITIVITY
The penetrant examination can detect discontinuities such as tiredness fractures, shrinkage
fractures, porosity, laps, and seams. It can likewise offer an indicator of an absence of
bonding between joined metals. The level of sensitivity can be defined as the capability of
the liquid. penetrant to reveal defects in a material. In general, cracks with a width of
around 5 μm can be discovered using visible dye penetrant while cracks with width varying
from 1 to 2 μm can be spotted utilizing fluorescent. penetrant.

3.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

A part can be checked over its whole surface in a fairly short duration with no limitations
on the problem's orientation, size, and shape. Penetrant assessment is a relatively simple
NDT method in contrast to other methods. Test kits are offered which make it possible for
evaluation to be performed at remote test websites. Also, this test is extremely affordable.
Reputable results are acquired when operated by knowledgeable inspectors. Volume
processing is possible as big batches of test specimens can be immersed in the penetrating
liquid. The main downside of this test approach is its incompatibility with porous products.
Cleaning of the product's surface area before screening is necessary, as the penetrant cannot
enter a cavity that is filled with dirt and grease. This method only provides indications
corresponding to surface discontinuities. Temperature range limitations would indicate that
test specimens at low (listed below 4 ° C) or high (49 ° C) temperature levels cannot be
inspected with standard penetrants. The penetrant's viscosity boosts with decreasing
temperature. When the specimen's temperature level is less than 4 ° C, the penetration dwell
time needs to be increased due to a boost in the penetrant's viscosity. If the specimen's
temperature level is above 49 ° C, the loss of unpredictable parts changes the composition
of the penetrant, making indications less noticeable [11].

3.3 APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING

The significant issue of the issue in the application of this technique to additively
manufactured parts is the requirement for a relatively smooth examination surface. One
notable function in additively made parts is the existence of a greater amount of porosities
in comparison to conventional wrought or molded parts. This has illustrated the
incompatibility of employing. liquid penetrant testing on additively produced parts without
extra post-process machining and polishing. Many of the post-processing techniques will
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close up or get rid of the surface flaws, hindering evaluation without further processing.
More non-contact and sensitive NDT techniques are required to complement liquid
penetrant testing, such as ultrasonic testing. Suitability of liquid penetrant screening for.
additively made parts. Without additional post-processing techniques, such as. machining
and polishing, it is incompatible to use liquid penetrant testing on additively manufactured
metal parts for flaws detection. This is mostly due to the mismatch in the operation concept
of liquid penetrant screening and the intrinsic surface finish of a lot of additively produced
metal parts. Liquid penetrant testing requires a smooth surface for testing, and is unsuitable
with porous products, while the surface area finish of the additively produced metal parts
from powder bed fusion and directed energy deposition processes is rough. While it has
been discussed that fractures with a width of approximately 5 μm can be detected utilizing
visible dye penetrant, it might be a challenge for additively made parts, thinking about the
rough surface finish. Liquid penetrant testing is a surface area defect detection technique;
for this reason, embedded flaws present below the surface, such as porosities are
unidentifiable [12].

4 MAGNETIC PA RT I CL E S C RE E N I N G

Magnetic particle testing is utilized for the assessment of ferromagnetic materials, which
incorporate the majority of iron, nickel, and cobalt alloys. When a specimen is magnetized
magnetic lines of force, also known as magnetic flux, are predominately inside the
ferromagnetic material. The presence of a defect in the specimen interrupts the circulation
of magnetic flux, leading to regional magnetic flux leak fields. The defect causes an abrupt
regional modification in permeability, which is the ease with which magnetic flux can be
developed in a magnetic circuit. The examination of flaws in magnetic particle screening
is dependent on the detection of this regional magnetic flux leak field. When great magnetic
particles are sprinkled onto the surface area of the magnetized specimen, they accumulate
at the defect sites, creating a visual pattern approximating the shape and size of the
problem. When it comes to a subsurface flaw, a less dramatically defined sign is observed
since the quantity of flux leak is lesser for discontinuities not open up to the surface [13].

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4.1 TYPES OF DEFECT NOTICEABLE AND SENSITIVITY

Cracks, laps, inclusions, spaces, seams, cold shuts, and. tears are the types of problems
generally detected by magnetic. particle screening. The magnetic flux should be orientated
perpendicularly to the defect for the maximum level of sensitivity. Magnetic flux needs to
be caused in more than one direction because flaws can exist at any angle to the major axis
the part 2 magnetizing set-ups, namely, longitudinal, and circular magnetization must be
performed for flaw detection. In longitudinal magnetization, the electromagnetic field
caused is parallel to the long axis of the specimen, as shown in Figure 2(a). Defects that lie
around perpendicular to the axis of the part can be discovered. In circular magnetization,
the magnetic field induced is concentric about and within the part, as illustrated in. Figure
2(b). Flaws that lie approximately parallel to the axis of the part can be found. In general,
flaws that lie as much as ± 45 ° to the direction of the magnetic flux can be discovered
while defects at less. than ± 30 ° to the direction of the magnetic flux are undetected.
Incipient fatigue cracks and fine grinding cracks with sizes less than 0.02 mm deep and
surface openings of one-tenth of that or less can be exposed by magnetic particle testing.
Detectability in magnetic particle testing depends on the relation between the problem's
surface area opening and depth. Generally, a surface discontinuity with a depth that is at
least five times its width (opening) at the surface area is noticeable [14].

Figure 2. Effect of magnetic flux direction on defect indication in (a) longitudinal and (b)
circular magnetization [15]

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4.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
With almost no constraints on the shapes and size of the test specimen, magnetic particle
screening is the most a trusted method for identifying surface area discontinuities, in
particular, very shallow and great fractures. In general, results from magnetic particle
screening are easy to analyze and the equipment is basic to run. This technique is capable
of defect identification even for defects filled with contaminants or if the specimen is
covered with nonmagnetic painting and plating. Magnetic particle testing is a fairly
inexpensive technique and the test procedures can be fully automated. The major
disadvantage of magnetic particle screening is its exclusiveness to ferromagnetic materials.
It cannot be used to test parts of nonferrous products such as aluminum and titanium. Also,
just surface and subsurface flaws can be identified, providing no sign on the quality of the
bulk of internal characteristics of the part. Throughout screening, local heating, and burning
may exist at electrode contact points, damaging the specimen. Demagnetization of the part,
which is required at the end of the test if it is to be returned to service, is oftentimes
consuming. This is to avoid the accumulation of filings and grindings in the part during
operation [16].

4.3 APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE SCREENING

There is minimal research on the direct use of magnetic. particle testing on additively
produced parts. It has been commonly adopted in the aerospace industry. throughout all
processes and functions; from style conceptualization. to near-end-of-life repairs. High-
performance titanium alloys, in particular, are favored for the manufacturing of
sophisticated aerospace. structures such as engine parts. As a non-ferromagnetic material,
this restricts the application of magnetic particle testing.

5 E DD Y P RE S E N T T E S T I NG

Eddy's present testing is based upon Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction and
defined as oscillating electrical currents induced in a conductive product due to
electromagnetic induction, by a rotating magnetic field. A rotating current, usually with
frequency ranging from 1 to 2 kHz, streams through a primary (excitation) coil to produce
a rotating (main) magnetic field as shown in Figure 3(a). When the main coil is in close
distance to the electrical performing surface of a metallic product, an eddy existing is
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induced in the material due to electromagnetic induction as illustrated in Figure 3(b). The
presence of defects in the material triggers perturbation to the flow of eddy present, which
in turn, produces a secondary magnetic field that opposes the primary field. This reduction
in the net electromagnetic field-- secondary and main, is tracked by the pickup (receiver)
coil. The electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, and geometry of the material are
the primary drivers impacting the magnitude of the eddy currents and the secondary field.
For a perfect conductor, there will be a total cancellation between the secondary and main
field. Reaction signals are represented in a series of formats, all of which suggest
impedance modifications in the receiver coil [17]. In many application-specific systems,
modifications in the amplitude of the electromotive force are computed while the outcomes
show the parameters of interest, such as the density of the coating.

Figure 3. Probe response (a) in the absence of conductive material (b) in the presence of
conductive material [17]

5.1 KINDS OF DEFECT DETECTABLE AND SENSITIVITY

Conductive specimens with defects such as cracks and inclusions, which cause a
modification in the output impedance, are detectable by eddy current screening. Surface
area and subsurface rust can be differentiated. Variation in the thickness of the coating can
be examined based on the differences in conductivity between the conductive specimen
and the finishing. This method does not require the elimination of surface area coverings
such as paint and anodized movies for examination. The sensitivity of discontinuity
detection is dependent on the material, the kind of problem, and its orientation, the depth
of the problem, and the surface quality of the product. Eddy current testing can be utilized
to check conductive parts of thickness up to 6 mm with an adequate level of sensitivity.

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5.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
A major benefit of eddy current screening over liquid penetrant, ultrasonic, and magnetic
particle methods lies in it being a non-contacting technique, which makes it possible for
automated high-speed evaluation. Also, the surface preparation of the test specimen is not
required when employing this strategy. Eddy present testing is among the few assessment
strategies that are suitable for high-temperature applications. In the airplane market, this
method can be utilized to measure the conductivity of heat dealt with aluminum elements
in quantifying the hardness and tensile strength of the part Measurements that can be taken
throughout heat treatment instead of after, offering more info about the process. The main
constraint of eddy current testing is that just electrically conductive materials can be tested.
The probe utilized in eddy present testing does not entirely respond to the desired product
attributes. Such as discontinuities and conductivity, however, spots undesirable signals
associated with conductivity and magnetic permeability, causing increased complexity in
outcomes analysis. Advanced algorithms and expert operator training are required to
segregate the preferred and unwanted signals. This strategy can only detect discontinuities
that are positioned perpendicular to the inspected surface area [18].

5.3 APPLICATIONS OF EDDY PRESENT TESTING

As the fundamental use of eddy current screening is on electrically conductive products,

parts produced from biomaterials, polymeric, and ceramic products are not suitable for this
NDT technique Multi-layer metal structures are commonly examined by eddy present tests
for the detection of fractures and corrosion. Eddy's existing testing can take a look at
different levels of the product's depth based upon the frequency of the induction coil. The
success rate of discovering important flaws is mainly based on the surface area finish and
grain structure of the test part subjected to eddy present testing. Without post-processing,
the surface was not suitable for the test and needed to be smoothed to accomplish a good
baseline signal. Eddy present testing can potentially be used to evaluate layer residential or
commercial properties of metal printed parts such as. bonding problems within the layer
through the use of eddy current sensors [19].

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 6 U LT R AS O NI C TESTING

Ultrasonic examination is among the most recognized NDT strategies as it applies to the
majority of materials. The basic understanding of ultrasonic testing is based on the
transformation of a voltage pulse into an ultrasonic pulse by a transducer. The transducer
is positioned on the specimen and transferred pulses (ultrasonic waves) travel through the
item. Ultrasonic waves with frequencies. ranging from 1 to 10 MHz are normally used. As
the ultrasonic waves are reflected by inhomogeneities, evaluation of the transmitted, and
reflected energies can be used to relate to the product's stability standard approaches of
ultrasonic inspection consist of the typical occurrence pulse-echo, angle beam pulse-echo,
and through-transmission method. In all cases, the signals caught are changed back into
electrical pulses and are shown on a cathode ray tube (CRT) [20]. Figure 4 shows the block
diagram of a basic type occurrence pulse-echo set-up and the pulse-echo display screen
associated with flaw detection, respectively. A couplant, usually grease or oil, is applied to
the specimen to couple the transmission of ultrasonic energy in between the face of the
transducer and surface of the specimen. When the transmitted ultrasonic energy encounters
a discontinuity in the specimen, a portion of the energy will be shown back and the staying
portion propagates through the product. The shown ultrasonic energy caught by the probe
is the source of problem detection shown on the CRT, as shown in Figure 4. Regions of
the specimen that are. devoid of flaws will permit the complete transmission and reflection
of ultrasonic energy, suggesting a large back wall echo sign on the CRT. The amplitude of
the echoes reductions due to the continual attenuation of sound energy in the material. The
pulse-echo test arrangement can likewise be used to discover defects in the specimen that
lie at certain oblique angles to the probe. Angle beam transducers allow the inspection of
defects in the material that are undetectable by regular beam probes. The only distinction
between the angle beam and a regular occurrence beam transducer is the style in which
ultrasonic waves are transmitted through the test material [21]. A crystal positioned at an
angle is mounted in the angle beam probe, which will trigger the ultrasonic waves to
propagate through the material at an intense angle to the surface area as exhibited in Figure
5. In through-transmission ultrasonic testing, 2 transducers are utilized. The transmitter
transducer creates the pulse, while the receiver transducer is positioned on the opposite
surface to receive it. Any disturbance to the sound path symbolizes the existence of flaws
and is shown on the CRT. Through-transmission technique. is typically used when the
location of discontinuities is unsuitable for detection using a single probe. The arise from
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ultrasonic testing is typically represented by either A-, B-, or C-scans. In an A-scan, the
depth of penetration is shown on the x-axis while the. the y-axis represents the amplitude
of echoes. As the info obtained from an A-scan is one-dimensional, flaw characterization
requires extra computations. Digital imaging systems with automated probe motion control
and computerized information analysis capabilities can be achieved with B- and C-scans.
Both types of representation will substantially enhance the quality of discontinuity
characterization and the ease of communication. In B-scan, the specimen is scanned along
one axis. The cross-sectional view of the specimen is displayed, revealing the length and
depth of the flaw in the specimen. In some examinations, the depth of the defects is
peripheral, however, their circulation parallel to the test surface is of importance. For this
reason, the discussion is turned by 90 ° such that x- and y-axes display the results in the
aircraft of the scan, also known as a C-scan.

Figure 4. Normal incident pulse-echo inspection system

[22]

Figure 5. Schematic of angle beam pulse-echo test [22]

6.1 KINDS OF DEFECT DETECTABLE AND SENSITIVITY

Additions, slag, and porosities are a few of the flaws detectable in ultrasonic testing.
Corrosion can be spotted through-thickness measurement. While there are a couple of
specifications that affect the defect level of sensitivity, the minimum noticeable problem
size is highly based on the frequency of the probe. The wavelength, which differs inversely
with frequency, is a direct function to the detectability of a flaw. The optimum detection
situation is when the flaw is larger than the wavelength. With a boost in the wavelength,
the possibility of detection reductions substantially. With making use of a specific

Page 15/23
frequency probe, it has been established that the defect size of the order of half the
wavelength can be inspected [4].

6.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Ultrasonic testing is a versatile and very robust strategy that has been thoroughly applied
in industries for NDT. Out of all the NDT methods, only ultrasonic and X-ray techniques
are efficient in spotting a significant number of subsurface flaws in products. Contrary to
X-ray methods, ultrasonic testing does not constitute to environmental or health risks. Both
contact and non-contact ultrasonic screening methods are offered. Ultrasonic test probes
can be customized for the screening of complex parts. Ultrasonic examination is ideal for
screening of all kinds of materials varying from biological to polymer to ceramic. Checking
can be performed on specimens with only one available of the angle beam pulse-echo test
surface, unlike in radiographic methods, where two opposite sides of the specimen should
be accessible. Ultrasonic screening, like other NDT approaches, has some drawbacks.
Acquiring quantitative info of the specimen and the precise analysis of outcomes requires
an experienced operator. Normally, planar cracks with a length that lies parallel to the
direction of ultrasonic wave travel are not detectable. Also, ultrasonic screening devices
can be expensive [11].

6.3 APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING

The ultrasonic measurement of metal thickness can be used as a condition monitoring tool
to check for corrosion or erosion, with the advantage that internal corrosion, ie wall
thinning, of pipes and vessels can be determined without internal access is necessary.
Boiler tubes in fossil-fuel power stations suffer from degradation by these mechanisms due
to the high-temperatures, impurities in the fuel, gases, particulates, etc. Repeat surveys are
carried out over time to allow wall-thinning rates to be estimated and to therefore decide
when tubes need replacing before they fail. Another application for ultrasonic condition
monitoring is in-service inspection for cracks and crack propagation, such as stress rupture
cracks, thermal or mechanical fatigue cracks, stress corrosion, and creep cracks. High-
energy steam pipework and components such as steam valves are critical items in power
stations and are subject to regular in-service inspection using ultrasonic techniques [4]. The
failure of such components presents a significant safety risk, notwithstanding the
commercial effect due to the loss of generation. It is, however, common to find that plant

Page 16/23
is allowed to operate with cracks following an assessment, taking material properties,
stresses, and exact flaw mechanisms into account. With the older plants in some industries,
such as offshore rigs, nuclear sites, and power stations, when components come to the end
of their design life it is often more effective to carry out extensive NDT including ultrasonic
inspection to extend plant life at significantly reduced cost. Ultrasonic techniques are also
used to assess microstructural differences in metals. For this, attenuation, velocity, and
backscatter measurement can be employed. For example, as ultrasound makes multiple
journeys through a piece of metal, some energy is lost each time, so the display of multiple
back wall echoes will show a decay pattern. A reference standard can be used and the decay
pattern of production parts compared to the decay pattern of the standard. This means if
the decay pattern of production parts is lower on the screen than the decay pattern of the
standard, the microstructure of the production parts is coarser, ie of a larger grain size than
the standard. Ultrasonic scanning for medical diagnostics can be performed on a wide
range of human organs. Applications include the abdomen (liver, gall bladder, pancreas,
spleen, kidneys, aorta, and lymph nodes), obstetrics, and gynecology (evaluating the uterus
and ovaries, with or without pregnancy), heart (adult and pediatric), eyes, vascular and
neonatal. Organs such as the stomach and colon cannot be imaged because of their air
content. As well as the diagnostic uses of ultrasound, therapeutic ultrasound has been used
for many years for the treatment of muscle disorders, such as trauma or atrophy, and can
also be used to destroy abnormal mineral and salt build-up in ducts, hollow organs and
cysts by using a shockwave effect [11].

7 R A DI O GR AP H Y

The inspiration in the employment of radiography is to show the existence and nature of
defects in the interior of the material. Radiology is the only strategy that applies to all
materials. This technique relies on the aptness of high-energy, short-wavelength sources of
electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays and gamma rays to permeate the material. The
shorter the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation, the higher will be the permeating
power. Part of the radiation permeating through the material will be soaked up into the
product itself, which is dependent on its density and density. In the presence of defects, the
radiation beam will go through lesser material as compared to a defect-free solid product.
Therefore, a variation in the absorption of radiation by the material in the problematic
location exists [4]. The variation, when recorded on a film sensitive to X-ray or gamma
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radiation, will. establish a two-dimensional (2D) image showing the presence of the
defects. The image is an X-ray shadow of the product's interior, likewise referred to as a
radiograph. Variations in the darkness might be comprehended to reveal information
regarding the internal structure of the material. The set-up of a radiography test is displayed
in Figure 6, which consists of the radiation source, the specimen, and a recording medium
(movie). The specimen is positioned between the radiation source and a film. The forecast
of X-rays onto the specimen produces white areas on the film in areas where the X-ray has
high absorption (without flaws) and gray areas in regions where the X-ray has low
absorption (with defects). The detection of problems can then be attained through.
inspection of the film density (darkness). CT is a method to recover the 3D representation
of a component. A stack of forecast radiographs is caught of the component at various
angles. The reconstruction of the part from these radiographs is accomplished through
computer algorithms. Hundreds to thousands of digital job radiographs are typically
essential to get a reconstructed element with high fidelity [11].

Figure 6. Working principle of the radiographic test [23]

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7.1 KINDS OF DEFECT DETECTABLE AND SENSITIVITY
Defects including voids and inclusions are detectable by radiography. Additions and spaces
may be shown in numerous formats ranging from 2D planes to 3D spheres on the
radiograph. A cold shut, fracture, or tear will be viewed as a 2D airplane, while a cavity
will resemble a 3D sphere. Other types of problems, such as porosity and shrink will lie
somewhere in between these 2 endmost kinds of representations. The quantity of exposure
permeating through the product is an essential aspect of consideration in radiographic
sensitivity. The selected direct exposure value should produce X-rays that are merely
sufficient to permeate the material, that is, to permeate the product with very little exposure.
A lot of standards, such as the American. Society for Screening and Materials (ASTM)
standards, have recommended settings for X-ray voltage and radioisotope sources
depending on the thickness of the product. The sensitivity of radiography refers to its
capability in displaying the smallest discontinuity possible on a radiograph. On a numerical
scale, a smaller sized sensitivity worth denotes a better detection capability. This worth can
be in regards to an outright worth or revealed as a portion concerning the thickness of the
specimen [24].

7.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Radiography has a significant relative benefit over other NDT techniques. Details on the
product's essential components such as density and thickness measurement can be obtained
through radiography. A highly experienced operator is needed for the analysis and
interpretation of the radiograph. Recognition of defects, however, can typically be achieved
with ease for novices even without the skills of a trained professional. Safety issues are of
significant concern as the necessity for a high voltage needed for the generation of X-rays
can be hazardous. Also, heavy protecting materials should be utilized. Radiography has its
restraint in the detection of fractures. A fracture that is embedded in the material will not
be discovered by this technique. For a crack to impact the transmission of radiation, a
regional lack of product arising from an opening needs to exist. Additionally, the crack
must likewise be parallel to the direction of radiation travel or be sufficiently big for it to
be registered on the radiograph. This optimal orientation contrasts ultrasonic screening
were reflections from a fracture placed perpendicular to the wave course will increase the
signal. In radiography screening, the size of the discontinuity must be at least 2% of the

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thickness of the product for it to be identified. X-ray devices, as compared to other NDT
strategies, are very expensive. The evaluation of thick components is time-consuming [11].

7.3 APPLICATIONS OF RADIOGRAPHY

Industrial radiography is used in the inspection of new products and welds to ensure they
meet the requirements of the relevant standards of construction. New pipelines (including
bends and joints), storage containers, and even insulated materials are routinely inspected
using radiography. Another common use of industrial radiography is the detection and
measurement of internal flaws in the existing plant. The early detection of internal flaws in
pipelines and plants in the oil and gas sector, for example, is essential for maintaining
production flow and for the prevention of potentially disastrous hydrocarbon spills.
Detection of Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI), is another common application for
radiography. Operators can pinpoint any defects without the costly and time-consuming
process of removing and replacing the insulation. Aside from industrial applications, NDT
radiography is also used in security. There are now devices available for inspecting
suspicious packages and objects, which eliminates the need for dangerous intrusive or
manual inspection methods [25].

8 C O NC L U S I ON

The NDT methods, specifically, visual assessment, liquid penetrant screening, magnetic
particle testing, eddy current screening, ultrasonic testing, and radiography were reviewed
for their operating principles, types of defect detectable, and their level of sensitivity, and
their particular benefits and downsides. Visual assessment is primarily used during the
initial part of the general quality management system in applications. It is suitable for the
detection of surface area discontinues of additively made parts, and as a post-process
inspection method for surveying the quality of parts. The use of liquid penetrant screening
on an application made parts without additional post-processing machining and polishing
has proven to be inefficient for defects recognition. Post-processing methods can help in
enhancing the surface area finish of metal parts. Magnetic particle testing is commonly
used in the NDT of traditional cast parts. The application of this technique on additively
manufactured parts has been restricted. Magnetic particle testing is only suitable for the
NDT of ferromagnetic products. This technique is not suitable as a fast detection technique
as demagnetization of the product is needed after inspection for security concerns. There
are minimal references in the application of eddy existing screening to the applications as

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it is restricted to only electrically carrying out materials. Successful detection of crucial
defects is extremely reliant on the surface finish and grain structure of the test part
subjected to eddy current screening. Other screening strategies can be used in conjunction
with eddy present testing to get more precise results for defect detection in additively
produced metal parts. Laser ultrasonic testing is a capacity candidate for in situ process
tracking of metallic application processes with enhanced part quality X-ray CT is a suitable
NDT technique to discover internal flaws in complex parts, validate the efficiency of post-
processing treatments and characterize application manufactured components. It is the only
NDT method that renders a complete model with both internal and external the surface area
of a specimen possible.

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