Experiment 4a – Pressure Drop in Packed Columns

Submitted By:

181142002 – Aybüke AKBULUT

181142012 – Zülal BALIKÇI

181142029 – Kevser Duygu GÜLCÜ

181142058 – Zeynep USLUOĞLU

191142401 – Mohamad Samer KANSOU

Submitted To: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Derya ÖNCEL ÖZGÜR

Laboratory report submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the course of CHE 481 –
Chemical Engineering Laboratory II

Gazi University

Faculty of Engineering

Department of Chemical Engineering

Submission Date:

20th Dec 2022

 ABSTRACT

In this experiment it is aimed to determine the pressure drop in single-phase and double-phase
situations in the packed column, calculate the void fraction of the column, and see the
application of Ergun Equation to calculate pressure drop in packed equipments. Water was
used as the liquid phase and air as the gas phase. Raschig rings were used as packing
materials. Pressure drops using only gas at different flow rates was observed alongside
multiphase pressure drop also at different flow rates. The effect of flow rates on the pressure
drop were examined and accordingly the flooding and loading velocities were determined.
The void fraction was calculated using the dry gas data and Ergun’s Equation. It was found
that increasing the flow rates of any phase will increase the pressure drop in the column. The
experimental value of the void fraction was found to be 0.659 with the help of the slope of the
drawn graph. The actual value was found to be 0.698 using volumetric ratios and the error
was calculated as 5.587%. The pressure drop in the column was also calculated using Ergun’s
Equation and the findings were discussed.
LIST OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................i
1. THEORY............................................................................................................................1
1.1. Packed Columns...........................................................................................................1
1.2. Ergun Equation.............................................................................................................2
1.2.1. Specific surface area.............................................................................................3

1.2.2. Void fraction.........................................................................................................3

1.2.3. Shape factor..........................................................................................................4

1.3. Fundamentals of Gas-Liquid Absorption Columns.....................................................4

1.3.1. How does a gas-liquid absorption column work?.................................................5

1.3.2. Control of absorption columns..............................................................................5

1.3.3. Counter-current gas flow......................................................................................6

1.3.4. Limitations of Gas Absorption..............................................................................7

1.3.5. Industrial Applications of Gas Absorption...........................................................7

2. PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................7
2.1 Determination of the Pressure Drop.............................................................................7
2.2 Determination of the Volume of the Packed Materials................................................8
3. EXPERIMENTAL DATA AND RESULTS...................................................................8
4. CALCULATION...............................................................................................................9
5. DISCUSSION & RESULTS...........................................................................................12
6. RECOMMENDATION...................................................................................................14
7. REFERENCES................................................................................................................15
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Dry packed column pressure drop data’s......................................................................8

Table 2: Pressure drop data of 2 L/min liquid flow rate.............................................................8
Table 3: Pressure drop data of 4 L/min liquid flow rate.............................................................9
Table 4: Pressure drop data of 6 L/min liquid flow rate.............................................................9
Table 5: Void Fraction Calculation Data..................................................................................10
Table 6: Pressure Drop Calculation Using Ergun's Equation...................................................11
Table 7: Dry Packed Column Pressure Drop Data...................................................................12
Table 8: Pressure Drop Data of 2 L/min Liquid Flow Rate......................................................12
Table 9: Pressure Drop Data of 4 L/min Liquid Flow Rate......................................................13
Table 10: Pressure Drop Data of 6 L/min Liquid Flow Rate....................................................13
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Pressure Drop in Packed Towers [4]...........................................................................1

Figure 2: Gas-Liquid Absorption Column [15]..........................................................................5
Figure 3: Counter-current gas flow [17].....................................................................................6
Figure 4: Void Fraction Calculation Data's Graph...................................................................10
Figure 5: Pressure Drop in Packed Tower................................................................................13
Figure 6: Loading and Flooding Velocity Lines.......................................................................14
 1. THEORY
A typical packed bed is a cylindrical column filled with a suitable packing material that is
utilized in a variety of engineering applications. The connection between the pressure drop
and the fluid velocity describes basic transport processes in a packed bed. An absorber is an
example of a packed bed [1]. The process of absorbing a solute in the form of a gas mixture
with an inert component is known as gas absorption [2].

1.1. Packed Columns

When working with corrosive or foamy liquids where low pressure is required, packed
columns are an excellent alternative. In an ideal procedure, the incoming liquid, which is a
solution containing the solute in the solvent, distributes over the fillings and wets the surface
of the fillings with the aid of a dispenser. The gas then enters the distribution cavity
underneath the fillings and travels upward through the slit in the opposite direction as the
fluid. Fillers fill the void between liquid and gas, allowing for greater interaction between the
two phases. The solute in the gas is absorbed by the fresh liquid entering the tower, and the
diluted gas is separated from the top [3].
There is an upper limit to the gas flow rate in a tower irrigated at a certain flow rate. The gas
velocity at this limit level is referred to as the overflow velocity. This velocity may be
calculated by evaluating the connection between the pressure drop over the packed bed and
the gas flow rate, as well as monitoring the retardation of liquids by inspecting the packing.
Figure 1 demonstrates the pressure decrease in packed towers, and more information is
provided below.

Figure 1: Pressure Drop in Packed Towers [4]

As Figure 1 illustrates, we get a linear relationship between pressure drop in a column and gas
flow rate, or in other words, we get a linear operation when the fillings/packing are dry.
Moreover, the overflow point occurs at point e which happens when the liquid layer starts to
run through the gas bubbles that extend over the filling; due to the resistance applied by the
gas, the liquid can no longer flow down, and an accumulating layer develops until the liquid
overflows. As the gas velocity increases further, the liquid delay increases, and the pressure
drop varies gradually along the CDE line at a quicker pace than the preceding gas velocity [5].

Small plates, Raschig rings (small hollow cylinders), Berl saddles, and other small shapes can
be used for column packing. The key point is to increase surface area per volume; thus, the
more surface area per volume, the more effective the packing. Furthermore, the packing must
inert and help in the absorption process; that can be by providing enough contact time. If the
solvent beads up on the surface of the packing with a low contact angle, it will not absorb as
much gas as if the solvent can coat the surface.
Another factor to consider is the life of the packing material. Because these pieces are
frequently small and thin, high pressure or high flow rates can cause them to collide and
break. Furthermore, depending on the material of construction, packing is susceptible to
corrosion damage [6]. For example, for a SO2 packed absorption column using H2O as
absorber, ceramic packings are usually used due to the fact that SO2 is a corrosive gas and it
forms a strong acid once it contacts with water; therefore, plastics and metals are not preferred
as they do not have corrosive resistance to acids; instead, corrosive resistant ceramics are
used. Selection of corrosion resistant materials is also necessary for storage and handling.

1.2. Ergun Equation

Ergun derived a helpful pressure drop equation that is applicable to all forms of flow and is
caused by simultaneous kinetic and viscous energy losses. Ergun's equation connects pressure
drop per unit bed depth to dryer or reactor system variables such as velocity, fluid gravity,
viscosity, particle size, shape, granular solids surface, and void percentage [7]. The pressure
drop in a full column with single-phase flow may be estimated using the basic Ergun
equation. The original Ergun equation is as follows:
………………………………………(Equation 1)

Where:
L= The height of the bed
 = Viscosity of fluid
ε= The void space of the bed
uo = Fluid superficial velocity
dp = The particle diameter
 = Density of fluid

1.2.1. Specific surface area

Most equations or formulae describing fluid flow through packed bed employ the specific
surface area of a particle, which is defined as follows:

……………………………………………………………………….…...……(Equation 2)

Where S is a particle's specific surface area in m-1, Sp is a particle's surface area in m2, and Vp
is a particle's volume in m3. As a result, for spherical particles:

……………………………………………………………….……(Equation 3)

Where dp is the particle diameter in m [8].

1.2.2. Void fraction

The void fraction is the volume that exists between the packing particles in a column. It is
defined as the ratio of the bed's empty volume to its entire volume [9].
Volume of voids∈a bed ……………………………………………….…….(Equation 4)
ε=
total volume of the bed
The void fraction is also known as porosity, fractional voidage, or simply voidage. This void
is frequently filled by the liquid in a packed bed. Geometric study suggests that the vacancy
fraction for spherical packing will be constant using consistent packing procedures,
independent of sphere diameter [10].
The porosity of packed beds has a significant impact on their characteristics. There is little
doubt that any slight change in bed porosity results in a significant change in pressure drop
throughout the bed. Leva [11] discovered in 1951 that a 1% decrease in bed porosity resulted
in an 8% increase in pressure drop, but Carman [12] discovered a 10% increase in pressure
drop for every 1% decrease in porosity in 1956.

1.2.3. Shape factor

Many particles of irregular shapes are often employed for fluid movement through packed
beds. To solve this challenge, particles are treated as spheres by introducing a component
termed sphericity, which allows the equivalent diameter to be calculated [13].
The sphericity of a particle is defined as the ratio of the surface area of this sphere with the
same volume as the particle to the particle's actual surface area, as shown below:

……………………………..…………………………(Equation 5)

When working with tiny irregular forms, determining the shape factor is challenging. The
particle shape has two effects on packed bed resistance [14]:
i) The fluid routes in irregular particle beds are more convoluted than those in spherical beds.
ii) It has voids that differ in size and form from comparable beds made out of spheres.

1.3. Fundamentals of Gas-Liquid Absorption Columns

In the process of removing a species from a vapor stream using the separation technique
known as gas-liquid absorption, the solvent is enriched with the unwanted species.
Gas-liquid absorption columns are mostly used to remove chemicals from gas streams before
releasing them into the environment. Industrial waste streams contain gases including sulfur
dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and others that contribute to acid rain and air pollution.
A gas-liquid absorption column's function is to reduce hazardous emissions while
transforming a waste product into something that might be used in industry [6]. A gas-liquid
absorption column is shown in Figure 2.
 Figure 2: Gas-Liquid Absorption Column [15]

1.3.1. How does a gas-liquid absorption column work?

Gases can be dissolved into a solvent, such as water. This is how fish breathe, and this is how
oxygen is transported to cells in the human body. Gas-liquid absorption columns take
advantage of this effect by encouraging an undesirable gas to dissolve into a liquid, as a liquid
can be handled more easily, or because the liquid can be sold instead of released into the
atmosphere.
In order to maximize the absorption, the interface between the liquid and gas must be
maximized. Often, the gas stream is injected into the bottom of a vertical column and the
solvent flows down through the column. This provides cross-flow and some turbulence to
increase the absorption. Furthermore, the column is packed with small pieces that are wetted
by the solvent, where a thin film spreads across the surface of each piece, increasing the
surface area. The increased surface area increases absorption [6].

1.3.2. Control of absorption columns

In general, the standard gas-liquid absorption column has two important inputs: the gas stream
and the liquid solvent. The gas stream may not be a variable that is controllable, as it may
result from another process, but the liquid solvent flow rate can often be controlled. Besides
the two inputs, the absorption column physical properties have a large influence on the
effectiveness of the absorption.
The temperature of the streams impacts the absorption as well. The warmer the streams, both
solvent and gas, the less absorption is possible. This is because the atoms are moving more
quickly, meaning they are more likely to jump out of solution and back into the vapor phase.
Pressure drop across the column should also be monitored carefully. The pressure drop across
the column shows how well material is flowing through the system. As packing material
settles, the pressure drop will increase. This can reduce the flow rate, which can reduce the
effectiveness of the absorption. Furthermore, the reduced flow rate can potentially back up the
system, where solvent is accumulating, wearing out pumps or causing leaks [6].

1.3.3. Counter-current gas flow

 The gas is introduced from the bottom while the liquid is introduced from the top.
Figure 3 shows the flow direction and concentrations of gas and liquid.
 As we gradually move up the column, the gas component (A) is continuously
transferred from the gas phase to the liquid phase.
 Moving up the column, there’s a decrease in total gas flowrate and a decrease in
concentration of A in the gas phase.
 Moving down the column, there’s an increase in total liquid flowrate and an increase
in concentration of A in the liquid phase [16]. (Since the amount of CO2 in the air
used is low, there is no mass transfer, only the pressure drop is examined in this
experiment.)
 Figure 3: Counter-current gas flow [17]

1.3.4. Limitations of Gas Absorption

 Gas solubility
 Temperature of both the gas and the solvent
 Flooding of the column
 Corrosiveness of the solvent to be used [16].

1.3.5. Industrial Applications of Gas Absorption

 CO2 capture
 Refineries to separate gas components
 For scrubbing in chemical industries
 Control of emissions of pollutants to the atmosphere, retaining polluting substances
such as sulfur, chlorinated and fluorinated compounds; said control is based on the
elimination of sulfur dioxide from combustion gases with aqueous solutions of sodium
hydroxyl and the elimination of nitrogenous oxide with solutions of oxidizing agents.
 Recovery of gaseous stream products for production purposes [16].

2. PROCEDURE
The experiment consists of two parts, the determination of the pressure drop and the
determination of the volume of the packed materials.
 2.1 Determination of the Pressure Drop
Pressure drop measurement will be taken for two cases where the system includes a single
phase and two phases. While only air is fed in the packed column for a single-phase flow, air
and water are fed for two phases flow.
 The conditions (pressure and temperature) performed by the experiment are determined.
 The pressure drop in the packed column is measured with the help of manometers. There
are mercury and water manometers in the system and the active state of these manometers
is controlled by three-way valves. Since there is not much pressure drop in the system
working with air and water, a water manometer is more suitable for this system. It should
be checked whether the valves are connected to the water manometer.
 The main on/off button of the mechanism created for the packed column is turned on.
 Pressure drop data are recorded at six different gas flow rates (20-40-60-80-90-100) in
order to determine the pressure drop that occurs when only gas (air) flow is supplied to the
system. The pressure drop is determined by two water manometers attached to the top and
bottom of the column. The difference between the values read from these manometers is
determined by the pressure drop. Before the data is recorded, the liquid in the manometer
is expected to stabilize (The flooding exception.).
 The flow rate of the gas is adjusted by the flowmeter positioned on the assembly an
adjusted gas flow rate is noted.
 The pressure drop is determined at three different fluid flow rates (2-4-6) under conditions
where two flows are provided. Pressure drops are noted by varying the gas flow rate for
each liquid flow rate. Data is obtained for five different gas streams (20-40-60-80-100) at
each liquid flow rate.

2.2 Determination of the Volume of the Packed Materials

 The weight of the beaker filled with the dry-packed materials is measured with a precision
scale and the data is noted.
 The beaker filled with the packed material is filled with enough water to pass the packed
material. The total volume of water and packed materials is determined by the degrees on
the beaker and the total volume data is noted. Its weight is measured and noted.

3. EXPERIMENTAL DATA AND RESULTS

The experimental data are summarized in Tables 1,2,3 and 4.
Table 1: Dry packed column pressure drop data’s

Gas rate (L/min) ΔP (mm-water)

20 0,2
40 0,8
60 1,4
80 1,6
90 3
100 3,4

Table 2: Pressure drop data of 2 L/min liquid flow rate

Gas rate (L/min) ΔP (mm-water)

20 0,8
40 2,4
60 4,4
80 9,4
100 11,9

Table 3: Pressure drop data of 4 L/min liquid flow rate

Gas rate (L/min) ΔP (mm-water)

20 0,4
40 3,8
60 12,6
80 41,6
100 46

Table 4: Pressure drop data of 6 L/min liquid flow rate

Gas rate (L/min) ΔP (mm-water)

20 0,4
40 15
60 48,6
80 49,8
100 61

4. CALCULATION
 Actual Void Fraction
Mass rasching + cup = 261.22 grams (M1)
Mass rasching + cup + water = 470.10 grams (M2)
M2 – M1 = 470.10 grams – 261.22 grams = 208.88 grams
The temperature was measured to be 21 ℃.
ρwater @ 21℃ = 0.998 g/mL
grams∗1 mL
V water =208.88 =209.30 mL
0.998 grams
The total volume can be seen in Figure 4 which is 300 mL.
V water 209.30 mL
ε= = =0.69766 ≈ 0.698
V total 300 mL
The dimensions of the column are needed.
L = 132 cm
D = 9.10 cm
The properties of dry air at 21 ℃ are also needed. The pressure in the laboratory was
approximately 1 atm.
kg
ρ=1.203
m3
−5
μ=1.83∗10 Pa∗s
The diameter of glass rasching rings is 7∗10−3 m.
We shall find the void fraction using Ergun Equation. This only can be done using the
experimental data for dry air as Ergun Equation can only be used for single phase calculation.
To find ε using Ergun Equation, some modifications for the main equation must be made.
150∗(1−ε )2 1.75∗(1−ε ) 2
3
∗μ U 0 3
∗ρ U 0
∆P ε ε
= + … … … … … … … … … … … ( Equation6)
L dp
2
dp

We need to have a linear form (y = mx+b); therefore, let’s divide by U 0 .

150∗(1−ε )2 1.75∗(1−ε)
3
∗μ ∗ρ U 0
∆P ε ε3
= + … … … … … … … … … … …( Equation7)
L. U 0 d p2 dp
∆P
By plotting vs. U 0 , we can find ε from the slope or the intercept.
LU 0
Table 5: Void Fraction Calculation Data

Void Fraction Calculation Data

ΔP (mm-water) Gas rate (L/min) ΔP (Pa) U (m/s) ΔP/LU
0.200 20.000 1.961 0.051 28.991
0.800 40.000 7.845 0.103 57.983
1.400 60.000 13.729 0.154 67.647
3.000 90.000 29.420 0.231 96.638

Figure 4: Void Fraction Calculation Data's Graph

L L
We dropped 80 and 100 data.
min min
Y =59.49 x +14.451
1.75∗( 1−ε )
3
∗1.203
ε
359.49= −3
→ ε =0.659(Experimental data)
7∗10
Error=¿ Actual value−Experimental data∨ ¿ ∗100 % ¿
Actual value
0.698−0.659
Error= ∗100 %=5.587 %
0.698
Now, let’s find the flooding and loading velocities.
∆P
We have to find and gas mass flux values (G). As we hâce the gas volumetric flow rate,
L
we need to connvert the volumetric flow rate to mass flux. This can be done as follows taking
gas volumetric flow rate as U 0 as an example.
 L
∗1.203 kg
min
3
∗1 min
m
∗1 m3
60 sec
∗1
1000 L kg
G=30 =0.1233
( 9.10∗10 ) ∗π
−2 2 2
m s
2
∆P
We found the and G values for all the experimental sets we have done. We took the
L
logarithm for each of the values.

log ( ∆LP ) vs. log G graph is plotted, and the loading and flooding velocities were found. Some
data values were eliminated, and explanations of these eliminations can be found in the
discussion section.

Using the void fraction we found, let’s calculate the pressure drop using Ergun’s Equation
with using Equation 8.

( )
2
150∗(1−ε ) 1.75∗(1−ε) 2
3
∗μ U 0 3
∗ ρU 0
ε ε
∆ P= + ∗ L … … … … … … … … .(Equation 8)
dp
2
dp

The results were found as shown in the Table 6.

Table 6: Pressure Drop Calculation Using Ergun's Equation

Pressure Drop Calculation Using Ergun's Equation

μ (Pa·s) ρ (kg/m^3) L (m) dp (m) U (m/s) ε ΔP (Pa)
1.83E-05 1.203 1.32 0.007 0.051 0.698 1.94247
1.83E-05 1.203 1.32 0.007 0.103 0.698 5.73703
1.83E-05 1.203 1.32 0.007 0.154 0.698 11.3837
1.83E-05 1.203 1.32 0.007 0.231 0.698 23.3263
5. DISCUSSION & RESULTS

As the main goal of this experiment is to find the void fraction in the packed column, the
pressure drops of at different respective liquid and gas flow rates, and the loading and
flooding velocities, several experimental sets were made where the experimental data was
tabulated in the previous sections.
Actual and experimental void fraction values were calculated where they were found to be
0.698 and 0.659 respectively. The error was found to be around 5.6%. All of the physical
properties (viscosity, density, etc) for water and air were taken from, Transport Processes and
Separation Process Principles, 4th edition by Geankoplis [18]. The temperature was measured
using a thermometer and was found to be 21°C. The dimensions of the packed column were
measured manually. The particle diameter was found online [19].
To find the experimental void fraction value, we had we modify Ergun’s Equation. Moreover.
Moreover, we had to drop the experimental points recorded for 80 and 100 L/min gas flow
rate. Dropping these data resulted in a more linear line with a regression of 0.9723 with is
acceptable. We used the slope of the linear line to find the void fraction.
To find the flooding and loading velocities, we had to convert the recorded volumetric gas
flow rates to mass fluxes and find the pressure drop per length of the column. Then the log
values were takes as it can be seen in tables below:

Table 7: Dry Packed Column Pressure Drop Data

Dry Packed Column Pressure Drop Data

Gas rate (L/min) ΔP (mm-water) ΔP (Pa) ΔP/L (Pa/m) G (kg/m^2*s) log(G) log(ΔP/L)
40 0.8 7.84532 5.943424242 0.123308733 -0.909 0.774037
60 1.4 13.7293 10.40099242 0.1849631 -0.7329 1.017075
90 3 29.42 22.28784091 0.277444649 -0.5568 1.348068
Table 8: Pressure Drop Data of 2 L/min Liquid Flow Rate

Pressure Drop Data’s of 2 L/min Liquid Flow Rate

Gas rate (L/min) ΔP (mm-water) ΔP (Pa) ΔP/L (Pa/m) G (kg/m^2*s) log(G) log(ΔP/L)
40 2.4 23.536 17.83027273 0.123308733 -0.909 1.251158
60 4.4 43.1493 32.68883333 0.1849631 -0.7329 1.514399
80 9.4 92.1825 69.83523485 0.246617466 -0.608 1.844075
100 11.9 116.699 88.40843561 0.308271833 -0.5111 1.946494
Table 9: Pressure Drop Data of 4 L/min Liquid Flow Rate

Pressure Drop Data’s of 4 L/min Liquid Flow Rate

Gas rate (L/min) ΔP (mm-water) ΔP (Pa) ΔP/L (Pa/m) G (kg/m^2*s) log(G) log(ΔP/L)
40 3.8 37.2653 28.23126515 0.123308733 -0.909 1.45073
60 12.6 123.564 93.60893182 0.1849631 -0.7329 1.971317
80 41.6 407.957 309.0580606 0.246617466 -0.608 2.49004
100 46 451.106 341.7468939 0.308271833 -0.5111 2.533705
Table 10: Pressure Drop Data of 6 L/min Liquid Flow Rate

Pressure Drop Data’s of 6 L/min Liquid Flow Rate

Gas rate (L/min) ΔP (mm-water) ΔP (Pa) ΔP/L (Pa/m) G (kg/m^2*s) log(G) log(ΔP/L)
40 15 147.1 111.4392045 0.123308733 -0.909 2.047038
60 48.6 476.603 361.0630227 0.1849631 -0.7329 2.557583
80 49.8 488.371 369.9781591 0.246617466 -0.608 2.568176
100 61 598.206 453.1860985 0.308271833 -0.5111 2.656277

The recorded experimental for 20 L/min gas flow rate were dropped from the calculations.
The reason behind that is that the recorded pressure drop value when the liquid flow rate is 6
L/min is equal to the pressure drop value when the liquid flow rate is 4 L/min; moreover, the
recorded pressure drop value when the liquid flow rate is 2 L/min is higher than that of 4 and
6 L/min which is physically impossible. It is assumed that the manometer does not work
properly at low gas flow rates. The log(G) and log(ΔP/L) values in the tables above were
plotted and illustrated in the figure below:

Figure 3: Pressure Drop in Packed Tower

As we can see, it is a bit hard to determine the points were the flooding and loading velocities
take place; the reason, as it can be seen, is in the inaccuracy in data recording or due to
instrumental errors. Regardless, we tried to estimate the flooding and flooding points as
demonstrated in the figure below:
 Figure 4: Loading and Flooding Velocity Lines

Lastly, pressure drop using Ergun equation was done and the results were demonetized in
Table 6. The calculated pressure drops using Ergun’s equation deviates form with a big
margin compared to the manometer readings. As such results are not expected, it was
concluded that the recorded data might not be a steady state conditions although the
recordings were taken at stable manometer arm reading. In conclusion, the results in this
experiment are not applicable and the experiment shall be made again to find the source of the
errors and to gain a useable data to determine the loading and flooding velocities of the
system.

6. RECOMMENDATION
A more detailed examination of the pressure drop can be made by modifying the system to
examine the effect of temperature and heat transfer. For more detailed examination, it is also
possible to examine the effect of surface roughness on sphericity and fluid flow through the
packed bed on pressure drop. Moreover, we need to calibrate or fix the manometers and flow
meters to get more accurate results.

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