Jurnal 1 Kepatuhan Obat HT PDF

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 16

Integrated Blood Pressure Control Dovepress

open access to scientific and medical research

Open Access Full Text Article


ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Medication Adherence and Blood Pressure Control


Among Hypertensive Outpatients Attending
a Tertiary Cardiovascular Hospital in Tanzania: A
Cross-Sectional Study
Pedro Pallangyo 1,2 , Makrina Komba 1 , Zabella S Mkojera 1 , Peter R Kisenge 1,2 , Smita Bhalia 2 ,
Henry Mayala 3 , Engerasiya Kifai 3 , Mwinyipembe K Richard 2 , Khuzeima Khanbhai 1,2 , Salma Wibonela 4 ,
Jalack Millinga 4 , Robert Yeyeye 4 , Nelson F Njau 3 , Thadei K Odemary 3 , Mohamed Janabi 2
1
Unit of Research and Training, Jakaya Kikwete Cardiac Institute, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; 2Directorate of Cardiology, Jakaya Kikwete Cardiac
Institute, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; 3Directorate of Clinical Support Services, Jakaya Kikwete Cardiac Institute, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; 4Directorate
of Nursing, Jakaya Kikwete Cardiac Institute, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Correspondence: Pedro Pallangyo, Unit of Research and Training, Jakaya Kikwete Cardiac Institute, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Email [email protected]

Background: Notwithstanding the availability of effective treatments, asymptomatic nature and the interminable treatment length,
adherence to medication remains a substantial challenge among patients with hypertension. Suboptimal adherence to BP-lowering
agents is a growing global concern that is associated with the substantial worsening of disease, increased service utilization and health-
care cost escalation. This study aimed to explore medication adherence and its associated factors among hypertension outpatients
attending a tertiary-level cardiovascular hospital in Tanzania.
Methods: The pill count adherence ratio (PCAR) was used to compute adherence rate. In descriptive analyses, adherence was
dichotomized and consumption of less than 80% of the prescribed medications was used to denote poor adherence. Logistic regression
analyses was used to determine factors associated with adherence.
Results: A total of 849 outpatients taking antihypertensive drugs for ≥1 month prior to recruitment were randomly enrolled in this
study. The mean age was 59.9 years and about two-thirds were females. Overall, a total of 653 (76.9%) participants had good
adherence and 367 (43.2%) had their blood pressure controlled. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed; lack of a health
insurance (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.3–0.7, p<0.01), last BP measurement >1 week (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4–0.8, p<0.01), last clinic attendance
>1 month (OR 0.4, 95% CI 0.3–0.6, p<0.001), frequent unavailability of drugs (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.3–0.9, p = 0.03), running out of
medication before the next appointment (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4–0.9, p = 0.01) and stopping medications when asymptomatic (OR 0.6,
95% CI 0.4–0.8, p<0.001) to be independent associated factors for poor adherence.
Conclusion: A substantial proportion of hypertensive outpatients in this tertiary-level setting had good medication adherence.
Nonetheless, observed suboptimal blood pressure control regardless of a fairly satisfactory adherence rate suggests that lifestyle
modification plays a central role in hypertension management.
Keywords: medication adherence, nonadherence, drug adherence, hypertension, blood pressure control

Background
Hypertension, which affects over a quarter of the global population, is currently the leading cause of non-communicable
diseases (NCDs) and the main contributor to disability adjusted life years (DALYs) worldwide.1,2 In a span of just 3
decades, the World Health Organization (WHO) African region has witnessed a dramatic upsurge of hypertension
prevalence from 9.7% in 1990 to 46% in 2020, making it the most affected WHO region.2–7 While the last national
representative survey conducted in Tanzania found that 26% of the adult population were hypertensive, a rate of nearly
50% reported by a more recent population-based study conducted in the island of Mafia potentially imply a significantly

Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15 97–112 97


Received: 23 May 2022 © 2022 Pallangyo et al. This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/
Accepted: 8 July 2022 terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). By accessing
the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed.
Published: 10 August 2022 For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms (https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php).
Pallangyo et al Dovepress

higher burden of hypertension in this East African nation.8,9 So to prevent hypertension-related complications and deaths,
optimal control of blood pressure (BP) is paramount.10–13 Nonetheless, with just 7% of the hypertensive population
having controlled BPs in sub=Saharan Africa (SSA), Africans have the worst hypertension control rates and superior
hypertension-related complications compared to their Caucasian counterparts.7,14
Notwithstanding the availability of effective treatments, asymptomatic nature and the interminable treatment length,
adherence to medication remains a substantial challenge among patients with hypertension. Moreover, in spite of
numerous advances made in adherence research (ie identification of nonadherence determinants and exploration of
impact of interventions to improve adherence), rates of suboptimal adherence have remained more or less the same over
the years.15,16 According to the WHO, over a half of persons with hypertension discontinue their antihypertensives
entirely within the first year of diagnosis and at most a half of those staying on medications consume ≥80% of their
prescribed regimens.17 As a consequence approximately three-quarters of patients do not attain optimum BP control thus
making poor adherence a prominent cause of uncontrolled hypertension globally.18 Furthermore, apart from it being the
noticeable cause of apparent resistant hypertension, nonadherence is accountable for the substantial worsening of disease,
increased service utilization and health-care cost escalation.19–24 Considering the rapidly growing burden of hypertension
in Tanzania, this study aimed to explore medication adherence and its associated factors among hypertension outpatients
attending a tertiary-level cardiovascular hospital in Tanzania.

Methodology
Study Design, Recruitment Process, and Definition of Terms
Between April 2021 and October 2021 a hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted at a tertiary care public
teaching hospital (ie Jakaya Kikwete Cardiac Institute [JKCI]) in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. A simple random sampling
method was utilized to recruit consented hypertensive outpatients during their scheduled clinic visit. A structured
questionnaire bearing variables pertaining to a study’s objective was utilized in this study. Prior to its use in this
study, the data collection tool was subjected to evaluation and validation. Informed consent was sought from every
participant prior to enrolment. Patients aged ≥18 years on antihypertensive medications for ≥30 days prior to recruitment
were eligible for participation in this present study.
Prior to commencement of the study, a list of hypertensive patients with their respective clinic appointments for the
entire study duration was obtained from the medical records department. Data on the previously prescribed antihyper­
tensive medications was fetched from the hospital management information system (HMIS). A day prior to their
scheduled clinic visit, potential participants were phoned and asked to come with their medication bottles/boxes.
Utilizing a pill-count form, number of remaining antihypertensive pills in the bottle/box was recorded upon recruitment.
The pill count adherence ratio (PCAR) (ie (pills consumed divide by pills prescribed during the last visit) × 100) was
used to compute adherence rate. In descriptive analyses, adherence was dichotomized and consumption of less than 80%
of the prescribed medications was used to denote poor adherence.25,26 This cut off (ie ≥80% consumption) has been
shown to achieve BP control and correlate well with cause-specific hospitalization in hypertensive patients.27–29
Furthermore, following an extensive literature search coupled with its overarching objectives, this study assessed
a total of 13 potential barriers to adherence including; cost, side effects, forgetfulness, negligence, unavailability of
drugs, pill burden, treatment fatigue, disease fatigue, “healed through prayers” belief, “medications not helpful” belief,
unawareness of treatment length, running out of medications, and stopping medications when asymptomatic.
Physical Activity Vital Sign (PAVS)30 questionnaire was employed in the assessment of physical activity. Reported
moderate-vigorous physical activity of 0 min/week, <150 min/week, or ≥150 min/week was used to classify participants
as inactive, underactive or active respectively. Body mass index (BMI) cut-off values of <18.5 kg/m2, 18.5–24.9 kg/m2,
25.0–29.9 kg/m2, ≥30.0 kg/m2 was used to categorize individuals as underweight, normal weight, overweight or obese.31
Regarding smoking, participants with a negative history of smoking were regarded as never-smokers while use of
cigarettes within the last 6 months or self-reported quitting smoking was used to denote current smokers and ex-smokers
respectively. Consumption every week of an alcoholic beverage was used to define a drinker. Awareness of risk factors

98 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674 Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15


DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Dovepress Pallangyo et al

for hypertension was assessed using an open ended question. Participants were prompted to mention as many risk factors
as they know and the correct responses were marked against the predesigned checklist in the questionnaire.
Two BP readings (roughly 2 minutes apart) were taken using an OMRON HEM-7156 digital automated sphygmo­
manometer and systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≥140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) ≥90 mmHg was used to
indicate uncontrolled BP.32,33 A fasting blood glucose (FBG) ≥7 mmol/L, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) of ≥6.5% or use
of glucose-lowering agents was used to define diabetes while a one touch select plus glucometer was utilized in blood
glucose concentration measurements.34 A 2-dimensional echocardiography (ECHO) was utilized for cardiac assessment
with an ejection fraction (EF) ≤40% used to signify systolic heart failure.35 The Modification of Diet in Renal Disease
(MDRD) equation was utilized in the estimation of renal functions and an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR)
value of <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 was used to denote renal dysfunction.36 Hemoglobin (Hb) concentration of <13.0 g/dL and
<12.0 g/dL for males and females respectively was used to diagnose anemia.37 Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cut-off
levels of 3.5 mmol/L was used to categorize hypercholesterolemia.38

Statistical Analysis
STATA v11.0 software was employed in all statistical analyses. Summaries of continuous variables and categorical
variables are presented as means (± SD) and frequencies (percentages) respectively. Pearson Chi square and Student’s
t-test techniques were used in comparison of categorical and continuous variables respectively. Logistic regression
analyses was used to determine factors associated with adherence. Factors included in our logistic regression model
included age, sex, education level, marital status, employment status, residence, health insurance possession status, last
clinic attendance, last BP measurement, hospitalization, traditional medicine use, BP control, and potential barriers (ie
cost, unavailability of drugs, treatment fatigue, healed belief, running out of drugs, and stopping medications when
asymptomatic). Statistically significant variables in the multivariate regression model were assessed following a stepwise
and forward inclusion method. The multivariate model was fitted with baseline covariates associated with adherence by
bivariate analysis at the <0.05 significance level. Odd ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals and p-values are
reported. All tests were 2-sided and p<0.05 was used to signify a statistical significance.

Results
Characteristics of the Study Participants
Table 1 displays the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of the 849 enrolled study participants. The mean age
was 59.9 and just over a half of all participants were aged above 60 years. Females constituted nearly two-thirds (65.7%)
of participants and 60.7% had attained at most primary education. About a half (50.1%) of participants were either
jobless or retired, almost two-thirds (64.8%) were living with a partner and nearly three-quarters (74.1%) had health
insurance. Roughly 0.3%, were current smokers, 5.9% alcohol consumers, 74.0% were insufficiently active and 80.2%
had excess body weight (ie overweight 32.0% and obese 48.2%). Regarding comorbidity history, 14.4% had a history of
type 2 diabetes, 16.0% had renal dysfunction, 38.2% had hypercholesterolemia, 11.4% had heart failure, 49.6% had
anemia and 11.7% had a history of stroke. With reference to awareness of risk factors for hypertension; excess salt intake
was acknowledged by 38.2% of participants, excess fat intake by 67.4%, overweight by 16.8%, physical inactivity by
12.7%, smoking by 3.9%, excess alcohol intake by 10.3% and positive family history by 3.2%; Figure 1.

Pattern of Antihypertensives Prescribed, Adherence and BP Control


About two-thirds of participants (64.3%) had attended a hypertension clinic within one month prior to enrolment in this
present study and 2.7% could state the BP control range (ie <140/90 mmHg) correctly. Participants with a within one
month outpatient visit displayed superior adherence rates compared to their counterparts whose last visit was over
a month ie 83.5% vs 65.0%, p<0.001. Over a third (37.8%) of participants had measured their BPs within a week prior to
their scheduled clinic visit and overall 51.2% of participants’ last BP was taken during their previous clinic visit.
Participants who had measured their BPs within a week prior to recruitment displayed higher adherence rates compared
to their counterparts ie 83.5% vs 72.9%, p<0.001.

Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674


99
DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Pallangyo et al Dovepress

Table 1 Sociodemographic and Clinical Characteristics of Study


Participants (N = 849)
Characteristic Frequency (%)

Age
Mean (SD) 59.9 (11.4)

Age groups
<45 years 90 (10.6%)
45–60 years 311 (36.6%)
>60 years 448 (52.8%)

Sex
Male 291 (34.3%)
Female 558 (65.7%)

Education
No formal 66 (07.8%)
Primary 449 (52.9%)
Secondary 222 (26.1%)
University 112 (13.2%)

Marital status
Married/Cohabiting 550 (64.8%)
Single/Divorced/Widowed 299 (35.2%)

Occupation
Jobless 206 (24.3%)
Self-employed 287 (33.8%)
Employed 137 (16.1%)
Retired 219 (25.8%)

Residence
Dar es Salaam 525 (61.8%)
Upcountry 324 (38.2%)

Health financing
Exempted by policy 74 (08.7%)
Cost sharing 146 (17.2%)
Insured 629 (74.1%)

Awareness of risk factors for hypertension


Excess salt 325 (38.2%)
Excess fats 572 (67.4%)
Overweight 143 (16.8%)
Positive family history 27 (03.2%)
Physical inactivity 108 (12.7%)
Smoking 33 (03.9%)
Excessive alcohol intake 87 (10.3%)

Smoking history
Never 779 (91.8%)
Ex-smoker 67 (07.9%)
Current 3 (0.3%)

(Continued)

100 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674 Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15


DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Dovepress Pallangyo et al

Table 1 (Continued).

Characteristic Frequency (%)

Alcohol intake
Never 535 (63.0%)
Past 264 (31.1%)
Current 50 (05.9%)

Physical activity
Inactive 222 (26.2%)
Underactive 406 (47.8%)
Active 221 (26.0%)
BMI (Mean, SD) 30.0 (5.8)

BMI category
Underweight 5 (0.6%)
Normal 163 (19.2%)
Overweight 272 (32.0%)
Obese 409 (48.2%)

Comorbidities
Diabetes mellitus 122 (14.4%)
Stroke 99 (11.7%)
Renal dysfunction 136 (16.0%)
Heart failure 97 (11.4%)
Anemia 421 (49.6%)
Hypercholesterolemia 324 (38.2%)

Last BP measurement (Mean, SD) 30.7 (37.0%)


≤7 days 321 (37.8%)
>7 days and ≤30 days 376 (44.3%)
>30 days 152 (17.9%)
Last clinic visit* 435 (51.2%)

Last clinic attendance


≤30 days 546 (64.3%)
>30 days and <90 days 202 (23.8%)
>90 days 101 (11.9%)

Hospitalization (past 6 months)


Yes 77 (09.1%)
No 772 (90.9%)

Awareness of “BP control” range


Yes 23 (02.7%)
No 826 (97.3%)

Class of anti-hypertensives prescribed


ACE inhibitors 38 (04.5%)
ARBs 473 (55.7%)
CCBs 519 (61.1%)
β-blockers 267 (31.5%)
Diuretics 421 (49.6%)
Vasodilators 42 (05.0%)

(Continued)

Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674


101
DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Pallangyo et al Dovepress

Table 1 (Continued).

Characteristic Frequency (%)

Traditional medicine use


Never 743 (87.5%)
Past 52 (06.1%)
Current 54 (06.4%)

Blood pressure range


<140/90 mmHg 367 (43.2%)
≥140/90 mmHg 482 (56.8%)
Note: *Proportion of participant’s whose last BP measurement was during their
last clinic visit.

Nearly 10% of participants had a hypertension-related hospitalization within 6 months of recruitment to the study.
Participants with a recent history of hospitalization displayed similar adherence rates to their nonhospitalized counter­
parts, ie 81.8% vs 76.4%, p = 0.3. A total of 106 (12.5%) participants had ever used traditional medicine for treating
hypertension and 6.4% were current users. However, there was no difference in adherence between current traditional
medicine users and non-users ie 72.2% vs 77.2%, p = 0.4. Individuals with ≤primary school education displayed inferior
adherence rates compared to their ≥secondary education counterparts ie 74.6% vs 80.5%, p = 0.04. Moreover, similar
adherence rates were observed across age (≤60 vs >60 years) ie 76.8% vs 77.1%, p = 0.9. Likewise, males had similar
adherence to females ie 75.6% vs 77.6%, p = 0.5. Nonetheless, participants with health insurance displayed superior
adherence rates compared to their uninsured counterparts ie 79.3% vs 70.0%, p<0.01. Overall, a total of 653 (76.9%)
participants had consumed at least 80% of their last prescribed drugs (ie good adherence).
Generally, 270 (31.8%) participants were on monotherapy, 304 (35.8%) on a double-combination regimen, 210
(24.7%) were on a triple-combination regimen and 65 (7.6%) were on more than three antihypertensive agents of
different classes. Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) [61.1%] were the most prescribed class, followed by angiotensin

excess fat intake

excess salt intake

overweight
Risk Factors

physical inactivity

excessive alcohol intake

smoking

positive family history

0% 15% 30% 45% 60% 75%


Awareness
Figure 1 Bar graph displaying participant’s awareness of various risk factors for hypertension.

102 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674 Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15


DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Dovepress Pallangyo et al

receptor blockers (ARBs) [55.7%], diuretics [49.6%], beta-blockers (β-blocker) [31.5%], vasodilators [5.0%] and
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors [4.5%]. Diuretic plus ARB [91 (10.7%)] was the most frequently
prescribed double-combination regimen, followed by ARB plus CCB [66 (7.8%)] and CCB plus diuretic [48 (5.7%)].
With regard to triple-combination regimens, ARB plus CCB plus diuretic [76 (9.0%)] and ARB plus β-blocker plus
diuretic [65 (7.7%)] were the commonest.
A total of 367 (43.2%) participants had their BP under control. Age (>60 vs ≤60: 46.2% vs 41.9%, p = 0.2) and sex
(male vs females: 41.2% vs 45.7%, p = 0.2) differences displayed similar BP control rates. Individuals with at least
secondary school education displayed higher BP control rates compared to their ≤primary education counterparts ie
49.4% vs 40.8%, p = 0.01. Insured participants exhibited superior BP control rate compared to their uninsured
equivalents, ie 46.9% vs 36.4%, p<0.01. Furthermore, participants with current use of traditional medicine displayed
similar BP control rates compared to non-users ie 51.9% vs 43.7%, p = 0.2. Similarly, participants with good adherence
had comparable BP control rates to those with poor adherence ie 45.3% vs 40.3%, p = 0.2.

Barriers to Adherence and Associated Factors


Overall, 96.3% of participants had mentioned at least one barrier to their adherence while nearly three-quarters (73.1%)
reported three or more barriers. Disease fatigue (58.3%) was the most reported barrier, followed by “run out of
medication before next appointment” (39.9%), forgetfulness (38.3%), “stop medications when symptom-free” (36.6%),
and cost of drugs (33.2%). Other barriers included “unaware of treatment length” (29.2%), side effects (18.9%),
treatment fatigue (17.7%), “medications not helpful belief” (10.3%), pill burden (9.3%), “healed through prayers belief”
(8.8%), unavailability of drugs (8.1%) and negligence (6.7%); Figure 2.
Comparatively (Table 2); the subgroup with poor adherence displayed a significantly higher proportion of participants
with the following reported barriers: cost (44.9% vs 29.7%, p<0.001), unavailability of drugs (14.3% vs 6.3%, p<0.001),
medication run out (53.1% vs 36.0%, p<0.001), and stopping of drugs when symptom-free (47.4% vs 33.4%, p<0.001).
On the other hand, participants with good adherence had a higher proportion of participants with treatment fatigue
(19.1% vs 12.8%, p = 0.01) and those who believed they had been healed through prayers (10.3% vs 4.1%, p<0.001).

60%

45%
Frequency

30%

15%

0%

Barriers to Adherence
Figure 2 Bar graph displaying frequency and pattern of barriers towards medication adherence.

Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674


103
DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Pallangyo et al Dovepress

Table 2 Distribution of Adherence Barriers According to PCAR


Barriers to Adherence PCAR p-value

≥80% <80%

Medication cost a barrier 194 (29.7%) 88 (44.9%)


Cost not a barrier 459 (70.3%) 108 (55.1%) <0.001

Side effects 117 (17.9%) 43 (21.9%)


No side effects 536 (82.1%) 153 (78.1%) 0.2

Forgetfulness 251 (38.4%) 74 (37.8%)


Do not forget 402 (61.6%) 122 (62.2%) 0.9

Negligence 43 (06.6%) 14 (07.1%)


No negligence 610 (93.4%) 182 (92.9%) 0.8

Drugs regularly unavailable 41 (06.3%) 28 (14.3%)


Drugs regularly available 612 (93.7%) 168 (85.7%) <0.001

Pill burden 64 (09.8%) 15 (07.7%)


Manageable pills 589 (90.2%) 181 (92.3%) 0.3

Treatment fatigue 125 (19.1%) 25 (12.8%)


Not tired of treatment 528 (80.9%) 171 (87.2%) 0.01

Disease fatigue 383 (58.7%) 112 (57.1%)


I have accepted my illness 270 (41.3%) 84 (42.9%) 0.6

I am healed through prayers 67 (10.3%) 8 (04.1%)


My condition is chronic 586 (89.7%) 188 (95.9%) <0.001

Medications are not helpful 70 (10.7%) 17 (08.7%)


Medications are helpful 583 (89.3%) 179 (91.3%) 0.3

Not aware of treatment length 193 (29.6%) 55 (28.1%)


Aware of treatment length 460 (70.4%) 141 (71.9%) 0.6

Run out of drugs before next appointment 235 (36.0%) 104 (53.1%)
I usually have enough stock until my next visit 418 (64.0%) 92 (46.9%) <0.001

When I am symptom-free, I stop taking my drugs 218 (33.4%) 93 (47.4%)


I take my drugs regardless of how I feel 435 (66.6%) 103 (52.6%) <0.001

Table 3 shows results of logistic regression analysis for factors associated with adherence. During bivariate analysis in
a logistic regression model consisting of eighteen characteristics, ten attributes (ie education, insurance possession, last
BP measurement, last clinic attendance, cost of medications, frequent unavailability of drugs, treatment fatigue, healed
belief, running out of medication before next appointment and stopping medications when asymptomatic) showed
significance. However, after controlling for confounders (multivariate logistic regression), six characteristics, ie lack of
a health insurance (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.3–0.7, p<0.01), last BP measurement >1 week (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4–0.8, p<0.01),
last clinic attendance >1 month (OR 0.4, 95% CI 0.3–0.6, p<0.001), frequent unavailability of drugs (OR 0.6, 95% CI
0.3–0.9, p = 0.03), running out of medication before next appointment (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4–0.9, p = 0.01) and stopping
medications when asymptomatic (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4–0.8, p<0.001), remained independent associated factors for poor
adherence.

Discussion
Despite the remarkable progress in BP measurement methods and the extensive availability of effective pharmacothera­
pies coupled with the proven prophylactic effects of lifestyle modification, the burden of hypertension continues to rise

104 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674 Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15


DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Dovepress Pallangyo et al

Table 3 Associated Factors for Adherence (Logistic Regression Analysis)


Characteristic Comparative OR 95% CI p-value Adj. 95% CI p-value
OR

Age >60 years Age ≤60 years 1.0 0.7–1.4 0.9 - - -

Male Female 0.9 0.6–1.2 0.5 - - -

≤Primary education ≥Secondary education 0.7 0.5–1.0 0.04 0.9 0.6–1.3 0.6

Single/Divorced/Widowed Married/Cohabiting 1.1 0.8–1.6 0.5 - - -

Jobless/Retired Self-employed/employed 1.1 0.8–1.4 0.8 - - -

Upcountry residence Dar es Salaam 0.8 0.5–1.0 0.09 - - -

Lack of health insurance Possession of a health insurance 0.6 0.4–0.8 <0.01 0.5 0.3–0.7 <0.01

Last BP measurement >1 week ≤1 week 0.5 0.4–0.8 <0.001 0.6 0.4–0.8 <0.01

Last clinic attendance >1 month ≤1 month 0.4 0.3–0.5 <0.001 0.4 0.3–0.6 <0.001

Hospitalization (past 6mo) Not hospitalized 1.4 0.8–2.5 0.3 - - -

Positive history of traditional medicine Negative history 0.9 0.6–1.5 0.7 - - -

SBP>140 or DBP>90 BP≤140/90 0.8 0.6–1.1 0.2 - - -

Cost a barrier Cost not a barrier 0.5 0.4–0.7 <0.001 0.8 0.6–1.2 0.3

Drugs not always available Drugs always available 0.4 0.2–0.7 <0.001 0.6 0.3–0.9 0.03

Treatment fatigue Not tired 0.6 0.4–0.9 0.04 1.1 0.7–1.9 0.6

Believes healed through prayers I am sick 2.7 1.3–5.7 0.01 2.2 1.0–4.8 0.06

Runs out of drugs before next Usually have enough stock until 0.5 0.4–0.7 <0.001 0.6 0.4–0.9 0.01
appointment next appointment

When I am asymptomatic I stop taking my I take my medications regardless 0.6 0.4–0.8 <0.001 0.6 0.4–0.8 0.001
medications

and its control remains a considerable challenge for health systems across the globe.39–42 Suboptimal adherence to BP-
lowering agents is a growing global concern that constitutes a significant barrier to effective, economical and safe use of
medications.43,44 Impressively, about three-quarters of participants in this present study were categorized as having good
adherence to prescribed antihypertensive drugs. Compared with studies that utilized a similar assessment method,
variable rates are reported across the literature. In unison to our findings, studies conducted in Pakistan and USA
revealed adherence rates between 73.7% and 76.7%.45–47 However, a couple of studies from Ethiopia, Namibia, Saudi
Arabia and Scotland revealed somewhat better adherence rates (84.0% to 87.7%).48–51 Nonetheless, numerous studies
revealed lower rates (37.7–64.0%) of adherence compared to our study.52–59 Intriguingly, the rates of adherence from this
study are remarkably higher than those from an earlier study conducted in the same setting that involved heart failure
patients (ie 25.3% had good adherence).60 Nonetheless, we have observed an extraordinary increase in health insurance
possession among patients between the two studies (ie 22.2% vs 74.1%) and we hypothesize this as the main contributor
to the adherence discrepancy.60
Numerous barriers to adherence among hypertensive patients have been documented in different communities across the
globe. Despite the relatively high adherence rate from this study, a large majority of participants (ie 96.3%) acknowledged
facing at least one barrier to their adherence. This observation potentially suggests that the current recorded rates could go
down at any time if concerted efforts to deal particularly with modifiable barriers are not made in a timely manner. Largely, the

Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674


105
DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Pallangyo et al Dovepress

reported barriers from this present study ie disease fatigue, “stop medications when symptom-free”, “unawareness of
treatment length”, treatment fatigue, “medications not helpful belief”, and “healed through prayers belief” could be mitigated
by improving providers communication (including education and counseling) to patients. Moreover, some barriers ie “run out
of medication before next appointment” and unavailability of drugs are health-system related and could be improved by
simply refining the appointment system to run parallel with quantity of prescribed drugs as well as strengthening of the
inventory management system to almost always ensure a positive stock-balance particularly of commonly prescribed
antihypertensives. Additionally, cost remains a huge obstacle in most communities particularly in resource-limited settings
like this one. However, in such unprivileged societies (as witnessed in this study) possession of a health insurance is a game
changer. In view of this, deliberate yet collaborative efforts to increase its acquisition so as to attain a universal status will be
a rewarding endeavor. Nevertheless, the barriers observed in this study have been documented at variable rates by previous
research from different settings worldwide.26,47,48,50,56,59,61–70
Patients’ familiarity with their management plan is a critical success factor to favorable clinical outcomes.
Furthermore, patient knowledge of BP goal has been shown to be an independent predictor of BP control.71
Unfortunately, major deficiencies in communications is characteristic of patient-provider interactions in SSA.72 Barely
3% of hypertensives in this study were aware of their target BP. Generally, unsatisfactory rates of awareness of target BP
is reported in the body of literature, however, our proportion is very low compared to preceding scholarly works (18.2–
68.0%).71,73–79 A quality (clear and comprehensible) and empathic physician-patient communication has been shown to
aid adherence to prescribed treatments and to recommended preventive activities.80–83 For instance, the rates of
nonadherence are nearly 20% higher among patients whose healthcare provider communicates poorly versus their
counterparts receiving a sound communication.84 Through collaborative communication and decision making, patients
are empowered to understand all essential aspects of their treatment plans which has been correlated with successful
reaching of treatment goals. Moreover, as one’s understanding correlates with the level of education, it is pivotal that
physicians take enough time clarifying the treatment plans and goals particularly to patients with lower levels of
education which is a predominant group in the developing world.
Lifestyle measures (ie alcohol reduction, smoking cessation, salt intake reduction, increased physical activity and
weight reduction) have been shown to be an effective adjuvant to pharmacotherapy in achieving BP control.85–90
Likewise, nonadherence to lifestyle modifications is associated with inadequate BP control.86,91–93 Furthermore, incor­
poration of lifestyle interventions to antihypertensive medications is associated with a drug step-down.94,95 Awareness of
lifestyle modifiable risks for hypertension was quite low in this present study. Consequently, unhealthy lifestyle behaviors
particularly physical inactivity and excess body weight were evident in about three-quarters and four-fifths of participants
respectively. Compared to an earlier study in the same setting that involved caretakers of CVD patients, participants of
this present study displayed inferior awareness across all risk factors ie excess salt intake 38.2% vs 85.9%, overweight
16.8% vs 90.1%, physical inactivity 12.7% vs 95.6%, smoking 3.9% vs 77.0%, excess alcohol intake 10.3% vs 90.1%
and positive family history by 3.2% vs 65.6%.97 As the awareness assessment used a close-ended method in the previous
study while the present study utilized an open-ended way, this might be the possible explanation towards the rate
discrepancy. Nevertheless, the unsatisfactory low awareness and practices to lifestyle modification irrespective of the
modest medication adherence suggests a potential over-reliance on drugs in lieu of commitment to a healthy lifestyle.
These findings however echo Ethiopian, Jordanian, and Iranian studies which revealed that barely a quarter (ie 24.8%,
23.0%, and 27.8% respectively) of its participants were compliant with healthy lifestyle behaviors.57,96,97 Moreover,
quite worrying rates of modifiable lifestyle risks documented by recent community and hospital-based studies from
Tanzania calls for a resilient multisectoral approach and urgent evaluation of policies implemented to combat hyperten­
sion and other NCDs.95,98–103
Improved and sustained BP control is pivotal in reduction of CVD morbidity and mortality. Regardless of the modest
adherence rates witnessed in this study, less than a half of participants had achieved BP control. Ranging between 9.4%
and 49.9%, a similar pattern (ie less than a half of participants having controlled BPs) is observed from the majority of
studies in the body of literature irrespective of the geographical location.46,76,104–125 However, relatively fewer studies
have reported a slightly higher proportion (51.7–63.0%) of participants with desirable BP range.26,79,126–128 Globally, BP
control remains far from adequate regardless of the presence of effective medications and proven healthy lifestyle

106 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674 Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15


DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Dovepress Pallangyo et al

changes. Nonetheless, as hypertension control requires a multimethod approach, it is fundamental for healthcare
providers to improve not only on the aforementioned communication but should also incorporate assessment of
adherence to both pharmacological agents and lifestyle modification in routine clinical practice.

Strengths and Limitations


Numerous strengths can be drawn from this study including; (i) the utilization of a pill count method in assessing
adherence mitigated reporting bias, (ii) assessment of various comorbidities that may influence adherence and BP control
including chronic kidney disease, heart failure, and diabetes mellitus, (iii) as this study utilized a probability sampling
method (ie simple random sampling), this mitigated bias as well as increasing the likelihood of our findings to be
generalizable to hypertensive patients attending tertiary care level hospital in SSA and similar resource limited settings.
However, we recognize some limitations including; (i) limitation of temporal association exploration due to the cross-
sectional nature and (ii) as our assessment of health knowledge and self-care largely based on self-reports, we cannot rule
out the possibility of response bias and/or recall bias.

Conclusion
A substantial proportion of hypertensive outpatients in this tertiary-level setting had a good adherence to prescribed
antihypertensive medications. Nonetheless, observed suboptimal blood pressure control regardless of a fairly satisfactory
adherence rate suggests that lifestyle modification plays a central role in hypertension management. As literally all
recognized barriers for adherence in this study are modifiable, this calls for deliberate yet targeted efforts to strengthen
the communication of healthcare providers with patients. Furthermore, considering the high prevalence of modifiable
lifestyle risk factors (particularly overweight and physical inactivity) and the low awareness of such, it is pivotal for the
routine clinical practice and health promotion programs to address lifestyle modification. Lastly, irrespective of the
satisfactory adherence rate observed in this study, nonadherence continues to be a significant obstacle in hypertension
management thus regular assessment of adherence to medication is fundamental.

Abbreviations
95% CI, 95% Confidence Interval; β-blocker, beta-blocker; ACE inhibitor, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor;
ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; CCB, calcium channel blocker; CVD,
cardiovascular disease; DALYs, disability-adjusted life years; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; ECHO, echocardiography;
EF, ejection fraction; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; FBG, fasting blood glucose; Hb, hemoglobin; HbA1c,
glycated hemoglobin; HMIS, health management information system; JKCI, Jakaya Kikwete Cardiac Institute; LDL,
low-density lipoprotein; MDRD, Modification of Diet in Renal Disease; NCDs, non-communicable diseases; OR,
odds ratio; PAVS, physical activity vital sign; PCAR, pill count adherence ratio; SSA, sub-Saharan Africa; SBP, systolic
blood pressure; SD, standard deviation; USA, United States of America; WHO, World Health Organization.

Data Sharing Statement


The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable
request.

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate


Participants gave written informed consent to participate in the study. The study protocol was approved by the local
ethics committees (Jakaya Kikwete Cardiac Institute) and was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Acknowledgments
We extend our appreciation to all the study participants for their willingness, tolerance and cooperation offered during
this study.

Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674


107
DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Pallangyo et al Dovepress

Author Contributions
All authors made a significant contribution to the work reported, whether that is in the conception, study design,
execution, acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation, or in all these areas; took part in drafting, revising or critically
reviewing the article; gave final approval of the version to be published; have agreed on the journal to which the article
has been submitted; and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Funding
This work was funded by PedPal Research Initiative. The funder had no role in the design of this study, collection of
data, data analysis, interpretation of results or writing of this manuscript.

Disclosure
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest in relation to this work.

References
1. Lim SS, Vos T, Flaxman AD, et al. A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor
clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 2012;380:2224–2260.
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61766-8
2. Mills KT, Bundy JD, Kelly TN, et al. Global disparities of hypertension prevalence and control: a systematic analysis of population-based
studies from 90 countries. Circulation. 2016;134:441–450. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018912
3. WHO. A global brief on hypertension. Available from: http://www.who.int/cardiovascular_diseases/publications/global_brief_hypertension/en/.
Accessed, August 10, 2020.
4. Ferdinand KC. Uncontrolled hypertension in sub-Saharan Africa: now is the time to address a looming crisis. J Clin Hypertens. 2020;22
(11):2111–2113. doi:10.1111/jch.14046
5. WHO. Global brief on hypertension; 2017. Available from: http://ish-world.com/downloads/pdf/global_brief_hypertension.Pdf. Accessed
August 02, 2022.
6. Adeloye D, Kiechl S. An estimate of the incidence and prevalence of stroke in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One.
2014;9:e100724. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100724
7. Ataklte F, Erqou S, Kaptoge S, et al. Burden of undiagnosed hypertension in sub-saharan Africa: a systematic review and metaanalysis.
Hypertension. 2015;65:291–298. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.04394
8. Mayige M, Kagaruki G. Tanzania steps survey report. 2013.
9. Muhamedhussein MS, Nagri ZI, Manji KP. Prevalence, risk factors, awareness, and treatment and control of hypertension in Mafia Island,
Tanzania. Int J Hypertens. 2016;2016:1281384. doi:10.1155/2016/1281384
10. Law MR, Morris JK, Wald NJ. Use of blood pressure lowering drugs in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of 147
randomised trials in the context of expectations from prospective epidemiological studies. BMJ. 2009;338:b1665. doi:10.1136/bmj.b1665
11. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R; Prospective Studies Collaboration. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to
vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:1903–1913.
12. Corrao G, Parodi A, Nicotra F, et al. Better compliance to antihypertensive medications reduces cardiovascular risk. J Hypertens.
2011;29:610–618. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e328342ca97
13. Böhm M, Schumacher H, Laufs U, et al. Effects of nonpersistence with medication on outcomes in high-risk patients with cardiovascular
disease. Am Heart J. 2013;166(2):306–314. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2013.04.016
14. Akintunde AA, Akintunde TS. Antihypertensive medications adherence among Nigerian hypertensive subjects in a specialist clinic compared to
a general outpatient clinic. Ann Med Health Sci Res. 2015;5:173–178. doi:10.4103/2141-9248.157492
15. Peacock E, Krousel-Wood M. Adherence to antihypertensive therapy. Med Clin North Am. 2017;101(1):229–245. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2016.08.005
16. van Dulmen S, Sluijs E, van Dijk L, et al. Patient adherence to medical treatment: a review of reviews. BMC Health Serv Res. 2007;7:55.
doi:10.1186/1472-6963-7-55
17. World Health Organization. Adherence to Long Term Therapy: Evidences for Action. Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2003:107–112.
18. Mant J, McManus RJ. Does it matter whether patients take their antihypertensive medication as prescribed? The complex relationship between
adherence and blood pressure control. J Hum Hypertens. 2006;20:551–553. doi:10.1038/sj.jhh.1002046
19. Jung O, Gechter JL, Wunder C, et al. Resistant hypertension? Assessment of adherence by toxicological urine analysis. J Hypertens.
2013;31:766–774. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e32835e2286
20. Mazzaglia G, Ambrosioni E, Alacqua M, et al. Adherence to antihypertensive medications and cardiovascular morbidity among newly
diagnosed hypertensive patients. Circulation. 2009;120:1598–1605. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.830299
21. Mensah GA. Epidemiology of stroke and high blood pressure in Africa. Heart. 2008;94:697–705. doi:10.1136/hrt.2007.127753
22. Ogden LG, He J, Lydick E, Whelton PK. Long-term absolute benefit of lowering blood pressure in hypertensive patients according to the JNC
VI risk stratification. Hypertension. 2000;35:539–543. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.35.2.539
23. Osterberg L, Blaschke T. Drug therapy: adherence to medication. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:487–497. doi:10.1056/NEJMra050100
24. The benefits of responsible use of medicines - Setting policies for better and cost-effective healthcare. Ministers Summit3October 2012,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands; 2012. Available from: http://www.imshealth.com/en/thoughtleadership/ims-institute/reports/responsible-
useofmedicines-report#ims-form. Accessed August 2, 2022.

108 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674 Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15


DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Dovepress Pallangyo et al

25. Steiner JF, Prochazka AV. The assessment of refill compliance using pharmacy records: methods, validity, and applications. J Clin Epidemiol.
1997;50:105–116. doi:10.1016/S0895-4356(96)00268-5
26. Al Ghobain M, Alhashemi H, Aljama A. Nonadherence to antihypertensive medications and associated factors in general medicine clinics.
Patient Prefer Adherence. 2016;10:1415–1419. doi:10.2147/PPA.S100735
27. Rudnick KV, Sackett DL, Hirst S, Holmes C. Hypertension in a family practice. Can Med Assoc J. 1977;117(5):492–497.
28. Haynes RB, Taylor DW, Sackett DL, et al. Can simple clinical measurements detect patient noncompliance? Hypertension. 1980;2:757–764.
doi:10.1161/01.HYP.2.6.757
29. Karve S, Cleves MA, Helm M, et al. Good and poor adherence: optimal cut-point for adherence measures using administrative claims data.
Curr Med Res Opin. 2009;25:2303–2310. doi:10.1185/03007990903126833
30. Golightly YM, Allen KD, Ambrose KR, et al. Physical activity as a vital sign: a systematic review. physical activity as a vital sign: a systematic
review. Prev Chronic Dis. 2017;14:170030. doi:10.5888/pcd14.170030
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Division of nutrition, physical activity, and obesity. about adult BMI. Available from: http://www.
cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/. Accessed August 2, 2022.
32. Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the
prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/
American Heart Association Task Force on clinical practice guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;71(19):e127–e248. doi:10.1016/j.
jacc.2017.11.006
33. Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J.
2018;39:3021–3104. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehy339
34. American Diabetes Association. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes. Sec. 2. in standards of medical care in diabetes—2015. Diabetes Care.
2015;38(Suppl. 1):S8–S16. doi:10.2337/dc15-S005
35. Murphy SP, Ibrahim NE, Januzzi JL. Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: a review. JAMA. 2020;324(5):488–504. doi:10.1001/
jama.2020.10262
36. Fenton A, Montgomery E, Nightingale P, et al. Glomerular filtration rate: new age- and gender- specific reference ranges and thresholds for
living kidney donation. BMC Nephrol. 2018;19:336. doi:10.1186/s12882-018-1126-8
37. Khusun H, Yip R, Schultink W, Dillon DHS. World Health Organization hemoglobin cut-off points for the detection of anemia are valid for an
Indonesian population. J Nutr. 1999;129(9):1669–1674. doi:10.1093/jn/129.9.1669
38. Nantsupawat N, Booncharoen A, Wisetborisut A, et al. Appropriate total cholesterol cut-offs for detection of abnormal LDL cholesterol and
non-HDL cholesterol among low cardiovascular risk population. Lipids Health Dis. 2019;18(1):28. doi:10.1186/s12944-019-0975-x
39. Zhou B, Perel P, Mensah GA, et al. Global epidemiology, health burden and effective interventions for elevated blood pressure and
hypertension. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2021;18:785–802. doi:10.1038/s41569-021-00559-8
40. Chow CK, Gupta R. Blood pressure control: a challenge to global health systems. Lancet. 2019;394(10199):613–615. doi:10.1016/S0140-
6736(19)31293-0
41. Fisher NDL, Curfman G. Hypertension-a public health challenge of global proportions. JAMA. 2018;320(17):1757–1759. doi:10.1001/
jama.2018.16760
42. NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC). Worldwide trends in hypertension prevalence and progress in treatment and control from 1990 to
2019: a pooled analysis of 1201 population-representative studies with 104 million participants. Lancet. 2021;398(10304):957–980.
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01330-1
43. Burnier M, Egan BM. Adherence in hypertension. Circ Res. 2019;124(7):1124–1140. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.118.313220
44. Sabaté E. Project WA to LTT, Network GAI, Diseases WHOD of M of N. Adherence to long-term therapies: evidence for action; 2003
Available from: http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/42682. Accessed August 02, 2022.
45. Ritchey M, Chang A, Powers C, et al. Vital signs: disparities in antihypertensive medication nonadherence among medicare part
D beneficiaries — United States, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:967–976. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6536e1
46. Bramley TJ, Gerbino PP, Nightengale BS, et al. Relationship of blood pressure control to adherence with antihypertensive monotherapy in 13
managed care organizations. J Manag Care Pharm. 2006;12(3):239–245. doi:10.18553/jmcp.2006.12.3.239
47. Hashmi SK, Afridi MB, Abbas K, et al. Factors associated with adherence to anti-hypertensive treatment in Pakistan. PLoS One. 2007;2(3):
e280. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000280
48. Chelkeba L, Dessie S. Antihypertension medication adherence and associated factors at Dessie hospital, north East Ethiopia, Ethiopia. Int J Res
Med Sci. 2013;1(3):191–197. doi:10.5455/2320-6012.ijrms20130802
49. Inkster ME, Donnan PT, MacDonald TM, et al. Adherence to antihypertensive medication and association with patient and practice factors.
J Hum Hypertens. 2006;20(4):295–297. doi:10.1038/sj.jhh.1001981
50. Nakwafila O, Mashamba-Thompson T, Godi A, et al. A cross-sectional study on hypertension medication adherence in a high-burden region in
Namibia: exploring hypertension interventions and validation of the Namibia Hill-bone compliance scale. Int J Environ Res Public Health.
2022;19:4416. doi:10.3390/ijerph19074416
51. de Souza AO, Ramos RN, de Oliveira T, et al. Adhesion to antihypertensive drug therapy in primary health care in a medium-sized Brazilian
city. O Mundo da Saúde São Paulo. 2019;43(1):025–044.
52. Liu Q, Quan H, Chen G, et al. Antihypertensive medication adherence and mortality according to ethnicity: a cohort study. Can J Cardiol.
2014;30(8):925–931. doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2014.04.017
53. Tajeu GS, Kent ST, Huang L, et al. Antihypertensive medication nonpersistence and low adherence for adults <65 years initiating treatment in
2007–2014. Hypertension. 2019;74(1):35–46. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.118.12495
54. Nguyen TPL, Schuiling-Veninga CCM, Nguyen TBY, et al. Adherence to hypertension medication: quantitative and qualitative investigations in
a rural Northern Vietnamese community. PLoS One. 2017;12(2):e0171203. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171203
55. Shin S, Song H, Oh SK, et al. Effect of antihypertensive medication adherence on hospitalization for cardiovascular disease and mortality in
hypertensive patients. Hypertens Res. 2013;36(11):1000–1005. doi:10.1038/hr.2013.85
56. Nashilongo MM, Singu B, Kalemeera F, et al. Assessing adherence to antihypertensive therapy in primary health care in Namibia: findings and
implications. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2017;31:565–578. doi:10.1007/s10557-017-6756-8

Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674


109
DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Pallangyo et al Dovepress

57. Girma F, Emishaw S, Alemseged F, et al. Compliance with anti-hypertensive treatment and associated factors among hypertensive patients on
follow-up in Jimma University specialized hospital, Jimma, south west Ethiopia: a quantitative cross-sectional study. J Hypertens. 2014;3(5):1–6.
58. Gebreyohannes EA, Bhagavathula AS, Abebe TB, et al. Adverse effects and non-adherence to antihypertensive medications in University of
Gondar Comprehensive Specialized Hospital. Clin Hypertens. 2019;25:1. doi:10.1186/s40885-018-0104-6
59. Pallangyo P, Millinga J, Bhalia S, et al. Medication adherence and survival among hospitalized heart failure patients in a tertiary hospital in
Tanzania: a prospective cohort study. BMC Res Notes. 2020;13(1):89. doi:10.1186/s13104-020-04959-w
60. Gikunda GN, Gitonga L. Patients related factors associated with non-adherence to antihypertensive medication among patients at Chuka
Referral Hospital, Kenya. Open J Clin Diagnostics. 2019;9:90–113. doi:10.4236/ojcd.2019.93007
61. Gikunda C, Gitonga L, Kamweru P. Patient and health system related factors associated with non-adherence to antihypertensive medication
among patients at Chuka Referral Hospital, Kenya. Open J Clin Diagnostics. 2021;11:19–46. doi:10.4236/ojcd.2021.112002
62. Mweene MD, Banda J, Andrews B, et al. Factors associated with poor medication adherence in hypertensive patients in Lusaka, Zambia. Med
J Zambia. 2010;37:3.
63. Osman FAA, Mohamed HH, Alhaj NA. Non-adherence to antihypertensive medication and its associated factors among cardiac patients at
alshaab referred clinic, November 2017. Sudan J Med Sci. 2019;14(2):24–37.
64. Moss JT, Kimani H, Mwanzo I. Compliance to antihypertensive therapy and associated factors among adults’ hypertensive patients attending medical
clinics in Kilifi County Kenya. Int J Commun Med Public Health. 2021;8(10):4655–4665. doi:10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20213758
65. Rana I, Shrestha P, Pokharel AS. Associated factors of treatment compliance among hypertensive patients of selected Hospital of Rupendehi.
J Univ Coll Med Sci. 2020;8(1):70–73. doi:10.3126/jucms.v8i1.29788
66. Thomas D, Meera NK, Binny K, et al. Medication adherence and associated barriers in hypertension management in India. Glob Heart. 2011;6
(1):9–13. doi:10.1016/j.cvdpc.2010.11.001
67. Kretchy I, Owusu-Daaku F, Danquah S. Spiritual and religious beliefs: do they matter in the medication adherence behaviour of hypertensive
patients? Biopsychosoc Med. 2013;7(1):15. doi:10.1186/1751-0759-7-15
68. Abdul Wahab NA, Makmor Bakry M, Ahmad M, et al. Exploring culture, religiosity and spirituality influence on antihypertensive medication
adherence among specialised population: a qualitative ethnographic approach. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2021;15:2249–2265. doi:10.2147/PPA.
S319469
69. Atinga RA, Yarney L, Gavu NM. Factors influencing long-term medication non-adherence among diabetes and hypertensive patients in Ghana:
a qualitative investigation. PLoS One. 2018;13(3):e0193995. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0193995
70. Pirasath S, Sundaresan T. Descriptive cross-sectional study on knowledge, awareness and adherence to medication among hypertensive patients
in a tertiary care center, Eastern Sri Lanka. SAGE Open Med. 2021;9:20503121211012497. doi:10.1177/20503121211012497
71. Wright-Nunes JA, Luther JM, Ikizler TA, Cavanaugh KL. Patient knowledge of blood pressure target is associated with improved blood
pressure control in chronic kidney disease. Patient Educ Couns. 2012;88(2):184–188. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2012.02.015
72. Camara BS, Belaid L, Manet H, et al. What do we know about patient-provider interactions in sub-Saharan Africa? A scoping review. Pan Afr
Med J. 2020;37:88. doi:10.11604/pamj.2020.37.88.24009
73. Mc Namara KP, Versace VL, Marriott JL, Dunbar JA. Patient engagement strategies used for hypertension and their influence on
self-management attributes. Fam Pract. 2014;31(4):437–444. doi:10.1093/fampra/cmu026
74. Pirasath S, Sugathapala AGH, Wanigasuriya K. Descriptive cross-sectional study on knowledge, awareness, and adherence to medication among
hypertensive patients at a tertiary care centre in Colombo District, Sri Lanka. Int J Hypertens. 2020;2020(2020):1320109. doi:10.1155/2020/1320109
75. Jo SH, Kim HS, Park KH, et al. GW29-e0714 self blood pressure monitoring improves awareness and attainment of target blood pressure goal:
prospective observational study of 7751 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;72(16_Supplement):C154. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2018.08.705
76. Alexander M, Gordon NP, Davis CC, Chen RS. Patient knowledge and awareness of hypertension is suboptimal: results from a large health
maintenance organization. J Clin Hypertens. 2003;5(4):254–260. doi:10.1111/j.1524-6175.2003.01963.x
77. Algabbani FM, Algabbani AM. Treatment adherence among patients with hypertension: findings from a cross-sectional study. Clin Hypertens.
2020;26:18. doi:10.1186/s40885-020-00151-1
78. Tesema S, Disasa B, Kebamo S, Kadi E. Knowledge, attitude and practice regarding lifestyle modification of hypertensive patients at Jimma
University Specialized Hospital, Ethiopia. Prim Health Care. 2016;6(1):218.
79. Bakhsh LA, Adas AA, Murad MA, et al. Awareness and knowledge on hypertension and its self- care practices among hypertensive patients in
Saudi. Ann Int Med Dent Res. 2017;2:5. doi:10.21276/aimdr.2017.3.5.ME13
80. Toole J, Kohansieh M, Khan U, et al. Does your patient understand their treatment plan? Factors affecting patient understanding of their medical
care treatment plan in the inpatient setting. J Patient Exp. 2020;7(6):1151–1157. doi:10.1177/2374373520948400
81. Street RL; Street RL. How clinician-patient communication contributes to health improvement: modeling pathways from talk to outcome.
Patient Educ Couns. 2013;92:286–291. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2013.05.004
82. Cubaka VK, Schriver M, Kayitare JB, et al. ‘He should feel your pain’: patient insights on patient-provider communication in Rwanda. Afr
J Prim Health Care Fam Med. 2018;10(1):e1–e11. doi:10.4102/phcfm.v10i1.1514
83. Świątoniowska-Lonc N, Polański J, Tański W, et al. Impact of satisfaction with physician–patient communication on self-care and adherence in
patients with hypertension: cross-sectional study. BMC Health Serv Res. 2020;20:1046. doi:10.1186/s12913-020-05912-0
84. Zolnierek KB, Dimatteo MR. Physician communication and patient adherence to treatment: a meta-analysis. Med Care. 2009;47(8):826–834.
doi:10.1097/MLR.0b013e31819a5acc
85. Amoah EM, Okai DE, Manu A, et al. The role of lifestyle factors in controlling blood pressure among hypertensive patients in two health
facilities in Urban Ghana: a cross-sectional study. Int J Hypertens. 2020;2020:9379128. doi:10.1155/2020/9379128
86. Bruno CM, Amaradio MD, Pricoco G, Marino E, Bruno F. Lifestyle and hypertension: an evidence-based review. J Hypertens Manag. 2018;4:30.
87. Organia EG, Pangandaman HK, Adap DM, et al. A systematic review on the effectiveness of lifestyle modifications in the management of
hypertension. Int J Health Med Curr Res. 2019;4(04):1550–1564.
88. Blumenthal JA, Hinderliter AL, Smith PJ, et al. Effects of lifestyle modification on patients with resistant hypertension: results of the
TRIUMPH randomized clinical trial. Circulation. 2021;144(15):1212–1226. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.055329
89. Xiao J, Ren WL, Liang YY, et al. Effectiveness of lifestyle and drug intervention on hypertensive patients: a randomized community
intervention trial in rural China. J Gen Intern Med. 2020;35:3449–3457. doi:10.1007/s11606-019-05601-7

110 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674 Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15


DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Dovepress Pallangyo et al

90. Nicoll R, Henein MY. Hypertension and lifestyle modification: how useful are the guidelines? Br J Gen Pract. 2010;60(581):879–880.
doi:10.3399/bjgp10X544014
91. Yang MH, Kang SY, Lee JA, et al. The effect of lifestyle changes on blood pressure control among hypertensive patients [published correction
appears in Korean J Fam Med. 2017 Sep; 38(5):311–312]. Korean J Fam Med. 2017;38(4):173–180. doi:10.4082/kjfm.2017.38.4.173
92. Babiker FA, Elkhalifa LA, Moukhyer ME. Awareness of hypertension and factors associated with uncontrolled hypertension in Sudanese adults.
Cardiovasc J Afr. 2013;24(6):208–212. doi:10.5830/CVJA-2013-035
93. Fargally M, Elsadek A, Abdelhady AS, et al. Effect of lifestyle modification in hypertensive patients in Greater Cairo. Egypt J Hosp Med.
2013;53:991–1006. doi:10.12816/0001662
94. Appel LJ. Lifestyle modification as a means to prevent and treat high blood pressure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003;14(7 Suppl 2):S99–S102.
doi:10.1097/01.ASN.0000070141.69483.5A
95. Pallangyo P, Misidai N, Komba M, et al. Knowledge of cardiovascular risk factors among caretakers of outpatients attending a tertiary
cardiovascular center in Tanzania: a cross-sectional survey. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2020;20:364. doi:10.1186/s12872-020-01648-1
96. Alefan Q, Huwari D, Alshogran OY, Jarrah MI. Factors affecting hypertensive patients’ compliance with healthy lifestyle. Patient Prefer
Adherence. 2019;13:577–585. doi:10.2147/PPA.S198446
97. Akbarpour S, Khalili D, Zeraati H, Mansournia MA, Ramezankhani A, Fotouhi A. Healthy lifestyle behaviors and control of hypertension
among adult hypertensive patients. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):8508. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-26823-5
98. Pallangyo P, Komba M, Mkojera ZS, et al. Non-communicable disease risk factors among caregivers of patients attending a tertiary
cardiovascular hospital in Tanzania. Int J Gen Med. 2022;15:4685–4696. doi:10.2147/IJGM.S364392
99. Pallangyo P, Mkojera ZS, Hemed NR, et al. Obesity epidemic in urban Tanzania: a public health calamity in an already overwhelmed and
fragmented health system. BMC Endocr Disord. 2020;20:147. doi:10.1186/s12902-020-00631-3
100. Pallangyo P, Mgopa LR, Mkojera Z, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and associated factors among hypertensive patients attending a tertiary
cardiac center in Tanzania: a comparative cross-sectional study. Sleep Sci Pract. 2021;5:17. doi:10.1186/s41606-021-00069-z
101. Pallangyo P, Mkojera ZS, Komba M, et al. Burden and correlates of cognitive impairment among hypertensive patients in Tanzania: a
cross-sectional study. BMC Neurol. 2021;21(1):433. doi:10.1186/s12883-021-02467-3
102. Pallangyo P, Nicholaus P, Kisenge P, et al. A community-based study on prevalence and correlates of erectile dysfunction among Kinondoni
District Residents, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Reprod Health. 2016;13:140. doi:10.1186/s12978-016-0249-2
103. Pallangyo P, Nicholaus P, Kisenge P, et al. High blood pressure, an epidemic inadequately diagnosed and poorly controlled: a community-based
survey in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam Tanzania. GJMR-I. 2016;16:3.
104. Tapela NM, Clifton L, Tshisimogo G, et al. Prevalence and determinants of hypertension awareness, treatment, and control in Botswana:
a nationally representative population-based survey. Int J Hypertens. 2020;2020:8082341. doi:10.1155/2020/8082341
105. Ojo OS, Malomo SO, Sogunle PT, Ige AM. An appraisal of blood pressure control and its determinants among patients with primary
hypertension seen in a primary care setting in Western Nigeria. South African Fam Pract. 2016;58(6):1–10. doi:10.4102/safp.v58i6.4442
106. Devkota S, Dhungana RR, Pandey AR, et al. Barriers to Treatment and Control of Hypertension among Hypertensive Participants: a
Community-Based Cross-sectional Mixed Method Study in Municipalities of Kathmandu, Nepal. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2016;3:26.
doi:10.3389/fcvm.2016.00026
107. Sorato MM, Davari M, Kebriaeezadeh A, et al. Reasons for poor blood pressure control in Eastern Sub-Saharan Africa: looking into 4P’s
(primary care, professional, patient, and public health policy) for improving blood pressure control: a scoping review. BMC Cardiovasc Disord.
2021;21:123. doi:10.1186/s12872-021-01934-6
108. Turé R, Damasceno A, Djicó M, Lunet N. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in Bissau, Western Africa. J Clin
Hypertens. 2022;24(3):358–361. doi:10.1111/jch.14443
109. Masilela C, Pearce B, Ongole JJ, et al. Cross-sectional study of prevalence and determinants of uncontrolled hypertension among South African
adult residents of Mkhondo municipality. BMC Public Health. 2020;20:1069. doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09174-7
110. Musinguzi G, Nuwaha F, Ashton N. Prevalence, awareness and control of hypertension in Uganda. PLoS One. 2013;8(4):e62236. doi:10.1371/
journal.pone.0062236
111. Yazdanpanah L, Shahbazian H, Shahbazian H, Latifi SM. Prevalence, awareness and risk factors of hypertension in southwest of Iran. J Renal
Inj Prev. 2015;4(2):51–56. doi:10.12861/jrip.2015.11
112. Mbouemboue OP, Ngoufack TJO. High blood pressure prevalence, awareness, control, and associated factors in a low-resource African setting.
Front Cardiovasc Med. 2019;6:119. doi:10.3389/fcvm.2019.00119
113. Hien HA, Tam NM, Tam V, Derese A, Devroey D. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension and its risk factors in (Central)
Vietnam. Int J Hypertens. 2018;2018:6326984. doi:10.1155/2018/6326984
114. Lv X, Niu H, Qu Y, et al. Awareness, treatment and control of hypertension among hypertensive patients aged 18 to 59 years old in the northeast
of China. Sci Rep. 2018;8:17019. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-34923-5
115. Wu Y, Tai ES, Heng D, et al. Risk factors associated with hypertension awareness, treatment, and control in a multi-ethnic Asian population.
J Hypertens. 2009;27(1):190–197. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e328317c8c3
116. Calas L, Subiros M, Ruello M, et al. Hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment and control in 2019 in the adult population of Mayotte. Eur
J Public Health. 2022;2022:ckac015.
117. Gebrihet TA, Mesgna KH, Gebregiorgis YS, et al. Awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension is low among adults in Aksum town,
northern Ethiopia: a sequential quantitative-qualitative study. PLoS One. 2017;12(5):e0176904. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176904
118. Pengpid S, Peltzer K. Prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension among adults in Kenya: cross-sectional national
population-based survey. East Mediterr Health J. 2020;26(8):923–932. doi:10.26719/emhj.20.063
119. Damasceno A, Azevedo A, Silva-Matos C, et al. Hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control in Mozambique: urban/rural gap
during epidemiological transition. Hypertension. 2009;54(1):77–83. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.132423
120. Dhungana RR, Pandey AR, Shrestha N. Trends in the prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in Nepal between 2000 and
2025: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Hypertens. 2021;2021:6610649. doi:10.1155/2021/6610649

Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15 https://doi.org/10.2147/IBPC.S374674


111
DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)


Pallangyo et al Dovepress

121. Okello S, Muhihi A, Mohamed SF, et al. Hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control and predicted 10-year CVD risk: a
cross-sectional study of seven communities in East and West Africa (SevenCEWA). BMC Public Health. 2020;20:1706. doi:10.1186/s12889-
020-09829-5
122. Dzudie A, Kengne AP, Muna WFT, et al. Prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in a self-selected sub-Saharan African
urban population: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2012;2:e001217. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001217
123. Costa Filho FF, Timerman A, Saraiva JFK, et al. Independent predictors of effective blood pressure control in patients with hypertension on
drug treatment in Brazil. J Clin Hypertens. 2018;20(1):125–132. doi:10.1111/jch.13139
124. Horsa BA, Tadesse Y, Engidawork E. Assessment of hypertension control and factors associated with the control among hypertensive patients
attending at Zewditu Memorial Hospital: a cross sectional study. BMC Res Notes. 2019;12:152. doi:10.1186/s13104-019-4173-8
125. Menanga A, Edie S, Nkoke C, et al. Factors associated with blood pressure control amongst adults with hypertension in Yaounde, Cameroon: a
cross-sectional study. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2016;6(5):439–445. doi:10.21037/cdt.2016.04.03
126. Eghbali M, Khosravi A, Feizi A, et al. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, control, and risk factors of hypertension among adults: a
cross-sectional study in Iran. Epidemiol Health. 2018;40:e2018020. doi:10.4178/epih.e2018020
127. Mohamed SF, Mutua MK, Wamai R, et al. Prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension and their determinants: results from
a national survey in Kenya. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(Suppl 3):1219. doi:10.1186/s12889-018-6052-y
128. Beaney T, Schutte AE, Tomaszewski M, et al.; MMM Investigators. May measurement month 2017: an analysis of blood pressure screening
results worldwide. Lancet Glob Health. 2018;6(7):e736–e743. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30259-6

Integrated Blood Pressure Control Dovepress


Publish your work in this journal
Integrated Blood Pressure Control is an international, peer-reviewed open-access journal focusing on the integrated approach to managing
hypertension and risk reduction. Treating the patient and comorbidities together with diet and lifestyle modification and optimizing healthcare
resources through a multidisciplinary team approach constitute key features of the journal. This journal is indexed on American Chemical
Society’s Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS). The manuscript management system is completely online and includes a very quick and
fair peer-review system, which is all easy to use. Visit http://www.dovepress.com/testimonials.php to read real quotes from published
authors.
Submit your manuscript here: https://www.dovepress.com/integrated-blood-pressure-control-journal

112 DovePress Integrated Blood Pressure Control 2022:15

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

You might also like