SHS

Introduction to Philosophy
of the Human Person
Week 2: Module 2
 Introduction to
Philosophy of the
Human Person
Week 2: Module 2

ii
 Target

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help
you master the nature of philosophizing. The scope of this module permits it to be
used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the
diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the
standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.

The learning material is divided into three lessons, namely:

 Lesson 1- Knowledge and Truth

 Lesson 2– Methods of Philosophy that lead to Wisdom and Truth
 Lesson 3- Evaluating Truth from Opinion

After going through this learning material, you are expected to:
1. Distinguish opinion from truth (Ic-2.1);
2. Realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth (Id-2.2);
3. Evaluate truth from opinions in different situations (Id-2.3).

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Lesson
1
Knowledge and Truth

Jumpstart

ACTIVITY1: Unscramble Letters (Critical Thinking)

Directions: Unscramble the following letters to identify the concept being described.

SCRAMBLED LETTERS DESCRIPTION ANSWER

It is a mental grasp of reality
reached either by perceptual
LWKEDNGO observation or by a process of
reason based on perceptual
observation.
This is a science devoted to the
discovery of the proper method
EGLYEIOSPTMO
of acquiring and validating
knowledge.
It is an abstract or generic idea
NCPTEOC generalized from particular
instances
This knowledge is validated
RUTHT which means that it is highly
based on the facts of reality.
It is a group of statements, one
or more of which (the premises)
NTGRUAEM is claimed to provide support for,
or reason to believe one of the
others (the conclusion)

Great Job! Later as you continue

reading this learning materials we will
see if your answer is correct.

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 Discover

WHAT IS EPISTEMOLOGY?

There is no one correct definition of epistemology. The one that I’m going to
use came from the philosopher Ayn Rand:
“Epistemology is a science devoted to the discovery of the proper method of
acquiring and validating knowledge” (Rand 1990).
The purpose of epistemology therefore is two-fold:
1. To show how we can acquire knowledge.
2. To give us a method of demonstrating whether the knowledge we acquired
is really knowledge (i.e., true).
Since knowledge plays a central role in epistemology let us briefly described
its nature.

THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE

According to Ayn Rand knowledge is a “mental grasp of reality reached either

by perceptual observation or by a process of reason based on perceptual
observation” (Rand 1990).
When you know something (be it the behavior of your friend, the movement
of the planets, or the origin of civilizations) you understand its nature. You identify
what it is. And it stays with you. Knowledge is a retained form of awareness
(Binswanger 2014).
So how do you acquire knowledge? Miss Rand’s definition gives us two ways:
First, we can acquire knowledge using our senses: seeing, hearing, tasting, feeling,
and smelling. How do you know that the table is brown? Because you see it. How
do you know that fire is hot? Because you feel it. This method of acquiring
knowledge is called empiricism and it has many adherents in the history of
philosophy such as John Locke, George Berkley, David Hume.
Second, we can acquire knowledge by thinking with the use of our minds
(what philosophers call the rational faculty). This is what rationalism advocates.
(Some well-known rationalists in history are Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza and
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz).
However thinking is just half of the story of knowing (in fact the second half).
The reason is that thinking involves content. To think is to think of something. You
cannot think about nothing. This is where sense perception enters the picture by
feeding our minds with data coming from the outside world so that we can have
something to think about

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 Explore

ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE

From your previous Learning Material, you already have an idea what is
knowledge. Let us now explore the first part of epistemology: the process of
acquiring knowledge.
In this learning material, we’ll learn about Methods of acquiring knowledge
or we can say different ways of knowing knowledge. Philosophers and educationists
have bought out specific methods of acquiring knowledge. Thus there are different
ways of knowing knowledge. Before going any further let us have a brief recap of
knowledge. So what is Knowledge?
1. From the Indian point of view, knowledge is named as Vidya. It involves facts
about reality as well as cognitive changes.
2. Knowledge, as defined by Oxford dictionary, is
 What is known in a particular field
 Awareness gained by experience of fact or situation
 The theoretical and practical understanding of a subject.
3. Religious Interpretations:- Various religions have interpreted knowledge
differently
 Hindu Scriptures presents two kinds of knowledge
(A) Paroksh Gyan:- It is second-hand knowledge obtained from books,
hearing lectures etc.
(B) Aproksha Gyan:- It is knowledge obtained by direct experiences.
 According to Quran Knowledge comes from God and various habits
encourage the acquisition of knowledge.
 According to Christianity Knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the
Holy Spirit.

Some methods of knowledge acquisition are given below.

Figure 1: Methods of Knowledge Acquisition

Let us now have an explanation of them one by one.
1. Appeal to authority

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 o Comes from authority or specialist in a particular field of knowledge.
o For example scientists, philosophers, professor, economists etc.
o Teachers are accepted as an authority and great source of knowledge by
learners.

2. Appeal to Tradition
o We depend on our traditions for the solution of many problems we might face
in our life.
o So, we have accepted various traditions of our forefathers or our culture.
o Everything that we have accepted from our traditions might not always be
valid.
o Over the period of time, people have rejected those wrong traditions which
were once valid.
o Therefore we should always evaluate the knowledge acquired from traditions
before accepting it.
3. Appeal to Senses
o Knowledge is drawn through five senses.
o The more the senses are involved in process of acquiring knowledge, more
comprehensive would be the knowledge acquired.

4. Inductive and Deductive methods

o The inductive method starts with particular examples. Here learner tries to
arrive at a certain conclusion. This may lead to the formulation of a law,
generalization or principle.
o In deductive method learner starts with a generalization or rule, then he
comes to particular examples.
o So we can say that knowledge is gathered both by inductive and deductive
methods.

5. Appeal to experiences:
o Knowledge can also be gathered by experiences.
o Our personal experiences or experiences of other people are the most familiar
and fundamental sources of knowledge.
o We learn many things from our day to life and what goes around us.

6. Intuition
o The knowledge gained out of intuition is spontaneous and sudden.
o Senses and mind are not involved during intuition.
o Anyone can experience it at different points of time.

7. Concentration and meditation

o Concentration is a mental activity where the person concentrating focuses his
mental energy on aids like a candle flame, idea. breathing, mantras etc.
o In meditation person meditating concentrates for a longer period of time.
Both of them are foundations of attaining knowledge.
o While meditating or concentrating a person can make inferences. He can
even make a link of facts of knowledge to something meaningful.

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8. Observation and related processes:-
Four sub-processes of attaining knowledge are observation, explanation,
prediction and control.
o Observation can be internal or external. It can even be a scientific
observation.
o An explanation is the elaboration of facts of knowledge in a logical manner.
o Prediction is a process related to cause and effect. In this process, results are
predicted. One needs to understand about causes and their effects.
o Control is the process in which results are filtered out by exercising control
on certain factors.

9. Problem Solving:-
Here the solution of the problem being solved becomes the part of knowledge.
So, problem-solving is also an effective tool to acquire knowledge.

Deepen

THE NATURE OF TRUTH

Now that we know how we know, it’s time to see whether the knowledge we
acquired is “really” knowledge i.e., is true. This is the second part of epistemology:
validating one’s knowledge.
The first step in validating one’s knowledge is to ask oneself the following
question: “How did I arrive at this belief, by what steps?” (Binswanger 2014). Thus
you have to retrace the steps you took to acquire the knowledge, “reverse engineer”
the process (Binswanger 2014). This is what Dr. Peikoff calls reduction (Peikoff
1990). One will therefore realize that the steps you took to acquire knowledge
(perception-concept-proposition-inference) are the same steps needed to validate
knowledge (but in reverse order). Thus what the ancient pre-Socratic philosopher
Heraclitus said is true when applied to epistemology: “the way up [knowledge
acquisition] is the way down [knowledge validation]” (quoted by Dr. Binswanger
2014).
If we perform the process of reduction we will realized that all true
knowledge rest ultimately on sense perception. “A belief is true if it can be justified
or proven through the use of one’s senses” (Abella 2016). Consider the following
statements (Abella 2016):
I am alive.
I have a body.
I can breathe.

You can only validate the above statements if you observed yourself using
your senses. Feel your body. Are you breathing? Feel your pulse. Observe your

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body. Is it moving? These and countless examples provided by your senses proved
that you’re alive (Abella 2016).
Not all statements however can be validated directly by the senses. Some
beliefs or ideas need a “multi-step process of validation called proof’ (Binswanger
2014). Nevertheless proof rests ultimately on sense perception.
Statements based on sense perception are factual and if we based our beliefs
on such facts our beliefs are true (Abella 2016). For example the belief that human
beings have the right to life rests on the following claim:
1. Human beings are rational animals.
2. Animals (including human beings) are living organisms.

And of course the fact that we are alive can be demonstrated perceptually as
shown above.
A third way to determine if the statement is true is through a consensus
(Abella 2016). If the majority agrees that a statement is true then it is true.
However there are certain limitations to this approach. Far too many times in
history false ideas became popular which ultimately leads to disaster. For example
the vast majority of Germans during the time of Adolph Hitler believed that Jews
are racially inferior. This is obviously false supported by a pseudo biological science
of the Nazi. The result of this false consensus is the extermination of millions of
Jews in many parts of Europe.
A fourth way to determine whether a statement is true is to test it by means
of action (Abella 2016). For example you want to know if a person is friendly. Well
the best way to find out is to approach the person. Thus the famous Nike
injunction of “Just do it” is applicable in this situation.

TRUTH VS OPINION

Identifying truth however can sometimes be tricky. The reason is that there
are times when we strongly held an idea that we feel “deep down” to be true. For
example religious people strongly believed that there is life after death. Some people
who embraced democracy may passionately embraced the idea that the majority is
always right. Or on a more personal level you may feel strongly that your sister is
“selfish”.
However we must not confused strongly held beliefs with truth. Truth is
knowledge validated and when we say validated we mean they are based on the
facts of reality.
You must understand dear student that the facts of reality are independent
of your thoughts, feelings or preferences (Ayn Rand calls this the primacy of
existence [Rand 1982]). That is the characteristic of truth. For example the
statement “Jose Rizal died in 1896” is true. You may not like that statement or
deny it strongly. That does not change the fact that the statement is true because it
is based on what really happened in the past. There are many sources that can
validate the truth of that statement if one cared to look.
However when you say that “Jose Rizal is the greatest man who ever lived”
you are stating your preference and not facts. This is an opinion. Now it is true that

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there are many facts about Rizal but that statement is asserting something that is
beyond what the facts state. That statement represents not facts but your
interpretation of facts which may reveal your biases.

To summarize an opinion has the following characteristics:

1. Based on emotions
2. Open to interpretation
3. Cannot be confirmed
4. Inherently biased

While truth is:

1. Based on the facts of reality
2. Can be confirmed with other sources
3. Independent of one’s interpretation, preferences and biases
Likewise, when we critique sources, we must first understand the difference
between fact and opinion.
FACT OPINION

A fact is a statement that can be proven An opinion is a statement of belief which

true or false. may or may not be backed up by facts,
but cannot be proven true or false.

Is objective Is subjective

Is discovered Is created

States reality Interprets reality

Can be verified Cannot be verified

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Lesson Methods of Philosophy that lead to
2 Wisdom and Truth

Jumpstart

Activity 2: FACT or BLUFF.

Directions: Identify whether the following statements are FACT or BLUFF.

1. Oranges are always yellow or orange.

2. The egg came first than the chicken.
3. The chances of a coin landing on heads are the same chances of landing
on tails. It’s fifty – fifty.
4. A person whose mother tongue is very different from English will never
lose his/ her accent when moving to the United States.
5. A cloud weighs like 100 elephants.
6. Pangea was the name of the Earth’s original continent
7. You are taller in the morning than on the evening.
8. By the age of eighteen, your brain stops growing.
9. Muscle tissue is three times more efficient at burning calories than fat.
10. Vatican is the smallest country.

Discover

In knowing the truth or falsity of a statement, we generally use the following

Theories of Truth.

Three Different Theories of Truth

The Correspondence Theory of Truth:

The Correspondence Theory of Truth is probably the most common and
widespread way of understanding the nature of truth and falsehood. Put quite
simply, the Correspondence Theory argues that “truth” is whatever corresponds to
reality. An idea which corresponds with reality is true while an idea which does not
correspond with reality is false.

It is important to note here that “truth” is not a property of “facts.” This may
seem odd at first, but a distinction is being made here between facts and beliefs. A
fact is some set of circumstances in the world while a belief is an opinion about

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those what those facts are. A fact cannot be either true or false, it simply is
because that is the way the world is. A belief, however, is capable of being true or
false because it may or may not accurately describe the world.

Under the Correspondence Theory of Truth, the reason why we label certain
beliefs as “true” is because they correspond to those facts about the world. Thus,
the belief that the sky is blue is a “true” belief because of the fact that the sky is
blue. Along with beliefs, we can count statements, propositions, sentences, etc. as
capable of being true or false.

The idea that truth consists in whatever matches reality can be traced back
at least as far as Plato and was picked up in the philosophy of Aristotle. However, it
was not long before critics found a problem, perhaps best expressed in the paradox
formulated by Eubulides, a student of the Megara school of philosophy which was
regularly at odds with Platonic and Aristotelian ideas.

According to Eubulides, the Correspondence Theory of Truth leaves us in the

lurch when we are confronted with statements such as “I am lying” or “What I am
saying here is false.” Those are statements, and hence capable of being true or false.
However, if they are true because they correspond with reality, then they are false
and if they are false because they fail to correspond with reality, then they must be
true. Thus, no matter what we say about the truth or falsehood of these statements,
we immediately contradict ourselves.

This does not mean that the Correspondence Theory of Truth is wrong or
useless and, to be perfectly honest, it is difficult to give up such an intuitively
obvious idea that truth must match reality. Nevertheless, the above criticisms
should indicate that it probably isn’t a comprehensive explanation of the nature of
truth. Arguably, it is a fair description of what truth should be, but it may not be
an adequate description of how truth actually “works” in human minds and social
situations.

The Coherence Theory of Truth:

The Coherence Theory of truth is probably second in popularity to the
Correspondence Theory even though it often seems to be an accurate description of
how our conception of truth actually works. Put simply: a belief is true when we are
able to incorporate it in an orderly and logical manner into a larger and complex
system of beliefs or, even more simply still, a belief is true when it fits in with the
set of all our other beliefs without creating a contradiction.

Sometimes this seems like an odd way to actually describe truth. After all, a
belief can be an inaccurate description of reality and fit in with a larger, complex
system of further inaccurate descriptions of reality, according to the Coherence
Theory, that inaccurate belief would still be called “truth” even though it didn’t
actually describe the way the world really was. Does that really make any sense?

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 Well, possibly … the reason is because statements can’t really be verified in
isolation. Whenever you test an idea, you are also actually testing a whole set of
ideas at the same time. For example, when you pick up a ball in your hand and
drop it, it isn’t simply our belief about gravity which is tested but also our beliefs
about a host of other things, not least of which would be the accuracy of our visual
perception.

So, if statements are only tested as part of larger groups, then one might
conclude that a statement can be classified as “true” not so much because it can be
verified against reality but rather because it could be integrated into a group of
complex ideas, the whole set of which could then be tested against reality. In this
case Coherence Theory isn’t that far from the Correspondence Theory and the
reason is that while individual statements may be judged as true or false based
upon their ability to cohere with a larger system, it is assumed that that system is
one which accurately corresponds to reality.

Because of this, the Coherence Theory does manage to capture something

important about the way we actually conceive of truth in our daily lives. It isn’t that
unusual to dismiss something as false precisely because it fails to cohere with a
system of ideas which we are confident are true. Granted, maybe the system we
assume to be true is quite a way off the mark, but so long as it continues to be
successful and is capable of slight adjustments in the light of new data, our
confidence is reasonable.

The Pragmatic Theory of Truth:

The Pragmatic Theory of truth determines whether or not a belief is true or
not based on whether it has a useful (pragmatic) application in the world. If it does
not, then it is not true. As with Coherence Theory, truth in this sense is nothing to
do with the way the world ‘really is’ but is just a function of whether an idea can be
used as a model to make useful predictions about what is going to happen in the
world. As a result pragmatic truths can only be learnt through interaction with the
world: we don’t discover truth by sitting alone in a room and thinking about it.

There are, of course, a number of obvious objections that can be raised

against the Pragmatic Theory of Truth. For one thing, the notion of “what works” is
very ambiguous. What happens when a belief works in one sense, but fails in
another? For example, a belief that one will succeed may give a person the
psychological strength needed to accomplish a great deal but in the end, they may
fail in their ultimate goal. Was their belief “true”?

Furthermore, when a belief “works” in this sense, why call it “true”? Why not
call it something like “useful”? A useful belief is not necessarily the same as a true
belief and, what’s worse, is that people don’t typically use the word “true” in normal
conversation to mean useful. For example, for the average person, the statement “It
is useful to believe that my spouse is faithful” does not at all mean the same as “It
is true that my spouse is faithful.” Granted, it may be the case that true beliefs are

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also usually the ones that are useful, but not always. As Nietzsche argued,
sometimes untruth may be more useful than truth.

Now, pragmatism may be a handy means for distinguishing truth from

untruth. After all, that which is true should produce predictable consequences for
us in our lives. In order to determine what is real and what is unreal, it would not
be unreasonable to focus primarily upon that which works. This, however, is not
quite the same as the Pragmatic Theory of Truth.

Explore

Activity 3: Theories of Truth (Critical Thinking)

Direction: Identify the different theories of truth on the following statements. Write
your answer on a separate sheet of paper
.
1. There is a water fountain in front of the Cultural Center of the Philippines.
2. Bachelors are unmarried men.
3. The sun will rise tomorrow.
4. A dream board is necessary for dreams to come true.
5. What is more important to me at this time is my family.
6. A wooden table is a solid object.
7. Ghost and vampires exist.
8. 2+2=4
9. Cats are animals.
10. The Sky is blue.

Deepen

This chapter shall demonstrate the various ways of doing philosophy. In

search for wisdom, the learner must evaluate arguments and ways of expressing
one's beliefs, emotions, and opinions. This section shall introduce methods or ways
of looking at truth and what be considered as mere "opinions."
Philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a philosophical manner. It
considers or discusses a (matter) from a philosophical standpoint.
In phenomenology, truth is based on the person's Consciousness; while in
existentialism, truth is based in exercising choices and personal freedom; in

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postmodernism, it is accepted that truth is not absolute, (i.e., cultural); and-in logic,
truth is based on reasoning and critical thinking.

1. The dialectic method

This method of philosophizing was conceived by the Greek philosopher

Socrates, (born 470 BCE) one of the great philosophers of the ancient world.
Unfortunately, he did not leave any written words and everything people know
about him came from the dialogues written by his famous student, Plato.
Socrates’ aim was to achieve what he called the goof life which is based on
the proper care of one’s soul (psyche in Greek). The soul, according to Socrates, can
be properly taken care of if we make it as good as possible (Stumpf 2008). Since by
its very nature the soul’s activity is to know, the soul can only be good if we employ
it in the activity of having a clear awareness of the meaning of some words (Stumpf
2008). When we have a clear awareness of what justice is, we harm our soul if we
act contrary to what we know, like harming others (which is the opposite of being
just).
However, how can we achieve a clear understanding of words? We can
achieve this by an act of “disciplined conversation” (Stumpf 2008) which Socrates
compared to an intellectual midwife. Socrates called this method dialectic. The
method appears simple but anyone subjected by Socrates to this method eventually
felt its intense rigor.
The method starts with eliciting the definition of a certain word from a
person who appears to be familiar (or “pretends” to be familiar) with its meaning.
Socrates then points out the imperfections of the understanding of the person
through a series of questions. What Socrates desires is for the person to realize his
ignorance and contradictions, and thereby correcting his own mistakes and
arriving at a complete knowledge of the true meaning of the word. The method,
however, does not sit well with the ruling elites of Athens (the city where Socrates
lived). They accused him of not worshiping the Greek gods and corrupting the
youth. His defense (which was dramatically recorded in Plato’s dialogue the Apology)
was a model of “forceful argument” (Stumpf 2008) but it fell on deaf ears. In the
end, he was forced to drink poison. Socrates was the first philosopher to die
fighting for truth.
The Socratic Method was modernized and treated in a different way by
George Wilhelm Hegel, a German philosopher. Hegel was an idealist. He believed
that the ideas of the human minds have access of what the world is like. People are
social beings and could be completely influenced by other people’s ideas. An
individual’s mind is influenced by means of a common language, customs of one’s
society, and the cultural institutions that one belongs to. Hegel refers this to
“Spirit” as the collective consciousness of a society which is responsible for honing
one’s consciousness and ideas.
Hegel also believed that the Spirit is constantly changing and evolving.
According to Hegel, the spirit changes through dialectic. First, there is an idea
about the world (much like a thesis), which has a natural characteristic of having
errors which give rise to the antithesis.

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 The thesis and antithesis can be eventually resolved by creating a synthesis
which is a new idea comprised of the essentials of both the thesis and the
antithesis. To Hegel, society and culture follow this design, and one could
understand all of human history without the use of logic or empirical data simply
by using logic (Klein, 2013).

Figure 2: The Dialectic

2. The Pragmatic Method

Hundreds of years after the death of Socrates, a new philosophy emerged as

inspired by the idea of change initiated by the evolutionary thoughts of Hegel and
Darwin in 19th century America. This philosophy became known as pragmatism. It
was started by Charles S. Pierce (1839-1914), popularized by William James (1842-
1910) and institutionalized in American culture by John Dewey (1859-1952).
According to the pragmatists, philosophy seems to offer a set of beliefs about
human beings and his relationship to the world. Pragmatists offer no such beliefs.
Rather, they seek to make philosophy relevant by solving real life problems. It is
purely a philosophy of method and not of substance.
What pragmatism aims is to test the dogma of science, religion and
philosophy by determining their practical results. The pragmatic test is: if I practice
this belief, will it bring success or failure? Will I solve problems or create problems?
Successful experience is the verification process of truth for the pragmatists
(Stumpf 2008).

3. The Phenomenological Method

The phenomenological method wa conceived by Edmund Husserl (born in

1859), one of the greatest intellects of the 19th century. His ideas and method
influenced the thoughts of some of the 20th century philosophical giants: Martin
Heidegger, Jean – Pau Satre, and Maurice Merleau – Ponty among others.

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 What prompted Husserl to develop phenomenology? To answer this, we have
to look back at Husserl’s time and place: the 19th century Europe. At that time,
science was on the ascendancy prompted by the great discoveries of Galileo,
Newton, and Darwin among others. Husserl himself was impressed by the
achievements of science. Unfortunately, according to Husserl, science brings a
certain attitude which is counterproductive to the human soul: the naturalistic
attitude (or simply naturalism).
Naturalism in this context is the idea that everything can be explained in
terms of matter or the physical. Since man is not only physical (i.e. body) but also
spiritual, this naturalistic attitude brings a distorted view of man by banishing the
spiritual from the world which includes the banishment of ideas, values, and
cultures (Husserl, 1965).
To counter the naturalistic tendency, Husserl returned to the idea of the
thinking self which was given preeminence by the 17th century French philosopher,
Rene Descartes. More specifically, the layman’s term given to the thinking self is
“one’s immediate experience.”
Husserl’s main purpose was to build a philosophy free from any biases or
preconceived ideas. One can only do this if one returns to immediate experience.
Husserl said that he was only looking to “things and facts themselves, as these are
given in actual experience and intuition” (quoted by Stumpf 2008). This experience
is not the objective world of science separate from us, but the world as it appears to
us or (borrowing the term of the 18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant)
the phenomenal world - hence, the term phenomenology.
However, our beliefs about human beings and the world prevent us from
seeing clearly this immediate experience which he calls “pure subjectivity”. Thus, to
know the truth, we have to put aside one by one all our limiting beliefs about the
world which represents our biases. Husserl calls this process phenomenological
epoche (epoche is the Greek word for bracketing). Bracketing is not ignoring. It is
an act of stepping back at our biases and prejudices to make sure that they do not
influence the way we think. Only facts provided by immediate experience must
influence us.

4. The Primary and Secondary reflections

Another influential intellectual movement which had its roots in the 19th
century ideas of Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-
1900) was existentialism. Kierkegaard’s ideas were in part a reaction against the
overly ambitious system building the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(1770-1831).
On the other hand, Nietzsche’s ideas were a reaction against the religious
and rational value system still prevalent in 19th century Europe (Stumpf 2008).
While Kierkegaard was religious and Nietzsche was atheistic (atheism is the denial
of the supernatural), they both grounded their philosophy on the personal choices
of the individual which becomes one of the important tenets of existentialism.
In the 20th century, Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) and his partner, Simone de
Beauvoir (1908-1986) popularized atheistic existentialism while Gabriel Marcel
(1889-1973) and Karl Jaspers (1883-1969) promoted religious existentialism.

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Religious existentialists saw certain parallels between existential ideas and
religious themes like the fall of Adam and Eve which can be compared to the theme
of inauthentic existence in existentialist philosophy (Stumpf 2008).
After that brief overview on existentialism, let us focus our attention on one
existentialist method identified by Gabriel Marcel: the primary/secondary
reflection.
For Marcel, reflection is not just a disinterested look at experience. It
emerged when something valuable is at stake. Marcel gave an example of a watch.
Suppose you try to take a watch from your pocket. To your surprise, the watch that
you expect to be there is not there. A break from your ordinary routine happened.
From this break, reflection appears in the form of a question: Where is my watch?
Then, a host of questions, connected to the first one, followed: Where was the last
time I’ve seen my watch? Was there a hole in my pocket? You try to retrace your
steps from this moment back to the time when you last saw your watch.
From this example, you will see that reflection arise when there is a
disruption from your normal routine and when something valuable is at stake.
Then, Marcel identified two levels of reflection: primary reflection and
secondary reflection. Marcel applied these two levels of reflection to the most
fundamental question: Who am I?
Nowadays, we try to answer this question by filling up a form given by our
school for example. The form asked us to write our name, age, gender, address,
name of parents, etc. To answer this, of course we have to think to distinguish who
we are (the self) against other things (the non-self or objects). This is the primary
reflection.
Yet, we had an uneasy feeling that all the information we put on the form
(although true) do not fully capture who we really are (Marcel 1970). We view that
our self is bigger and more expansive than what is there on the form. Thus, we are
not merely thinking but we are thinking about thinking and about the process we
perform in answering the form. This is the secondary reflection.
The result of secondary reflection is a more expansive view of the self until it
embraces the world. Thus, the separation of the self and the world brought about
by primary reflection were united by the secondary reflection.

5. The Analytic Method

For Ludwig Wittgenstein, an analytic philosopher, language is socially

conditioned. We understand the world solely in terms of our language games—that
is, our linguistic, social constructs. Truth, as we perceive it, is itself socially
constructed.

Analytic philosophy is the conviction that to some significant degree,

philosophical problems, puzzles, and errors are rooted in language and can be
solved or avoided by a sound understanding of language and careful attention to its
workings. "

19
  Two basic types of reasoning:
1. Inductive reasoning is based from observations in order to make
generalizations. This reasoning is often applied in prediction, forecasting, or
behavior.

2. Deductive reasoning draws conclusion from usually one broad judgment

or definition and one more specific assertion, often an inference.

Take for instance:

All philosophers are wise. (Major premise)

Confucius is a philosopher. (Minor premise)
Therefore, Confucius is wise. (Conclusion)

 Validity and Soundness of an Argument

Based on the previous example (or syllogism), if the two premises are
constructed logically, then the conclusion must follow logically, the deductive
argument is valid. This does not necessarily mean that the conclusion is true or
false. Validity comes from a logical conclusion based on logically constructed
premises (Reed-2010).

 Strength of an Argument

On the other hand, inductive arguments cannot prove if the premises are
true which will also determine the truth of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning
proves only probable support to the conclusion. An inductive argument that
succeeds in providing such probable support is a strong argument. While an
inductive argument that fails to provide such support is weak, a strong argument
with true premises is said to be cogent.

For example:

Jay: Do you think Congressman Gerry will be re-elected?

Yna: I doubt it. His district has become more conservative in recent years.
Also, 63% of the registered voters in his district are in the Opposition.

This argument is both a statistical argument and a predictive argument,

which are two common patterns of inductive reasoning. Also, the conclusion does
not follow necessarily from the premises.

20
Activity 5: Let’s Apply It!

Directions: Fill in the table below with the main proponents of methods of
philosophizing. For each method, answer the questions: “How can you find truth
using this method?” and “On what real-life situation can you apply this method?”

On what real-life
How can you find
Methods of Main situation can you
truth using this
Philosophizing Proponent(s) apply this
method?
method?

Dialectic

Pragmatic

Phenomenological

Primary and
Secondary
Reflections

Analytic

21
Lesson
3
Evaluating Truth from Opinion

Jumpstart

A fallacy is a defect in an argument other than its having false premises.

To detect fallacies, it is required to examine the argument's content. Here are some
of the usually committed errors in reasoning and thus, coming up with false
conclusion and worse, distorting the truth.

FALLACY SHORT DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Hominem came from the Latin
Argumentum ad word “homo” which means “How can we believe him
Hominem or man. This fallacy literally when he talks about social
“Attacking the means hitting the person below distancing, he is a lawyer
Person” the belt instead of focusing on who is a liar.”
the issue at hand.
Baculum is a Latin word which
means scepter or stick. A
scepter is a symbol of authority. “TV Patrol is the best news
Argumentum ad
Normally it is the pope who program on TV. If you don’t
Baculum (Appeal
carries it in his hands. This is agree with me, I won’t let you
to Force)
committed when a person uses watch the TV.”
threat or force to advance an
argument.
“Forgive me office, there are
lot of boarders in this
apartment including me.
Misercordiam came from Latin
Only the owner was issued a
Argumentum ad word Misercordia which means
quarantine pass. We don’t
Misercordiam pity or compassion. A person
have food, we can’t give our
(Appeal to Pity) uses emotion such as pity to
ATM to the owner. That’s why
convince someone
I went out. So I did not
violate the Quarantine
Protocol.”
Argumentum ad Populum is the Latin word for
Populum (Appeal people. Most of TV commercials “I’m sure you want to have an
to people/ are guilty of this argument Iphone. Almost 80% of your
Bandwagon which exploit people’s vanity, schoolmates are using it.”
Fallacy) desires, etc.
Argumentum ad Tradition means tradition. “All of us in the family, from

22
Tradition Advancing an idea since it has our ancestors up to now, are
been practice for a long time. inclined with teaching, so it is
only right that you took up
education as your course.”
“According to Zecharia
Sittchin, the author of the
Argumentum ad Ignorantiam is a Latin word for
book ‘Cosmic Code, Adam
Ignorantiam ignorance. Whatever has been
was the first test tube baby.
(Appeal to proven false must be true and
Since nobody proves
Ignorance) vice versa.
otherwise, therefore it is
true.”
According to Merriam Webster’s
“God exists because the Bible
Petitio Principii Dictionary it is a fallacy in
says so. The Bible is inspired.
(Begging the which a conclusion is taken for
Therefore we know that God
Question) granted in the premises. Also
exists.”
called “circular argument”
“Our neighbor who is a Nurse
This fallacy is committed when is tested positive of COVID19,
Hasty
one reaches a generalization therefore, all Nurses are
Generalization
based on insufficient evidence positive of Corona Virus
Disease.”
“My Teacher didn’t collect the
Assuming that the effect is homework two weeks in a row
related to a case because both when my friend was absent.
Cause and Effect
events’ occur one after the Therefore my friend is the
other. reason why my teacher
doesn’t collect homework.”
“You are a doctor, therefore
Fallacy of Infers that something is true of
you came from a family of
Composition a part, is true of a whole
doctors.”
Infers that something is true of
Fallacy of “Your family is smart,
the whole, must also be true on
Division therefore you are smart.”
its parts
Using the same term in a “Humans walk by their legs.
Fallacy of
different situation with different The table has legs. Therefore,
Equivocation
meaning. the table walks by its legs.”

23
 Discover

Activity 6: Fact Vs. Opinion (Critical Thinking)

Directions: Analyze the following statements. Write F if it is FACT and O if it is

OPINION. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. According to the latest survey, families are purchasing more household

items on credit.
2. You can hear all the news you need to know from the BBC Radio 1 news
team.
3. The professor argues that the effect of carbon emissions on the
surrounding environment will only get worse.
4. The research team has discovered a new method for conducting this
chemical analysis.
5. The latest poll shows a marked increase in employee dissatisfaction.
6. I think public opinion will change over time.
7. This book is an enjoyable story of life in a small village.
8. The use of computers at the college has increased and the stationery
budget has doubled in the last few years.

Explore

Activity 7: Important Points to Ponder

Direction: Complete the statements below:

I learned that Truth is____________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

I feel that Truth is important because_____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

24
__________________________________________________________________________________

I commit to uphold the truth by __________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

Deepen

You have just learned that it is not enough to acquire knowledge but you
should analyze if that knowledge you have acquired is truthful or not.
Philosophizing involves the gift of speech and the gift of intelligence that enable us
to reason out and detect the falsity or truthfulness of a statement. When one
reasons out, he/she expresses his opinion and when others disagree, then
argument begins. In philosophical parlance argument is not an emotional reptilian
word war or a territorial show of force between persons but a philosophical method
in knowing the truth of a certain phenomenon or reality. It is a set of statements
which includes the premises and conclusion (the latter is the one that claims the
truth of the premises) (Cornejo & Ebia, 2017).

Applying Logic and Fallacies in Determining Truth from Opinion:

Tractatus identifies the relationship between language and reality and to

define the limits of science. It is recognized as a significant philosophical work of
the twentieth century. It is in the possibility of agreeing or disagreeing with reality,
thus being true or false, that the meaning of the picture lies.
The limits of what can be said, therefore, are defined by the logical rules.
The limits of my language mean the limit of my world. The logic of language shows
how elements fit states of affairs and how state of affairs in wider constellations can
be linked together; we can decide on the basis of this logic.
Everyday language reproduces actual situations but there are extremely
complicated and often opaque when seen through an impure use of words

25
In news reporting and journalism:
If the purpose of a sentence is to inform or state a fact, some of its words
must refer to things, events, and properties. In other words, some of its words have
cognitive meaning. However, words also have emotive meaning-that is, and they
also may have emotive whether positive or negative overtones. For the author, the
United States war on “terror” had produced many emotively charged expressions
such as “terrorists”, “axis of evil”, “band of zealots”, and “either you are with us or
against us”
Some positive or emotive overtones are “democracy”, “strong republic”,
“good governance”, “civil society” and “love”. While, “Politicians” and “whisky” tend
to have mixed emotive meaning. “penil”, “river” and “run” are neutral terms.

Con artists take advantage of the emotive side of language

1. They use emotive meaning masked as cognitive meaning to whip up
emotions so that reason gets overlooked
2. They use neutral terms of euphemisms to dull the force of what they say,
and thus, make acceptable what otherwise might not be

Double (1999), although philosophy is an organized body of knowledge, the

subject matter of philosophy is questions, which have three major characteristics:

1. Philosophical questions have answers, but the answers remain in

dispute.
2. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common sense, or
faith.
3. Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interest to human
beings.

The methodology or method that philosophers use to address philosophical

questions is critical thinking. Critical thinking is the careful, reflective, rational,
and systematic approach to questions of very general interest. Critical thinking
means understanding of philosophy and refraining from merely giving claims but
through careful thought, one reasons through argumentations. One tries to
become a "philosopher" because one possesses and cherishes above the rest of
humanity the "love of wisdom" which is a part of all human nature and because
one more reflectively and critically brings to light and examines the largest and
widest implications of the life of all human beings.

For Maboloc and Pascua (2008), critical thinking is a lifelong process of

self-assessment that further consists of:
 defining, analyzing, and devising solutions;
 arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions;
 applying understanding and knowledge to new and different problems;
 willingness to change one point of view;
 continually examining and re-examining ideas; and
 willingness to say "l don't know."

26
The attributes of a critical thinker include:
 Looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs
 Adjusts opinions
 Looks for proof
 Examines problem
 Rejects irrelevant and incorrect information

27
 Gauge

Activity 8:

Direction: Select the keyword that best fits the statement in each item. Write the
chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following scenarios demonstrates the scientific method?

A. Evaluating two physical activities regarding their ability to increase work
performance.
B. A lawyer is asking further questions about the suspect’s whereabouts
during the crime.
C. A mother is questioning her son’s real reason for his excessive absences
from school.
D. Testing and quantifying compassion which are all realities that do dwell
in the realm of materialism

2. Which of the following demonstrates the appeal to force fallacy?

A. If we can’t choose which cruise to go on, we can flip a coin to decide.
B. If you lose your job, you will need to apply for unemployment
compensation.
C. If you don’t agree to the terms of the annulment, I will spread rumors
about you all over town.
D. I should be able to go before you in line for vanilla ice cream because I
arrived at the shop first.

3. What would have been a better approach for Guinevere to convince her
friends that continuing to hike is safe?
A. Telling them about how one of her friends was ever hit by lightning.
B. Citing guidelines she had been provided by a park ranger for how to tell
when it is safe to continue.
C. Giving them the precise number of times that she herself had hiked up
the mountain without a problem.
D. All of the answers are correct.

4. Which among the statements is a fact as opposed to an opinion.

A. San Fernando City is not a pretty city.
B. Pasig is the best city in the Philippines.
C. Only awesome people live in the Naguilian.
D. The Philippines has around 104 million people.

5. If you read something that said that one thing was better than another,
and that made you have an emotional response, what did you likely just read?
A. Essay C. News
B. Fact D. Opinion

28
 6. Which of these is an opinion?
A. Philippines has around 104 million people.
B. Quezon City is the largest city in the Philippines
C. There are twenty towns in the Province of La Union
D. The beaches in San Juan, La Union are the best tourist spot.

7. Which question can help you determine whether a statement is a fact or

an opinion?
A. Is this statement provable either true or false?
B. Does this statement express an author’s personal belief, idea, or feeling
about a topic?
C. Both of A and B
D. Neither of A or B

8. Why do you think opinion is based on our own perception?

A. What might be our perception is different from others.
B. Our perception depends on the people that we encounter.
C. It strengthens our critical thinking skills and reasoning powers.
D. Without our opinion, we cannot give positive judgment to an issue.

9. Which statement best describe opinion?

A. Belief that can be proven.
B. Belief that cannot be proven.
C. A personal belief that makes sense
D. Statement which most people share.

10. Which among the following statements is true about truth?

A. It is for younger ages only.
B. Always end with conclusion.
C. Similar to self – actualization.
D. Requires logical and critical thinking.

11. What do you think is considered as opinion in the paragraph below?

Harley is six feet tall. He is a twelfth grade student of Naguilian Senior High
School. Just last week, he scored 24 points in the Municipal Meet
championship game. I think he will be a varsity player in college.
A. Harley is six feet tall.
B. I think he will be a varsity player in college.
C. He is a twelfth grade student of Naguilian Senior High School.
D. Just last week, he scored 24 points in the Municipal Meet championship
game.

12. Which sentence expresses an opinion?

A. It is easier to wrap a big gift than a small one.
B. We celebrate New Year every first day of January.
C. Christmas is the time of giving and sharing your blessings.
D. Paper lanterns are symbols of Christmas in the Philippines.

13. Which of the following is NOT an opinion statement?

A. Avril Lavigne is the greatest singer ever!
B. Nearly 65% of our teens are over – weight.
C. Chocolate cake is the most delicious kind of dessert.
D. I think that San Fernando City is the best state in which to live.

29
 14. What type of fallacy is present in the statement “Before we begin the
debate, everyone here should know that my opponent is a convicted felon”.
A. More Licensing C. Arumentum ad Baculum
B. Equivocation D. Argumentum ad Hominem

15. According to Husserl, the success of natural science lead to gradual

scientific rejection of ________.
A. Spirit C. Nature
B. Matter D. Existence

16. When Husserl described human experience as the immediate data of

consciousness, he meant ________.
A. pure subjectivity C. materialism
B. pure objectivity D. dualism

17. What type of fallacy is present in the statement, “My father smoked four
packs of cigarettes a day since age fourteen and lived until age sixty nine. Therefore,
smoking really can’t be that bad for you.”
A. Ad misericordiam C. Hasty Generalization
B. false analogy D. Post Hoc

18. Which among these headlines presented information that are fair,
objective, and moderate?
A. It’s time to consider other means of cash aid distribution
B. Other countries around the world have much better means in cash aid
distribution
C. Government vows to faster distribution of coronavirus aid
D. We can also learn lesson from Vietnam how they distribute their cash aid.

19. What type of fallacy is present in the statement, “Forgive me office,

there are lot of boarders in this apartment including me. Only the owner was
issued a quarantine pass. We don’t have food, we can’t give our ATM to the owner.
That’s why I went out. So I did not violate the Quarantine Protocol.”
A. Ad misericordiam C. Hasty Generalization
B. false analogy D. Post Hoc

20. What type of fallacy is present in the statement, “All of us in the family,
from our ancestors up to now, are inclined with teaching, so it is only right that
you took up education as your course.”
A. Ad misericordiam
B. Ad Baculum
C. Ad Populum
D. Ad Tradition

30
References
Books

Abella, Roberto D. (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person.

Quezon City: C&E Publishing

Cornejo, N. & Ebia, E. Philosophy of Human Person. Mindshapers Co., Manila.2017

Mabacquiao, N. (2017). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person.

Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing

Website

https://physicscatalyst.com/graduation/methods-of-acquiring-knowledge/

http://mrhoyestokwebsite.com/Knower/Useful%20Information/Three%20Different%
20Theories%20of%20Truth.htm

http://atheism.about.com/b/2007/05/29/epistemology-correspondence-theory-of-
truth.htm

www.slideshare.net/mobile/jomarienelgarcia

32
SHS

Introduction to Philosophy
of the Human Person
Week 3: Module 3
 Introduction to
Philosophy of the
Human Person
Week 3: Module 3

3
ii
 Target

This learning material helps you to know that in philosophy, the

adjective transcendental and the noun transcendence convey the basic ground
concept from the world’s literal meaning (from Latin) of climbing or going beyond,
with varying connotations in its different historical and cultural stages. The fact that
we have a soul that is capable of coming to life and experiencing profound and hidden
values, which the flesh and its senses can never discover alone. This spirituality in
us is identified with the divine image in our soul.

This learning material is divided into 2 lessons namely:

 Lesson I: Limits the Human Body Imposes and Possibilities for
Transcendence
 Lesson 2: Own Limitations and the Possibilities for their Transcendence

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Relate the three main spiritual philosophies namely Hinduism, Buddhism

and Christianity
2. Explain the nature of the human person as embodied spirit
3. Accept that a human being has a supernatural, transcendental destiny
that can rise above one’s ordinary being or self to a highest being or self.
4. Show appreciation and gratitude to people who help you to be you
spiritually and morally

4
 Jumpstart

Activity 1- Sensitivity Check

Directions: What are your views about the paragraph. Write your views on the
blanks provided.

Ako ay Ako
…Kaya kong itapon o wasakin ang hindi akma
at panatilihin ang mga naakma
At lumikha o kumatha ng mga bago, kapalit ng mga itinapon o winasak.
Ako ay nakakikita, nakaririnig, nakadarama, nakaiisip, nakapagsasalita at
nakagagawa.
Ako ay may kakayahan upang mabuhay at maging malapit sa kapwa.
Maging kapaki-pakinabang at makaimpluwensya sa mga tao at mga bagay.
Ako ang nagmamay- ari sa akin, samakatuwid kaya kong pamahalaan ang aking
sarili,
Ako ay ako, at ako ay okay.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Activity 2: Development on the Different Stages of life

Directions: Complete the chart below. Make sure that you ask or consult your
parents or any adult who have witnessed your development and reflect before you
write your answer. Copy and fill out the chart.

AGE THINGS THAT I CAN DO THINGS THAT I CANNOT

DO

0-3

4-7

8-11

12-15

16 UP

5
Enrichment Activity 3: Knowing My Limitations

Directions: Answer the following questions briefly and substantially. Write your
answer on the space provided below.

1. What are your limitations as a person? What are the things that you
consider as difficult or hard for you to accomplish or believe in?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

2. What are your strengths? What are the possible things or status that you
can reach or achieve in the future?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

3. What are the factors affecting your limitations? How about possibilities?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

4. Do you see yourself improving in 5-10 years’ time? How can you say that
you are improving?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

5. How can you transcend from your current limitations?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Rubrics

1.Completeness (5 points)
-Does your response directly Excellent Very Good Good Need
answer each part of the (5) (3-4) (2) Improvement
assignment question(s)? (0-1)

2. Knowledge (10 points)

- Does your response
clearly show you have
read and understand the Excellent Very good Good Need
lesson content by (9-10) (8-7) (7-6) Improvement
correctly defining key (0-5)

6
 terms, key persons and
summarizing concepts?
-Have you made inferences
based on this knowledge to
personal or modern-day
applications?

3. Analysis (5 points)
-Have you clearly state
analysis and give examples to Excellent Very Good Good Need
back them up? (5) (3-4) (2) Improvement
_ Does your response provide (0-1)
analysis to the larger
concepts of the lesson?

4.Writing Skills (5 points)

_ Do you write clearly, in
complete sentences, with Excellent Very Good Good Need
minimal errors in grammar (5) (4-3) (2) Improvement
and spelling? Did you use the (0-1)
APA Method of Citation
where needed?

Discover

Lesson I: Limits the Human Body Imposes and Possibilities for

Transcendence

The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit

According to St. Thomas of Aquinas in his Summa Theologia, “the body is not
of the essence of the soul; but the soul by the nature of its essence can be united to
the body, so that, properly speaking, not the soul alone, but the “composite,” is the
species. And the very fact that the soul in a certain way requires the body for its
operation proves that the soul is endowed with a grade of intellectuality inferior to
that of an angel, who is not united to a body.
What is the characteristic of the human person as a self with an immortal soul
and as a composite of body and soul?

The Union of Body and Soul

The philosopher Aristotle in his book De Anima II, stated the union of body and
soul, “The soul is the source of these phenomena and is characterized by them, viz.
by the power of self- nutrition, sensation, thinking and movement; further, since it
is the soul by which primarily we live, perceive and think- it follows that the soul

7
must be an account and essence, not matter or subject… it is the soul which is the
quality of a certain kind of body.”
In De Anima II, Aristotle explains that the primary principle of what animates
man- from nourishment to understanding-is the soul, which is united with the body
as its form. The soul is said to be essentially the form of the body, but for Aristotle,
it is not because the soul is merged with the body. The soul has the power of
communicating its existence to the body not just through movement (locomotion) but
also through understanding or thinking (knowledge). Hence, the existence of man is
viewed as a whole body and soul are distinct from each other.
On the other hand, St. Thomas of Aquinas addressed the mind-body problem
by characterizing human nature as body and soul: “Man is composed of spiritual
and corporeal substance.” In Summa Theologica, he also addressed the following
concerns about the nature of the soul as a body: (1) it is the body’s moving principle;
(2) knowledge of corporeal things is caused by likeness; hence to know of the body is
to be like it in nature; and (3) the soul moves the body, and movement happens
through contact; hence the soul must be a body because contact happens between
bodies.
You may notice the way St. Thomas of Aquinas conceives the soul is an
affirmation and development of Aristotle’s ideas. It is both clear in their accounts
that the soul creates knowledge and movement in a body as a first principle of life.
Moreover, to justify this claim, St. Thomas distinguished between the kinds of mover
and moved. The thing which is moved accidentally does not cause invariable
movement-that is, the soul-while what is moved essentially is the body. Thus, it is
not right to believe that the soul is a body in this distinction between relations of
mover and moved.
For the second concern, St. Thomas explained that knowledge of a corporeal
body does not necessarily entails that there should be necessary likeness to the thing
which needs to be known. Hence the soul, to know the body, does not necessarily
mean that it has to be a body, or be corporeal, as well.
Finally, on the concern about contact, St. Thomas distinguished between
contact of quality and contact of power. With power, a body is in contact with another
body; but under the contact of quality, a body can be touched by an incorporeal
thing.
In the given characterization, it is evident that St. Thomas is certain that the
soul is not a body. Consequently, after establishing that the soul is not a body, it has
to be explained whether it subsists because for a long time during the ancient age,
it was believed that all that exists are only corporeal or material substances.

According to Thomas Merton (1948), a Trappist monk, there is no other way

for us to find who we are than by finding in ourselves the divine image. We have to
struggle to regain spontaneous and vital awareness of our own spirituality. Merton
talks about a continual movement away from inner and outer idols and toward union
with the desert God of his Christian faith.

Human Nature as Freedom

The concept of bad faith and its reality in the philosophy of Sartre suggests that
it is a difficult task to live an authentic life because living an authentic life requires

8
one to transcend (to go beyond) the nothingness (to create a perpetual free-for-itself
which is haunted by the nothingness itself is both a challenge and a revelation of
how man can become). In more ways than one, you must realize that the freedom as
Sartre asserts is the choice of autonomy. You may choose to see your perpetual
freedom either as a limit or as a possibility. How? Sartre asserted: “I am condemned
to be free”. As stated, freedom is not about wanting to do things but the being-for-
itself acting upon autonomous choices. What does this imply? You make your choice
and you take responsibility for your choice. Blaming others is not a possibility for a
human whose actions were guided by his or her freedom. To be totally free opens you
to a multitude of possibilities, yet it may limit you because the future project is not
yet your being. Bad faith is as real as transcendence. How do you exercise your
freedom if you know that there are others like you who are also condemned to
freedom.

Hinduism
Brahman Is Self-Hood
At the heart of Hinduism lies the idea of human beings’ quest for absolute
truth, so that one’s soul and the Brahman or Atman (Absolute Soul) might become
one. For the Indians, God first created sound and the universe arose from it. As the
most sacred sound, The Aum (Om) is the root of the universe and everything that
exists and it continues to hold everything together.
According to Hinduism, human beings have a dual nature: one is the spiritual
and immortal essence (soul); the other is empirical life and character. Between the
two natures, however, it is maintained that it is the soul that is ultimately real. The
existence of the body, in fact, is considered as nothing more than an illusion and
even an obstacle to an individual’s realization of one’s real self.
Generally, Hindus believe that the soul is eternal but is bound by the law of
Karma (action) to the world of matter, which it can escape only after spiritual
progress through an endless series of births. God allots rewards and punishments
to all beings according to their karma (Puligandia 1997). Similar to a prisoner
enclosed within the wall of his person, a human being’s soul can be said to be
temporarily encased in his body. For this reason, humanity’s basic goal in life is the
liberation (moksha) of spirit (jiva).
Hinduism holds that humanity’s life is a continuous cycle (samsara). While it
is the spirit is neither born nor does it die, the body, on the other hand, goes through
a trans migratory series of birth and death. Transmigration or metempsychosis is a
doctrine that adheres to the belief that a person’s soul passes into some other
creature, human, or animal. If the person has led a good life, the soul goes upward
the scale. The soul of an evil person, on the other hand, may pass into the body of
an animal.
Hinduism: Reincarnation and Karma

An interesting Hindu belief is the transmigration of souls, reincarnation or

“metempsychosis”. Essential Hinduism is based on the belief in karma and has its
first literary expression in Upanishads. Everything in this life, say the Hindus, is a
consequence of actions performed in previous existence. Only by building up a fine
record, or” karma”, can final salvation be achieved. This doctrine is the very old one.

9
For the Jains, there is nothing mightier in the world than karma; karma trample
down all powers, as an elephant to a clump of lotuses (Puliganda 2007). The
Buddhists took it over in large part when they broke away from Brahmanism.

Buddhism: From Tears to Enlightenment

Gautama’s life was devoted to sharing his “Dharma” or Law of Salvation- a
simple presentation of the gospel of inner cultivation of right spiritual attitudes,
coupled with self-imposed discipline whereby bodily desires would be channeled in
the right directions. He omitted any appeal to the gods as currently conceived;
definitely rejected philosophical speculations; and spurned all recourse to ancient
scriptures, outmoded rituals, or priestly incantations. Convinced that the way of
escape from sin and misery lay in the transformation of one’s mind and that
liberation could come only with a sloughing off of all vain clinging to the things of
this life, Buddha set about sharing his discovery with anyone who would listen to
him.
The teaching of Buddha has been set forth traditionally in the “Four Noble
Truths” leading to the “Eightfold Path” to perfect character or archatship, which in
turn gave assurance of entrance into Nirvana at death.
In the Four Noble Truths, Gautama taught:
(1) life is full of suffering;
(2) suffering is caused by passionate desires, lusts, cravings;
(3) only as these are obliterated, will suffering cease;
(4) such eradication of desire may be accomplished only by following the Eightfold
Path of earnest endeavor.
These steps are:
(1) right belief in acceptance of the “Fourfold Truth”;
(2) right aspiration for one’s self and for others;
(3) right speech that harms no one;
(4) right conduct, motivated by goodwill toward all human beings;
(5) right means of livelihood, or earning one’s living by honorable means;
(6) right endeavor, or effort to direct one’s energies toward wise ends;
(7) right mindfulness in choosing topics for thought; and
(8) right meditation, or concentration to the point of complete absorption in mystic
ecstasy.
For Velasquez (1999), “Items 1 and 2 enjoin us to develop wisdom, items 3-5 urge
us to practice virtue and avoid vice, and items 6-8 tell us to practice meditation. We
do this essentially by following three short axioms: cease to do evil, learn to do good,
and purify your own mind.”
The way to salvation, in other words, lies through self-abnegation, rigid
discipline of mind and body, a consuming love for all living creatures, and the final
achievement of that state of consciousness which marks an individual’s full
preparation for entering the Nirvana (enlightened wisdom) of complete selflessness.
In this state, the effects of the Law of Cause and Effect (karma)are overcome; the
Cycle of Rebirth is broken; and one may rest in the calm assurance of having attained
a heavenly bliss that will stretch into all eternity.

10
Buddhism: Nirvana

Nirvana means the state in which one is absolutely free from all form of
bondage and attachment. It means to overcome and remove the cause of suffering.
It is also the state of perfect insight into the nature of existence. The Buddhists see
one who has attained nirvanas one who is unencumbered from all the fetters that
bind a human being to existence (i.e., wealth). He has perfect knowledge, perfect
peace, and perfect wisdom (Aguilar 2010).

When the Buddha was asked whether one who attains nirvana exists or
ceases to exist after death, he simply refused to answer the question and instead
maintained complete silence. The question is seen as inappropriate that any attempt
to answer it can only lead into the quagmire of idle metaphysical speculations and
futile philosophical disputes. The Buddha did not want his disciples to concern
themselves with purely speculative problems. Further, the Buddha’s silence is due
to his awareness that nirvana is a state that transcends every mundane experience
and hence cannot be talked about; for all talk is possible only within the perceptual-
conceptual realm. Nirvana is beyond the sense, language, and thought (Puligandla
2007).

Another false conception regarding nirvana is that one who attains it, cuts
himself/herself off from the world of toil, tears, and turmoil and spends his/her life
in a state of total inactivity and indifference to the world around him. Far from living
a passive life, the Buddha from the day of his enlightenment until death is always
surrounded by people (Puligandla 2007). It is, thus, absurd to describe nirvanas a
state of inactivity, stupor, and indifference. One who has attained enlightenment is
a non-attachment. This means that as one attains wisdom, one desires nothing for
himself but always works for the well-being and liberation of his fellow humans.

This way of life conforms to Buddha’s teaching that wisdom consists in

trending the Middle Way, avoiding the extreme of ascetism, inactivity, and
indifference on the one hand and that of frantic activity and mindless pursuit of
pleasure on the other. The nirvanic man, according to Puligandla (2007), is the true
follower of the Buddha, in that, he neither always sits absorbed in meditation nor
always involved in activity. He is the living testimony that the middle way is indeed
the way to enlightenment.

Explore

Activity 2: What Have I Learned So Far

Direction: Answer briefly and substantially the following questions. Write your
answer on the lines provided.

11
 1. What are the substances that comprise man?

______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Based on the eightfold path, which is most important for you to cultivate in
your life at present especially in this time of pandemic?

______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. How did St. Thomas argue that the soul is in contact with the body, yet it is
not corporeal?

___________________________________________________________________________

Rubrics

1.Completeness (5 points)
-Does your response directly Excellent (5) Very Good Good Need
answer each part of the (3-4) (2) Improvement
assignment question(s)? (0-1)

2. Knowledge (10 points)

- Does your response
clearly show you have read
and understand the lesson Excellent Very good Good Need
content by correctly (9-10) (8-7) (7-6) Improvement
defining key terms, key (0-5)
persons and summarizing
concepts?
-Have you made inferences
based on this knowledge to
personal or modern-day
applications?

3. Analysis (5 points)
-Have you clearly state analysis
and give examples to back them Excellent Very Good Good Need
up? (5) (3-4) (2) Improvement
_ Does your response provide (0-1)
analysis to the larger concepts
of the lesson?

4.Writing Skills (5 points)

_ Do you write clearly, in
complete sentences, with Excellent Very Good Good Need
minimal errors in grammar and (5) (4-3) (2) Improvement
spelling? Did you use the APA (0-1)

12
 Method of Citation where
needed?

Deepen

Activity 3: My Reflection

Direction: Write a paragraph on a separate sheet of paper following the guide

questions.

1. What is the implication of man if the soul is subsistent and incorporeal?

2. Will there be difference to human nature if the soul is material and corporeal?
3. How can faith be translated into action?

Discover

Lesson 2: Own Limitations and the Possibilities for their Transcendence

St. Augustine of Hippo and St. Thomas of Aquinas

St Augustine quotes, “Faith is to believe what you do not see; the reward of this
faith is to see what you believe.”

The Biblical God and Humanity

For St. Augustine (354-430 CE), philosophy is amor sapiential, the love of
wisdom; its aims to produce happiness. For Augustine, wisdom is not just an
abstract logical construction; but it is substantially existent as the Divine Logos.
Hence philosophy, is the love of God: it is then, religious. Teachings of Christianity
are based on the love of God, which Augustine’s, Aquinas’, and Anselm’s arguments
are basically rooted.
For Augustine, Christianity, as presenting the full revelation of the true God,
is the only full and true philosophy. However, we can love only that which we know.
When comes this knowledge of God? It begins with faith and is made perfect by
understanding. All knowledge leads to God, so that faith supplements and enlightens

13
reason that it may proceed to ever richer and fuller understanding. Indeed, without
this enlightenment of faith, reason invariably sooner or later, goes astray.
As a French poetry laments: Philosophie: I have everything. I have seen all. I
knew all. I have heard all. I have it all. I had lost… I am a bit lost.
It should be taken as a humble acceptance of the fact that human beings alone,
without God, are bound to fail. As stated in John 5:5, I am the vine; you are the
branches. If you remain in me and I in you, you will bear much fruit; apart from me,
you can do nothing. Further to quote Psalms 4: The thoughts are very deep! The dull
man cannot know. The stupid cannot understand this.
For St. Thomas of Aquinas, a medieval philosopher, of all creatures, human
beings have the unique power to change themselves and things for the better. His
philosophy is best grasped in his treatises Summa Contra Gentiles and Summa
Theologica. St. Thomas considers the human being as moral agent. We are both
spiritual and body elements; the spiritual and material. The unity between both
elements indeed helps us to understand our complexity as human beings. Our
spirituality separates us from animals; it differentiates moral dimension of our
fulfillment in action. Through our spirituality we have a conscience. Thus, whether
we choose to be “good” or “evil” becomes our responsibility.

St. Augustine and St. Thomas of Aquinas: Will and Love

For St. Augustine, physically we are free yet, yet morally bound to obey the
law. The Eternal Law is God Himself. According to this law, humanity must do well
and avoid evil, hence the existence of moral obligation in every human being.
Christian life is not easy. However, no human being should become an end to himself.
We are responsible to our neighbor as we to your actions.

The truth of St. Augustine’s message still rings true to this day. Despite
Augustine’s period which was decadent, are our times any less corrupt? Innocence
of heart and purity can only be gained by God’s grace. God alone can give that gift to
some instantly or to others at the end of an entire life’s struggle. That gift, in itself,
is a major triumph. Through prayer, modesty, fasting, and other sound measures
that the Church recommends, or God provides, can purity of heart, mind, and body
be maintained and daily lived (Johnston 2006).

Definitely, to live a chaste life is difficult. All are called to be chaste whether
married or single. For to be pure is also to be holy. Though all are called to different
lifestyles, all are called to be holy, pure, and chaste within that lifestyle. Any lifestyle
that does not include these virtues, even with consenting individuals, is not pleasing
to God; for it does not lead to holiness, selflessness, and full honesty. For St.
Augustine, though we are physically free, one does not have a right to do anything if
it is not morally right or if one will hurt another. Rightness means pleasing God. God
has given us a choice to discern between right and wrong though we are often
ignorant in this manner unless we are wholly sincere, honest, and pure (Johnston
2006).

Evaluate Own Limitations and Possibilities for their Transcendence

14
 Many of us would experience any of the following; for emerging from deep within
and felt sense of being in tune with the mystery of our own being, and with the
mystery of life that transcends us. Let us consider the following examples (Edwards
1983).

A. Forgiveness – When we forgive, we are freed from our anger and bitterness
because of the actions and/or words of another. On the other hand, the
hardness of our heart is reinforced by whole series of rational arguments.
B. The Beauty of Nature – There is perfection in every single flower; this is what
the three philosophies believed. For a hug, for every sunrise and sunset, to
eat together as a family, are our miracles. These kind of experiences can be
truly moments of grace. They touch us deeply and the human hearts is
spontaneously lifted. During this experience, we need to offer praise.
C. Vulnerability- To be vulnerable is to be human. To be invulnerable is somehow
inhuman. Supermen or superheroes are hiding from their true humanity. The
experience that we are contingent, that we are dependent for our existence on
another is frightening. To work in the office or study in the school, without
acknowledging the help of others, is to live without meaning and direction. We
need to acknowledge the help of other people in our lives. Such moments of
poverty and dependence on others are not a sign of weakness but being true
with ourselves.
D. Failure – Our failures force us to confront our weaknesses and limitations.
When a relationship fails, when a student fails a subject, when our immediate
desires are not met, we are confronted with the possibility of our plans, and
yet, we are forced to surrender to a mystery or look upon a bigger world. Such
acceptance of our failures makes us hope and trust that all can be brought
into good. Even if we have sinned, as Augustine had, there is hope and
forgiveness.
E. Loneliness – Our loneliness can be rooted from our sense of vulnerability and
fear of death. This experience is so common. However, it is our choice to live
in an impossible world where we are always “happy” or to accept a life where
solitude and companionship have a part. With our loneliness, we can realize
that our dependence on other people or gadgets is a possessiveness that we
can be free from.
F. Love – To love is to experience richness, positivity, and transcendence.
Whether in times of ecstatic moments, the love for a friend, between family
members or a significant person, can open in us something in the other which
takes us beyond ourselves. Life is full of risks, fears, and commitment, pain
and sacrificing and giving up things we want for the sake of the one we love.
In Buddhists view, the more we love, the more risks and fears there are in life
(Aguilar 2010).

15
 Explore

Enrichment Activity 4- THE REVITALIZED ME

Directions: Complete the chart by rewriting your present limitations with reference
to your answers in the previous activities. Make an action plan towards
transcendence.

THE REVITALIZED ME

MY LIMITATIONS PLAN TOWARDS TRANSCENDENCE

Reflect on the following questions. Answer it on the blanks provided.

1. How do you show love toward others? Friends? Family? People in need?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

2. How do you view suffering (as a blessing or a curse)?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. How do you acknowledge the help of others?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

4. How can forgiveness free us from anger?

16
 ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Rubrics:

5 4 3 2 1

Content The The The The The

responses responses responses responses responses
are answer the answer part are off topic are
thoughtful, prompt of the or incomplete.
detailed, and accurately. question inaccurate.
accurate. The answers accurately. The answers
cite The answers lack
examples to only include student's
support the examples to thinking.
student's support the
thinking. student's
thinking.

Values/ Mission Mission Mission Mission Mission

statement statement statement statement statement
Principles identifies identifies two identifies does not not present.
three or values or one value or identify any
more values principles. principle. values or
or principles. principles.

Rationale for Rationale is Rationale is Rationale for Mission Mission

values clear, logical clearly only one or statement statement
and written. two values is does not not present.
thoughtful. given or provide
rational is rationale for
unclear or any values
illogical. identified.

Writing Mission Mission Mission Mission Mission

mechanics statement is statement statement statement statement
generally free contains contains contains not present.
of spelling spelling or grammar many
and grammatical errors. Some grammar
grammatical errors, but clarity errors that
errors. clarity remains. make it
remains. difficult to
understand.

17
 Deepen

Enrichment Activity 5 A: Sports and Arts Design

Direction: You are a choreographer and a costume designer. Your task is to create
a dance which represents the flight of an eagle. You are also to create a costume from
recycled materials. Your audience are grade school pupils. The challenge is for you
to represent through a dance the concept of “Man as freedom” as likened to the flight
of an eagle. Your dance must creatively express the philosophy of Sartre by
illustrating the following. You can video this activity and submit to your teacher.

a. Man is free
b. Man is not his past
c. Man recognizes that there is in him a lack and he is constantly a
consciousness which is a presence to himself

Enrichment Activity 5 B: Thank-you Card Making

Show gratitude to the people who helped you in times when you needed it the most
by creating thank-you cards. The cards should be made by hand: avoid printouts
or ready -made. Give this card personally to the person you are showing your
gratitude to. (Optional)

18
Rubrics:

5 4 3 2 1

Content The The The The The

responses responses responses responses responses
are answer the answer are off topic are
thoughtful, prompt part of the or incomplete.
detailed, accurately. question inaccurate.
and The accurately. The
accurate. answers cite The answers
examples to answers lack
support the only student's
student's include thinking.
thinking. examples
to support
the
student's
thinking.

Values/ Mission Mission Mission Mission Mission

statement statement statement statement statement
Principles identifies identifies identifies does not not
three or two values one value identify any present.
more values or or values or
or principles. principle. principles.
principles.

Rationale Rationale is Rationale is Rationale Mission Mission

for values clear, logical clearly for only statement statement
and written. one or two does not not
thoughtful. values is provide present.
given or rationale for
rational is any values
unclear or identified.
illogical.

Writing Mission Mission Mission Mission Mission

mechanics statement is statement statement statement statement
generally contains contains contains not
free of spelling or grammar many present.
spelling and grammatical errors. grammar
grammatical errors, but Some errors that
errors. clarity clarity make it
remains. remains. difficult to
understand.

19
 Gauge

Let’s find out how far you have understood your lesson.

ASSESSMENT

I. MULTIPLE CHOICE: Read and understand each question. Select and write
the letter of your answer on the space provided before the number.

_________ 1. He stated that freedom is not about wanting to do things but being-
for –itself acting upon autonomous choices.
A. Rene Descartes C. Sartre
B. Socrates D. Thomas of Aquinas
_________ 2. The following statement is what Sartre asserts except one;
A. Bad faith is real as transcendence.
B. Faith is to believe what you do not see; the reward of this faith is to
see what you believe
C. You may choose to see your perpetual freedom either as a limit or
as a possibility
D. You make your choice and you take responsibility for your choice.
_________ 3. Essential Hinduism is based on the belief in karma, which is its first
literary expression in Upanishads?
A. Everything in this life is a consequence of actions performed in
previous existence
B. There is nothing mightier in the world than karma
C. Karma tramples down all powers, as an elephant to a clamp of
lotuses
D. There is no distinction between God and human being
__________ 4. Which is True among the following statement of St. Augustine?
A. To live a chaste life is difficult.
B. Only the single ones are called to be chaste.
C. For to be pure is also to be unholy.
D. We are not responsible to our neighbors as we to our actions.
__________ 5. If we are freed from our bitterness and anger because of the
actions/ words of another, we call this __.
A. Failure B. Forgiveness C. Vulnerability D. Loneliness
_________ 6. Three philosophers believed that there is perfection in every single
flower, this refers to ____.
A. Love C. Loneliness
B. Forgiveness D. Beauty of Nature
_________7. What state in which one is absolutely free from all forms of bondage
and attachment according to Hinduism?
A. Samsara B. Nirvana C. Moksha D. Heaven
_________8. Who stated that “To one who has faith, no explanation is necessary.
To one w/out faith, no explanation is possible”.
A. Thomas of Aquinas C. St. Basil the Great
B. St. Augustine of Hippo D. St. Ignatius of Loyola
_________9. What does the Church recommend or God provides to each and every
one so that purity of heart, mind and body be maintained and daily
lived?

20
 A. Prayer B. Modesty C. Fasting D. All of the above
_________10. Experiencing richness, positivity and transcendence shows us the
virtue of
A. Love B. Forgiveness C. Vulnerability D. Beauty
__________ 11. He stated that the body is not the essence of the soul; but the soul
by nature of its essence can be united to the body, so that, properly
speaking, not the soul alone, but the “composite,” is the species.
A. Aristotle B. Descartes C. St. Thomas D. Socrates
__________ 12. Of what book of Aristotle can we read that the soul is the source
of these phenomena and is characterized by them, viz. by the power
of self-nutrition, sensation, thinking and movement.
A. Apology C. De Anima II
B. Meditation VI D. Suma Theologica
__________ 13. The following steps are the eightfold path of Buddhism except
A. Right conduct B. Right means of livelihood
B. Right Choice D. Right Mindfulness
__________ 14. Which is True about St. Thomas’ teaching on human beings?
A. Human being had the unique power to change themselves and
things for the better.
B. Human being as moral agent.
C. Human being is both spiritual and body elements
D. All of the above
___________ 15. For the Indians, God first created sound and the universe arose
from it.
A. False B. True C. Unsure D. None of the Above

II. Essay: Answer briefly and substantially the following questions. Write
your answers on the blanks provided.
1. According to St. Augustine, “Rightness means pleasing to God”, can you
give examples of what he stated? Whether you are Catholic and non-
Catholic, give examples of doing “right” actions.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________

2. For St. Augustine he says, “We are free, yet morally bound to obey the
law”. Do you agree with his statement? Why or Why not?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________

21
Rubrics

1.Completeness (5 points)
-Does your response directly Excellent (5) Very Good Good Need
answer each part of the (3-4) (2) Improvement
assignment question(s)? (0-1)
2. Knowledge (10 points)
- Does your response
clearly show you have read
and understand the lesson Excellent Very good Good Need
content by correctly (9-10) (8-7) (7-6) Improvement
defining key terms, key (0-5)
persons and summarizing
concepts?
-Have you made inferences
based on this knowledge to
personal or modern-day
applications?
3. Analysis (5 points)
-Have you clearly state analysis
and give examples to back them Excellent Very Good Good Need
up? (5) (3-4) (2) Improvement
_ Does your response provide (0-1)
analysis to the larger concepts
of the lesson?
4.Writing Skills (5 points)
_ Do you write clearly, in
complete sentences, with Excellent Very Good Good Need
minimal errors in grammar and (5) (4-3) (2) Improvement
spelling? Did you use the APA (0-1)
Method of Citation where
needed?

22
References
Books

Ramos, Christine Carmela R. (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy, First

Edition, Rex Bookstore, Manila Philippines
Caraan, Aleli M. (2016). Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person,
Diwa Learning Systems INC. Makati City Philippines

Websites:

https://blogs.pschcentral.com/relationships/2012/08/the-timeline-of- your-life-
story-probing-to create-shift-to-life-liberating-meanings-2-of-2/

https://www.google.com/search?q=Introduction+to+the+philosophy+of+the+human+
person+learning+activities&oq=Introduction+to+the+philosophy+of+the+human+perso
n+learning+activities&aqs=chrome..69i57.20762j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

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