Sense organs

Krishna U. Raval,
Asst. Prof.
Dept. of Pharmaceutical Analysis,
Faculty of Pharmacy, Marwadi
University
Sensory Systems

Vision
Hearing
Taste
Smell
Equilibrium
Somatic Senses
Special Senses

Taste, smell, sight,

hearing, and balance

Localized – confined to
the head region

Receptors are not free

endings of sensory
neurons but specialized
receptor cells

Figure 10-4: Sensory pathways

Anatomy of the Eyeball

Function of the eyeball

Protect and support the photoreceptors
Gather, focus, and process light into precise
images

External walls – composed of three tunics (layers)

Internal cavity – contains fluids (humors)

The Fibrous Layer
Most external layer of the eyeball
Cornea
Anterior one-sixth of the
fibrous tunic
Composed of stratified
Squamous externally,
simple squamous
internally
Refracts (bends) light
Sclera
Posterior five-sixths of the tunic
White, opaque region composed of dense irregular connective
tissue
Provides shape and an anchor for eye muscles,
Scleral venous sinus – allows aqueous humor to drain
The Vascular Layer
Middle layer consists of choroid, ciliary body, and Iris and Pupil
Composed of smooth muscle, melanocytes, and blood vessels that
forms the colored portion of the eye.

Function: It regulates the amount of light entering the

eye through the pupil. It is attached to the ciliary body.
Pupil is the opening in center of iris through which light enters the
eye
Figure 16.8
Ciliary body
Composed of a ring of muscle
called ciliary muscle and ciliary
processes which are folds located
at the posterior surface of ciliary
bodies
SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS
attach to these processes
Function: secretes the aqueous
humor
The suspensory ligaments position
the lens so that light passing
through the pupil passes through
the center of the lens of the eye.
Choroid - vascular layer in the wall of
the eye.
Dark brown (pigmented) membrane
with melanocytes that lines most of
the internal surface of the sclera.
Has lots of blood vessels

Functions:
Delivers oxygen and nutrients
to the retina.
Absorb light rays so that the
light rays are not reflected
within the eye
The Inner Layer (Retina)
Retina is the innermost layer of the eye lining the
posterior cavity The retina contains 2 layers:
Pigmented layer made of a single layer of melanocytes, absorbs
light after it passes through the neural layer
Neural layer – sheet of nervous tissue, contains three main types
of neurons
Photoreceptor cells
Bipolar cells
Ganglion cells
Photoreceptors

Two main types

Rod cells
More sensitive to light
Allow vision in dim light
In periphery
Cone cells
Operate best in bright light
High-acuity
Color vision – blue, green, red cones
Concentrated in fovea
Regional Specializations of the
Retina
Retina
Neural layer ends at the posterior margin of the ciliary body
Pigmented layer covers ciliary body and posterior surface of
the iris
Macula lutea – contains mostly cones
Fovea centralis – contains only cones
Region of highest visual acuity
Optic disc – blind spot
The Lens
A thick, transparent, biconvex disc
Held in place by its ciliary zonule (Suspensory
Ligaments)
Lens epithelium – covers anterior surface of the lens
The Eye as an Optical Device
Structures in the eye bend light rays
Light rays converge on the retina at a single focal point
Light bending structures (refractory media)  The lens,
cornea, and humors
Accommodation – curvature of the lens is adjustable
Allows for focusing on nearby objects
Internal Chambers and Fluids

Figure 16.8
Anterior segment
Divided into anterior and posterior chambers
Anterior chamber – between the cornea and iris
Posterior chamber – between the iris and lens
Filled with aqueous humor
Renewed continuously
Formed as a blood filtrate
Supplies nutrients to the lens and cornea
The lens and ciliary zonules
divide the eye
Posterior segment
(cavity)
Filled with vitreous humor - clear, jelly-
like substance
Transmits light
Supports the posterior surface of the lens
Helps maintain intraocular pressure
Accessory Structures of the Eye

Eyebrows – coarse hairs on the

superciliary arches
Eyelids (palpebrae) Separated
by the palpebral fissure
Meet at the medial and
lateral angles (canthi)

Conjunctiva – transparent
mucous membrane
Palpebral conjunctiva
Bulbar (ocular) conjunctiva
Conjunctival sac
Function: Moistens the eye

Figure 16.5a
Lacrimal apparatus –
keeps the surface of the eye
moist
Lacrimal gland –
produces lacrimal fluid

Lacrimal sac – fluid

empties into nasal
cavity

Figure 16.5b
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Six muscles that control movement of the eye
Originate in the walls of the orbit
Insert on outer surface of the eyeball

Figure 16.6a, b
Visual Pathways to the Cerebral
Cortex
Pathway begins at the retina
Light activates photoreceptors
Photoreceptors signal bipolar cells
Bipolar cells signal ganglion cells
Axons of ganglion cells exit eye as the optic nerve
The Ear: Hearing and Equilibrium

The ear – receptor organ for hearing and

equilibrium
Composed of three main regions
Outer ear – functions in hearing
Middle ear – functions in hearing
Inner ear – functions in both hearing and
equilibrium
The Outer (External) Ear

Auricle (pinna) - helps direct

sounds Tympanic membrane
External acoustic meatus • Forms the boundary
• Lined with skin between the external
• Contains hairs,
and middle ear
sebaceous glands, and
ceruminous glands
 The Middle Ear
The tympanic cavity Pharyngotympanic tube
A small, air-filled space (auditory or eustachian tube)
Located within the temporal bone Links the middle ear and
Medial wall is penetrated by pharynx
Oval window
Round window
Ear ossicles – smallest
bones in the body
Malleus – attaches to
the eardrum
Incus – between the
malleus and stapes
Stapes – vibrates
against the oval
window

Figure 16.17
The Inner (Internal) Ear
Inner ear – also called the
labyrinth

Bony labyrinth – a cavity

consisting of three parts
• Semicircular canals
• Vestibule
• Cochlea

Bony labyrinth is filled

with perilymph
The Membranous Labyrinth
Membranous labyrinth - series of membrane-walled sacs and
ducts Fit within the bony labyrinth
Consists of three main parts
Semicircular ducts
Utricle and saccule
Cochlear duct
Filled with a clear fluid
– endolymph
The Cochlea
A spiraling chamber in the bony labyrinth
Coils around a pillar of bone – the modiolus
Spiral lamina – a spiral of bone in the
modiolus
The cochlear nerve runs through the core of the
modiolus
The cochlear duct (scala media) – contains receptors for hearing

Lies between two chambers

The scala vestibuli
The scala tympani

The vestibular membrane – the roof of the cochlear duct

The basilar membrane – the floor of the cochlear duct
The cochlear duct (scala media) – contains receptors for
hearing
Organ of Corti – the receptor epithelium for
hearing
Consists of hair cells (receptor cells)
The Role of the Cochlea in Hearing

Figure 16.20
Auditory Pathway from the Organ
of Corti
The ascending
auditory pathway

Transmits
information from
cochlear receptors
to the cerebral
cortex

Figure 16.23
The Vestibule
Utricle and saccule – suspended in
perilymph
Two egg-shaped parts of the
membranous labyrinth
House the macula – a spot of sensory
epithelium
Macula – contains receptor cells
Monitor the position of the head when the
head is still
Contains columnar supporting cells
Receptor cells – called hair cells
Synapse with the vestibular nerve
Anatomy and Function of the
Maculae

Gelatinous matrix and calcium carbonate

Figure 16.21b
The Semicircular Canals
Lie posterior and lateral to the vestibule
Anterior and posterior semicircular canals lie in the
vertical plane at right angles
Lateral semicircular canal lies in the horizontal plane
Semicircular duct – pass through each semicircular canal
Membranous ampulla – located within bony ampulla
Houses a structure called a CRISTA AMPULLARIS
Cristae contain receptor cells of rotational acceleration
Epithelium contains supporting cells and receptor hair cells
Structure and Function of the
Crista
Ampullaris

Figure 16.22b
The Chemical Senses: Taste and
Smell
Taste – gustation
Smell – olfaction
Receptors – classified as chemoreceptors
(Respond to chemicals)
Taste – Gustation
Taste receptors
Occur in taste buds
Most are found on the surface
of the tongue
Located within tongue papillae
Two types of papillae (with taste
buds)
Filiform papillae
Fungiform papillae
Circumvallate papillae
Taste Buds
Collection of 50 –100 epithelial cells
Contain three major cell types
(similar in all special senses)
Supporting cells
Gustatory cells
Basal cells
Contain long microvilli – extend
through a taste pore
Taste Sensation and the Gustatory
Pathway
Four basic qualities of taste
Sweet, sour, salty, and bitter
A fifth taste – umami, “deliciousness”
No structural difference among taste buds
Gustatory Pathway from Taste Buds

Taste information reaches the

cerebral cortex
Primarily through the facial
(VII) and glossopharyngeal
(IX) nerves
Some taste information
through the vagus nerve (X)
Sensory neurons synapse in
the medulla (in the solitary
nucleus)

Figure 16.2
Smell (Olfaction)
Olfactory epithelium with olfactory receptors,
supporting cells, basal cells
Olfactory receptors are modified neurons
Surfaces are coated with secretions from olfactory glands
Olfactory reception involves detecting dissolved chemicals
as they interact with odorant binding proteins
Bipolar sensory neurons located
within olfactory epithelium
Dendrite projects into nasal
cavity, terminates in cilia
Axon projects directly up into
olfactory bulb of cerebrum,
Olfactory bulb projects to
olfactory cortex, hippocampus,
and amygdaloid nuclei
Common disorders of sense organs
Refraction of light rays
(a) Refraction is the bending of light rays at the junction
of two transparent substances with different densities.
(b) The cornea and lens refract light rays from distant
objects so the image is focused on the retina.
(c) In accommodation, the lens becomes more spherical,
which increases the refraction of light.
When eye is focusing on
a close object, the lens
becomes more curved,
which increases its
focusing power and
causes greater
convergence of the light
rays

This increase in the

curvature of the lens for
near vision is called
accommodation
 PRESBYOPIA
 With aging, the lens loses elasticity and thus its ability to curve
to focus on objects that are close. Therefore, older people
cannot read at the same close range as can younger people.
 This condition is called presbyopia (prez-be¯-O¯ -pe¯ -a).
 By age 40 the near point of vision may have increased to 20 cm
and at age 60, it may be as much as 80 cm.

 EMMETROPIC: The normal eye, known as an emmetropic

(em-e- TROP-ik) eye, can sufficiently refract light rays from an
object 6 m (20 ft) away so that a clear image is focused on the
retina.
 Some people lack this ability because of refraction
abnormalities
 MYOPIA (MI¯-O¯ -PE¯ -A), OR NEARSIGHTEDNESS,
which occurs when the eyeball is elongated relative to the
focusing power of the cornea and lens, or when the lens is
thicker than normal, so an image converges in front of the
retina.

 Myopic individuals can see close objects clearly, but not distant
objects
 In HYPEROPIA (hı¯-per-O¯ -pe¯ -a) or
FARSIGHTEDNESs, also known as HYPERMETROPIA
(hı¯ -per-me-TRO¯ -pe¯ -a),

 the eyeball length is short relative to the focusing power of the

cornea and lens, or the lens is thinner than normal, so an
image converges behind the retina.

 Hyperopic individuals can see distant objects clearly, but not

close ones.
 ASTIGMATISM (a-STIG-ma-tizm),
 Refraction abnormality in which either the cornea or the lens
has an irregular curvature.
 As a result, the vision is blurred or distorted.
 An increasingly popular alternative to wearing glasses or
contact
 lenses is refractive surgery to correct the curvature of the
cornea for conditions such as farsightedness, nearsightedness,
and astigmatism.
 The most common type of refractive surgery is LASIK (laser-
assisted in-situ keratomileusis).
 GLAUCOMA (glaw-KO¯ -ma)
 The most common cause of blindness Glaucoma is an
abnormally high intraocular pressure due to a buildup of
aqueous humor within the anterior cavity.
 The fluid compresses the lens into the vitreous body and puts
pressure on the neurons of the retina.

 Persistent pressure results mild visual impairment to

irreversible destruction of neurons of the retina, damage to the
optic nerve, and blindness

 Glaucoma is painless, and the other eye compensates, so a

person may experience considerable retinal damage and loss
of vision before the condition is diagnosed.
 NYSTAGMUS (nis-TAG-mus)
A rapid involuntary movement of the
eyeballs, may be caused by CNS disease.
CONJUNCTIVITIS (pinkeye)
 An inflammation of the conjunctiva
 Caused by bacteria such as pneumococci,
staphylococci, or Hemophilus influenzae,

 It is very contagious and more common in

children.
 Conjunctivitis may also be caused by
irritants, such as dust, smoke, or pollutants in
the air, in which case it is not contagious.
 COLOR BLINDNESS
 An inherited inability to distinguish between
certain colors,
 Result from the absence or deficiency of one
of the three types of cones.
The most common type is red-green color blindness, in which
red cones or green cones are missing. As a result, the person
cannot distinguish between red and green.
 NIGHT BLINDNESS
 Prolonged vitamin A deficiency and the resulting reduced
amount of rhodopsin may cause night blindness or nyctalopia
(nik-ta-LO¯ -pe¯ -a), an inability to see well at low light
levels.
 CATARACTS
 A common cause of blindness
 A loss of transparency of the lens known
as a cataract (CAT-a-rakt - waterfall).
 The lens becomes cloudy (less
transparent) due to changes in the
structure of the lens proteins.
 Cataracts often occur with aging
 Also caused by injury, excessive
exposure to ultraviolet rays, certain
medications (steroids), or complications
of other diseases (diabetes).
 TRACHOMA (tra-KO¯ -ma)
 A serious form of conjunctivitis and the biggest cause of
blindness in the world.
 It is caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis.
 The disease produces an excessive growth of subconjunctival
tissue and invasion of blood vessels into the cornea, which
progresses until the entire cornea is opaque
 HYPOSMIA (hı￣-POZ-me￣-a)
 A reduced ability to smell, affects half of those over age 65
and 75% of those over age 80.

 Smoking seriously impairs the sense of smell and damage to

olfactory receptors.

 With aging the sense of smell deteriorates.

 DEAFNESS is a significant or total hearing loss

 Results due to continued exposure to high-intensity sounds

(over 110 dB).

 The louder the sounds, the more rapid is the hearing loss.

 A cochlear implant used

 MÉNIÈRE’S (men-e¯-A¯ RZ) DISEASE
 Results from an increased amount of endolymph that enlarges
the membranous labyrinth.
 Symptoms: fluctuating hearing loss (caused by distortion of
 the basilar membrane of the cochlea) and roaring tinnitus
(ringing).
 Spinning or whirling vertigo (dizziness) is characteristic of
Ménière’s disease.
 Almost total destruction of hearing may occur over a period
of years.
 TINNITUS (ti-NI¯-tus)
 A ringing, roaring, or clicking in the ears.

 PHOTOPHOBIA (fo¯-to¯-FO¯ -be¯-a)

 Abnormal visual intolerance to light.

 OTITIS MEDIA
 Is an acute infection of the middle ear
 Caused by bacteria and associated with infections of the nose
and throat.
 Symptoms include pain, fever, and a reddening and outward
bulging of the eardrum, which may rupture unless prompt
treatment is received. (This may involve draining pus from the
middle ear.)
 Children are more susceptible
 MOTION SICKNESS
 Restlessness, nausea, weakness, dizziness and malaise that may
progress to vomiting (caused by increase activity of the
semicircular canals)
 It occurs during motion (for example, in a car, on a boat, on a
train, or in an airplane)
 Meclizine or Dimenhydrinate

 VERTIGO (VER-ti-go - dizziness)

 A sensation of spinning or movement in which the world seems
to revolve,
 Often associated with nausea and, in some cases, vomiting.
 It may be caused by arthritis of the neck or an infection of
the vestibular apparatus.