MATHEMATICS

CATEGORY B1.1 / B2
ARITHMETIC/ SUB MODULE 1.1

MODULE 01 MATHEMATICS

ARITHMETIC
ISSUE 02 REVISION 00 / DEC 2019 Page 1
 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1.1 / B2
ARITHMETIC/ SUB MODULE 1.1

‘“FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY”

“The training notes and diagrams although comprehensive in
detail, they are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up to date as possible,
and amendments to the training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.

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CATEGORY B1.1 / B2 ARITHMETIC / SUB MODULE 1.1

1.1.20.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS .................................................... 26

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1.21 AN INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND THE USE OF PREFIXES .... 26
MODULE 01 MATHEMATICS ........................................................... 1 1.1.22 SI BASE, SUPPLEMENTARY AND DERIVED UNITS USEFUL FOR
1.1 ARITHMETIC .............................................................................. 5 MATHEMATICS.......................................................................................... 27

1.1.1 ARITHMETICAL TERMS & SIGNS .................................................. 5 1.1.23 NAMES AND SYMBOLS FOR THE SI PREFIXES............................. 28

1.1.2 ADDITION .................................................................................... 7 1.1.24 COVERSION FACTORS ................................................................. 28

1.1.3 SUBTRACTION .............................................................................. 8 1.1.25 RATIO AND PROPORTION........................................................... 29

1.1.4 MULTIPLICATION ......................................................................... 9 1.1.26 PROPORTIONAL DIVISION ......................................................... 30

1.1.4.1 METHODS OF MULTIPLICATION ...................................................................... 9 1.1.27 AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES ................................................... 31

1.1.5 DIVISION ................................................................................... 11 1.1.28 AREAS AND VOLUMES ................................................................. 32
1.1.5.1 METHODS OF DIVISION ................................................................................. 11 1.1.29 MEASUREMENT OF AREA ............................................................ 32
1.1.5.1.1 SHORT DIVISION ..................................................................................... 11 1.1.30 RECTANGLE AND SQUARE ........................................................... 33
1.1.5.1.2 LONG DIVISION ....................................................................................... 12 1.1.31 PARRALLELOGRAM ..................................................................... 34
1.1.6 FRACTIONS ................................................................................ 13 1.1.32 TRIANGLE ................................................................................... 35
1.1.7 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS .......................... 14 1.1.33 RHOMBUS ................................................................................... 35
1.1.8 FINDING THE LCD ...................................................................... 15 1.1.34 TRAPEZIUM ................................................................................ 35
1.1.9 ADDING AND SUBTRACTING MIXED NUMBERS .......................... 17 1.1.35 QUADRILATERAL ........................................................................ 36
1.1.10 MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS .............................................. 17 1.1.36 CIRCLE........................................................................................ 37
1.1.11 DIVIDING FRACTIONS ............................................................... 18 1.1.37 VOLUME ...................................................................................... 38
1.1.12 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF MIXED NUMBERS ............. 19 1.1.38 CUBOID ...................................................................................... 39
1.1.13 DECIMALS .................................................................................. 19 1.1.39 CUBE ........................................................................................... 39
1.1.14 ADDITION OF DECIMALS ............................................................ 20 1.1.40 CYLINDER ................................................................................... 40
1.1.15 SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS ..................................................... 21 1.1.41 CONE .......................................................................................... 40
1.1.16 MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS ................................................ 21 1.1.42 PYRAMID .................................................................................... 41
1.1.17 DIVISION OF DECIMALS............................................................. 22 1.1.43 SPHERE ....................................................................................... 41
1.1.18 CONVERTING DECIMALS TO COMMON FRACTIONS.................... 23 1.1.44 POWER AND ROOT...................................................................... 42
1.1.19 FACTORS AND MULTIPLES.......................................................... 24 1.1.44.1 SQUARES AND CUBES ................................................................................ 42
1.1.20 WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND CONVERSION FACTORS ................... 25 1.1.44.2 SQUARE ROOTS AND CUBE ROOTS ............................................................ 42
1.1.20.1 WEIGHT .................................................................................................... 25

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1.1.45 PERFECT SQUARES ..................................................................... 44

1.1.46 PERFECT CUBES.......................................................................... 45
1.1.47 SQUARE ROOT OF A DECIMAL .................................................... 45
1.1.48 POWERS AND ROOTS OF FRACTIONS ......................................... 46

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1.1 ARITHMETIC We may analyze the total number by considering the values expressed by
each column, thus:
1.1.1 ARITHMETICAL TERMS & SIGNS
Arithmetic is the science that treats of numbers, and of the methods of
computing by means of them.
A unit in arithmetic denotes a single thing as one man, one rupee, one
meter or one kilogram. A number expresses how many times a unit is
taken, and the numbers can be expressed in words or in digits.
Numeration is the art of expressing numbers in words and notation is the
art of expressing numbers in digits.
The ten single number characters or numerals 1, 2, 3,4,5,6,7,8,9, and 0
are called digits. With these digits in various combinations we can express
any number we wish. The arrangement of the digits and the number of
digits used determine the value of the number, which we are expressing.
The most widely used numbering system is decimal system, the name
being derived from the Latin word decem meaning ten. In the decimal
system the digits are arranged in columns, which are powers of ten. The
column in which a certain digit is placed determines its expressed value.
When we examine the number 3,235,467 we indicate the column We may now observe that the total number consists of 3 million, 2
positions as follows: hundred thousands, 3 ten thousands, 5 thousands, 4 hundreds, 6 tens,
and 7 units. The total, number is read "three million, two hundred and
thirty-five thousand, four hundred and sixty seven.

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There are several classes of numbers, which should be understood.

Whole numbers, also called integers, are those, which contain no
fractions. Examples of such numbers are 310,250 and 435.

1
A fraction is a part of a unit. Examples of fractions are 25, 2. A mixed
2 5
number contains a whole number and, a fraction. 1 , 2 are examples for
3 7
mixed numbers.

An even number is one, which is divisible by 2. The numbers 2, 4, 6, 8,

10, 48, and 62 are examples of even numbers. A number with more than
one digit can be identified as even easily, by the last digit of it which is
always either 0 or an even digit; 2,4,6 or 8.
Odd numbers are those, which are not divisible by 2. For instance, the
numbers 3, 5, 11, 13, 53, and 61 are odd. Last digit of an odd number is
always either 1,3,5,7 or 9 (odd digit).
Addition and subtraction may be considered the, simplest of mathematical
operations; however, it requires practice to do these operations quickly Exercise:
and accurately. Multiplication and division are also simple mathematical
1. What is the value of the position or column occupied by digit 7 in the
operations.
number 3072?
There are innumerous functions, operations and symbols in mathematics. 2. What is the actual value expressed by digit 3 in the number 23489?
Let us see some of the most commonly used symbols and signs.
3. Which numeral contributes mostly to the total value of number
These symbols are discussed with their application in the relevant 123456789?
chapter.
4. Which numeral contributes least to the total value of number
123456789?
5. Identify the digits that are in 100 position (hundreds digit) and 10000
(ten thousands digit) position for the number 677398520.
6. Separate odd numbers and even numbers in the given set.
67, 701, 34, 900, 93, 8, 7772, 1010101, 101010

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1.1.2 ADDITION
The sign for addition is the plus sign (+). This sign placed between
numbers indicates that they are to be added. Numbers to be added may
be arranged horizontally or vertically in columns as shown.

In arithmetic, numbers to be added are usually arranged in columns for

more speed and convenience in performing the addition. When arranging
columns of numbers for addition, it is necessary to place units in the
right-hand column, tens in the second column from right, hundreds in the
third column from the right, etc.

From the above table we find that the units column adds up to give 26
units (6 units and 2 tens), the tens column totals 29 tens (9 tens and 2
hundreds), the hundreds column totals 22 hundreds (2 hundreds and 2
thousands), and the thousands column totals 7 thousands.
In the units column there are 2 tens and 6 units. Therefore 6 units are
taken as the number of units in the final answer. 2 tens are transferred to
the tens column so that it can be added with 29 tens. When 29 tens and
In example 1 (e.g. 1) above, all the numbers are units, but the sum of the 2 tens are added it will become 31 tens or 3 hundreds and 1 ten. This 1
numbers contains 2 tens and 9 units. Note that the 2 is placed in tens position. ten is taken as the tens representation in the final answer and 3 is
When the numbers to be added occupy more than one column, addition must be transferred to the hundreds column. When 3 is added with 22 hundreds
done for each column starting from the right most column. In the second example already in the hundreds column it will become 25 hundreds or 2
(e.g. 2), the units column is added to produce 3 tens and 6 units. The 3 tens must thousands and 5 hundreds. This 5 hundreds then will become the
be carried over to the tens column and added with it. When the tens column is hundreds representation of the final answer. The 2 thousands are
added, the sum of this column becomes 1 hundred and 5 tens .The 5 tens are transferred to thousands column to be added with 7 in the column. The
recorded in the answer, and the 1 hundred is carried to the hundreds column. resultant of the addition in the thousands column, 9 will then become the
Then the hundreds column adds up to 7 hundreds. To show what actually takes thousands representation of the final answer. So the final answer will be
place in adding a column of numbers, we shall add the numbers in example 3 9516.
(e.g.3) by a method, which demonstrates the operation completely.

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1.1.3 SUBTRACTION
Subtraction is the reverse of addition. The sign for subtraction is the
minus sign (-). In ordinary arithmetic a smaller number is always
subtracted from a larger number. In our review of algebra, we shall note
how subtraction is performed when the number to be subtracted is larger
than the number from which it is to be taken.
In subtraction the number from which another is to be subtracted is
called the minuend, the number being subtracted from the other is called
the subtrahend, and the result is called the difference.

In subtraction it is well to remember the components of a number, that

is, units, tens, hundreds, etc. This will make it easier to perform the
necessary operations with clear understanding. Similar to process carried
out in addition, subtraction is also performed column by column starting
from the right most column. In the preceding example, the digits in the
subtrahend are smaller than the corresponding numbers in the minuend, In the first column we find the 3 smaller than the 5, and so we must
and the operation is simple. If a number in the minuend is smaller than borrow a ten from the next column. We then subtract 5 from 13 to
the corresponding number in the subtrahend, it is necessary to borrow obtain 8. We must then remember that there are only 4 in tens
from the next column. For example, column and have to borrow 1 from the hundreds column to make it
14 tens. Now from 14 we can subtract 7 to obtain 7. Since we have
borrowed 1 from hundreds column only 7 is left in that column. We
subtract 6 from 7, thus leaving 1. We therefore place a 1 in the
hundreds column of the answer. So the final answer or the
difference is 178.

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1.1.4 MULTIPLICATION
If we look at the table, the multiplicand 25 consists of 2 tens and 5 units
Multiplication may be considered multiple additions and the symbol is ×. and the multiplier is 5. In multiplying 25 by 5 first we have to multiply 5
It may be defined as the process of finding the total number or quantity of the multiplicand by multiplier 5. The answer is 25. But this 25 cannot
obtained by repeating a number specified number of times. If we add 2 + be placed under units column. So we can place 5 in the units column and
2 to obtain 4, we have multiplied 2 by 2, because we have taken 2 two transfer remainder 2 to the next higher column; tens column. This
times. Likewise, if we add 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 to obtain 8, we have multiplied remainder is to be added to the answer we get in multiplying 2 in the
2 by 4, because we have taken 2 four times. tens column by multiplier 5. So the final product is 125.

In multiplication the number to be multiplied is called the multiplicand,

and the number of times the multiplicand is to be taken is called the
Let’s study a problem in which multiplier consists of more than one digit
multiplier. The answer obtained from a multiplication is the product.

1.1.4.1 METHODS OF MULTIPLICATION

The following problem illustrates the terms used in a multiplication. This
example uses a one digit multiplier to multiply a two digit multiplicand.

In this example we have to multiply 425 by 62. 62 is 60 +2. Therefore,

this is similar to multiplying the multiplicand first by 2 and then by 60
and finally adding the two answers. When 425 is multiplied by 2 the
answer is 850. When 425 is multiplied by 60, the answer is 25500.
When the two answers are added, the final product is 26350.

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In actual practice we do not write down each separate operation of the Accurate multiplication requires great care. First, it is important to know
multiplication as shown in the foregoing problem, but we shorten the the multiplication tables by heart. Second, care must be taken in
process by “carrying” figures to the next column. The method is whatever recording answers in the correct column. Third, the additions required
the number of digits in the multiplier, after multiplication of multiplicand must be made carefully and accurately. In order to acquire proficiency in
by each digit of the multiplier; the last digit of each answer must be accurate multiplying, practice is essential.
placed on the same column as the corresponding multiplier digit, one
In any mathematical problem it is desirable to check the answer for
answer below the other as given in the example. Then the individual
accuracy. There are a number of methods for checking multiplication and
answers must be added to get the final product.
the most obvious is to divide the product by either the multiplicand or the
It will be observed that the terms multiplicand and multiplier may be multiplier. If the product is divided by the multiplicand, the quotient
interchanged. For example, 2 x 4 is the same as 4 x 2; hence the terms (answer) should be the multiplier.
are actually reversed.
Another method for checking multiplication is to repeat the problem,
When we employ multiplication to solve a specific problem, the names of reversing the multiplicand and multiplier. If the product is the same in
the terms have more significance. For example, if we wish to find the each case, the answer is most likely to be correct.
total weight of 12 bags of apples and each bag weighs 25 kgs, then the
multiplicand is 25 and the multiplier is 12. We then say 12 times 25 kgs is
300 kgs, or 12 x 25 = 300.
To work multiplication problems with any degree of speed, one must
memorize the multiplication tables. The usual tables include
multiplications from 1 x 1 to 12 x 12. After these are memorized, it is well
to memorize the multiplication of larger numbers up to 20 x 20 or even
25 x 25. Multiplication tables may be made up from the multiplication
chart given (Refer Table: 1.1.1). This chart may be used to determine
quickly the product of any two numbers with a value of 20 or less. If it is
desired to find the value of 13 x 16, it is necessary, merely to find the
row of figures starting with 13 in the extreme left column and then follow
this row to the figure, which is directly under the figure 16 at the top of
the chart. At this intersection of column and row we find the figure 208.
This is the product of 13 x 16.
As previously stated, it is well to memorize multiplication tables up to 12 x
12 and then continue learning additional tables. This knowledge is
Table: 1.1.1
particularly valuable when one's work involves a substantial amount of
computation.

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1.1.5 DIVISION
Division may be considered the reverse of multiplication; that is division is
the separating or dividing of a number into a certain number of equal
parts. The symbol for division is ÷ which is the division sign, and it is read
“divided by”. For example, 98 ÷ 4 is read "98 divided by 4". The same
division is implied by the expression 98/4, since symbol / is often used as
an alternative to division sign.
In arithmetic there are two commonly used methods in dividing whole
numbers. These are short division and long division. The terms used to
describe the elements of a division problem are dividend, which is the
number to be divided; divisor, the number of times the dividend is to be
divided; and quotient, the number of times the divisor goes into the
dividend. In the problem
235 ÷ 5 = 47, the number 235 is the dividend, 5 is the divisor, and 47 is
the quotient.

1.1.5.1 METHODS OF DIVISION

1.1.5.1.1 SHORT DIVISION
The process of short division is used most often when it is desired to
divide a number by a divisor having only one digit. In our example we
have to divide 3857 by 7.
As it is shown in the following example, the first step here is to divide 38
by 7. Since 7 x 5 =35, if we divide 38 by 7 there will be a remainder of 3.
This remainder is held over in the hundred. This number is then 35, and 7 The dividend 3857 may be expressed as 3500 + 350 + 7. These numbers
goes into 35 five times without leaving a remainder. The only number left divided separately by 7 produce the quotients 500, 50, and 1. Adding these
to divide is the 7, into which the divisor goes once. The quotient is then together gives 551, which is the quotient obtained from the first division.
551. The process of division as explained above may be understood more
thoroughly if one analyzes the numbers involved.

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1.1.5.1.2 LONG DIVISION

Long division is employed most often when the dividend and the divisor Though for the understanding purposes we did the example as shown
both contain more than one digit. The process is somewhat more above, the usual method of solving the problem is as follows.
complex than that of short division, but with a little practice long division
may be accomplished easily and accurately. To solve the problem 18116
÷ 28 we arrange the terms of the problem as shown.

The first step in solving the problem is to divide 181 by 28, because 181 is
the smallest part of the dividend into which 28 can go. It is found that 28
will go into 181 six times with a remainder of 13. The number 168 (6 x 28)
is placed under the digits 181 and is subtracted. The number 13, which is
the difference between 168 and 181, is placed directly below the 6 and 8
as shown, and then the figure 1 is brought down from the dividend to
make the number 131. The divisor 28 will go into 131 four times with a
remainder of 19.
The final digit 6 of the dividend is brought down to make the number 196.
The divisor 28 will go into 196 exactly seven times. The quotient of the If we study the division shown in the foregoing example, we will find that
entire division is then 647. the dividend is composed of 28 x 600 = 16800, 28 x 40 = 1120, and 28 x
7 = 196. Then by adding 16800 + 1120 + 196, we find the sum, which is
18116, the original dividend. We could divide each part of the dividend by
28 separately to obtain 600, 40, and 7 and then add these quotients
together; it is quicker and simpler to combine the divisions as shown.

If a divisor does not go into a dividend an even number of times, there

will be a remainder. This remainder may be expressed as a fraction, or
a decimal. Fractions and decimals will be discussed later.

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1.1.6 FRACTIONS
A fraction may be defined as a part of a quantity, unit, or object. For
example, if a number is divided into four equal parts, each part is one-
fourth (1/4) of the whole number. The parts of a fraction are the
numerator and the denominator, separated by a line (/) indicating
division. In the illustration below, a rectangular block is cut into four
equal parts. Each single part is ¼ of the total. Two of the parts make ½
the total, and three of the parts make the fraction ¾ of the total.

Exercise: Figure: 1.1.1

1. 5648+56898+56+878 A fraction may be considered an indication of a division. For example,

2. 2366-59 the fraction ¾ indicates that the numerator 3 is to be divided by the
denominator 4. One may wonder how a larger number such as 4 can
3. 398 x 78 divide a smaller such as 3. It is actually a relatively simple matter to
4. 2088÷56 accomplish such a division when we apply it to a practical problem.
Suppose we wish to divide 3 bags containing 8 apples in each into four
5. 487 x 58
equal parts. Since there are 24 apples in all 3 bags, we can divide it into
6. 2785/3 four equal parts of 6 apples each. 6 apples are 1/4 of the total apples;
thus, we see that 1 divided by 4 is equal to 1/4. The principal fact to
remember concerning fractions is that a fraction indicates a division. The
fraction ½ means that 1 is to be divided by 2 or that the whole is to be
cut in half.

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A fraction whose numerator is less than its denominator is called a proper 1.1.7 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS
fraction. Its value is less than 1. If the numerator is greater than the
In order to add or subtract fractions, it is necessary that the
denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction.
denominators of the fractions have equal values. For example, it is not
possible to add 1 to 2 until the denominators of the fractions have
3 5
A mixed number is a combination of a whole number and a fraction, been changed to equal values. Since 3 and 5 will both go evenly into 15,
such as: we can change 1 to 5 and 2 to 6 . In this case, 15 is called the
3 15 5 15
32 2⁄5 and 325 23⁄25, which mean 32 + 2⁄5 and 325 +23⁄25 Lowest Common Denominator (LCD) of the fractions being considered. It
is now a simple matter to add the fractions.
1 2
+ =?
Fractions may be changed in form without changing their values. If the 3 5
numerator and the denominator of a fraction are both multiplied by the 1 5 5
same number, the value of the fraction remains unchanged. For example;
× ⇒ and
3 5 15
2 3 6
× ⇒
5 3 15
3×3 9 (The value of each basic fraction has not changed because both the
=
4 × 3 12 numerator and the denominator are multiplied by the same number)
The value of 9/12 is the same as ¾ 1 2 5 6
∴ + = +
In a similar manner, the value of a fraction is not changed if the same 3 5 15 15
number divides both the numerator and the denominator. 11
=
15
24 ÷ 12 2
=
36 ÷ 12 3 We can see that the above addition makes sense because 5 + 6 = 11.
Thus, we see that a large fraction may be simplified in some cases. This Since both the 5 and the 6 denote a specific number of fifteenths, we add
process is called reducing the fraction. To reduce the fraction to its lowest them to obtain the total number of fifteenths.
terms, we divide both the numerator and the denominator by the largest
number that will go into each without leaving a remainder. This is
accomplished as follows:

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The foregoing principle may be understood more easily if we apply it to a 1.1.8 FINDING THE LCD
practical problem. Suppose we wish to add ½ a meter and 2 of a meter.
5 The least common multiple or LCD, may be determined by dividing the
The most logical method is to convert all quantities to centimeters (cm). numbers concerned by common factors until there is nothing to divide
In a meter there are 100 cm. ½ of 100 cm is 50 cm and 2 of 100 cm is and then multiplying the factors.
5
40 cm. Obviously, the answer is 50 cm +40 cm; that is 90 cm. If we wish An easy method to find the LCD is given below. Let’s solve this problem.
to convert this quantity to meters, we must divide 90 cm by 100 cm. We 2 3 7 2
then find that we have 90⁄100 or 9⁄10 meters. + + − =?
3 5 12 15
The same method is used to subtract a small fraction from a larger The denominators here are 3,5,12,15. You can write these denominators
fraction. See the example given below. at a side of a paper as shown below.
2 1
- =? Start dividing all denominators simultaneously by the smallest number,
5 3
which can divide at least one denominator without remainders. Leave the
2 3 6 1 5 5 others undivided as shown in the example. Continue dividing with
× ⇒ and × ⇒
5 3 15 3 5 15 different smallest numbers until all the denominators are divided to the
2 1 6 5 end. Multiplying the divisors as shown will give the LCD and in this case it
∴ - = − is 60.
5 3 15 15
1
=
15
The Lowest Common Denominator (LCD) of two or more fractions is the
smallest number, which contains each of the denominators an even
number of times. When speaking of whole numbers, we use the term
Least Common Multiple (LCM) to indicate the smallest number into which
each of the numbers will divide evenly. Finding LCD is important in
adding and subtracting fractions.
If the denominators of four fractions are 2,3,4 and 6, the LCD is 12. This
is because 12 is also the least common multiple of 2,3,4, and 6. If wish
to find the LCM of 3,4, and 5, we must multiply 3 x 4 x 5 to obtain the
answer, 60. This is because 60 is the smallest number, which is evenly
divisible by all three numbers.

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The same method can be used to determine the LCM for whole numbers
Similarly,

To prepare fractions for adding or subtracting we proceed as follows:

a. Find the LCD
b. Divide the LCD by each denominator
c. Multiply the numerator and denominator of each fraction by the
quotient obtained when the denominator divided the LCD

For a better understanding we continue the same problem.

2 3 7 2
+ + − Now we can write
3 5 12 15
Now we know that the LCD is 60
2 3 7 2 40 36 35 8
+ + − = + + − or
3 5 12 15 60 60 60 60
The second step is to divide the LCD by each denominator and multiply
the numerator by the quotient.
40+36+35−8
60
which is equal to;
And this will be 40 103
Now we have found a fraction equal to the value of 60
2 40 So the answer is 103⁄60
, that is
3 60 It may appear as it is a long operation, but with practice, it will be a very
easy task.

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1.1.9 ADDING AND SUBTRACTING MIXED NUMBERS

Exercise:

When adding and subtracting mixed numbers, we must consider both

3 2 3 1
the whole numbers and the fractions. To do the addition 5  7 , we 1. 1 4+ 2 8
8 3
may first convert the mixed numbers into improper numbers. To do this 2 7
2. 4 5 + 3 10
we have to multiply the whole number by the denominator and add
product to the numerator. 1 1 1
3. 12 + 33 -25
4 3
4. 5 7+ 1 8
1 1 3 1
5. 1 3+ 4 4 - 1 15+ 2 12
1 5 12 7
6. 4 4+ 2 6 + 3 15+ 2 18

3 2 43 23
Then instead of writing 5 + 7 we can write +
8 3 8 3 1.1.10 MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS
and solve the problem using our previous knowledge of addition and Multiplication of fractions is accomplished by obtaining the product of the
subtraction of fraction. This method can be used also for subtraction of numerators and placing this product over the product of the,
fractions. denominators. This result is then reduced to lowest terms. For example:
Note: Instead you can add the whole numbers and the fractions
separately.
3 2 3 2
e.g. 5 + 7 = (5+7) + ( + )
8 3 8 3

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Where possible in the multiplication of fractions, cancellation is

employed to simplify the fractions before final multiplication takes
place. Let’s look at the example given below. A problem involving a few more operations than that given previously is:

5 2 9 4
× × ×
8 3 10 5

In this problem it will be noted that the 25 in the numerator and

The same can be written as the 20 in the denominator were both divided by 5 to obtain a 5 in
the numerator and a 4 in the denominator. Similarly, 36 in the
numerator and 8 in the denominator were divided by 4 to obtain 9
in the numerator and 2 in the denominator. Finally, 11 in the
numerator and 44 in the denominator both were reduced as a
In the foregoing problem, we have cancelled all values except the result of dividing by 11, to get 1 in numerator and 4 in
3 in the numerator and the 10 in the denominator. First, we denominator. The multiplication after this cancellation leads to the
cancelled the 5s, next we divided the 8 in the denominator by the answer 405/224.
2 in the numerator. The 4 that was left in the denominator was
then cancelled by the 4 in the numerator. The 9 in the numerator
was divided by the 3 in the denominator to leave a 3 in the 1.1.11 DIVIDING FRACTIONS
numerator.
The division of fractions is simply accomplished by inverting the divisor
and multiplying. Inverting a fraction means to turn it over, for example,
The product 3/10 contains the product of the numerators and the product if we invert ¾, it becomes 4/3. It is also of interest to note that 4/3 is
of the denominators reduced to their lowest terms. This may be proved the reciprocal of ¾. If we invert a whole number, we merely place a 1
as follows. above it. Hence, 3 becomes 1/3 when it is inverted. See the example
below.
Multiplying numerators: 5 x 2 x 9 x 4 = 360
Multiplying denominators: 8 x 3 x10 x 5 = 1200
5 7
Then: 360/1200 = 3/10 ÷
8 15
The reduction of the fraction was accomplished by dividing both the 5 15
= ×
numerator and denominator by 120. 8 7
75 19
= =1
56 56

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1.1.12 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF MIXED NUMBERS 1.1.13 DECIMALS

Mixed numbers may be multiplied or divided by changing the mixed Decimals, or decimal fractions, provide a means of performing
numbers to improper fractions and then proceeding as with fractions. It is mathematical operations without the necessity of using the time
done as follows. consuming and complex methods of common fractions. A decimal fraction
is a common fraction converted to tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc.

7 2
Multiplying: 5 ×3 For example, if we convert the common fraction ¾ to a decimal, we
8 3 find that it becomes 0.75. This is accomplished by dividing the
47 11 517 numerator by the denominator in the following manner.
= × =
8 3 24
13
=21
24

3 2
Dividing: 9 ÷4
4 3
39 14
= ÷
4 3
Any fraction may be converted to a decimal by this same process. Let us
39 3 117
= × = assume that we wish to convert the fraction 28/35 to a decimal.
4 14 56
5
=2
56

It must be pointed out that the procedures explained in the preceding

sections do not represent the only possible methods for obtaining the
same results, but those given are commonly used and will aid students in
refreshing their ability to perform computations with fractions.

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The decimal 0.80 is the same as 0.8 and may be read "eighty hundredths” Exercise:
or “eight tenths”. It is also read as ‘zero point eight’. The zeros at the end
of the decimal are not considered. Therefore, it will not be read as ‘zero Convert following fractions to decimals.
point eight zero’
1. ½
2. 3⁄8
If it is desired to convert a fraction to a decimal when the denominator
will not go evenly into the numerator, the decimal will be carried to the 3. 21⁄43
nearest tenth, hundredth, thousandth, or ten-thousandth according to the
degree of accuracy required for the problem. For example, we may wish 4. 714⁄982
to convert the fraction 25 to a decimal carried to the nearest ten-
33 5. 78⁄1000
thousandth. We proceed as follows:
6.32⁄88

1.1.14 ADDITION OF DECIMALS

The addition of decimals is a simple matter provided the decimals are
properly placed. In adding a column of numbers with decimals, the
decimal points should be kept in line in a column as shown below.

In this exercise, the answer would be alternately 7 and 5 indefinitely if

we continued to carry the division onward. Since we wish to attain
accuracy only to the nearest ten-thousandth, we "round off" the
answer when we reach the fourth digit. Since this number is nearer 6
than 5, we make it a 6.

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In the foregoing problem observe that there is no difference with decimal

addition and the normal addition. But the decimal point of the answer is Exercise:
placed in line with the decimal points of the other components of the 1. 2.1 + 3.45 + 7.067
sum.
2. 0.1 + 0.096 + 0.001873
3. 345.28 + 21.234 + 3133.999
1.1.15 SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS
4. 98.32 + 23.11- 5.67
Subtraction of decimals is almost as easy as subtracting whole numbers.
It is necessary, however, that we use care to avoid mistakes in placing 5. 4505.3821- 893.5855
the decimal points. This is illustrated in the following problems:
6. 675 - 286.57399
7. 10000 - 3652.0578
652.25 2568.2350 320.000
8. 1- 0.001- 0.01568
- 28.64 - 376.4582 -215.375
623.61 2191.7768 104.625

1.1.16 MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS

Observe in the foregoing problems that where there are fewer decimal The multiplication of decimals is performed in the same manner as the
places in the minuend than in the subtrahend, we add zeros to fill the multiplication of whole numbers except that we must use care in placing
spaces. This aids in avoiding mistakes that could otherwise occur. The the decimal point in the product. Let us assume that we wish to multiply
addition of the zeros at the end of a decimal does not affect the value of 37.5 by 24.2
the decimals.

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1.1.17 DIVISION OF DECIMALS

Having completed the multiplication of numbers containing decimals, we The division of decimals requires much more care than the addition,
count the total number of decimal places in the multiplicand and
subtraction, or multiplication. This is because it is easier to misplace the
multiplier and point off this many places in the product. In the foregoing
decimal point in the quotient. The principal rule to remember in dividing
example there is one decimal place in the multiplicand and one in the
multiplier. We therefore point off two decimal places in the answer. decimals is to place the decimal point of the quotient directly above the
decimal point of the dividend. This is illustrated in the following problems:
The answer of the foregoing problem would then be 907.5 and be read
“nine hundred seven and five tenths.” If the zero was left in the answer,
the decimal portion would be read “fifty hundredths”.

It is often necessary to multiply decimals in which there are no whole

numbers. For example,

In the third problem illustrated above, the divisor does not go into the
dividend evenly, and so the answer is "rounded off" with an 8 to provide an
accuracy to the nearest ten-millionth.

Since there is a total of six decimal places in the multiplicand and

multiplier, we must point off six places in the product. This makes the When the divisor contains decimals, we move the decimal point in the
answer 0.018200. In order to simplify the answer, we drop the two zeros divisor to the right until the divisor is a whole number. We then move the
at the right and write 0.0182 which is read as “zero point zero one eight decimal point in the dividend the same number of points to the right.
two”.
This is equivalent to multiplying both the dividend and the divisor by the
same number, and so the quotient remains the same.
Note: It is customary with some writers to omit the zero ahead of a
decimal point not preceded by a whole number. Thus 0.04 would be
written .04. In either case the value is the same and the decimal is read
“point zero four”. It is not necessary to use the zero before the decimal
point, but it may aid in preventing mistakes.

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Divide 34.026 by 4.538 1.1.18 CONVERTING DECIMALS TO COMMON FRACTIONS

It has been stated that a decimal is a fraction, and of course this is true.
A decimal fraction is a fraction that has 10, 100, 1000 etc. for the
denominator. The decimal 0 .34 may be shown as 34 100 . Also, the decimal
fraction 0.005 may be written as 5 1000 .

To convert a decimal fraction to a common fraction, we merely write it in

the fraction form and then reduce it to its lowest terms by dividing the
numerator and denominator by the same number.
To convert 0.325 to a common fraction, we write it 325
1000 and then divide
the numerator and denominator by 25.
325÷25=13
1000÷25=40
It is obvious that many decimals cannot be converted to small common
fractions because the numerator and denominator may not have common
In above problem, the division may continue, but it is halted when the factors. However, it may be possible to arrive at an approximate fraction
required accuracy is obtained. Hence, the exact answer is a little more which is within the accuracy limits required. For example, 0.3342 may be
than the answer shown. approximately converted to 13 .

Exercise:
Exercise:
Convert below decimals to common fractions.
1. 3.6 X 7.3
1. 0.025 2. 8.85 X 6.14
2. 0.16 3. 2.5649 X 5.017

3. 035 4. 95.674 ÷ 26
5. 535 ÷ 0.013
4. 0.625
6. 6195.7035 ÷ 0.103
5. 0.84

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1.1.19 FACTORS AND MULTIPLES Find the prime factors of 144.

The factors of a number are those smaller numbers, which divide exactly We can start dividing 144 using the short division method.
into the number with no remainder. The number 1, which must always
divide exactly into a whole number, is by convention is not considered as
a factor. Factorization is the process of finding the factors of a number; it
is the process of finding the smaller whole numbers, which divide into the
number exactly or, equivalently, finding the smaller whole numbers,
which when multiplied together, give the number.
For example, the factors of :
6 are 2 and 3. i.e. 2 x 3 = 6
10 are 5 and 2. i.e. 2 x 5 = 10
Therefore, the prime factors of 144 are 2 and 3.
12 are 2,3,4 and 6
since 2 x 6 = 12 The Highest Common Factor (HCF) of a set of numbers is the largest
integer (number) that will divide into every one of the numbers of the set
2 x 2 x 3 = 12 without leaving a remainder.
3 x 4 = 12 Let us see from the following example what is the Highest Common
Factor (HCF) of the group of numbers given. The numbers are 2856,
1020 and 2244. By using the short division as studied before, we can find
Now let us introduce the term prime number. A prime number is any the prime factors of the numbers in the group.
positive integer, which has no factors. Examples of the first few prime
numbers are:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61…
(All prime numbers are odd numbers except for 2)
In the process of factorization, we are normally concerned with finding
the prime factors (that is the factors which are prime numbers). Let us
see how by means of the following examples.

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The encircled loops indicate the common factors. The product of common What we have done in the example above is not new. We have done the
factors is the HCF. That means that 204 is the highest factor by which all same to find the Lowest Common Denominator (LCD) under addition and
the numbers in the group can be divided. subtraction of fractions. The difference between the terms Lowest
Common Denominator (LCD) and the Least Common Multiple (LCM) is
The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) or Least Common Multiple
that the Lowest Common Denominator of two or more fractions is the
(LCM) of a set of numbers is the smallest integer into which all numbers
smallest number, which contains each of the denominators an even
of the set divide exactly. For example the LCM of 2, 3 and 4 is 12.
number of times. When speaking of whole numbers, we use the term
Now let us see how we determine the LCM by means of the following Least Common Multiple (LCM) to indicate the smallest number into which
example. each of the numbers will divide evenly.
Find the LCM of 12, 18, 27, 33, 48. The method of finding LCD and LCM is the same. Therefore, in some text
Our first step is to find the prime factors of the numbers in the set. LCM is used in place of LCD.
12 = 2 x 2 x 3
18 = 2 x 3 x 3
27 = 3 x 3 x 3
33 = 3 x 11 Exercise:
48 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 Find the prime factors of below numbers.
The LCM may be determined as follows.
1. 184
2. 450
3. 260
4. 1925
5. 2646

1.1.20 WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND CONVERSION FACTORS

1.1.20.1 WEIGHT
The matter is defined as anything, which occupies the space; hence
everything, which we can see and feel, constitutes matter. The matter
therefore will be solids, liquids and gases. Whether it is gas or liquid or
solid, they all have two basic features in common. That is, all three kinds

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of matter have a specific volume and a mass. The amount of space taken standards, which serve as standards of the appropriate units of
by any matter is called volume and the mass is a quantitative measure of measurement in the respective countries.
inertia. Inertia is that property of matter which causes a resistance to any
When the standard meter was being produced it was the intention that it
change in the motion of a body (solids, liquids or gases).
should be 1/10,000,000th of a quarter of the meridian passing through
Paris. When the standard kilogram was being produced its mass was
supposed to be equal to 1 dm3 of pure water at 4°C. However, more
In the SI system of units i.e., International System of units, which will be
accurate measurements have shown the original meter and kilogram
discussed later in the chapter, the unit of mass is kilogram (kg) and in
standards to deviate somewhat from the intended values. Because of
English Engineering system of units it is measure in pounds, tonnes etc.
constantly improving methods of measurement the old definitions of the
Weight is the resultant force of attraction on the mass of a body due to meter and kilogram had to be dropped to avoid changing the standards
the gravitational effect of the Earth. In SI system, the weight is measured after each new measurement.
in Newtons and in English Engineering system of units, it is measured in
pounds.
1.1.21 AN INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND THE USE OF
PREFIXES
1.1.20.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS
In practical applications of mathematics, we are concerned not only with
Initially each country had its own system of units of measurement. In numerical values but also with what the value describes, that is their
United Kingdom, the English Engineering System of Units was in use and units. In this section we will consider some of the more important basic
most countries used this system as their primary measuring system. In units, their abbreviations, and the use of prefixes to denote multiples and
this system the length is measured in feet, yard or miles. The weight is sub-multiples of units.
measured in pounds and tonnes. But then in the eighteenth century on
In engineering and science and indeed in most other practical areas, we
recommendation of French scientists, the metric system of units was
employ SI units. SI is the abbreviation for the International System of
devised. This system is now universally used throughout the world.
units. This system has now been adopted for general use in most
countries throughout the world. The International System of units
When the metric system was being created, the following units of comprises SI units and SI prefixes and their associated symbols which
measurement were established: the unit of length, the meter; the unit of have been internationally agreed. SI units are of three kinds: base,
mass, the kilogram; and the unit of time, the second. supplementary, and derived. There is an SI base unit for each of the
seven physical quantities: length, mass, time, electric current,
At the same time the meter and kilogram standards were produced from temperature, luminous intensity, amount of substance.
platinum-iridium alloy. A sample of a unit of measurement that is in
accordance with an international convention is regarded as the only There are two SI supplementary units: the radian and steradian, to
genuine sample and is termed the standard of this unit. The International quantify angular measure. All other units for the measurement of other
Bureau of Standards in Sevres, France keeps the meter and kilogram physical quantities are derived from the base units and many of the
standards. Individual countries have obtained copies of the international derived units have their own special name.

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SI prefixes are used to form decimal multiples and submultiples of the SI SI Derived Units
units. This enables us, together with the unit symbol, to write down the
The following SI units have their own names but are not independently
values of physical quantities in a concise and clear way.
defined. They can be deduced in terms of the SI base units and are thus
known as derived units.
1.1.22 SI BASE, SUPPLEMENTARY AND DERIVED UNITS USEFUL
Derived quantity Name Symbol
FOR MATHEMATICS
electric resistance ohm
Base units Ω
energy joule J
Quantity Name Symbol
Frequency hertz Hz
length meter m
Force N
mass kilogram kg newton
Power W
time second s watt
pressure pascal Pa
electric current ampere A

thermodynamic temperature kelvin K Table: 1.1.4

amount of substance mole mol

luminous intensity candela cd

Table: 1.1.2

Supplementary units

Quantity Name Symbol

plane angle radian rad

solid angle steradian sr

Table: 1.1.3

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1.1.23 NAMES AND SYMBOLS FOR THE SI PREFIXES 1.1.24 COVERSION FACTORS
Note that the preferred prefixes are in multiples of 10±3, 10±6, 10±9, 10±12. We now have a general knowledge of units such as mass, length and
Those prefixes marked with an asterisk are not preferred but are time. We also learned that units are measured in two different unit
nevertheless commonly used. measuring systems; SI system units and English (conventional) system
units. Now we will study the relationships between these two systems.
There are numerous amounts of such units. But in this chapter, we have
NAME SYMBOL MEANING discussed only the relevant and applicable units for our scope of study.
In mathematics we may encounter units of both the systems. Therefore,
tera T 1012(a million million times)
it is necessary to remember the factors used to covert one unit to
giga G 109(a thousand million times) another.
Given below are some useful factors used for conversion of such units.
mega M 106 (a million times)

kilo k 103 (a thousand times)

hecto h 102 (a hundred times)

deca* da 10 (a ten times)

deci* d 10-1(a tenth)

centi c 10-2(a hundredth)

milli m 10-3(a thousandth)

micro μ 10-6(a millionth)

nano n 10-9(a thousand millionth)

pico p 10-12(a million millionth)

Table: 1.1.5

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1.1.25 RATIO AND PROPORTION

A ratio is the numerical relation between two quantities, and they are
very convenient means of expressing a comparison of the magnitudes of
two quantities, i.e. how many times one quantity is larger or smaller than
another. Ratios are also used extensively in science and engineering to
define important parameters.
If one man has two airplanes and the other has 3 airplanes, the ratio of
2
their airplane ownership is 2 to 3. This may also be expressed as 3 or
2
3 . Thus, we see that ratio is actually a fraction, and it may also be used
mathematically as a fraction. Another method for expressing ratio is 2:3.
This is read as 2 to 3.
A ratio may be reduced to lowest terms in the same manner as a fraction.
For example, the ratio 24:36 may be reduced to 2:3 by dividing each
term of the ratio by 12. If a certain store has 60 customers on Friday and
80 on Saturday, the ratio is 60:80 or 3:4.
The ratio of $ 300 to $ 500 is

Table: 1.1.6

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Proportion expresses equality between two ratios. For example, if the

ratio 4:5 is equal to the ratio 12:15 we say the two ratios are in
proportion. This may also be expressed 4:5 = 12:15 or 4/5=12/15.
In a proportion problem the outer numbers, such as 4 and 15 above, are
called the extremes and the two inside numbers (5 and 12) are called the
means. In a proportion, the product of the means is equal to the product Then X = 24
of the extremes. We may demonstrate this rule by using the preceding Therefore 6: 16 = 9: 24
problem.
Note that dividing or multiplying the two sides of an equation by the
same number or fraction or decimal has no effect on the value of the
Let us use the same proportion for this demonstration equation.
4 12
=
5 15
1.1.26 PROPORTIONAL DIVISION
Proportion may be applied to divide a given quantity in to parts, which
are proportional to the given numbers.

Suppose one has to divide 1530 books among three groups of children
proportional to the numbers 2, 3 and 4.
This can also be achieved by cross multiplying numerator of one ratio In this example, if it is only 9 books one group gets 2 books the second
with the denominator of the other ratio in the proportion. group gets 3 books and the third group gets 4 books.

So that 2 + 3 + 4 = 9
2
First group gets 2 by 9 books =
9
We may use the above rule to find an unknown term in a proportion. 6: 3
16 = 9: ? Second group gets 3 by 9 books =
9
Using x to denote the unknown quantity, we can say
6 x X = 16 x 9 or 6 X = 144 But if we are to find how many books the individual groups get from 1530
books, we have to multiply 1530 by these proportions.
Now if we divide both the sides of the equation by 6

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4 Therefore,
And the third group gets 4 by 9 books =
9
2
So, the first group gets X1530 = 340 books
9
3
Second group gets 𝑋1530 = 510 books
9 Percentage is the term used to indicate a certain number of hundredths
4
And the third group gets 𝑋1530 = 680 books of a whole. The expression 5% means or 0.05. To find a certain
9 percentage of a number, multiply the number by the number of percent
and write the number, then move the decimal point two places to the left.
1.1.27 AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES For example, to find 6% of 325 we multiply 325 by 6 to obtain
100
The average value (or mean value) of a set of quantities is obtained 950 , and then move the decimal point two places to the left and find
100
by adding the quantities and dividing the sum by number of quantities. the answer as 19.50 or 19.5. We could just as easily multiply by 0.06 to
Let’s understand the average from the following example. obtain the same answer. Certain percentages are equal to commonly
A taxing aircraft has a speed of 150 knots. When it is climbing its speed is used fractions, and it is well to be familiar with these: 25% = 14 , 50% =
300 knots. It cruises at 500 knots and descends at 350 knots. When it 1
2 , 75% = 4 , 12 2 %=
3 1 1
8 and 33 3 % = 3 . Familiarity with these
1 1

lands it has a speed of 150 knots. Find the average speed of the fractions and their equivalent percentages is helpful in many
aircraft. computations.
To find the average we first have to add the speeds together.
150+300+500+350+150 = 1450 If we wish to find what percent one number is of another, we divide the
And then divide the total by 5 because it adds 5 different speeds. first number by the second.
1450 For example, 26 is what percent of 65?
= 290
5
So, the average speed of the aircraft is 290 knots.

Since we change a decimal to a percentage by moving the decimal point

two places to the right, 0.40 becomes 40%. Thus 26 is 40% of 65.

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There are three common terms used in percentage calculations. They are 1.1.29 MEASUREMENT OF AREA
base, rate, and percentage.
Science of measurement of lengths of lines, areas and volumes of solids
If we consider the same example we used, or generally of any matter is called mensuration. Its knowledge is of
immense use to the surveyor, architect and engineer. Under
measurement of areas we will deal with the areas of plane figures.
Therefore, it is required to know the definitions of these planes.

It should be understood here that two straight lines when intersected

make angles and are measured in degrees and a right angle is an
angle of 90 degrees.

And also, Rate = Base x Percentage

Rate
Figure: 1.1.2
Base =
Percentage
Area being the product of two linear measurements, is expressed in
square units. The following table gives the measure of area in the metric
These equations correspond to the formulas given before. By using the system.
formulas, we can find any percentage one number is of another, and
what the base when the percentage and rate are known.

1.1.28 AREAS AND VOLUMES

The area of any figure is the amount of surface enclosed within its
bounding lines. This is measured by the square centimeters, square
meters or other units of square measure it contains.

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100 square millimeters (mm2) = 1 square centimeter (cm2)

100 square centimeters (cm2) = 1 square decimeter (dm2)
100 square decimeters (dm2) = 1 square meter (m2)
100 square meters (m2) = 1 square decameter (Dm2)
100 square decameters (Dm2) = 1 square hectometer (Hm2)
100 square hectometers (Hm2 ) = 1 square kilometer (km2)

Figure: 1.1.4
1.1.30 RECTANGLE AND SQUARE
A rectangle is a four-sided figure having all its angles right angled and
opposite sides equal
100 square in dimensions.
decameters (Dm2) = 1 square hectometer Area of a rectangle = Length x Breadth
(Hm )
2
Area of a square = Length x Length
100 square hectometers (Hm2 = 1 square kilometer (Km2)
= Length 2
The product of the length and the breadth of them determine the area of
a rectangle or a square.
Let’s study the following example to find the area of a rectangle whose
length is 5 cm and breadth is 3 cm. In the accompanying figure, each
side is divided into centimeters and dotted straight lines join points of
division. The rectangle has thus been divided into a number of squares
Figure: 1.1.3 each 1 square centimeter in area. It will be seen from the figure that
there are three rows each containing 5 squares.

The sides of a rectangle are usually called its length and breadth. In a
rectangle the length and the breadth are not equal. If the length and the
breadth of a rectangle are equal, we call that figure a square.

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1.1.31 PARRALLELOGRAM

Figure: 1.1.5
Figure: 1.1.6
Therefore, the rectangle contains 5x3 square centimeters (which is also
written as cm2). The area of the given rectangle is = 15 cm2
A parallelogram is a four-sided figure whose opposite sides are parallel.
Thus, ABCD is a parallelogram in which AB is parallel to CD and AD is
parallel to BC. Any side can be taken as the base of the parallelogram
and the shortest distance from the base to the opposite side is termed as
the height.
where A stands for the number of square units in the area of the rectangle
and L and B stand for the number of units in length and breadth
respectively.
From the formula A = L x B
𝐴 𝐴
Therefore L= and B =
𝐵 𝐿
In case of a square, L = B
Therefore A = L2

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To find the area of a parallelogram ABCD, let CDEF be a rectangle on the 1.1.33 RHOMBUS
same base DC and of the same height FC.
A rhombus is a parallelogram whose sides are not only parallel but also
As you can see from the figure, with respect to area, equal.
Parallelogram ABCD = Rectangle CDEF
= CD x FC (Base x Height)
Hence the area of a parallelogram is equal to the product of its base and
height.

1.1.32 TRIANGLE
A figure bounded by three sides is called a triangle.
Figure: 1.1.8

Since rhombus is also a parallelogram

The area of a rhombus = Base x Height
= DC x XY
1.1.34 TRAPEZIUM
A trapezium is a four-sided figure having a pair of opposite sides parallel.

Figure: 1.1.7

It can be understood from the above two diagrams that the area of a
triangle is equal to half of that of a rectangle or parallelogram.
Therefore, we can say that
1
The area of a triangle = x Height x Base Figure: 1.1.9
2
In this trapezium, AB // DC
To find the area of a trapezium we have to divide the figure of the
trapezium into two triangles and a rectangle as shown.

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∴ Area of the trapezium= area of triangles ADE and BFC + area of 1.1.35 QUADRILATERAL
rectangle ABFE A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four sides.
1 1
= x AE x DE +2 x CF x BF + AE x EF
2
∴Area of the trapezium
1 1
= AE x DE +2CF x AE + AE x EF
2
1 1 1 Figure: 1.1.10
= AE x DE +2CF x AE+ 2 (2 AE x EF)
2
The area of the quadrilateral = the sum areas of two triangles
As we can see from the above equation AE is common for the three parts
of the equation.
1 1
= BD x AE + 2 BD x CF
2
∴Area of the trapezium
1
= BD (AE+CF)
1
=2AE (DE+CF+2EF)
2
1
1 = diagonal x shortest distance to opposite angles from the diagonal
=2AE (DE+CF+EF+EF) 2

Since EF = AB
1
∴Area of the trapezium = AE (DE+CF+EF+AB)
2

DC
1
= AE (DC+AB)
2
Therefore
1
Area of a trapezium = height x sum of the parallel sides
2

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1.1.36 CIRCLE The ratio of the circumference to its diameter is always a constant for any
circle.
The path of a point, which always maintains a distance fixed from a fixed
point, is called a circle. In the circle this fixed distance is called radius Therefore Circumference (C) = constant
(plural radii), the fixed point is called center and the line of the circle is Diameter (2r)
known as the circumference. Any straight line drawn through the center
and terminated at the circumference from both the sides is known as
diameter and any part of the circumference is called arc. Also, a part of This constant is denoted by the Greek letter π (pie) and its value is taken
the circle, which is enclosed by two radii and the arc is called sector and 22
any straight line joining any two points on the circumference is known as as .
7
chord.

Therefore circumference C =2 πr

Similarly, it is proven that the area of a Circle = πr x r = πr2

Therefore area (a) = πr2

Figure: 1.1.11

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1.1.37 VOLUME
1000 cubic millimeters (mm3) = 1 cubic centimeter (cm3)
Under the subject area, we discussed the methods of finding the areas of
plane figures such as rectangles, triangles, parallelograms, circles etc. 1000 cubic centimeters (cm3) = 1 cubic decimeter (dm3)
A plane figure lies entirely in a plane and are two-dimensional. They have 1000 cubic decimeters (dm3) = 1 cubic meter ( m3)
length and breadth only. 1000 cubic meters (m3) = 1 cubic decameter (Dm3)
The matter is defined as anything, which occupies the space; hence 1000 cubic decameters (Dm3) = 1 cubic hectometer (Hm3)
everything, which we can see and feel, constitutes matter. The matter
therefore will be solids, liquids and gases. The amount of space taken by 1000 cubic hectometers (Hm3) = 1 cubic kilometer (km3)
any matter is called volume.
If we look at solids, they are three-dimensional. Similarly, liquids and
gasses also are three-dimensional. Therefore, they have length, breadth Under this chapter we will study the methods used to find the volumes of
and height or thickness. cuboids, cubes, cylinders, cones and spheres.

Figure: 1.1.12

The unit of measurement of volume is unit cube. It is a cube with unit

sides. For instance, if the cube has 1 cm sides, its volume is 1 cubic
centimeter or 1 cm3.
Given below is a table of various units of volumes depending upon the
unit measure.

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1.1.38 CUBOID 1.1.39 CUBE

A solid bounded by six rectangular surfaces is called a cuboid. Shoe When the dimensions of a cuboid are equal to one another, it is called
boxes, chalk boxes, matchboxes are examples of cuboids. The dimensions cube.
of cuboid are length (l), breadth (b) and height (h).

Figure: 1.1.14
Figure: 1.1.13

A cuboid has six rectangular surfaces or faces (three pairs of opposite Because the sides are equal to one another,
and parallel faces), twelve edges (six pairs of parallel edges) and eight
vertices (the points at which three mutually perpendicular edges meet). The volume of a cube is = length3 = breadth3 = height3
The volume of a cuboid is = height x breadth x length = l3 = b3= h3

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1.1.40 CYLINDER 1.1.41 CONE

A cylinder is an object which has a curved surface, two circular ends A cone is a solid pointed object with a circular base. It has one vertex,
and two equal edges. one edge, one plane surface and a one curved surface.

Figure: 1.1.15

It is proven that
The volume of a cylinder = π x radius2 x height Figure: 1.1.16

= πr2h
Examples of cone are ice cream cone and joker cone.

It can be proven that

1
The volume of a cone = πr2h
3

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1.1.42 PYRAMID 1.1.43 SPHERE

Pyramid is a solid whose sides are triangles, having a common vertex A sphere is a set of points in space whose distance from a fixed point is
and a plane rectilinear (drawn by straight lines) base. The perpendicular equal to a given distance.
drawn from the vertex to the base of the pyramid is the height.

Figure: 1.1.18

The fixed point is called center and a line passing the center and having
its end points at the sphere is called the diameter. All diameters of the
sphere are equal and constant. The radius of the sphere is half the length
of the diameter.

Figure: 1.1.17 A plane containing the diameter of a sphere divides the sphere into two
The pyramid is called regular when its base is any regular figure and also equal parts. Each part is called hemi-sphere.
it is called a right pyramid when the perpendicular drawn from the vertex
to the base falls on the center point of the base. The volume of the sphere is given by the formula below. If the radius of
the sphere is r,
It can be proven that the
4
1 Volume of a sphere = 𝜋𝑟 3
Volume of the pyramid = area of the base x height 3
3

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CATEGORY B1.1 / B2 ARITHMETIC / SUB MODULE 1.1

1.1.44 POWER AND ROOT

1.1.44.1 SQUARES AND CUBES
A power of a number represents the number multiplied by itself a certain
number of times. For example, 5 x 5 = 25; hence the second power of 5
is 25. The second power of 5 is indicated as 52. It is read "5 squared" or
"5 to the second power”. For example;

1.1.44.2 SQUARE ROOTS AND CUBE ROOTS

If we multiply 5 x 5 x 5 to obtain 125, we have found the third power of
It will be remembered that a factor of a number is another number that
5. The third power of 5 is indicated as 53. It is read "5 cubed" or "5 to
will divide evenly into the first number. For example, 3 factors of 12 are
the third power”. For example;
2, 4, and 6, because each of these numbers will divide evenly, into 12. A
root of a number is a factor which when multiplied by itself a certain
number of times will produce the number. For example, 2 is a root of 4
because it will give a product of 4 when multiplied by itself. It is also a
"The second power” of a number is called the “square” of a number and root of 8 because 2 x 2 x 2 = 8. A square root is the root of a number
the “third power” is called “cube”. This terminology is derived from the that when multiplied by itself once will produce the number. For example,
fact that the area of a square is equal to the length of one side multiplied 3 is the square root of 9 because 3 x 3 = 9.
by itself. The term cube is derived in a similar manner because the
volume of a cube is equal to length of one edge raised to the third power.
Any power of any number may be found merely by continuing to multiply
it by itself the indicated numbers of times. For example,
26 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 64
The small index number placed above and to the right of a number to
indicate the power of the number is called the exponent. The number to
be raised to a power is called the base. In the expression 254, the small
number 4 is the exponent and the number 25 is the base. If we multiply
25 by itself, the number of times indicated by the exponent 4, we find
that;

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A cube root is the root of a number that when multiplied by itself two The method for extracting the square root of a number is not difficult, but
times will produce the number. 3 is the cube root of 27 because 3 x 3 x 3 it requires careful attention to procedure. The following example
= 27. illustrates the steps required. In our example we are going to extract the
square root of 104976.

First step is to place the number under the radical sign and
separate it into periods of two digits each starting from the
right of the number.

The symbol, √ or √, called the radical sign, is used to denote the square
root of a number. Thus The second step is to determine the nearest perfect square
smaller than the first period on the left, and subtract this
square from the first period. Place the root of the square above
√81 = 9 √144 = 12 √289 = 17 or the first period. Bring down the next period to form the new
dividend 149.
√81 = 9 √144 = 12 √289 = 17

A root which must be multiplied by itself three times to produce a certain

number is the fourth root of that number. Hence 3 is the fourth root of 81
because 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 81.
Square root of a number can also be denoted by raising the number to an
exponent equal to ½ or half (eg. √81 is same as 81(1/2)).
If a larger root is to be extracted, we place the index of the root in the The third step is to multiply the root 3 by 20 and place the
radical sign. product 60 to the left of the new dividend. The product 60 is a
trial divisor. Determine how many times this trial divisor will go
Example: Cube root is denoted by the sign 3√ into the dividend 149.
Thus:
3 4 5
√27 = 3 √256 = 4 √16807 = 7

This indicates that the cube root of 27 is 3, and the fourth root of 256 is 4
and fifth root of 16807 is 7.

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The fourth step is to multiply the partial answer 32 by 20 to obtain the

new trial divisor 640. Determine how many times 640 will go into
2576. Inspection indicates that it will go into 640 four times. Add the 4
to 640 to obtain 644, which is the complete divisor. Place the 4 above
the third period. Then multiply the complete divisor 644 by 4 to obtain
2576.

In this case 60 will go into 149 two times. Place 2 to the right of
the trial divisor to make 62 that is the complete divisor. Place 2
above the second period and then multiply the complete divisor by
2.
Place the product 124 under the dividend 149 and subtract. Bring
down the next period to make the new dividend.

1.1.45 PERFECT SQUARES

The perfect squares are the squares of the whole numbers as shown
in Table.

Table: 1.1.7

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1.1.46 PERFECT CUBES 1.1.47 SQUARE ROOT OF A DECIMAL

The Perfect Cubes are the cubes of the whole numbers as shown. The square root of decimals is calculated the same way the square root
of whole numbers is calculated.

(0.1)2 = 0.01 ∴ √0.01 = 0.1

(0.8)2 = 0.64 ∴ √0.64 = 0.8
Table: 1.1.8 (0.05)2=0.0025 ∴ √0.0025 =0.05

It is relatively easy to work out the square root of a perfect square or the
cube root of a perfect cube, but it is really hard to work out other square It is clear from the above examples that the square of any decimal
roots or cube roots. If the root of a number cannot be exactly obtained, contains an even number of decimal places and the number of decimal
the root is called a surd or an irrational number. places in the square will be double the number of such places in the
square root.
Example: Note that any number that contains one or two digits lies between 1 and
What is the cube root of 30? 100, and hence its square root lies between 1 and 10. Similarly when a
number contains three or four digits the square root lies between 10 and
Well, 3 × 3 × 3 = 27 and 4 × 4 × 4 = 64, so we can 100 and so on.
guess the answer is between 3 and 4.
We see from the above examples that two additional digits in a number
Let's try 3.5: 3.5 × 3.5 × 3.5 = 42.875 lead to one additional digit in the square root. Thus, we separate the
Let's try 3.2: 3.2 × 3.2 × 3.2 = 32.768 digits of a given number (whose square root is required) into periods of
two beginning from the right, the number of digits in the square root will
Let's try 3.1: 3.1 × 3.1 × 3.1 = 29.791 be equal to the number of such periods. If the number consists of an odd
Therefore it is a value between 3.1 and 3.2 number of digits, the last period contains only one digit.
If the number contains whole numbers and decimals, the period markings
are marked from the left and right to the decimal point. And also note
that the number of decimal places should always be made even. For more
details see the example below. In this example we are going to find the
square root of 13523.56802.

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1.1.48 POWERS AND ROOTS OF FRACTIONS

When a fraction is to be raised to a certain power, the numerator
multiplies the numerator and the denominator multiplies the
denominator. Example, if we wish to find the third power (cube) of
3
, we multiply 3 x 3 x 3 for the new numerator and 4 x 4 x 4 for the new
4
denominator.

To extract a particular root of a fraction, we must

extract the roots of both numerator and the denominator. For example,
4 2
the square root of 4/9 or, √ = . This is because the square root of 4 is
9 3
2 and the square root of 9 is 3.
This can also achieve by converting the fraction first to decimals and then
finding the root of the decimals.

The Table: 1.1.9 shows squares, cubes, square roots and cube roots of
numbers up to 50.

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CATEGORY B1.1 / B2 ARITHMETIC / SUB MODULE 1.1

Table: 1.1.9

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CATEGORY B1.1 / B2 ARITHMETIC / SUB MODULE 1.1

Exercise: Squares, Cubes and Roots

Evaluate the following.
1. 22
2. 122
3. 33
4. √9
5. 25½
6. 203
7. √81
8. 3√125
9. 3√4096
10. 144½

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 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1.1 / B2
ALGEBRA/ SUB MODULE 1.2

MODULE 1 MATHEMATICS

ALGEBRA

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 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1.1 / B2
ALGEBRA/ SUB MODULE 1.2

‘“FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY”

“The training notes and diagrams although comprehensive in
detail, they are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up to date as possible,
and amendments to the training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.

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CATEGORY B1.1 / B2 ALGEBRA / SUB MODULE 1.2

1.2.13 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS AND SECOND DEGREE EQUATIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS WITH ONE UNKNOWN ................................................................................ 26
MODULE 1 MATHEMATICS ...............................................................1 1.2.13.1 SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS ............................................................. 27
1.2.13.1.1 SOLVING USING SUBSTITUTION ............................................................................... 27
1.2 ALGEBRA ...................................................................................... 4
1.2.13.1.2 SOLVING USING ELIMINATION .................................................................................. 28
1.2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 4
1.2.13.2 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS ................................................................................. 28
1.2.2 EVALUATING SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS ........................... 4
1.2.13.3 SOLVING QUADRATICS .................................................................................... 29
1.2.2.1 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION .................................................................................. 4
1.2.13.3.1 FACTORIZATION ...................................................................................................... 29
1.2.2.2 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS.................................................................. 5
1.2.14 LOGARITHM ................................................................................. 30
1.2.3 ADDITION ...................................................................................... 5
1.2.14.1 DETERMINING THE LOGARITHM OF A NUMBER ................................................ 31
1.2.4 SUBTRACTION ................................................................................ 6
1.2.14.2 USE OF LOG AND ANTILOG TABLES ................................................................. 32
1.2.5 USE OF BRACKETS .......................................................................... 7 1.2.14.3 DETERMINING THE LOG AND ANTILOG OF ANY NUMBER .................................. 34
1.2.6 ORDER OF OPERATION................................................................... 8 1.2.14.4 GENERAL RULE TO FIND LOGS ......................................................................... 34
1.2.7 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION .................................................. 9 1.2.14.5 GENERAL RULES TO FIND ANTILOG ................................................................. 35
1.2.7.1 ALGEBRAIC MULTIPLICATION ........................................................................... 9
1.2.7.2 MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS IN ALGEBRA..................................................11

1.2.7.3 ALGEBRAIC DIVISION ......................................................................................12

1.2.8 SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS .................................................. 14

1.2.9 LINEAR EQUATIONS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS............................... 16
1.2.9.1 TRANSPOSITION .............................................................................................17

1.2.9.2 EQUATIONS INVOLVING NUMERICAL DENOMINATORS ....................................18

1.2.9.3 EQUATIONS INVOLVING DECIMALS ..................................................................18

1.2.10 INDICES AND POWERS................................................................. 19

1.2.11 NEGATIVE AND FRACTIONAL INDICES ......................................... 19
1.2.11.1 FRACTIONAL INDEX .........................................................................................19
1.2.11.2 ZERO INDEX ....................................................................................................20
1.2.11.3 NEGATIVE INDEX .............................................................................................20

1.2.12 BINARY AND OTHER APPLICABLE NUMBERING SYSTEMS............ 22

1.2.12.1 BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM ................................................................................22
1.2.12.2 OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM ..................................................................................25
1.2.12.3 HEXADECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM ................................................................25

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CATEGORY B1.1 / B2 ALGEBRA / SUB MODULE 1.2

1.2 ALGEBRA 1.2.2 EVALUATING SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

1.2.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2.2.1 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION
Algebra may be defined as the branch of mathematics that employs positive A collection of symbols denoting numbers and operations to be performed
and negative quantities, letters, and other symbols to express and analyze on them is called an algebraic expression.
relationships among units of quantitative data. The processes of algebra
enable us to make computations and arrive at solutions that would be most The parts of an algebraic expression that are connected by the signs ‘+’ or
difficult or even impossible through normal arithmetic methods. All ‘–‘ are called terms.
mathematical systems beyond arithmetic employ the methods of algebra for Thus 3xy+7zpq-8abc is an algebraic expression of which the terms are
computation. +3xy, +7zpq and -8abc.
Many of the formulas used by mechanics and technicians are algebraic Note that the parts of an expression connected by the signs and do not
expressions with quantities shown as letters or other symbols. The formula constitute separate terms, but only a single term, thus 7zpq is a single term.
for the area of a rectangle, A = l x w, or A = lw, is an algebraic expression.
A = area, l = length, and w = width. The formula for computing the speed An expression of one term is called a simple expression; while an expression
of an airplane may be expressed s = d/t, where s is speed in knots, d is containing two or more terms is called compound expressions. Thus 5xy is
distance travelled in nautical miles, and t is time in hours. These are the a simple expression and a – b + c or a + b – c + d + e are compound
simplest types of formulas, but hundreds of more complex types are used expressions.
constantly in technical work. The mechanic or technician who is able to use
Expressions are also named monomials, binomials, trinomials, or
algebra where necessary finds that it makes the work easier and more multinomial (polynomials) accordingly as they consist of one, two, three or
productive. more than three terms respectively. This will be discussed later in this
chapter.
Terms are said to be like when they do not differ at all or differ only in their
numerical co-efficient. (Each of the factors of a product is called co-efficient
or co-factor). Otherwise they are said to be unlike. Thus a, 5a, 19a are like
terms. But xy and yz are unlike terms.

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1.2.2.2 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS 1.2.3 ADDITION

In algebra we use the same signs that are used in arithmetic; however, in Algebraic addition is the process of combining terms to find the actual value
algebra the signs sometimes have a greater significance than they do in of the terms. The algebraic sum of two or more quantities is the result of
arithmetic. All terms in algebra must have either a positive or a negative putting them together with their proper signs. The algebraic sum has a wider
value. Terms having a positive value are preceded by a plus sign (+) or by meaning than the arithmetic sum because negative quantities are peculiar
no sign at all. Negative terms are preceded by a minus sign (-). A positive to algebra and are not recognized in elementary arithmetic. Hence when we
number or expression has a value greater than zero. This may be speak of an algebraic sum, we mean that the quantities added together are
understood by considering temperature. If we were told that the not necessarily positive.
temperature was 10°C, we would not know for sure what was meant unless
we knew whether it was 10°C above zero or 10°C below zero. If the To add the terms in an algebraic expression when there are both negative
temperature were above zero, it could be shown as +10°C, and if below and positive quantities, we combine the terms with the same sign and then
zero, it could be shown as -10°C. subtract the smaller value from the larger and give the answer the sign of
the larger. To add 8 -9 -4 + 6 + 7 -3, we combine the 8, 6, and 7 to obtain
Another method for illustrating positive and negative values is to consider +21 and then combine -9, -4, and -3 to obtain -16. We then subtract the
money received and money spent. If a man receives $500.00 and must pay 16 from 21 to obtain +5. If the answer contains a minus sign, then the
bills totaling $450.00, we may say he has +500 dollars and -450 dollars. If answer would be negative.
the man owes more money than he has to spend, then we can say that he
has a negative quantity of money. If he has $500.00 and owes $550.00 then When we combine numbers or terms containing letters or other symbols,
his net worth is -$50. we cannot add those terms having different letters or symbols. For example,
we cannot add 3b and 5c. The indicated addition of these terms would
Any quantity with the sign + prefixed or understood is called a positive merely be 3b + 5c. We can add 3a and 5a to obtain 8a, in which case we
quantity and any quantity with the sign – prefixed is called negative would show the expression as 3a + 5a = 8a.
quantity. Thus 4, +7, a, +b are positive quantities and –4, -7, -a, –b are
negative quantities. In the term 3a, 3 is the coefficient of a. Though it is discussed later in
another chapter it is better to keep in mind that a number placed above and
Positive and negative numbers are called algebraic numbers. to the right of another number or symbol to show a power and is called an
exponent .For example, in the term x2, 2 is the exponent of x, and the term
The value of a quantity apart from its sign is called its absolute value. Thus is read "x square"
if a stands for 4 and b stands for 5 +ab and –ab have the same absolute
value 20. When we wish to add terms containing different literal numbers, we
combine those terms having same letter or symbol.
Quantities, which have the same signs, are said to have like signs and when
they have different signs, they are said to have unlike signs
To solve or simplify the expression 4a + 5b -2a -6c + 9b -3a +
In algebra, the letters used in, place of numbers are called literal numbers. 8c -3c -4b +3c, we may proceed as follows:
Thus, the expression x + y = z, contains all literal numbers. Then expression 4a + 5b -2a -6c + 9b -3a + 8c -3c -4b + 3c can
be simplified to –a+10b+2c

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CATEGORY B1.1 / B2 ALGEBRA / SUB MODULE 1.2

Exercise

Given below is another example in which we have to add;

7a2+5ab+8b2-6a2-3ab-7b2+8a2+20ab+27b2 +4a2 -22ab +26b2-a2 +8b2

1.2.4 SUBTRACTION
Any quantity ‘b’ is said to be subtracted from another quantity ‘a’ if a third
quantity c is found such that the sum of b and c is equal to a.
Another examples are given below
This means that if 7-4 = 3 then 7=4+3
6a +8b -7c
-4a +2b +c This can also be written as 7+(-4) = 3 and the value is not changed
a -3b -2c
3a +7b -8c Hence generally, a–b=a+(-b)
That is, to subtract a positive quantity is the same as to add a negative
5x² +7y -8 quantity having the same absolute value. Also to subtract a negative
-2x² +4y +7 quantity is the same as to add a positive quantity having the same absolute
4x² –5y +6 value.
7x2 +6y +5

11a² +8b² -9c²

-4a² +5b² +3c²
3a² -4b² -4c²
10a² +9b² -10c²

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CATEGORY B1.1 / B2 ALGEBRA / SUB MODULE 1.2

Therefore, in algebraic subtraction the sign of the subtrahend is changed - 2x² +x +5

and added instead of subtraction. - +3x² -x -4
-5x2 +2x +9

Let’s see this with the example at the next column in which 6x+5y-8z is to 9x –5y +z
be subtracted from –2x+3y+4z. What we are going to do in this example - 3x +y –3z
is to change the signs of every term of the subtrahend from + to – and – 6x –6y +4z
to + (as the case may be) and then write down those terms in succession
after the minuend.

Exercises
1. Subtract 2x2+x+2 from 11x2+2x+16
2. Subtract 13x2–1 from 26x2+11x –4
3. Subtract– 3x3y2+2x2y3 from x4+x3y2+x2y3+y4

1.2.5 USE OF BRACKETS

So, when 6x+5y-8z is subtracted from –2x+3y+4z, the answer is –8x - Brackets and parentheses are used in algebra to indicate that two or more
2y+12z. Similarly, terms are to be considered as a single term. For example, 3 x (5 + 2) means
that 5 and 2 are both to be multiplied by 3. Also, 5 and 2 can be added and
then multiplied by 3, and the answer will be the same, which is 21. If the
parentheses were not used in the above example, the solution would be 3
x 5 + 2 and 15 + 2 = 17.
From this we observe that parentheses cannot be ignored in solving an
algebraic problem.
In an expression where no multiplication or division in involved and
Another examples are given below parentheses are used, careful attention must be paid to the signs of the
various terms.
6a -3b +c
- 4a +5b -3c In the expression (3a + 7b -6c) + (4a -3b-2c), the parentheses actually
have no effect and the expression would be written 3a+7b-6c+4a-3b-2c. If
2a -8b +4c
however, a minus sign precedes the term enclosed by parentheses, then

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the signs of the quantities in the parentheses must be changed when the
parentheses are removed:
(3a + 7b -6c) - (4a -3b -2c) = 3a + 7b -6c -4a + 3b + 2c
The foregoing expression means that the quantity 4a -3b -2c is to be
subtracted from the quantity 3a + 7b - 6c. From the rule for subtraction we
know that the sign of the subtrahend must be changed and then the terms When an expression involves the signs x and ÷, the order of operation is
added. division first and multiplication next.
Brackets [x] or {x} are also used to group terms that are to be considered
as one term. Usually the brackets are used only when parentheses have
already been used inside the bracketed expression.

The following expression illustrates the use of brackets:

9 + [7a -(3b + 8x) -2y + 4z] -2c When an expression involves all (or some of) the signs x, , +, - the
operations of division and multiplication must be followed by addition and
The most common use of parentheses is to indicate multiplication of terms. subtraction.

1.2.6 ORDER OF OPERATION

As the value of an expression depends upon the order in which the
operations indicated by the signs involved are performed, certain
conventions are followed to avoid the ambiguity.
The order of operation is as follows:
1. Parentheses (Brackets)
2. Powers and Roots Any expression within brackets is regarded as a single number. But within
3. Multiplication and Division the brackets the above rules will apply.

4. Addition and Subtraction

Let’s elaborate the above steps using examples. When an expression
involves the sign + and -, the order of operations is from left to right

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1.2.7 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

1.2.7.1 ALGEBRAIC MULTIPLICATION
When the quantities to be multiplied are positive integers, multiplication may
have to be regarded as repeated addition; the multiplier denoting the
number of times the multiplicand is to be repeated. Thus in 5 x 4, 4 is the
multiplier and 5 is the multiplicand. But 5 x (-4) is meaningless according to
the above definition and as in algebra we have to deal with quantities of all
Exercise: kinds, integral, fractional, positive and negative. Therefore, we need a more
comprehensive definition.
Remove brackets and simplify.
a) X + (3Y - 2X) - (2X - 3Y) In general, if a, b and c be any positive integers,
b) a - (b - c) - (c - a) - (a - b) axb=bxa
c) m + n - (mn - m) + (mn - n) Also, a x b x c= b x a x c= b x c x a = a x c x b and so on.
d) 3X2 - (Y2 + X2) + (X2 - Y2)
In arithmetic it was shown that,
e) 3X + [(Y - 1) - (X - 1)]
4 3 4×3
f) X (X + Y) - [X2 - X (1 + Y)] × =
7 5 7×5
g) X2 - {Y2 - [X2 - (X2 + Y2)]}
And therefore,
h) 5 (2X - 3) - 2 (X - 8)
4 3 3 4
i) 4 (Y + 3) - 2 (7 + Y) + 2 × = ×
7 5 5 7
j) ab (a2 - b2)
Hence in general we can say that a x b = b x a where a, b are any positive
k) (-3y + 2x) (x - y) quantities integral or fractional.
L) (5y - 2x) (-2y + 3x)

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CATEGORY B1.1 / B2 ALGEBRA / SUB MODULE 1.2

This is known as the Commutative law of multiplication, which tells us In the algebraic multiplication of terms and expressions, the signs of each
that the factors of a product may be taken in any order. term or expression must be carefully noted and properly handled. The
following rules apply:
Also, we know that 4 x 5 x 7 = 4 x (5 x 7) = 5 x (4 x 7)
When two terms of like signs are multiplied, the sign of the product is
And generally, a x b x c = a x (b x c) = b x (a x c) and so on. positive.
This is known as the Associated law of multiplication, which tells that When two terms of unlike signs are multiplied, the product is negative.
the factors of the product may be grouped together in any manner.
These rules may be demonstrated as follows:
Lastly in general, (a + b) c = ac + bc
(+a) x (+b) = + ab
This is known as the Distribution law of multiplication, which tells us
that the product of a composite expression by a monomial is found by (+a) x (- b) = - ab
multiplying each of its terms by the monomial and adding the partial product
so obtained. (- a) x (+ b) = - ab

Hence the following definition is suggested. (- a) x (- b) = + ab

Algebraic multiplication is such an operation that the statements in the three To multiply purely literal terms, which are unlike, the terms are merely
laws concerning it, which are true in form whether these quantities are gathered together as a unit.
integers or fractions, positive or negative. a x b = ab, ab x cd = abcd aby x cdx = abcdxy
In order to explain multiplication clearly, certain arrangements of algebraic To multiply literal terms by like terms, the power of the term (which will be
terms previously not defined must be discussed. These are monomials, discussed later) is raised.
binomials and polynomials. A monomial is an expression containing only one
term such as x, ab, 2z, xy2m, 2xy, and a2b3y. A binomial is an expression a x a=a2, ab x ab = a2b2 abx x aby = a2b2xy
containing two terms connected by a minus (-) or plus (+) sign, as bc x bc x bc= b3c3 abc bcx cxy =ab2c3x2y
a + b, 2x + 3y, abc + xyz, and 4y2 - 3z
Multiplication in algebra can be indicated in four ways.
A polynomial is a general term describing expressions containing two or
more algebraic terms. For example:

In the multiplication of algebraic terms, monomials, binomials, any other ab = a x b = a.b = (a) (b)
polynomials can be multiplied by any other expression regardless of whether xyz = x x y x z = x.y.z. = (x)(y)(z)
it is a monomial, binomial, or other polynomial. Fractional terms and
expressions can be multiplied by any other term or expression. When you perform multiplication in algebra, you must be alert to observe
what the indications are and to perform the computation accordingly. It
must be noted whether there is no sign, a regular multiplication sign, or a
dot placed between the terms to be multiplied.

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In multiplying a binomial by a monomial, which we studied under

distribution law of multiplication, we multiplied each term of the binomial
separately by the monomial.
a ( b+c ) = ab + ac and
a ( ab + xy ) = a2b +axy
To multiply a binomial by another binomial, multiply each term of one
binomial by each term of the other binomial and then combine terms. The sequence of terms in a polynomial does not affect the value of the
expression; however, it is customary to arrange the terms in descending
powers of some particular literal number, thus:
Note that the spaces between
terms are shown larger than 4a3 – 6a2b + 5ab +4b2
normal for the explanation
purposes. You may write the Note that the literal number a descends in power with each term.
answer in the normal manner
as a2 + 2ab + b2.
Exercise
Evaluate and simplify the answer.
Another method of
multiplying the terms given in i. (-3y + 2x) (x - y)
the above example is that ii. (5y - 2x) (-2y + 3x)
iii. (3a - 5b) (2a - b)
(a + b) (a + b)
iv. (-3a - b) (-2a - 2b)
The above expression can also be written as v. (5p - 2q) (5p - 2q)
a(a+b)+b(a+b)
And now we can multiply the binomial (a + b) by a and b separately. By
doing so we will get the same answer we obtained from the example above. 1.2.7.2 MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS IN ALGEBRA

a2 + 2ab + b2 When multiplying fractions in algebra, we follow procedures similar

to those used in arithmetic. When a fraction is multiplied by a
The multiplication of polynomials follows the same pattern as that shown monomial, the numerator of the fraction is multiplied, and the
above. denominator remains the same as before the multiplication.

2𝑏 3𝑎×2𝑏 6𝑎𝑏
3a x = =
5𝑐 5𝑐 5𝑐

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1.2.7.3 ALGEBRAIC DIVISION

If the fraction is multiplied by a binomial, the numerator is Division in algebra may be considered the reverse of multiplication, just as
multiplied by both terms of the binomial and the denominator in arithmetic. The division,  sign is not usually employed, and making the
remains the same. dividend the numerator of a fraction, and the divisor the denominator of the
5𝑥𝑦 5𝑥𝑦(4𝑥+2𝑦) 20𝑥 2 𝑦+10𝑥𝑦 2 fraction indicates division.
(4x+2y) = =
7𝑧 7𝑧 7𝑧 For example,
𝑎
a ÷ b usually written as
When fractional polynomials are multiplied, the numerators and
𝑏
the denominators of the two fractions are separately multiplied to 2𝑎+5𝑏
calculate the final answer. And (2a +5b) ÷ (x + y) is written as
𝑥+𝑦
Similar to the laws we studied under multiplication, there are three such
7𝑥−2𝑦 2𝑥+7𝑦 (7𝑥−2𝑦)(2𝑥+7𝑦) laws under division.
× =
5𝑧 3𝑧 15𝑧 2
It can be proven that a ÷ b ÷ c = a ÷ bc
14𝑥 2 +49𝑥𝑦−4𝑥𝑦−14𝑦 2
= That is to divide any quantity successively by two others is the same as to
15𝑧 2
divide it by their product. This is known as Associative law of division.
14𝑥 2 +45𝑥𝑦−14𝑦 2
= 𝑎 1
15𝑧 2 We already know that, a ÷ b = = a x
𝑏 𝑏
Exercise
1
is the reciprocal of b
𝑏
Thus, to divide one quantity by another is the same as to multiply the former
by the reciprocal of the latter.

In the above example the monomial divisor 2a was divided into both
terms of the binomial dividend (numerator). In this example the divisor
divided evenly into both terms of the dividend
𝑎×𝑐
Also, it can be proven that, a ÷ b x c = a x c ÷ b =
𝑏
Thus, in a chain of divisions and multiplications, the factors and divisions
may appear in any order. This is called Commutative law of division.

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When we have (a + b) c
(a + b) c = ac + bc If, however, the divisor will not divide evenly into both terms, a part of
the quotient will have to be fractional.
Now if we divide (a + b) c by c it is the same as dividing (ac +bc) ÷ c.
The division of polynomials may be done according to the examples given
Thus the quotient of a composite quantity divided by a monomial is found in the following. However, this method is not particularly useful in algebraic
by dividing each of its terms by the monomial. This is known as operations, because it is rare that one would encounter polynomials of more
Distribution law of division. than three terms which are perfect multiplies of other polynomials.
If we have a6 ÷ a4 6𝑥 2 +5𝑥𝑦−4𝑦 2
2𝑥−𝑦
Arrange the problem as shown.

This can also be written as

a6 ÷ a4 = a6-4 = a2
Hence a power of a quantity is divided by a lower power of the same
quantity by subtracting the index of the divisor from the index of the
dividend. This is called the Index law of division.
Similar to the rules of signs in multiplication there are rules of signs in
division. They are; Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term, of the divisor. Write
the resulting term as the first term of the answer, and then multiply the
(+ab) (+b) = +a complete divisor by the term. Place the product of this multiplication under
(-ab) (-b) = +a the dividend so that like terms are under like terms.

(-ab) (+b) = -a Subtract the lower number from the upper number by changing the signs
of the subtrahend and adding. Bring down the remainder and the rest of
(+ab) (-b) = -a the terms in the dividend.

Divide the first term of the new dividend (8xy -4y2) by the first term of the
Let’s study the division through some examples. divisor and write the quotient in the answer with the correct sign.
4𝑎+6𝑎𝑏
= 2 + 3𝑏 Multiply both terms of the divisor by the second term in the answer and
2𝑎 place the product below the last dividend. Subtract as before. In this case
3𝑥+2𝑦 2𝑦 the division is even and the problem is complete.
=3+
𝑥 𝑥

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(2𝑥+3𝑦)
Exercise: are multiplied by 3x+5 the value of the original fraction does not
(7𝑥−5𝑦)
1) Divide x2 +7x+10 by x+2 change.
2) Divide 2x2 +13x+15 by x+5
3) Divide 12x2+23x+10 by 3x+2

1.2.8 SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

We have already seen fractions in arithmetic, and they are parts of a
quantity, unit, or an object. Also, a fraction may be considered an indication Similarly, when both numerator and denominator of a fraction are
of a division. divided by the same expression the value of the fraction remains
unchanged.
For example, the fraction ¾ indicates that the numerator 3 is to be divided
by the denominator 4. This is true also in algebra. In arithmetic we came
across terms like proper fractions, improper fraction and mixed numbers.
But in algebra we do not use these terms. In algebra they are just fractions.
Like in arithmetic, algebraic fractions also may be changed in form without
changing their values. If the numerator and the denominator of a fraction
are both multiplied by the same term or expression or number, the value of
the fraction remains unchanged. For example,
In a similar manner larger algebraic fraction may be simplified in some
3𝑥×3 9𝑥 cases. This process is called reducing the fraction. To reduce the fraction to
= its lowest terms, we divide both the numerator and the denominator by the
4×3 12
3𝑥 9𝑥 largest number that will go into each without leaving a remainder. This is
The value of 4 is the same as 12 very similar to what we did in arithmetic to reduce a larger fraction to
simplified fraction.
A fraction may contain whole numbers, monomials, binomials and
polynomials in its numerator and denominator. Similar to the arithmetic addition and subtraction in order to add or subtract
algebraic fractions, it is necessary that the denominators of the fractions
When both the numerator and the denominator of such a fraction is have equal values.
multiplied or divided by the same whole number, or a decimal, or a
monomial, or a binomial or any type of algebraic expression, the value of
the fraction remains unchanged.

Thus, when both numerator and denominator of,

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For example, it is not possible to add, Now in this case it is difficult to find the LCD as it with arithmetic fractions.
Therefore, the easiest way is to use product of 4a+5b and 13a+12b.
2𝑥+7 5𝑥+9
to (3𝑎−2𝑏)(13𝑎+12𝑏)−(11𝑎+13𝑏)(4𝑎+5𝑏)
3 4 =
(4𝑎+5𝑏)(13𝑎+12𝑏)
until the denominators of the fractions have been changed to equal values.
Since 3 and 4 will both go evenly into 12, we can change,
2 2
(39𝑎2+36𝑎𝑏−26𝑎𝑏−24𝑏 )−(44𝑎2+55𝑎𝑏+52𝑎𝑏+65𝑏 )
= (4𝑎+5𝑏)(13𝑎+12𝑏)
2𝑥+7 4(2𝑥+7) 5𝑥+9 3(5𝑥+9)
to and to having 12 as the LCD (lowest
3 3×4 4 4×3 2 2
common denominator) 39𝑎2+10𝑎𝑏−24𝑏 −44𝑎2−107𝑎𝑏−65𝑏
= (4𝑎+5𝑏)(13𝑎+12𝑏)

2𝑥+7 5𝑥+9 4(2𝑥+7) 3(5𝑥+9)

Thus, + = + −5𝑎2 −97𝑎𝑏−89𝑏2 (5𝑎2 +97𝑎𝑏+89𝑏2 )
3 4 3×4 4×3
= =−
(4𝑎+5𝑏)(13𝑎+12𝑏) (4𝑎+5𝑏)(13𝑎+12𝑏)
8𝑥+28+15𝑥+27
= 12
If the answer cannot be further reduced it is left as it is.

23𝑥+55 We will not discuss algebraic fraction multiplication and division in this place
= as we have already discussed those subjects.
12
In the above example of addition, we had whole numbers in the
denominators. But when they are algebraic expressions, the operation
becomes complex. EXERCISE

Let’s study a complex problem. In this example we use a sum with

subtraction.

3𝑎_2𝑏 11𝑎+13𝑏
−
4𝑎+5𝑏 13𝑎+12𝑏

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1.2.9 LINEAR EQUATIONS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS An equation, which is true only when the letters involved have particular
values, is called an equation of condition or merely an equation.
Any two expressions connected by the sign of equality form an equation,
and each of the expressions so connected is called a member or a side of
We see that the equation,
the equation.
x - 5 = 0 is true when x=5
The value 5 is said to satisfy the equation.

The process of finding that value of x, which will satisfy an equation, is called
solving the equation.
The value of the unknown quantity, which satisfies an equation, is called a
If in this equation we put x=2, say, root or solution of the equation.

We get the LHS = 2(2+1) + (3x2-1) = 6+5 =11 A linear equation is an algebraic equation that forms a straight line when
plotted on a graph. In a linear equation the highest power of x or unknown
And for RHS = 5x2+1=10+1= 11 parameter is 1.
Thus LHS = RHS
Examples are,
In other words, equation is true for x=2. Similarly, by actual substitution we 2x +3=5
can see that, equation is true for any other value of x. 4a –3 = 13
Similarly,
Simple equations are also called equations of first degree or linear
(a-b)(a+b) = a –b
2 2 equations.

If you substitute any set of values to ‘a’ and ‘b’, the LHS will be equal to In the case of simple equations with one unknown quantity, the process of
RHS. solving equation consists mainly in the use of the following four axioms or
On the other hand, in the equation 5x=10 is true only when x=2. self-evident truths.

Also, equation (x+2)+2(x-1) =4x-3 is true only when x=3.  If equals were added to equals, the sums are equal.

Hence, we distinguish between two kinds of equations. Thus, if x = a, then x + 2 = a + 2.

 If equals were taken from equals, the remainders are equal.
An equation, which is true for all values of the letter or letters involved, is
Thus, if x = b, then, x – 3 = b – 3
called an identical equation.
Sometimes the sign ‘≡’ is used for an identity.
 If equals multiply equals, the products are equal.
Thus, if x = a, then, 4x = 4a

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 If equals divide equals, the quotients are equal. It is always advisable to check the correctness of the solution by substituting
Thus, if 7x = 14, then, x = 2. the numerical value of ‘x’ in both the sides of the equation and verifying that
the two sides have the same numerical value.

Let’s see some examples. It will also be useful to remember that the sign of every term of an equation
may be changed without destroying the equality.
Solve 2x-13 =7
x – a =b + c
Adding 13 to both the sides
When multiplied the expression by -1
2x-13+13=7+13
(x – a)(-1) = (b + c)(-1)
2x=20
Hence
Dividing both sides by 2 we get, x=10
-x + a= -b – c
And also, the positions of the two sides of an equation may be interchanged
1.2.9.1 TRANSPOSITION
without altering the signs.
Another approach of solving linear equation is discussed below.
To solve linear equations, we rearrange the equation so that the unknown Thus, if 6 = x – 2, then x – 2 = 6
variable (usually x) is at one side of the equation and the numbers are at
the other by transposing. Also, the same term may be cancelled from both sides from an equation.
Let’s see this through an example.
Suppose x – a = b
2x3+3x2+10x+13 = 3x3+3x2+7x-8
Then adding a to both sides, we get Transposing we get
x–a+a=b+a or x=b+a
2x3+3x2+10x-3x3 -3x2 -7x = -13-8
Comparing above equations, we observe that ‘–a’ disappears from the LHS -x3+3x = -21
and appears on the RHS with its sign changed.
Therefore x3-3x = 21
By taking a few more illustrations of a similar nature, we deduce the
following general principle.
Any term may be removed from one side of an equation to the other side
by simply changing its sign.
The process of removing terms from one side to the other side is called
Transposition.

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1.2.9.2 EQUATIONS INVOLVING NUMERICAL DENOMINATORS

When an equation consists of numerical denominators, we can get rid of the Exercise
denominators by multiplying both sides of the equation by Lowest Common
Denominator (LCD).
In the example given below,
(𝑥−6) (𝑥−4) 𝑥−2
+ =8−
5 3 7

Multiplying both side by 105, the (LCM of 5, 3, 7). We get

21(x-6) + 35 (x-4) = 840-15(x-2)
 21x-126+35x-140= 840-15x+30

 56x-266= 870-15x
Transposing, we get
56x+15x=870+266
71x = 1136
x = 16 1.2.9.3 EQUATIONS INVOLVING DECIMALS
The decimals in equations can be converted into fraction.
In the example given below,
0.25𝑥−0.025 2𝑥−0.45
=
0.125 1.25
We can convert the decimals in LHS of the equation by multiplying both
numerator and denominator by 1000.This is because 0.125 and 0.025 have
the highest number of decimals on the LHS and to convert them in to an
integer, we need to multiply them by 1000.
0.25𝑥−0.025 1000 250𝑥−25
Hence, LHS × =
0.125 1000 125

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2𝑥−0.45 100 200𝑥−45 Also, it can be proved that

Doing the same to the RHS × =
1.25 100 125 Since

a x a x a x a x a……m times = am
250𝑥−25 200𝑥−45
Then, = (am) x (am) x (am) x (am)…………….n times = (am)n
125 125
Defining am as the product of m factors each equal to a, where m is a positive
integer, we have already proved the following Laws of Indices.
Transposing,
Law I. am x an = am+n (The Fundamental Index Law)
we get 250x-200x = -45+25
Law II. (am)n = amn
50 x= -20
Law Ill. (ab)m = ambm
x = -0.4

1.2.11 NEGATIVE AND FRACTIONAL INDICES

1.2.10 INDICES AND POWERS
A little reflection will show that the definition of a m becomes meaningless
Defining a as the product of m factors, each equal to a, where m is a
m
when m is fractional or negative. For instance, it is meaningless to say
positive integer, we have already proved under algebraic multiplication and
division, the followings. am is read as ‘mth power of a’. The repeated factor 2-4=2x2x to -4 factors.
a is called base and ‘m’ is called power or index or exponent.
Similarly, 32/6,60, a1/2 have no intelligent meaning at present.
am x an =am+n and
In order to find meanings for quantities involving fractional and negative
𝑚
𝑎 ÷𝑎 =𝑎 𝑛 𝑚−𝑛 indices we assume that the fundamental index law namely am x an= am+n is
true for all values of m and n positive, negative, zero and fractional.
where m and n are positive integers and m>n.
1.2.11.1 FRACTIONAL INDEX
To prove this am x an =am+n we assume that m=5 and n=3.
There are two ways of finding the meaning of ap/q, when p and q are any
 am x an = a5 x a3 =a x a x a x a x a x a xa x a = a8 two positive integers.

 a5 x a3 = a8 (=a5+3) First meaning:

 am x an =am+n Since,

This is called the Fundamental Index Law. am x an=am+n for all values of m and n; putting p/q for each of them,
We have,

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ap/q x ap/q = ap/q +p/q = a2p/q 1.2.11.2 ZERO INDEX

Similarly, Since am  an = am-n true for all values of m and n, putting m=5 and n=3
we get
ap/q x ap/q x ap/q= ap/q+p/q+p/q= a3p/q and so on.
𝑎×𝑎×𝑎×𝑎×𝑎×
Hence, am  an = a5  a3= =a2 (= a5-2)
𝑎×𝑎×𝑎
𝑝
𝑥𝑞 Similarly,
ap/q x ap/q x ap/qx…………..to q factors is equals to 𝑎 𝑞 =𝑎𝑝
𝑎𝑛 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑛 = 𝑎0 = 1
This way it is said that the meaning of ap/q is the qth root of ap where p and
q are positive integers and a is positive.
Hence, 1.2.11.3 NEGATIVE INDEX
1 1 2
3 Since a x an = am+n is true for all values of m and n
m
𝑎 = √𝑎, 𝑎 = 3√𝑎, 𝑎 = √𝑎2 and so on.
2 3 3

𝑝 If we replace m with 2 and n with 5 on the above equation,

𝑞
Generally, 𝑎 𝑞 = √𝑎𝑝 We get ,
Second meaning; 𝑎×𝑎 1 1
𝑎2 ÷ 𝑎5 = = = 3 =𝑎−3
We have by the index law 𝑎×𝑎×𝑎×𝑎×𝑎 𝑎×𝑎×𝑎 𝑎
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅  𝑎−𝑛 = , and 𝑎𝑛 =
𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 ×….to p factors = 𝑎
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 ….to p terms 𝑎𝑛 𝑎−𝑛
1 𝑝 𝑝
i.e. (𝑎𝑞 ) = 𝑎𝑞
Hence a-n is the reciprocal of an and an is the reciprocal of a-n
𝑝 1
Hence 𝑎𝑞 is the pth power of 𝑎𝑞 It is proven that fractional indices have a meaning. √𝑎 is one way of
1
Thus ap/q may be interpreted either as the qth root of the pth power of ‘a’ or indicating 𝑎 2 and,
as the pth power of qth root of ‘a’.
1
4
Hence when the index is a fraction its numerator indicates the power and √𝑎 can be written as 𝑥 4.
the denominator the root. 2
5
Also, it is proven that √𝑦 2 = 𝑦 5

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Exercise

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1.2.12 BINARY AND OTHER APPLICABLE NUMBERING SYSTEMS In any decimal number the digits having the smallest weight is known as
the least significant digit (LSD) and the one having the greatest weight or
The system we have been discussing under the module arithmetic is the
value is known as the most significant digit (MSD). In the example 3584
decimal number system. The decimal number system is the most commonly
the corresponding digits are 4 and 3.
used system in which the ten digits 0 to 9 are combined in a certain way so
that they indicate a specific quantity. The basic distinguishing feature of this Also note that when we are working with more than one number system, it
system, and in fact of all number systems used in digital equipment is, its is necessary to identify the radix of each number, which includes zeros and
base or radix, since it indicates the number of characters or digits used to ones.
represent quantities in the system. Thus, the decimal system has a base or
radix of 10 because we use the ten digits 0 to 9. The number 10 is not a For example, the number 101 could represent a quantity of one hundred
basic digit, since it is the result of the digits 1 and 0 and so is specifically ‘1 and one in decimal, but in binary form, which we are going to study, it would
ten’ and ‘0 units’. represent a quantity of ‘five’.

Each digit position in the decimal number carries a particular weight in A small subscript number (not to be confused with the index or exponent
determining the magnitude of that number, e.g. weights of units, tens, referred to earlier) is therefore written after the principal number to indicate
hundreds, thousands, etc.Figure: 1.2. 1 its system radix. Thus, the decimal system radix being 10 and the binary
system radix being 2, the notation for the examples chosen would be
101(10) = 1100101(2) and 101(2) = 5(10)
Examples of the notation related to the other number system in use will be
given later in this chapter.
Figure: 1.2. 1

The weight is some power of the radix 10 and is indicated by a number 1.2.12.1 BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
called an index or exponent written as a subscript so that it tells us how
many times 10 is to be multiplied itself when using it as a factor. Thus, as The distinguishing feature of this system, on which all digital processing is
we have already studied, 103 is read as ‘ten to the power 3’ and is equal to dependant, is that it uses the radix 2. The two binary digits, or bits as they
10 x 10 x 10 or 1000. are always called, are 0 and 1. When they are appropriately arranged, they
can also represent any decimal number. Each bit position in a binary number
Consider for example, the number 3584; we have 4 units, 8 tens, 5 hundreds carries a specific weight and the position weights are some power of the
and 3 thousands. The number can therefore be written as radix 2. Figure: 1.2. 2
(3 x 103) + (5 x 102) + (8x101) + (4 x 100)
= (3000) + (500) + (80) + (4)
= 3584
Figure: 1.2. 2

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Figure: 1.2. 2 shows to what power 2 is raised to establish value and the The binary equivalents of the decimal numbers 0 to 15 are given in the
decimal number system equivalent of each place. Each place value position Table: 1.2.3 below.
has a value 2 times that of the position to its right. Remember, when writing
binary numbers and placing digits in positions of place value, the only digits
available are 0 and 1. To exceed 1, the place value is reset to 0 and a 1 is
placed in the next place value column to the left. Place values are used to
convert our everyday decimal numbers to binary numbers.
The Table: 1.2. 1 below is a comparison between the decimal and binary
system.

Table: 1.2.3

To convert binary to decimals it is only necessary to add the value for each
Table: 1.2. 1 position of a having a bit equal to 1. This is given in the Table: 1.2.4 below.

To convert from decimal to binary, a continuous process of dividing the

decimal number and quotients by 2 is carried out. The equivalent bits are
then determined on the basis of whether or not there is any remainder from
the division.
The method of converting 30(10) is given as an example in the Table: 1.2.2
below. Reading the last remainder as the MSD and the first remainder as
the LSD, we note that the binary equivalent of 30(10) is 11110(2).

Table: 1.2.4

Binary numbers made up of the appropriate group of bits are also referred
to as binary words, and the group of bits is termed as a byte. Most digital
circuits and equipment use a fixed word size, the size determining the
maximum magnitude and resolution with which numbers can be
represented. The number of bits in the word determines the number of
discrete states that can exist and the maximum decimal number that can be
Table: 1.2.2
represented. The formula used in this connection is N =2 n where N is the

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total number of states and n is the number of bits. If you have a look at the
EXERCISE
table below you will see that the binary numbers show constitute a 4-bit
word. Referring the table above you will see that the binary numbers shown 1. Convert the given decimal numbers into binary.
constitute a 4-bit word.
a) 55
b) 68
c) 72
Thus, from the above formula a total of states; N = 2n = 24 = 16(10). So, 16
d) 40
binary bit patterns or number combinations can in this case be created as
e) 90
shown in Table: 1.2.5.
f) 256

2. Convert the given binary numbers into decimal.

a) 110112
b) 10012
c) 101012
d) 100112
e) 11102
Table: 1.2.5

The largest decimal number value (N) that can be represented for a given
number of bits (n) is, in fact, one less than the total number of states, and
expressed by
N = 2n -1
Thus, for a 4-bit word, the maximum decimal value is 16 – 1 = 15.

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1.2.12.2 OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM 1.2.12.3 HEXADECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM

The octal number system is often used in digital electronics and is for This system as also used in digital electronics and is one in which the
convenient for representing binary numbers because it requires far fewer numbers are to the radix of 16(10). It is unique in that the ten decimals digits
digits than does the binary system. The radix of the octal number system is 0 to 9 are used, together with letters A to F to represent 10 to 15 digits.
8 and octal counting proceeds from 0 to 7 just as in the decimal system. This is shown in the Table: 1.2. 7 below.
The digits 8 or 9 do not exist in the octal, and to progress from 7 requires
a carry operation and use of a position value.
Each digit in an octal number has a place value that is a power of 8. For
example, the octal number 45728 has place values shown in the table below:

Table: 1.2. 6

Example

Calculate the octal (base 8) equivalent value of 47310.

Table: 1.2. 7

Hexadecimal numbers are written using a subscript 16, for example

A2C5816. Each digit in a hexadecimal number has a place value that is a
power of 16.

Therefore 47310 is equal to 7318

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Consider the number 2A916 which is detailed below: Again, if we take another equation x – y = 3, we can find an unlimited
number of pairs of values which will satisfy this equation as following table
1.2.8 shows.

Table: 1.2.9

From these tables we find that, although an unlimited pair of values satisfy
Example the equations x + y = 9 and x – y = 3 when considered separately, yet there
Calculate the hexadecimal equivalent of 42310 is one value of x, i.e.; 6 and one value of y i.e.; 3, for which they are
simultaneously true.
There may be more than two unknown quantities, which will be satisfied by
the same values of these unknown quantities. These equations may be
satisfied by unlimited sets of values of the unknown quantities, but there is
only one set, which will satisfy them all.
Two or more equations, which are all satisfied by the same values of the
unknown quantities involved in them, are called simultaneous equations.
They are said to be simple or first degree if each of the unknown quantities
Therefore 42310 is equal to 1A716 occurs only in the first power, and the product of the unknown quantities
does not occur. We can find the values of unknown quantities of
simultaneous equations by using different method. Let’s study these
1.2.13 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS AND SECOND DEGREE methods through few examples.
EQUATIONS WITH ONE UNKNOWN
Consider the equation x + y = 9, where x and y are two unknown quantities.
We can give an unlimited number of pairs of values which will satisfy the
equation as the following Table: 1.2.8 shows.

Table: 1.2.8

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3x – 9y = 0
3x = 9y
x = 3y
Substitute this statement for x into Equation 1 as this will leave only one
variable (y) and therefore it can be solved:
5y = 4x – 7
5y = 4(3y) – 7
5y = 12y – 7
7 = 12y – 5y
7 = 7y
y = 7/7 = 1
1.2.13.1 SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS Given that we now have a value for y place this into Equation 2 to establish
A linear equation is an equation for a straight line and simultaneous the value for x
equations are the result of joining the two lines together.
3x – 9y = 0
There are a number of ways to solve a simultaneous equation, in these
3x – 9(1) = 0
notes we will look at three namely:
3x – 9 = 0
 Substitution
 Elimination 3x = 9
 Graphical (This will be discussed separately under submodule 1.3)
 x = 9/3 = 3

1.2.13.1.1 SOLVING USING SUBSTITUTION Check the solution by putting the figures obtained into either equation.

Consider the two equations given below: 5y = 4x – 7 (Equation 1)

5y = 4x – 7 (Equation 1) 5(1) = (4 x 3) - 7

3x – 9y = 0 (Equation 2) 5 = 12 – 7

First of all rearrange either equation, in this case Equation 2, so that we 5=5
have a statement for either x or y, in this case x
So, the values check out

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1.2.13.1.2 SOLVING USING ELIMINATION 19 = 19

Consider the two equations given below
3x + 2y = 19 (Equation 1) Exercise

x + y = 8 (Equation 2) Solve for x and y the following simultaneous

equations using both substitution and elimination.
Do something to either equation to make either variable the same value.
That value does not need to be the same sign, in other words, one could be 1) x + y = 10 and x − y = 2
positive whilst the other is negative.
2) 2x + y = 4 and x − y = −1
In this case we will multiply Equation 2 by 3 giving
3) 3x + 4y = 19 and 2x − y = 9
3x + 3y = 24 (Equation 3)
4) 3x + 2y = −2 and 2x + 5y = −5
Now subtract (Equation 1) from (Equation 3). This will allow us to eliminate
one of the variables, in this case the x: 5) 2x + 3y = 13 and 5x − y = 7

3x + 3y = 24 (Equation 3) 1.2.13.2 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

3x + 2y = 19 (Equation 1) Quadratic equations or equations of the second degree are defined as
0x + y = 5 equations, which contain the square of the unknown quantity, but no higher
power. They are also called simply a quadratic.
Consequently y = 5 Quadratic equations are of two kinds.
Putting this value of y into equation 2 Pure quadratics and affected quadratics.
x + y = 8 (Equation 2) A quadratic equation that contains only the second power of the unknown
x+5=8 quantity (and not the first power) is called a pure quadratic equation.

x=8-5 E.g. 3x2 = 147.

x=3 A quadratic equation, which contains the second as well as the first power
of the unknown quantity, is called an affected quadratic equation,
Check
E.g.,
3x + 2y = 19 (Equation 1)
I. x2-14x+45=0
3 x 3 + 2 x 5 = 19 II.
𝑥
𝑥2 + 2 = 3
9 + 10 = 19 2𝑥+3 5𝑥+3
III. =
𝑥+4 3𝑥+5

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Note that, the equations ii) and iii) on simplification becomes

2x2+x-6=0 and x2-4x+3=0 respectively.
The values of the unknown quantity for which the equation is satisfied are
called its roots, and the process of finding them is called solving the
equation.
e.g. x=1 and x=4 satisfy the equation x2-5x+4=0
Hence 1 and 4 are the roots of this equation.
A quadratic equation with one unknown can be expressed in the form of:
𝒂𝒙𝟐+𝒃𝒙+𝒄=𝟎
Where a, b and c are coefficients and the letter x is the variable or unknown.
1.2.13.3 SOLVING QUADRATICS
1.2.13.3.1 FACTORIZATION Figure: 1.2. 3
A quadratic expression in the form ax +bx+c=0 can be obtained from two
2
So if we compare this expansion of the factors with the general equation
factors. These factors are presented in the form (x + f) (x + g)
Let’s now multiply the factors (x + f) (x + g) and see what we get. To ensure for a quadratic:
we expand the brackets properly it is useful to remember the term FOIL. 𝑎𝑥2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐=0

Refer the figure: 1.2.3. (Note the letters f and g have been used to avoid We can see that:
ambiguity with the, b and c in the general formula. Usually the factors are 𝑎 in the general equation equals to 1
labelled (x + a) and (x +b)) 𝑏 in the general equation is equal to 𝑔+𝑓 (the sum of the factors)
and 𝑐 in the general equation is equal to 𝑓 × 𝑔 (the product of the factors)
Multiplying out the brackets we get:
= 𝑥 . 𝑥 + 𝑥 . 𝑔 + 𝑓. 𝑥 +𝑓𝑔 So, expanding the factors we get the quadratic equation.
= 1.𝑥2 + (𝑔+ 𝑓) 𝑥 + 𝑓𝑔 We need to be able to go from factors to a quadratic expression or from a
quadratic expression to find the factors.

Example:
The factors (𝑥−2)(𝑥+4) would give what quadratic expression?
Using foil, we get: 𝑥2+4𝑥−2𝑥−8
Which simplifies to: 𝑥2+2𝑥−8

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Example: Exercise:
Given the quadratic equation 𝑥2+2𝑥−8=0, find the factors. Expand the following factors to create a quadratic expression
We can see that g + f = 2 and f x g = -8 1) (x + 7) (x + 11)
So we are looking for two numbers that when multiplied together 2) (x - 7) (x + 1)
give us -8 but when added together gives us 2. 3) (x + 1) (x - 5)
The factors that would yield -8 are: 4) (x - 3) (x + 3)
-8 x 1, -4 x 2, -2 x 4, -1 x 8 5) (2x + 1) (x - 5)
Replacing the multiplication sign with an addition gives: 6) (x - 7) (3x + 1)
-8 + 1 = -7 -4 + 2 = -2 -2 + 4 = 2 -1 + 8 = 7 7) (2x + 7) (-4x + 11)
It can be seen that -2 + 4 = 2, giving us the result, we need, 8) (-2x - 3) (-x + 3)
therefore values of f and g are -2 and 4 Find the factors of the following quadratics:
The factors are (𝑥−2) (𝑥+4) 1) x2 + 4x – 12 = 0
But if we recall the general formula is 𝑎𝑥2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐=0 2) x2 + 12x + 20 = 0
And it must therefore = 0 3) x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
Consequently x + f = 0 and x + g = 0 4) x2 – 2x – 24 = 0
We can find the solution to the quadratic. So in this case: 5) x2 + 18x + 56 = 0
x + f = 0 and x + g = 0 1.2.14 LOGARITHM
x - 2 = 0 and x + 4 = 0
Therefore We can use tables of logarithms - log tables - to carry out the multiplication
x = 2 and x = - 4 and division of numbers and to evaluate powers, roots and reciprocals.
These are known as the roots of the quadratic Before the widespread availability of reasonably priced electronic
(Note: it is very important that the roots and the factors are not calculators, log tables were the main-stay for calculation work. They still
mixed up). provide a very valuable aid to working out calculations. Four-figure log
tables provide results of four-significant figure (or nearly so) accuracy.
The most common form of logarithms and the ones used in most calculation
work are logarithms to base 10. The logarithm of a number N to base 10 is
defined as the power to which the base 10 must be raised to equal the
number, i.e. if N is expressed in the form:
N = 10x
Then the exponent x is the logarithm of N.
The logarithm of a number is denoted as

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The actual value of the logarithm, that is x, is found from log tables. The 10
is usually omitted when writing logs. For example, the logarithm of 3 to base
10 is written as EXCERCISE
Log 3 = 0.4771 01. Express each of the following in index form.
And using the definition of a logarithm, we can state
(i) log5125 = 3 (ii) log10100 000 = 5 (iii) logax = y
3 = 100.4771
(iv) logpa = q (v) loga1 = 0 (vi) logmm = 1
The use of logs simplifies calculations: it essentially converts
02. Express each of the following in logarithm form.
 Multiplication into an addition process
 Division into a subtraction process (i) 28 = 256 (ii) 104 = 10000 (iii) 73 = 343
 Powers into a multiplication process
 Roots into a division process (iv) 202 = 400 (v) ax = y (vi) pa = q

Since we can directly apply the rules of indices:

1.2.14.1 DETERMINING THE LOGARITHM OF A NUMBER
10x x 10y = 10x+y to multiply, add logs
It is an easy matter to deduce the logarithms of numbers which are whole
10x ÷ 10y = 10x-y to divide, subtract logs number powers of 10, simply by straightforward application of the log
[10x] n = 10x x n multiply log by power definition.
𝑛
√10𝑥 = 10x÷n divide log by n to find root
We use log tables to find the logs x and y of numbers. We use antilog tables
to reverse the process, which is to find the number corresponding to the
“log result“. The basic steps involved in using logs to aid calculations are
given below.

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Example,

1000 = 103 so log 1000 = 3

100 = 102 so log 100 = 2
10 = 101 so log 10 = 1

We can carry on the same technique for negative whole number powers of
10: Table: 1.2.10

1.2.14.2 USE OF LOG AND ANTILOG TABLES

Four figure log tables list the values of log N that is the value of x in N =
10x, for numbers between N = 1.000 and 9.999. The first portion of four-
figure log table is shown in Table: 1.2.11 below.
Note that the logarithms of 0.1, 0.01, 0.001… are negative integers. Rather
than write -1,-2,-3 … we use the bar convention.

Table: 1.2.10 gives a list of the logs of multiples and submultiples of 10.

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Similarly,

So, if we wish to evaluate 1.653 x 2.078

1.653 x 2.078 = 100.2123+0.3177
=100.5360
If we can now find the value of 100.5360 we can find the product of
1.653x2.078. The value of 100.5360 can be found by using antilog tables.
The procedure of using the antilog tables and finding the value of 10 0.5360 is
discussed.

Table: 1.2.11

Let us use this table to find the logarithms of, for example 1.653 and 2.078,
and at the same time give some insight into the use of logs in multiplication
and division.

Table: 1.2.12

The values 10x for x between 0.0000 and 0.9999 are listed in tables in Table:
1.2.12 known as antilogarithm (antilog) tables. The relevant portion of four-
figure antilog tables for our present problem is given above.
The number corresponding to 100.5360 (shown ringed in the antilog tables) is
3436. Note that no decimal point is given. The product is,
1.653 x 2.078 = 3.436

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Where we have inserted the decimal point to be consistent with obtaining a By using log tables, we see that multiplication may be accomplished by
sensible answer. adding logs and division may be accomplish by subtracting logs and looking
up the tables of antilog to convert the log result into the number answer.
Obviously 100.5360 lies between 100 =1 and 101 = 10 Note, however that log tables only give log values for numbers in the range
Rules for looking up antilog and determining the position of the decimal 1.000 to 9.999. Antilog tables give the number results, but we have to
point are discussed later in the subject. decide on the position of the decimal place.

Let’s consider next how log tables may be used for division by finding, for 1.2.14.3 DETERMINING THE LOG AND ANTILOG OF ANY
example, 2.316 ÷ 1.782. First look up the logs of the two numbers. NUMBER
Table: 1.2.10, which we have already studied, gives the logs of whole
number powers of 10. With this data and the fact that adding logs carries
multiplication we can find the logarithm of any number.

Example:

1.2.14.4 GENERAL RULE TO FIND LOGS

Table: 1.2. 13
Express the number in standard from, e.g.

Use log tables to find the log of the mantissa. This log will always be a
decimal. “Add” to this the exponent of the base 10 power, e.g.

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The names, characteristic and mantissa are given respectively to the whole i.e. the characteristic is one less than the number of digits in front of the
number (integer) and the positive decimal parts of a logarithm and the decimal point.
number in front of the power of 10 when numbers are expressed in
standard-type form.
Log of a decimal between 0.1 and 0.9999 is 1
Log of a decimal between 0.01 and 0.099 99 is 2
For decimals, the bar characteristic is one more than the number of zeros
behind the decimal point to the first non-zero digit.
Table: 1.2.14 given below gives some results of finding logs and antilogs.
1.2.14.5 GENERAL RULES TO FIND ANTILOG
Use antilog tables to find the antilog of the mantissa (decimal part) of the
log only.
Place the decimal point in the antilog number so there is a single digit in
front of the decimal point.
The characteristic (whole number part of log) tells us the power of 10 by
which the number found is to be multiplied.
For example, to find the antilog of 3.4576:

Table: 1.2.14

In simpler terms we can state:

Log of a number between 1 and 9 is 0
Log of a number between 10 and 99 is 1
Log of a number between 100 and 999 is 2

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EXERCISE

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 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1.1 / B2
GEOMETRY/ SUB MODULE 1.3

MODULE 1 MATHEMATICS

GEOMETRY
ISSUE 02 REVISION 00 / DEC 2019 Page 1
 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1.1 / B2
GEOMETRY/ SUB MODULE 1.3

‘“FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY”

“The training notes and diagrams although comprehensive in
detail, they are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up to date as possible,
and amendments to the training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.

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CATEGORY B1.1 / B2 GEOMETRY / SUB MODULE 1.3

TRIGENOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES LESS THAN 900 ............................ 24

TABLE OF CONTENTS TRIGENOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES GREATER THAN 90 ° ...................... 25

MODULE 1 MATHEMATICS ............................................................. 1 SINE, COSINE AND TANGENT IN THE FOUR QUADRANTS ................................ 26
GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ..................................................... 29
1.3 GEOMETRY ................................................................................. 4
1.3.6 CARTESIAN AND POLAR COORDINATES ..................................... 29
1.3.1 SIMPLE GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION ...................................... 4
CARTESIAN COORDINATES ............................................................................ 29
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................. 4
POLAR COORDINATES ................................................................................... 30
DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................. 4
CONVERTING COORDINATES ......................................................................... 31
BISECT A STRAIGHT LINE ............................................................................... 8
1.3.6.3.1 CARTESIAN TO POLAR ............................................................................................. 31
DRAWING A PERPENDICULAR FROM A POINT TO A LINE.................................. 8
1.3.6.3.2 POLAR TO CARTESIAN ............................................................................................. 32
DIVIDING A STRAIGHT LINE INTO NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS.......................... 8
CARTESIAN AND POLAR FORMULA ................................................................. 32
BISECTING AN ANGLE ..................................................................................... 9
DUPLICATE A GIVEN ANGLE ............................................................................ 9
DUPLICATE A GIVEN TRIANGLE ....................................................................... 9
CONSTRUCT AN ANGLE OF 600 TO A LINE ....................................................... 9
RIGHT TRIANGLES .......................................................................................... 9

1.3.2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS ................................................ 10

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. 10

1.3.3 NATURE AND USES OF GRAPHS .................................................. 11

BROKEN LINE GRAPHS ................................................................................... 11
BAR GRAPH ................................................................................................... 12

CIRCULAR GRAPHS ........................................................................................ 13

NOMOGRAPHS ............................................................................................... 15

1.3.4 GRAPHS OF EQUATIONS/FUNCTIONS ........................................ 16

STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS ................................................................................ 16

HOW TO FIND "M" AND "C" ............................................................................ 16

X-Y CO-ORDINATES ....................................................................................... 17
SPECIAL CASE - VERTICAL LINE ..................................................................... 18
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS – GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS .................................. 19

1.3.5 SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRY, TRIGONOMETRICAL RELATIONSHIPS,

AND USE OF TABLES ................................................................................. 21
SOLUTION OF RIGHT TRIANGLES ................................................................... 22

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1.3 GEOMETRY In this section we shall not enter into the details of plane or solid geometry.
However, we shall examine the fundamentals, of each.
1.3.1 SIMPLE GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The word geometry is derived from geo, a Greek word meaning earth, and DEFINITIONS
metria, meaning measurement. Ancient Egyptians were perhaps the first The study of geometry requires the use of many terms, which are not used
people to study geometry. They were mainly concerned with problems of in everyday conversation, so it is necessary that we become familiar with
finding areas of rectangular figures. Later Babylonians also studied the these terms. For this purpose have presented a number of definitions for
problems of finding areas of various rectilinear figures. Both the Egyptians common geometric terms.
and Babylonians used geometry for practical purposes. However, they did
not develop it as a systematic science. Line: A line has no breadth or thickness but
has length.
It is desirable to tell the importance of the study of geometry. Primarily
geometry teaches you how to reason. The habit of correct thinking Figure: 1.3. 1
acquired in its study is beneficial to all. By its study you will be able to
Straight Line: A line having the same direction throughout its length, if a
converse more logically and read with a greater understanding.
portion of straight line is placed so that both ends fall
So we may say that geometry literally means the measurement of the earth within the ends of the remaining part, the portion must
or land. Actually, geometry deals with the measurement of areas, volumes, lie wholly within the line. Figure: 1.3. 2
and distances, so the name, geometry, is descriptive of the mathematical
science, which it denotes.
Surface: A surface has no thickness but has
There are two general types of geometry: that dealing with plane surfaces,
length and breath.
called plane geometry, and that dealing with three-dimensional objects,
called solid geometry.
Plane geometry is further divided into,
Figure: 1.3. 3
Theoretical geometry consisting of theorems and Practical geometry
consisting of problems.
Plane or plane surface: A plane or plane surface
Any separate geometrical operation, whether a discussion or a may be defined such that a straight line that joins
construction, is called a proposition. any two of its points lie wholly in that surface.
A theorem is a proposition in which a geometrical fact is proved by Figure: 1.3. 4
methodical reasoning.
A problem is a proposition in which a geometrical figure is to be actually
constructed.

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Solid: A solid, in the geometric sense, is that which has three Vertex of an Angle: The common point from which the two sides of an
dimensions, that is, length, breadth, and angle proceed (Fig-1.3.10)
thickness.
Acute Angle: An angle which is less than a
right angle.
Figure: 1.3. 5
Figure: 1.3. 10
Equal Lines: Two lines are equal if, when
placed one upon the other, all corresponding
points coincide. Obtuse Angle: An angle, which is more than a
right angle but less than a straight angle
Figure: 1.3. 6

Figure: 1.3. 11
Curved Line: A line which continuously
change direction. Straight Angle: An Angle of whose sides
from a straight line, that is, an angle of 180

Figure: 1.3. 7 Figure: 1.3. 12

Reflex Angle: It is any angle that is

Angle: An angle is the opening between two
larger than a straight angle
straight lines drawn in different directions
from the same.
Figure: 1.3. 13
Figure: 1.3. 8

Bisector: A bisector is a point, line, or

Right Angle: An angle which is one-fourth of surface, which divides a magnitude into two
a circle, that is, 90. equal parts.
Figure: 1.3. 14

Figure: 1.3. 9

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Adjacent Angles: Two angles having a Parallel Lines: Lines in the same plane,
common side and the same vertex. which can never intersect no matter, how far
they are extended.
Figure: 1.3. 15
Figure: 1.3. 18

Perpendicular Line: Straight line, which

makes a 90 with another straight line and is Triangle: A plane bounded by three straight
perpendicular to the line. sides.

Figure: 1.3. 16
Figure: 1.3. 19
Circle: A closed curve all
portions of which are in the same
Obtuse Triangle: A triangle having one angle
plane and equidistant from the
same point. greater than 90.

Figure: 1.3. 20
Figure: 1.3. 17

Refer the figure 1.3.17; Acute Triangle: A triangle having all angles less
than 90.
Diameter: The length of a line passing through the center of a circle and
limited at each end by the circle
Figure: 1.3. 21
Radius: A straight line from the center of circle to the circle perimeter.
The radius is equal to one-half the diameter
Circumference: Length of the imaginary line enclosing the area of the Right Triangle: A triangle having one angle equal
circle to 90.
Arc: Any portion of a circle
Sector: The area within a circle bounded by two radii and the arc
Figure: 1.3. 22
connecting the ends of the radii
Chord: A straight line within a circle connecting two points on the circle

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Rectangle: A four-sided plane figure having four

right angles.
Isosceles Triangle: A triangle having two equal
sides.

Figure: 1.3. 27

Parallelogram: A four-sided plane figure whose opposite sides are equal

and parallel.
Figure: 1.3. 23

Figure: 1.3. 28
Scalene Triangle: A triangle which has no two
sides equal.

Trapezium: A four-sided plane figure with two

parallel sides and two sides which are not parallel.

Figure: 1.3. 24
Figure: 1.3. 29

Polygon: A polygon is a geometric closed

Equilateral Triangle: A triangle in which all sides
figure bounded by straight lines. The term
are equal.
poly means multi. A triangle has the least
number of sides. Other multi-sided figures
have names indicating the number of sides.
Figure: 1.3. 25
Hence:
Pentagon – 5 sided, Hexagon – 6 sided,
Octagon – 8 sided

Square: A plane figure bounded by four equal sides

and having four right angles. Figure: 1.3. 30

Additional terms are also used in geometry; however, above illustration and
terms used will provide a basis for continuing with a study of the principles
Figure: 1.3. 26 of geometry.

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It is possible with a compass, a ruler, and a protractor to construct many DRAWING A PERPENDICULAR FROM A POINT TO A LINE
geometrical figures, which accurately fulfill their definitions or descriptions.
In this case we are going to draw a
In most cases the protractor is not needed.
perpendicular to a line from a given point.
But it should be remembered that to make complex engineering drawings The point given is P and the straight line is
we need to have sophisticated devices such as drawing boards, Engineer’s XY. From the point P use the compass to
rulers, different types of papers etc. Knowledge of simple geometric strike arcs at A and B, using the same radius
constructions will be a great assistance for a beginner of engineering in each case. Then from the points A and B,
drawings. maintaining the adjustment of the compass,
strike intersecting arcs at C. Connect the
Under this lesson we will study the methods of dividing line into given points P and C with a straight line. The line
number of equal parts, bisecting lines and angles, drawing lines PC is perpendicular to XY.
perpendicular to lines, copying angles and triangles and construct an angle
of 600 to a line. Figure: 1.3. 32

BISECT A STRAIGHT LINE DIVIDING A STRAIGHT LINE INTO NUMBER OF EQUAL

PARTS
The straight line given is AB. To
bisect the given line, adjust the Let the line to be divided is AB.
compass so that it spans a Assume that we need to divide AB
greater distance than one-half into 5 equal parts. Draw another
the length of the line. Place the line from A or B. Divide the second
point of the compass on A and line in to 5 equal parts using the
strike an arc CDE as shown. compass. This can be done by
Without altering the adjustment setting the compass to a fixed
of the compass, using B as a length and marking this set
center, strike a second arc FGH. distance along the line. Then
Connect the points J and K with connect the open end of AB to the
a straight line. The line JK bisects E
last marked point on the second
the given line AB. The same line line. After that draw lines parallel
Figure: 1.3. 31
JK is going to be perpendicular to to the connecting lines starting Figure: 1.3. 33
AB, thus acts as the Perpendicular Bisector. from the other marked points to
meet AB. Where these lines intersect at AB are the points which divide AB
into equal parts.

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BISECTING AN ANGLE DUPLICATE A GIVEN TRIANGLE

Let the angle given be AOB. Place the Let the given triangle be ABC. Draw
point of a compass at O and strike arcs a straight line DX. Using AB as a
at A and B so that OA = OB. From the radius and D as the center, draw
points A and B strike intersecting arcs an arc cutting DX at E. Using AC as
with the same radius. Mark the point of a radius and D as a center, draw an
intersection of these arcs as C. Draw arc in the vicinity of F. Using CB as
the line OC. OC is then the bisector of the radius and as a center, draw
the angle. an arc to intersect the other arc at
F. Draw the lines DF and EF. DEF is
Figure: 1.3. 36
the duplicate triangle.
Figure: 1.3. 34

CONSTRUCT AN ANGLE OF 600 TO A LINE

DUPLICATE A GIVEN ANGLE
The compass point is centered at
Let the given angle be ACB. Draw a the point “A’ to which the angle
line and mark it DX. Strike an arc is to be drawn and set to any
AB having C as the center. Taking radius AB, arc BC drawn. Without
D as the center and CB as the changing the radius, the
distance, draw an arc DE using the compass is now centered at B
radius AC. Using the distance AB as and an arc is drawn to cut CB at
a radius and E as the center, strike D. A line drawn through D to A
an arc to intersect the previous arc. will form angle of 600 with AB.
Mark the intersecting point of the
arcs as F. Connect D and F. Angle Figure: 1.3. 37
Figure: 1.3. 35
ACB = angle FDE. RIGHT TRIANGLES
The well-known theorem (rule) for
right triangles are given below:
The square of the hypotenuse in a right
triangle is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides (the
Pythagorean theorem also known as
Figure: 1.3. 38
Pythagoras' theorem).

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EXERSICE requirements in the twenty-first century, from solving equations to

representing medical statistics.
A chart may be designed to provide almost any type of information. Charts
are used to present pictorial data, numerical data, graphical data and
various other types of information.
Consider the figure (Graph: 1.3. 1) below to explain the framework used
to plot points in the graph. The pair of reference lines X'OX and Y'OY, which
are drawn at right angles to each other, are known as axes. The horizontal
reference line X'OX is known as the horizontal axis or the x-axis. The
vertical reference line Y'OY is known as the vertical or y-axis. Appropriate
scales are marked on these axes-it is up to us to decide the most suitable
scale for each axis for the problem in hand. In the figure for simplicity, both
the x and y-axes are marked at unit intervals to cover a range -7 through
to +7. The zero point O at the intersection of the two axes corresponds to
a point x = 0, y = 0. This point is known as the origin, and point to aid
rapid recognition. Alternatively, a small cross may be used.

1.3.2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we consider the ways of presenting numerical information
in pictorial, diagrammatic and graphical forms. This subject is known
generally as graphical representation. It provides in almost all cases a
much clearer presentation of results and a much easier means of making
assessments than can normally be gained from trying to shift through a
mass of data. Graphs, charts, diagrams are extensively employed in both
scientific and non-scientific disciplines from plotting experimental results
for assessing a company’s trading performance from demonstrating the
properties of a mathematical equation or formula to predicting energy

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1.3.3 NATURE AND USES OF GRAPHS

The term graph is normally applied to the line, straight or curved, which
defines the relationship between two or more quantities. A "conventional"
graph is constructed by plotting a pair or number of related values as points
on a piece of graph paper and then drawing a "smooth” curve through the
plotted points. In mathematics it is common practice to use x and y as the
symbols to denote two sets of related values. In introducing graphs, we
will use x and y, but we could-and indeed will use other symbols most
relevant to our particular problem.
BROKEN LINE GRAPHS
A broken-line graph or a bar graph is used to show comparative
quantitative data. The broken-line graph is useful to show trends in
quantitative data over a period of time.
Graph: 1.3. 1
A bank published its interest rates each day for 7 days as shown in the
table below. Construct a line graph to visually display this data.
Similarly, any point like point A can be marked on the following graph
(Graph: 1.3. 2). So in this case we have marked point B (5, 6), point C (2,
1), points D (-2, -2), point E (-3,-4), and point F (-7,-4). It should be
understood that in this graph the dotted lines are shown for clarity. They
are normally not
drawn.
After marking the
required points, they
are connected by a
line as it appears in
the graph below. This
Table: 1.3. 1
line may be straight
or a non-straight Step 1: Find the range in values.
depending on the
values we have There are two sets of values. What units are used? What is the greatest
selected. value and the least value for the first set? What is the greatest value and
the least value for the second set?
Graph: 1.3. 2

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The units are day and interest rate (%). The day ranges from 1 to 7 and BAR GRAPH
the interest rate ranges from 1.1 to 1.5.
The percentage of total income spent under various heads by a family is
Step 2: Determine a Scale. given below.

Start with the horizontal scale. If you are using graph paper, let 1 unit on
the graph paper equal 1 unit of the values you are graphing. Determine
whether the greatest value will fit on the graph. If it doesn't, then change
the scale and try again. Now repeat this process for the vertical scale.
The vertical scale must start at 0. So, the vertical scale will range from 0
to 1.5.
Table: 1.3. 2

Step 3: Label the graph.

Mark each unit across the horizontal scale and along the vertical scale. Step 1: On a graph, draw two lines perpendicular to each other,
Label the marks by the units they represent. intersecting at 0. The horizontal line is x-axis and vertical line is y-axis.
Step 2: Along the horizontal axis, choose the uniform width of bars and
uniform gap between the bars and write the names of the data items whose
values are to be marked.
Step 3: Along the vertical axis, choose a suitable scale in order to determine
the heights of the bars for the given values.
Step 4: Calculate the heights of the bars according to the scale chosen and
draw the bars.

Graph: 1.3. 3

Step 4: Plot the points and connect them.

Plot a point for each pair of values. Which item of a pair is indicated by the
horizontal scale? by the vertical scale? How many points will you plot?
Connect the points with straight lines from left to right.
Graph: 1.3. 4

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EXERCISE b) Total sales of branch B6 for both the years is what percent of the total
sales of branches B3 for both the years?
Q1. The bar graph given below (Graph: 1.3.5) shows the sales of books (in
thousand number) from six branches of a publishing company during two A. 68.54%
consecutive years 2000 and 2001.
B. 71.11%
Sales of Books (in thousand numbers) from Six Branches - B1, B2, B3, B4,
B5 and B6 of a publishing Company in 2000 and 2001. C. 73.17%
D. 75.55%
c) What is the average sales of all the branches (in thousand numbers)
for the year 2000?
A. 73
B. 80
C. 83
D. 88

CIRCULAR GRAPHS
Circular or “pie” graphs are
Graph: 1.3. 5 used often to indicate a
distribution of data. The
following table shows the
a) What is the ratio of the total sales of branch B2 for both years to the
numbers of hours spent by a
total sales of branch B4 for both years?
child on different events on a
A. 2:3 working day. Represent the
adjoining information on a pie
B. 3:5 chart.
C. 4:5 Table: 1.3. 3

D. 7:9

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The central angles for various observations can be calculated as:

EXERCISE
Q1.

Table: 1.3. 5

Now, we shall represent these angles within the circle as different sectors.
Then we make the pie chart:

Table: 1.3. 4

Graph: 1.3. 6

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Example: An aircraft reciprocating engine has 1830 cubic inch displacement

NOMOGRAPHS
and develops 1250 brake-horsepower at 2500 rpm.
A nomograph, also called a monogram or alignment chart, is a calculating What is the Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP)?
chart with scales that contain values of three or more variables. The
distances between the lines and the scales on the lines are placed in such
a manner that the user may employ a straightedge to line up two known
values and obtain a third value. Nomographs are often used in computing
horsepower problems, cruise-control problems, and similar problems
involving three or more variables.
For example, if the speed or time of flight of an airplane changes, the
distance traveled in a given time will change. This is illustrated in the
Graph: 1.3. 7 shown in the following. If any two of the variables are known,
the approximate value of the other can be quickly determined. The dotted
line indicates how distance is determined when speed and time are known.
The value shown is 937.5 nautical miles.

Figure: 1.3. 39

Explanation:
Use the following steps:
1. Find the 1250 brake-horsepower vertical line at the top of the chart, and follow this
line down until it intersects the diagonal line for the 1830 cubic inch displacement
engine.
2. Draw a horizontal line from this intersection point to the right until it intersects the
diagonal line for 2 500 rpm.
3. From the intersection of the horizontal line and the rpm diagonal line, draw a line
vertically downward to the BMEP scale.
4. You will find that the vertical line touches the BMEP scale just about on the 217 psi
Graph: 1.3. 7
BMEP line.

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1.3.4 GRAPHS OF EQUATIONS/FUNCTIONS HOW TO FIND "M" AND "C"

STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS “c” is easy: just see where the line intercepts the Y axis.
The equation of a straight line is usually written this way: “m” (slope or gradient of the curve) needs some calculation:
𝒚=𝒎𝒙+𝒄
Where y and x are variables on a graph, m represents the gradient (amount
of slope) and c represents the point that the line crosses the y-axis known
as the intercept. This is shown in figure below. As the line slopes uphill, it is a positive
gradient and incase of downhill, gradient is considered as negative.
Consider the line y=3x+1

As can be seen on the graph given

the gradient of 3 represents a line
that slopes upwards from left to right
and for every one block that the line
moves across the graph it rises by
three.
Graph: 1.3. 9
Also, as the intercept of +1 suggests,
when the line is at a value of x = 0
the y value is +1. Example:
Establish the values for m and c for the straight line shown in graph.
Graph: 1.3. 8

Looking at each value of x will yield a new value of y. This is demonstrated

in Table: 1.3.6 below.

Table: 1.3. 6

Graph: 1.3. 10

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X-Y CO-ORDINATES
Example: If we want to pick a specific point on a graph we have to give an x-value
and a y-value. The x-value gives how far the point is in a horizontal sense
Establish the values for m and c for the straight line shown in graph. whilst the y-value is the displacement in the vertical axis.

Graph: 1.3. 11 Graph: 1.3. 12

Consider the point A on the above graph. This is +3 along the horizontal
The intercept of 0 does not need to be stated. Notice also that a negative and +1 up on the vertical. Therefore, it represents the co-ordinates (+3,
gradient slopes the opposite direction, i.e. downhill. +1)
Considering point B on the graph as this moves in a different direction to
point A, both x and y are negative. This point is -1 along the horizontal and
-1 down the vertical. Therefore it represents the co-ordinates (-1,-1)
If we now put a line through these two points we end up with a straight
line graph as given in the following.

Graph: 1.3. 13

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In this case the gradient can be calculated from the difference between the SPECIAL CASE - VERTICAL LINE
two (x, y) co-ordinates.
The slope given the figure (Graph:
The x value is represented in point A by +3 and in point B by -1. The 1.3. 14 is undefined ... and where
difference is therefore 4. The y value is represented in point A by +1 and does it cross the Y-Axis?
in point B by -1. The difference is therefore 2.
In fact, this is a special case, and you
The gradient is calculated from: use a different equation, not "y=...",
but instead you use "x=...", like this:
x=1.5
Every point on the line has x
coordinate 1.5

Graph: 1.3. 14

EXERCISE
1. For each of the functions given by the equations in parts (a) and (b),
write the gradient and intercept without drawing the corresponding graphs.
(a) i. y = x + 3 ii. y = – x + 4
(b) i. 2y = 3x – 2 ii. 4y + 1 = 4x
2. By selecting suitable values for x, construct a table of values and draw
the graphs of the following functions on the same coordinate plane.
i. y = x ii. y = – 2x + 2
3. Draw the graphs of the functions given by the following equations for
the values of x from – 4 to + 4.
a. – 3x + 2y = 6 and 3x + 2y = – 6
b. y + 2x = 4 and – 2x + y = – 4

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SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS – GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS

4. Write the equations of the functions of the graphs sketched below We saw when discussing about solving simultaneous equations that there
were three ways to solve a simultaneous equation and one of them was
graphical.
In its basic form, the two equations quoted in a simultaneous equation
problem are straight lines. In most cases there is likely to be a solution.
Not guaranteed, but likely. It is possible that one of the following three
situations may exist:
• If the lines are parallel with each other there is no solution. When
there is no solution such simultaneous equations are called
"inconsistent".

• If the lines lie over each other there are an infinite number of
solutions
• If the lines cross there is one solution.
The simultaneous equations which have one or infinitely solutions, then
they are called "consistent".

Graph: 1.3. 15
These are shown in figure (Figure: 1.3. 40) given below.

Figure: 1.3. 40

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Example Exercise:
Find the solution for the simultaneous equations represented by: Find the equation for the straight line graphs named
from A to G.
3x + 2y = 19 Determine the solution to the simultaneous equation for
x+y=8 the lines quoted.
1) Lines A and B 6) Lines B and E
Plotting these two lines on a straight line graph would look something like 2) Lines A and C 7) Lines B and D
the ones in this: 3) Lines A and F 8) Lines C and G
4) Lines A and H 9) Lines F and H
5) Lines B and G 10) Lines F and G

Graph: 1.3. 16

The blue line represents the equation

3x + 2y = 19
The red line represents the equation
x+y=8
Where the lines cross will give us the solution. We can see that it is: x=3,
y=5 and these values satisfy the both the equations.

Graph: 1.3. 17

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1.3.5 SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRY, TRIGONOMETRICAL

RELATIONSHIPS, AND USE OF TABLES
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics, which makes possible the
solution of unknown parts of a triangle. When the values of certain angles
and sides of a triangle are known, it is possible to determine the values of
all the parts through the use of trigonometric processes.
Figure: 1.3. 42
Trigonometric functions are based on the ratios of the sides of a right
triangle to one another. In the diagram below, the right triangle AB’C’ is Also,
superimposed on right triangle ABC with the angles at A coinciding. The
lines B'C' and BC are parallel: hence the triangles are similar. In similar
triangles the ratios of
corresponding sides are equal
and so AB/AC = AB’ /AC'. In like
manner, the ratios of the other
sides are also equal.
Furthermore, any right triangle,
which has an acute angle equal
The importance of the foregoing functions in the fact that a particular
to A will have the same ratios Figure: 1.3. 41
function always has the same value for the same angle. For example, sin
as those for the triangles
50° is always equal to 0.7660. This means that in a right triangle, which
shown in the figure.
has an acute angle of 50°, the sine of 50° will always be 0.7660 regardless
In trigonometry the ratios of the sides of a right triangle to one another of the size of the triangle.
are given particular names. These are sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,
In the same triangle, the functions of the angle B are the co-functions of
secant, and cosecant. These ratios are called trigonometric functions and
angle A. That is,
may be explained by the use of the triangle in figure below.
sin B = cos A
In the triangle ABC show in the figure (Fig-1.3.42), side c is called the
cos B =sin A
hypotenuse, side b is called the side adjacent to angle A, and side a is the
side opposite to angle A. The functions of angle A are then as follows: tan B = cot A
cot B = tan A
sec B =cosec A
cosec B = sec A

These relationships can easily be shown by noting the sides adjacent to

and opposite to angle B.

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Exercise: A right angled triangle XYZ has sides ZY = 13, ZX =12

In the first discussion of functions, it was pointed out that;
and XY = 5. If the right angle is at X, calculate:

Sine Y
Sine Z
Tan Y
Tan Z
Cos Z

In a similar manner it can be shown that;

Exercise: A right angled triangle XYZ has sides ZY = 13, ZX
=12 and XY = 5. If the right angle is at X, calculate:
Sine Y
Sine Z
Tan Y Trigonometry, a substantial amount of study and practice should be given
Tan Z to this type of work.
Cos Z

SOLUTION OF RIGHT TRIANGLES

The relations between functions and co-functions have already been
shown. However, certain relationships exist among all the functions, and If any side and one of the acute angles of a right triangle are known, all
these should be understood. the other values of the triangle may be determined.
For example, if an acute angle of the right triangle is 35 ° and the side
adjacent to this angle is 6 inches long, we may determine the other values
as follows:
Since the sum of the angles of a triangle
is 180°, the other acute angle of the
triangle is 55°.
Figure: 1.3. 43

Figure: 1.3. 44

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c=17
a= 8 17

C A
b=15
=15
Figure: 1.3. 45

a 8
Then, sin A =   0.4706
b 17
From the table of functions: 0.4706 = sin 28.1° (approximately)
Then angle A = 28 ° 06 ' (approximately)

Table: 1.3. 7

The sides of the triangle are 4.2012, 6, and 7.32. We can verify those
answers by the formula a2 + b2 = c2, which shows that the square of the
hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the other two sides.
If the sides of a right triangle are known, the angles can also be Table: 1.3. 8
determined. This is shown in the problem below. In this triangle ABC, side
a = 8, b = 15, and c = 17

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Exercise: Using trigonometric tables, find the

value (to 3 decimal places) of:
Sine 37º
Cos 40º
Cos 33º Since AO is equal to 1, the sine of angle a is AB. Continuing with the same
Sin 20º process and reasoning.
Tan 27º

TRIGENOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES LESS THAN

900
The trigonometric relationships can be represented by a single straight line
if we adopt a triangle with one side equal to unity. By employing a unit
circle as shown in figure below, this method can be demonstrated.

Figure: 1.3. 46

In the circle shown (Figure: 1.3. 46), diameters XX’ and YY’ are drawn with If we study the unit circle shown in figure below very carefully, we can
visualize what will happen to each function as the angle a increases or
radii OY and OX and another radius, AO, all equal to 1. AB is then drawn
decreases.
from the end of the radius OA and perpendicular to OX. OA is extended to
E, where it intersects the tangent (perpendicular) drawn to OY. CX is drawn
tangent to the circle at X and perpendicular to OX. There are now three
similar triangles: ABO, CXO and OYE. The angle designated a is the same
in all three triangles. By arranging the ratios so that the denominator is
always equal to 1, we can represent each ratio by a single line. In the
triangle ABO,

Figure: 1.3. 47

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As angle increases;
Sin a will increase to 1 EXERCISE
Cos a will decrease to 0
Tan a will increase to infinity (∞)
Cot a will decrease to 0
Sec a will increase to infinity (∞)
Cosec a will decrease to 1

The values of the functions as the

angle changes from
0° to 90° are as follows.
sin a, 0 to 1
cos a, 1 to 0
tan a 0 to ∞
cot a, ∞ to 0
sec a, 1 to ∞
cosec a, ∞ to 1

The angles 30°, 45° and 60° are particularly useful in the solution of
triangles. Hence, it is well to become familiar with the numerical values of
the functions of these angles. They are given on the following table:

TRIGENOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES GREATER

THAN 90 °
It is obvious that in oblique triangles there will be times when the functions of
angles greater than 90° are needed. The following relationships give the
method for determining function values for such angles.

Table: 1.3. 9 Figure: 1.3. 48

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For simplicity in computation it is best to work with angles of less than 90°, But in Quadrant II, the X
Example: The sine, cosine and
and this is possible in most, cases. direction is negative, and both tangent of 150°
cosine and tangent become
Sin (90° + θ) = cos θ negative:
Cos (90° + θ) = -sin θ
Tan (90° + θ) = -cot θ
Cot (90° + θ) = -tan θ

SINE, COSINE AND TANGENT IN THE FOUR QUADRANTS

Now let us look at what happens when we place a 30° triangle in each of
the 4 Quadrants.
Table: 1.3. 11

Example: The sine, cosine and

In Quadrant I everything is
tangent of 30°
normal, and Sine, Cosine and
Tangent are all positive: In Quadrant III, sine and
Example: The sine, cosine and tangent of
cosine are negative:
210°
Note: Tangent is positive
because dividing a negative by
a negative gives a positive.

Table: 1.3. 10

Table: 1.3. 12

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In Quadrant IV, sine and tangent are negative: Exercise

Example: The sine, cosine and

tangent of 330°

Table: 1.3. 13

In Quadrant IV, sine and tangent are negative:

There is a pattern! Look at when Sine Cosine and Tangent are positive.
 All three of them are positive in Quadrant I
 Sine only is positive in Quadrant II
 Tangent only is positive in Quadrant III
 Cosine only is positive in Quadrant IV

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Table: 1.3. 14

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GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 1.3.6 CARTESIAN AND POLAR COORDINATES

We graph trigonometric functions in exactly the same way as other CARTESIAN COORDINATES
functions i.e. we create a table of x values and calculate the corresponding
Cartesian and polar coordinates are discussed with graphs of their type.
y values. In this case, however, the x values will be angles.
First, we concentrate on the conventional x-y or Cartesian coordinate (also
known as rectangular coordinates) graph. This form of graph is one of the
most common ways of presenting relationships and numerical information
in graphical form. Cartesian coordinate graphs are extensively used in
mathematics to illustrate equations and mathematical relationships; and in
science and engineering to plot experimental results and to investigate the
characteristics of such results.
A "conventional" graph is constructed by plotting pairs of related values as
Table: 1.3. 15 points on a piece of graph paper and then drawing a "smooth” curve
through the plotted points. In mathematics it is common practice to use x
and y as the symbols to denote two sets of related values. In introducing
Graph of y = sin x (Graph: 1.3.19). This type of graph is a wave. It repeats
graphs we will use x and y, but we could and indeed will use other symbols
itself every 2π so we say it has a period or wavelength of 2π. The amplitude,
most relevant to our particular problem.
A, of a wave is the distance from the center line i.e. the x axis to the top
of a crest or to the bottom of a trough. We already know how to mark a point on a graph and define it as we have
already studied the method of graph plotting.
The system in which a point is located in a plane by specifying its distance
from two axes drawn at right angles (that is, the x and y-axes) is known
as the Cartesian system of coordinates. The values of x and y defining a
point are known as Cartesian coordinates. The perpendicular distance of
the point from the y-axis, that is the value of x, is known as the abscissa;
the perpendicular distance of the point from the x-axis, the y value, is
known as the ordinate. (Graph: 1.3. 19)

Graph: 1.3. 18

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In the 1st quadrant x and y values are both positive (+, +)

In the 2nd quadrant x values are negative, y values are positive ( -, + )

In the 3rd quadrant x values and y values are both negative (-, -)
In the 4th quadrant x values are positive, y values are negative (+ , -)

POLAR COORDINATES
A second useful way of defining the position of a point is by means of polar
coordinates, r and θ. The point P in figure below is defined by the radial
distance r = OP from the origin O and the angle θ =∡ POX, which is the
angle the radial line makes with the x-axis. Plots made using polar
coordinates are known as polar diagrams. Such diagrams are very useful
in graphing certain forms of data.

Graph: 1.3. 19

The mathematical convention used to indicate the coordinates of a point is

(x, y), e.g.

Graph: 1.3. 21

The mathematical convention used to indicate the polar coordinates of a

point is (r cos θ, r sin θ).
e.g: If the radius (r) of a point B, is 3 units and angle (θ) it makes with x
axis is 30°, then point B polar coordinates are;
3 cos 30° and 3 sin 30°

Graph: 1.3. 20

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CONVERTING COORDINATES Example: What is (12, 5) in Polar Coordinates?

To convert from one to the other, you need to solve the triangle given in
figure below by applying either Trigonometry or Pythagoras theorem.

Figure: 1.3. 50
Figure: 1.3. 49

Use Pythagoras Theorem to find the long side (the

1.3.6.3.1 CARTESIAN TO POLAR hypotenuse):

If you have a point in Cartesian Coordinates (x, y) and need it in Polar 𝒓𝟐=𝟏𝟐𝟐+𝟓𝟐
Coordinates (r, θ), you need to solve a triangle where you know two sides.
𝒓= √(𝟏𝟐𝟐+𝟓𝟐)

𝒓= √(𝟏𝟒𝟒+𝟐𝟓)= √𝟏𝟔𝟗=𝟏𝟑

Use the Tangent Function to find the angle:

𝐭𝐚n (∅) =𝟓/𝟏𝟐 ∅=𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝟓/𝟏𝟐) =𝟐𝟐.𝟔°

So, to convert from Cartesian Coordinates

(x, y) to Polar Coordinates (r, θ):

𝐫= √(𝐱𝟐+𝐲𝟐)

∅=𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝐲/𝐱)

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1.3.6.3.2 POLAR TO CARTESIAN CARTESIAN AND POLAR FORMULA

If you have a point in Polar Coordinates (r, θ), and need it in Cartesian To find Cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates for the four quadrants,
Coordinates (x, y) you need to solve a triangle where you know the long the following formula given in the table can be easily used.
side and the angle:

Example: What is (13, 23 °) in Cartesian Coordinates?

Figure: 1.3. 51
Table: 1.3. 16

So, to convert from Polar Coordinates (r,θ)

Exercise: Resolve the following polar
to Cartesian Coordinates (x,y) :
coordinates into Cartesian coordinates.
a) 36 m at 20
b) 40 N at 57
c) (23, 30)
d) (10, 45)
e) (13, 60)
f) (21, 87)
So, to convert from Polar Coordinates (r, θ) to g) (40, 05)
Cartesian Coordinates (x, y): h) (2, 64)
i) (30, 30)
x= r cos (∅) j) (20, 10)
k) (90, 0)
y= r sin (∅) l) (2, 120)
m) (3, 150)
n) (1, 135)
o) (0.25, 110)

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