Notes in Purposive Communication Now, fascists use the

propagandic façade of unity

I. Nature of Language just for them to gain influence
A. What makes a language… a and power. Just like Hitler, he
language? uses the notion of bringing
back Germany’s glory, and it
• The distinction between is no doubt that Hitler was a
language and dialect is all just very good communicator to
a matter of politics. his fellowmen. But guided
with the ideologies of fascism,
• In a historical context, it just shows how much
language is established as a consumed he is for power and
symbol of political stability authority)
among its multifaceted
sectors of society. For • Standard Language also
example, in order for a serves as gatekeepers. As
government to display its language can be a way to
political power to the world, connect people, differences
they need to be seen as a arise, and these differences
united front with its tends to gatekeep certain
constituents, and information because of their
standardizing language is one prejudices about their cultural
of its ways to manifest that. differences.

• Through time, language • Linguists tend to avoid the

became an instrument of term dialect altogether.
national identity. Just like Instead, many opt to call
the notable works of Dante different forms of speech
and Machiavelli, the Italian “varieties.” This way,
language became widely languages are seen as groups
known because of their of varieties.
contributions to certain
educational disciplines. B. Definition and features of language

• Also, just like in a certain • Language is, today, an

political ideology which is inseparable part of human
fascism, language is a society. Human civilization
necessary element for the has been possible only
state to be unified and for its through language.
people to be subjected to an
autocracy. (Distinct Characteristics of Language)

(To back my claim that 1. Language is a System

language is a necessary
element for fascism, we all - Phonological level: relates in
know that language can be differences in sounds to differences in
used as a social barrier meanings.
among and between
individuals, hence, instability. - Lexical level comprises of
In the sphere of international morphemes: whole words attached
politics, if a nation is divided definitions.
by it, it can be seen as a
vulnerability and instability - Syntactical level: words are
especially in ancient warfare specifically arranged in sentences to
times. convey a thought.
 2. Language is always changing; it is grammatical systems, and within a system
dynamic. there are several sub-systems.
Language is Vocal – it is primarily made up
- Words that the "screen-technology"
of vocal sounds only produced by a
demographic uses to communicate
physiological articulatory mechanism in the
are quite different from those of the
human body. Writing is only the graphic
"baby boomers". So much so that
representation of the sounds of the language.
certain words and phrases are lost in
So, the linguists say that speech is primary.
the past.
Language is Non-instinctive, Conventional
3. Dialect - Language is the outcome of evolution and
convention. Each generation transmits this
- It describes the regional differences convention on to the next. Every language
of language. These differences are as then is a convention in a community. It is
much auditory as they are definitive. non-instinctive because it is acquired by
human beings.
4. Language is Sociolect
Language is Productive and Creative - The
- It is directly related to the speaker's structural elements of human language can be
social class. A king and queen may combined to produce new utterances, which
use different phrases and intonation neither the speaker nor his hearers may ever
than a pauper, for instance, and the have made or heard before any, listener, yet
hip-hop generation's language is which both sides understand without
easily distinguished from those of the difficulty. Language changes according to
"valley". the needs of society.

5. Language is Idiolect
Duality – referring to the two systems of
- It refers to the speech habits of an sound and meaning.
individual. From this view, even Displacement – means the ability to talk
twins who have lived together all across time and space.
their lives will use language
differently. It includes voice quality, Humanness – means that animals cannot
pitch, intonation, word choice and acquire it.
many other factors. Universality – means refers to the
equilibrium across humanity on linguistic
Language is Arbitrary – No inherent grounds.
relation between the words of a language and Competence and Performance – language is
their meanings or the ideas conveyed by innate and produced is society and
them. furthermore, language is culturally
Language is Social – a possession of a social transmitted.
group, comprising an indispensable set of
rules which permits its members to relate to
each other, to interact with each other, to (Structure of Language)
cooperate with each other; it is a social Language and the ability to
institution. communicate is an essential building block of
Language is Symbolic - consists of various human relationships. It helps us share
sound symbols and their graphological information, ideas and feelings with one
counterparts that are employed to denote another, making language structure and
some objects, occurrences or meaning. development critical to groups of people and
on an individual basis. Language
Language is Systematic - All languages development begins in infancy and continues
have their system of arrangements. Every throughout a person.
language is a system of systems. All
languages have phonological and
The Basic Structure of Language new sights and sounds,
including speech.
• The fundamental building
blocks of a language are the
• Mothers in particular play a
syllables. It is to be noted that
large role in teaching the
auxiliary modifications of the
structure of language to their
pronunciation of multisyllable
children.
words are of the syllable
rather than the phoneme. Expert Insight
Thus, the basic chunks of a
• Due to the importance of
language are the syllables.
language development in
children, many parents are
concerned about the pace at
(Language Theory & Development)
which their child is learning
The Five Parts of Language Development speech. Refer their child to a
language development
- The basic function of language
specialist, such as speech
structure is to help people
pathologist, who is an expert
communicate with one another
in the field of language
through speech, whether verbal,
structure and development.
written or through sign language.
Although there are many different
• The specialist will evaluate
languages, they share the same basic
the child and then make
attributes of sounds, word and
recommendations based on
sentence formation and meaning and
his findings.
cadence of speech.
Development
C. The power of language: How words
• Language development
shape people, culture.
occurs primarily in infants
and toddlers under three years
• Speaking, writing, and
of age. As humans age, it
reading are integral to
becomes increasingly difficult
everyday life, where language
to learn new language
is the primary tool for
structures.
expression and
Time Frame communication.

• Child development specialists

• Linguists consider language
have noted milestones that
as a cultural, social and
children reach by certain ages
psychological phenomenon.
in the area of language
development. Reaching these
milestones is important in the
development of language “Understanding why and how languages
structure since these skills differ tells about the range of what is
build upon one another. human,” – Dan Jurafsky
“Discovering what’s universal about
• These milestones are set in
languages can help us understand the core of
six-month increments for the
our humanity.”
first 24 months of life and
then in yearly increments
from two to five years of age.
Understanding Stereotypes
Considerations
- Even the slightest differences in
• Language development in language use can correspond with
children occurs best in homes biased beliefs of the speakers,
that emphasize exposure to according to research.
 - Language can play a big role in how
we and others perceive the world, and
linguists work to discover what words
and phrases can influence us,
unknowingly.
One study showed that a relatively harmless
sentence, such as “girls are as good as boys
at math,” can subtly perpetuate sexist
stereotypes. Because of the statement’s
grammatical structure, it implies that being
good at math is more common or natural for
boys than girls, the researchers said.
How other languages inform our own
- Although there is a lot in common
among languages, each one is unique,
both in its structure and in the way it
reflects the culture of the people who
speak it.
- Jurafsky said it’s important to study
languages other than our own and
how they develop over time because
it can help scholars understand what
lies at the foundation of humans’
unique way of communicating with
one another.
“All this research can help us discover what
it means to be human,” Jurafsky said.
Language as a lens into behavior
- Linguists analyze how certain speech
patterns correspond to particular
behaviors, including how language
can impact people’s buying decisions
or influence their social media use.

- For example, in one research paper, a

group of Stanford researchers
examined the differences in how
Republicans and Democrats express
themselves online to better
understand how a polarization of
beliefs can occur on social media.

- “We live in a very polarized time,”

Jurafsky said. “Understanding what
different groups of people say and
why is the first step in determining
how we can help bring people
together.”
II. History of Language more efficient, abstract
signing.
a. Evolution's great mystery:
Language.
b. Human Characteristics: Language
& Symbols.
• What we call language is
something more specific than Humans Express Themselves
communication. Language is
- The ability to plan, record
about sharing what’s in our
information, and communicate
minds: stories, opinions,
helped humans survive as climates
questions, the past or future,
fluctuated strongly.
imagined times or places,
ideas. It is fundamentally
- Ultimately, words and symbols led to
open-ended and can be used to
language and the richness of modern
say an unlimited number of
human life.
things.
Communicating with Color
• Many researchers are
- By 350,000 years ago, with ocher and
convinced that only humans
manganese, our ancestors marked
have language, that the calls
objects and possibly their own skin.
and gestures other species use
Colors were symbols by which they
to communicate are not
identified themselves and their
language. Each of these calls
group.
and gestures generally
corresponds to a specific
- Humans may have first used ocher
message, for a limited total
either as an adhesive or a pigment,
number of messages that
and later to make artistic drawings
aren’t combined into more
and paintings.
complex ideas.
Ancient Burials
• So far, no animal
- By 100,00 years ago, our ancestors
communication seems to have
often buried the dead together with
the open-endedness of human
beads and other symbolic objects.
language. But as far as we
Burial rituals heightened the group’s
know, only humans have
memory of the deceased person.
language. And while humans
These rituals may imply a belief that
speak around 7,000 distinct
a person’s identity extends beyond
languages, any child can learn
death.
any language, indicating that
the biological machinery Expressing Identity
underlying language is
What do you wear to define who you are?
common to all of us.
- By 100,00 years ago, our ancestors
• Language may have begun to used jewelry and other personal
take shape during the adornments to reflect their identity.
Pleistocene, 2 to 3 million These adornments may have
years ago, with the emergence represented membership in a
of the genus Homo that particular group or someone’s age,
eventually gave rise to our sex, and social status.
own species, homo sapiens.
Brain size tripled, and Recording Information
bipedalism freed the hands for - By 77,000 years ago, from simple
communication. There may beginnings like these came our ability
have been a transition from to store enormous amounts of
gestural communication to information.
gestural language— from
pointing to objects and
pantomiming actions— to
Information or decoration? We use language to
communicate in a complex,
- A close-up look at these objects
ever changing world.
shows that in all three the markings
are clearly organized. This systematic
• As our bodies evolved for
pattern suggests to some researchers
speech, the voice box dropped
that the markings represent
lower in the throat. The area
information rather than
above the vocal chords
decoration.
lengthened, enabling us to
Creating Paintings and Figurines make a wide variety of
sounds.
- By 40,000 years ago, by this time,
humans were creating two- and three-
- Costs
dimensional images of the world
• When the voice box dropped
around them.
to make speech possible, it
became impossible to
- By 17,000 years ago, they had
swallow and breathe at the
developed all the major
same time. Food could get
representational techniques including
stuck in the larynx and cause
painting, drawing, engraving,
choking.
sculpture, ceramics, and stenciling.
Working on stone, ivory, antler, and
• Because human babies do not
occasionally clay, they created
have a lowered voice box,
imaginative and highly complex
they can breathe while
works of art.
nursing like other mammal
When Did Humans Start Writing? infants.
- By around 8,000 years ago, humans
were using symbols to represent
c. Where did English come from?
words and concepts. True forms of
writing developed over the next few
• English has evolved through
thousand years.
generations of speakers,
undergoing major changes
• Cylinder seals were rolled
over time.
across wet clay tablets to
produce raised designs.
• While modern English shares
many similar words with
• Cuneiform symbols stood
Latin-derived romance
for concepts and later for
languages, like French and
sounds or syllables.
Spanish, most of those words
When Did Humans Start Talking? were not originally part of it.
Instead, they started coming
- Scientists are not sure. Spoken
into the language with the
language does not fossilize, and
Norman invasion of England
there are few clues about when our
in 1066.
ancestors began to use complex
language to communicate.
• It may be hard to see the roots
of modern English underneath
- However, making and using some of
all the words borrowed from
the objects here, which date back
French, Latin, Old Norse, and
350,000 years, involved complex
other languages. But
behaviors that probably required
comparative linguistics can
language.
help us by focusing on
Benefits and Costs of Talking grammatical structure,
patterns of sound changes,
- Benefits and certain core vocabulary.
• Spoken language is essential
to modern human cultures.
• This historical language was
never written down, we can
only reconstruct it by
comparing its descendants,
which is possible thanks to the
consistency of the changes.
III. Characteristics of Language • Similarly Syntactical rules of
the language., words too
a. Ten defined characteristics of
combine to form sentences
language which proves Language
according to certain
to be a unique possession of Human
conventions i.e. grammatical
Beings but not of Animals.
or structural rules of the
language. However, sentence
• Language is a mirror of mind
must conform to the
in a deep significant sense. It
established language
is a product of human
conventions of the Syntactical
intelligence, created anew in
rules of language.
each individual by operations
that lie far beyond the reach of
• Language is thus rightly
will or consciousness.
called as system of systems as
Non-human Communication Systems are it operates at the two levels of
based on one of the following three designs: ‘patterning’ which is also
called as ‘duality of
1. A finite repertory of calls (one for
patterning’.
warnings of predators, one for claims
of territory and so on.)
2. A continuous analog signal that
2. Discrete or Symbolic System:
registers of some state (the livelier
‘Language is a system of
the dance of the bee, the richer the
conventional spoken or written
food source that it is telling its
symbols by means of which human
hivemate.)
beings, as members of a social group
3. A series of random variations on a
and participants in its culture,
theme (a birdsong repeated with a
communicate’
new twist each time.)
- A symbol is a concrete event, object
or mark that stands for something
- Human beings also make noises to relatively abstract.
communicate with other human
beings. There are, however, - A speaker or writer wants to
significant characteristics features of communicate with another fellow
human languages are the following: being, puts his message across in the
form of symbols. The receiver of the
1. Duality or Patterning: ‘Language is message, who shares a common code
a symbol system based on pure or with the sender of the message,
arbitrary conventions… infinitely decodes this message sent in the form
extendable and modifiable according of symbols and interprets these to
to the changing needs and conditions arrive at a certain meaning.
of the speakers’. Robins (1985).
- Thus, language is a symbol system,
- Language is not an amorphous, and every language is discrete.
disorganized, or chaotic combination
of sounds. Language operates at two 3. Grammar: ‘When we study human
levels of systems: Phonological and language, we are approaching what
Syntactical. some might call the “human
essence,” the distinctive qualities of
• At the phonological level, mind that are, so far as we know,
Sounds are arranged in certain unique to mind’.
fixed or established,
systematic order to form - The human brain contains a program
meaningful units or Words that can build an unlimited set of
and of smaller formal units sentences out of a finite list of words
called Morphemes. called as ‘mental grammar’.
- Human language has a very different limit to the length of anyone
design. The discrete combinational sentence.
system called ‘grammar’ makes
human language infinite, digital and - It can be continued to any length by
compositional. repeating the relative clause pattern.
This property of language, which
4. Species-Specific & Species enables sentences to be formed inside
Uniform: “Language is a purely other sentences, is called
human and non-instinctive method of recursiveness or creativity.
communicating ideas, emotions and
desires by means of a system of 7. Arbitrariness: “A language is a
voluntarily produced symbols”. system of arbitrary vocal symbols by
means of which a social group
- Only human being possesses cooperates”.
language, and all normal humans
uniformly possess it and use it for - This means that there is no inherent
communication. Language is, in that connection between sounds and
sense, species-specific- it is specific symbols, or between symbols and
only to one set of species. their referents.

- Also, all human beings uniformly - Thus, the relation between a word and
possess language. It is only a few deaf its meaning is quite arbitrary; it is a
persons who cannot speak. Thus, matter of convention.
language is species-uniform to that
extent - Language is arbitrary in the sense that
there is no inherent relation between
5. Form of Social Behavior: the words of a language and their
“Language is the institution whereby meanings, or the ideas conveyed by
humans communicate and interact them.
with each other by means of
habitually used oral-auditory - Language may, therefore, be called a
arbitrary symbols”. system of conventional symbols,
where each symbol represents a
- Language has to be acquired and stretch of sounds with which a
learnt, it do not passes from parent to meaning is associated.
a child. Both acquisition & learning
of language is possible in society. A - It may be noted that had language not
human child learns to speak the been arbitrary, there would have been
language of the community or only one language in the world.
group in which he or she is placed.
8. Displacement: “No matter how
- Language is thus a form of social eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot
behavior. tell you that his parents were poor but
honest”.
6. Creativity: “A language is a set
(finite or infinite) of sentences, each - Human language possesses the
finite in length and constructed out of quality of being ‘context free’ i.e.
a finite set of elements” human beings can talk about
experiences without actually living
- Human brain is competent enough to them and of objects and events not
construct different sentences from out physically present at the time and
of the limited set of sound/symbols place of speaking because the use of
belonging to a particular language. human language is not directly
Human brain is so productive, that controlled by stimulus.
using a few basic principles of
construction, it can create a large - Only Human language users are
number of constructions; there is no capable of producing messages
pertaining to the present, past or
 future, near or distant places, i.e. in a - In order to choose the most effective
multidimensional setting. language, the writer must consider the
objective of the document, the
9. Culture-preserving & Culture- context in which it is being written,
transmission: ‘Thanks to language, and who will be reading it.
man became Man’.
(Characteristics of Effective Language)
- Language is culture-preserving and
culture-transmitting. Language is the There are six main characteristics of effective
most dynamic form in which language. Effective language is: (1) concrete
culture is preserved and and specific, not vague and abstract; (2)
transmitted to future generations. concise, not verbose; (3) familiar, not
obscure; (4) precise and clear, not
10. Dynamic: “A language is a symbol inaccurate or ambiguous; (5) constructive,
system…based on pure or arbitrary not destructive; and (6) appropriately
convention…infinitely extendable formal.
and modifiable according to the
changing needs and conditions of the
speakers”. 1. Concrete and Specific Language

- Language is dynamic; it is not - Concrete language includes

static. It keeps on changing at all the descriptions which create tangible
levels- at the level of sounds, words images with details the reader can
and word-meanings, sentences. visualize. Abstract language is vague
Language is changing, growing every and obscure and does not bring to
day, and new words continue to be mind specific visual images.
added to it in the course of time.
2. Concise Language
- Language is thus open-ended,
modifiable, and extendable. - A hallmark of effective writers is the
ability to express the desired
(The possession of language, perhaps more message in as few words as possible.
than any other attribute, distinguishes Good writers, in other words, use
humans from other animals and it makes language which is straightforward
humans ‘unique’.”) and to-the-point.

3. Familiar Language
b. Effective Use of Language.
- Familiar language is that which the
readers easily recognize and
(The Importance of Language)
understand because they use it on a
- As a writer, it is important not only to regular basis. One of the most
think about what you say, but how important functions of language is to
you say it. To communicate build "homophily" or a sense of
effectively, it is not enough to have commonality with one's readers.
well organized ideas expressed in
complete and coherent sentences and - Language which is foreign and
paragraphs. One must also think unfamiliar to the reader tends to
about the style, tone and clarity of emphasize the differences between
his/her writing, and adapt these writer and reader and makes the
elements to the reading audience. message difficult to understand. By
using language that is familiar to
- Again, analyzing one's audience the reader, the message is likely to
and purpose is the key to writing have more impact.
effectiveness.
4. Precise and Clear Language

- The use of appropriate language is a

tricky matter because the meaning of
words is relative and situational.

- In other words, words can be

interpreted in different ways by
different people in different
situations. For this reason, it is
important to choose language which
is as precise and clear as possible.
The more precise and clear one's
use of language becomes, the fewer
the number of possible
interpretations for a message.

- In short, it is wise to think carefully

about your choice of words and their
potential interpretations. To
communicate effectively, precise
and clear language is essential.

5. Constructive Language

- Constructive language phrases a

potentially negative message in a
positive way, whereas destructive
language directs blame and criticism
toward the reader, creating
defensiveness.

- Readers are likely to become

defensive when the writer's language
expresses any or all of the following:

• Superiority over the reader

• Indifference or apathy about an
issue of importance to the reader
• Negative evaluation or judgment
of the reader (as opposed to
neutral descriptions or
observations)
• Command or control over the
reader
• Skepticism or doubt about the
reader's credibility or the
legitimacy of their claim

6. Formality of Language

- The formality of the language one

uses should match the formality of the
situation and the relationship between
the writer and reader.